R. W.

Erickson
Department of Electrical, Computer, and Energy Engineering
University of Colorado, Boulder
 Chapter 7. AC Equivalent Circuit Modeling

7.1. Introduction
7.2. The basic ac modeling approach
7.3. Example: A nonideal flyback converter
7.4. State-space averaging
7.5. Circuit averaging and averaged switch modeling
7.6. The canonical circuit model
7.7. Modeling the pulse-width modulator
7.8. Summary of key points

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 2 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 7.1. Introduction

Objective: maintain v(t) A simple dc-dc regulator system, employing a

equal to an accurate, buck converter
constant value V.
Power Switching converter Load
input
There are
+
disturbances:
• in vg(t) vg(t) + v(t) R
–
feedback
• in R –
connection

There are transistor

uncertainties: gate driver compensator
δ(t) pulse-width vc v
modulator Gc(s) –
+
• in element
values δ(t) vc(t) voltage
reference vref
• in Vg
dTs Ts t t
• in R Controller

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 3 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Neglecting the switching ripple

Suppose the duty cycle The resulting variations in transistor gate

is modulated drive signal and converter output voltage:
sinusoidally:
gate
drive
d(t) = D + Dm cos ωmt

where D and Dm are

constants, | Dm | << D ,
and the modulation t
frequency ωm is much
smaller than the actual waveform v(t)
converter switching including ripple
frequency ωs = 2πfs.
averaged waveform <v(t)>Ts
with ripple neglected

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 7 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Output voltage spectrum
with sinusoidal modulation of duty cycle

spectrum modulation switching switching

frequency and its frequency and harmonics
of v(t) harmonics sidebands

{
ωm
Contains frequency components at:
• Modulation frequency and its
harmonics
• Switching frequency and its
harmonics
• Sidebands of switching frequency
Fundamentals of Power Electronics
{
{
ωs ω
With small switching ripple, high-
frequency components (switching
harmonics and sidebands) are small.
If ripple is neglected, then only low-
frequency components (modulation
frequency and harmonics) remain.
8 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling
 Objective of ac converter modeling

• Predict how low-frequency variations in duty cycle induce low-

frequency variations in the converter voltages and currents
• Ignore the switching ripple
• Ignore complicated switching harmonics and sidebands
Approach:
• Remove switching harmonics by averaging all waveforms over one
switching period

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 9 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Averaging to remove switching ripple

Average over one switching Note that, in steady-state,

period to remove switching
ripple:
vL(t) Ts
=0
d iL(t) Ts iC(t) =0
L = vL(t) Ts
dt Ts

d vC(t) Ts
C = iC(t) by inductor volt-second
dt Ts
balance and capacitor charge
where balance.
t + Ts
xL(t) T = 1 x(τ) dτ
s Ts t

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 10 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Nonlinear averaged equations

The averaged voltages and currents are, in general, nonlinear

functions of the converter duty cycle, voltages, and currents. Hence,
the averaged equations

d iL(t) Ts
L = vL(t)
dt Ts

d vC(t) Ts
C = iC(t)
dt Ts

constitute a system of nonlinear differential equations.

Hence, must linearize by constructing a small-signal converter model.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 11 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Small-signal modeling of the BJT

Nonlinear Ebers-Moll model Linearized small-signal model,

active region

C C

βFiB
βFiB
iB iB
B B
βRiB
rE

E E

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 12 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Buck-boost converter:
nonlinear static control-to-output characteristic

0 0.5 1 D
0

quiescent
operating
point Example: linearization
at the quiescent
operating point
–Vg
linearized
D = 0.5
function

actual
nonlinear
V characteristic

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 13 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Result of averaged small-signal ac modeling

Small-signal ac equivalent circuit model

Vg – V d(t)
L
1:D D' : 1

+
–
+

vg(t) + I d(t) I d(t) v(t)

– C R

buck-boost example

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 14 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 7.2. The basic ac modeling approach

Buck-boost converter example

1 2 +

+ i(t)
vg(t) C R v(t)
–
L
–

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 15 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Switch in position 1

+
Inductor voltage and capacitor i(t)
current are:
vg(t) + L C R v(t)
di(t) –
vL(t) = L = vg(t)
dt
–
dv(t) v(t)
iC(t) = C =–
dt R

Small ripple approximation: replace waveforms with their low-frequency

averaged values:
di(t)
vL(t) = L ≈ vg(t)
dt Ts

dv(t) v(t) Ts
iC(t) = C ≈–
dt R

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 16 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Switch in position 2

Inductor voltage and capacitor +

i(t)
current are: +
vg(t) L C R v(t)
di(t) –
vL(t) = L = v(t)
dt
–
dv(t) v(t)
i C(t) = C = – i(t) –
dt R

Small ripple approximation: replace waveforms with their low-frequency

averaged values:
di(t)
vL(t) = L ≈ v(t)
dt Ts

dv(t) v(t) Ts
i C(t) = C ≈ – i(t) –
dt Ts R

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 17 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 7.2.1 Averaging the inductor waveforms

Inductor voltage waveform vL(t) vg(t)

Ts

Low-frequency average is
found by evaluation of vL(t) Ts
= d vg(t) Ts
+ d' v(t) Ts
0
t + Ts dTs Ts t
xL(t) T = 1 x(τ)dτ
s Ts t
v(t) Ts
Average the inductor voltage
in this manner:
t + Ts

vL(t) = 1 vL(τ)dτ ≈ d(t) vg(t) + d'(t) v(t)

Ts Ts t
Ts Ts

Insert into Eq. (7.2):

d i(t) This equation describes how
Ts the low-frequency components
L = d(t) vg(t) + d'(t) v(t)
dt Ts Ts
of the inductor waveforms
evolve in time.
Fundamentals of Power Electronics 18 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling
 7.2.2 Discussion of the averaging approximation

Use of the average inductor voltage vL(t) vg(t)

Ts
allows us to determine the net change
in inductor current over one switching vL(t) Ts
= d vg(t) Ts
+ d' v(t) Ts

period, while neglecting the switching 0

dTs Ts t
ripple.
v(t) Ts
In steady-state, the average inductor
i(t)
voltage is zero (volt-second balance),
i(dTs)
and hence the inductor current
waveform is periodic: i(t + Ts) = i(t). i(0) vg Ts
v Ts i(Ts)
There is no net change in inductor L L
current over one switching period.
During transients or ac variations, the 0 dTs Ts t
average inductor voltage is not zero in
Inductor voltage and current
general, and this leads to net variations waveforms
in inductor current.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 19 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Net change in inductor current is correctly
predicted by the average inductor voltage

Inductor equation: di(t)

L = vL(t)
dt
Divide by L and integrate over one switching period:
t + Ts t + Ts
di = 1 vL(τ)dτ
t L t

Left-hand side is the change in inductor current. Right-hand side can

be related to average inductor voltage by multiplying and dividing by Ts
as follows:
i(t + Ts) – i(t) = 1 Ts vL(t)
L Ts

So the net change in inductor current over one switching period is

exactly equal to the period Ts multiplied by the average slope 〈 vL 〉Ts /L.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 20 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Average inductor voltage correctly predicts
average slope of iL(t)

Actual waveform, Averaged waveform

including ripple i(t)
i(t) Ts
vg(t) v(t)
L L
i(0) i(Ts)
d vg(t) Ts
+ d' v(t) Ts

L
0 dTs Ts t

The net change in inductor current over one switching period is exactly
equal to the period Ts multiplied by the average slope 〈 vL 〉Ts /L.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 21 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 d i(t) Ts
dt
We have
i(t + Ts) – i(t) = 1 Ts vL(t)
L Ts

Rearrange:

i(t + Ts) – i(t)

L = vL(t)
Ts Ts

Define the derivative of 〈 i 〉Ts as (Euler formula):

d i(t) Ts i(t + Ts) – i(t)

=
dt Ts

Hence,
d i(t) Ts
L = vL(t)
dt Ts

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 22 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Computing how the inductor current changes
over one switching period

i(t)
i(dTs)
Let’s compute the actual
inductor current waveform, i(0) vg Ts
v Ts i(Ts)
using the linear ripple L L
approximation.
0 dTs Ts t

vg(t) Ts
With switch in i(dTs) = i(0) + dTs
L
position 1:
(final value) = (initial value) + (length of interval) (average slope)

v(t) Ts
With switch in i(Ts) = i(dTs) + d'Ts
L
position 2:
(final value) = (initial value) + (length of interval) (average slope)

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 23 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Net change in inductor current over one
switching period

Eliminate i(dTs), to express i(Ts) Ts

directly as a function of i(0): i(Ts) = i(0) + d(t) vg(t) + d'(t) v(t)
L Ts Ts

vL(t) Ts

The intermediate step of Actual waveform, Averaged waveform

computing i(dTs) is eliminated. including ripple i(t)
i(t) Ts
The final value i(Ts) is equal to vg(t) v(t)
the initial value i(0), plus the L L
switching period Ts multiplied
i(0) i(Ts)
by the average slope 〈 vL 〉Ts /L.
d vg(t) Ts
+ d' v(t) Ts

L
0 dTs Ts t

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 24 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 7.2.3 Averaging the capacitor waveforms

Average capacitor current: iC(t)

v(t) Ts
–
R
v(t) Ts
v(t) Ts
i C(t) T = d(t) – + d'(t) – i(t) T – i C(t)
s R s R Ts
0
dTs Ts t

Collect terms, and equate to C d〈 v 〉Ts /dt: v(t) Ts

– – i(t)
R Ts
v(t)
d v(t) Ts
v(t) Ts
t
C = – d'(t) i(t) T – 0
dt s R dTs Ts

v(dTs) v(t) Ts
v(0) v(Ts)
v(t) Ts
v(t) Ts
i(t) Ts
– – –
RC RC C

Capacitor voltage and current

waveforms

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 25 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 7.2.4 The average input current

We found in Chapter 3 that it was ig(t) i(t) Ts

sometimes necessary to write an
equation for the average converter input i g(t)
Ts
current, to derive a complete dc
equivalent circuit model. It is likewise
0
necessary to do this for the ac model. 0
0 dTs Ts t
Buck-boost input current waveform is
Converter input current
i(t) Ts
during subinterval 1 waveform
i g(t) =
0 during subinterval 2

Average value:

i g(t) Ts
= d(t) i(t) Ts

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 26 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 7.2.5. Perturbation and linearization

Converter averaged equations:

d i(t) Ts
L = d(t) vg(t) + d'(t) v(t)
dt Ts Ts

d v(t) Ts
v(t) Ts
C = – d'(t) i(t) T –
dt s R

ig(t) Ts
= d(t) i(t) Ts

—nonlinear because of multiplication of the time-varying quantity d(t)

with other time-varying quantities such as i(t) and v(t).

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 27 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Construct small-signal model:
Linearize about quiescent operating point

If the converter is driven with some steady-state, or quiescent, inputs

d(t) = D
vg(t) T = Vg
s

then, from the analysis of Chapter 2, after transients have subsided

the inductor current, capacitor voltage, and input current
i(t) ,
Ts
v(t) ,
Ts
ig(t) Ts

reach the quiescent values I, V, and Ig, given by the steady-state

analysis as
V = – D Vg
D'
I=– V
D' R
Ig = D I

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 28 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Perturbation

So let us assume that the input voltage and duty cycle are equal to
some given (dc) quiescent values, plus superimposed small ac
variations:

vg(t) Ts
= Vg + vg(t)
d(t) = D + d(t)

In response, and after any transients have subsided, the converter

dependent voltages and currents will be equal to the corresponding
quiescent values, plus small ac variations:

i(t) Ts
= I + i(t)
v(t) Ts
= V + v(t)
ig(t) Ts
= I g + i g(t)

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 29 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 The small-signal assumption

If the ac variations are much smaller in magnitude than the respective

quiescent values,
vg(t) << Vg
d(t) << D
i(t) << I
v(t) << V
i g(t) << I g

then the nonlinear converter equations can be linearized.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 30 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Perturbation of inductor equation

Insert the perturbed expressions into the inductor differential equation:

d I + i(t)
L = D + d(t) Vg + vg(t) + D' – d(t) V + v(t)
dt
note that d’(t) is given by

d'(t) = 1 – d(t) = 1 – D + d(t) = D' – d(t) with D’ = 1 – D

Multiply out and collect terms:

0
L ⁄
dI
+
d i(t)
= DVg+ D'V + Dvg(t) + D'v(t) + Vg – V d(t) + d(t) vg(t) – v(t)
dt dt

Dc terms 1 st order ac terms 2 nd order ac terms

(linear) (nonlinear)

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 31 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 The perturbed inductor equation

0
L ⁄
dI
+
d i(t)
= DVg+ D'V + Dvg(t) + D'v(t) + Vg – V d(t) + d(t) vg(t) – v(t)
dt dt

Dc terms 1 st order ac terms 2 nd order ac terms

(linear) (nonlinear)
Since I is a constant (dc) term, its derivative is zero
The right-hand side contains three types of terms:
• Dc terms, containing only dc quantities
• First-order ac terms, containing a single ac quantity, usually
multiplied by a constant coefficient such as a dc term. These are
linear functions of the ac variations
• Second-order ac terms, containing products of ac quantities. These
are nonlinear, because they involve multiplication of ac quantities

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 32 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Neglect of second-order terms

0
L ⁄
dI
+
d i(t)
= DVg+ D'V + Dvg(t) + D'v(t) + Vg – V d(t) + d(t) vg(t) – v(t)
dt dt

Dc terms 1 st order ac terms 2 nd order ac terms

(linear) (nonlinear)

Provided vg(t) << Vg then the second-order ac terms are much

d(t) << D smaller than the first-order terms. For
example,
i(t) << I
d(t) vg(t) << D vg(t) when d(t) << D
v(t) << V
i g(t) << I g So neglect second-order terms.
Also, dc terms on each side of equation
are equal.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 33 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Linearized inductor equation

Upon discarding second-order terms, and removing dc terms (which

add to zero), we are left with

d i(t)
L = Dvg(t) + D'v(t) + Vg – V d(t)
dt

This is the desired result: a linearized equation which describes small-

signal ac variations.
Note that the quiescent values D, D’, V, Vg, are treated as given
constants in the equation.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 34 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Capacitor equation

Perturbation leads to
d V + v(t) V + v(t)
C = – D' – d(t) I + i(t) –
dt R
Collect terms:
0
dv(t)
C ⁄
dV + = – D'I – V + – D'i(t) –
v(t)
+ Id(t) + d(t)i(t)
dt dt R R

Dc terms1 st order ac terms 2 nd order ac term

(linear) (nonlinear)
Neglect second-order terms. Dc terms on both sides of equation are
equal. The following terms remain:
dv(t) v(t)
C = – D'i(t) – + Id(t)
dt R
This is the desired small-signal linearized capacitor equation.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 35 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Average input current

Perturbation leads to
I g + i g(t) = D + d(t) I + i(t)

Collect terms:
Ig + i g(t) = DI + Di(t) + Id(t) + d(t)i(t)

Dc term 1 st order ac term Dc term 1 st order ac terms 2 nd order ac term

(linear) (nonlinear)
Neglect second-order terms. Dc terms on both sides of equation are
equal. The following first-order terms remain:
i g(t) = Di(t) + Id(t)
This is the linearized small-signal equation which described the
converter input port.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 36 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 7.2.6. Construction of small-signal
equivalent circuit model

The linearized small-signal converter equations:

d i(t)
L = Dvg(t) + D'v(t) + Vg – V d(t)
dt
dv(t) v(t)
C = – D'i(t) – + Id(t)
dt R

i g(t) = Di(t) + Id(t)

Reconstruct equivalent circuit corresponding to these equations, in

manner similar to the process used in Chapter 3.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 37 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Inductor loop equation

d i(t)
L = Dvg(t) + D'v(t) + Vg – V d(t)
dt

Vg – V d(t)
L

+
–
+ d i(t) –
L
dt –
D vg(t) + + D' v(t)
–
i(t)

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 38 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Capacitor node equation

dv(t) v(t)
C = – D'i(t) – + Id(t)
dt R

dv(t) + v(t)
C
dt R
D' i(t) I d(t) C v(t) R

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 39 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Input port node equation

i g(t) = Di(t) + Id(t)

i g(t)

vg(t) + I d(t) D i(t)

–

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 40 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Complete equivalent circuit

Collect the three circuits: Vg – V d(t)

i(t) L

+
–
+
–
vg(t) + I d(t) D i(t) + D vg(t) D' v(t) + D' i(t) I d(t) v(t)
– C R
–

Replace dependent sources with ideal dc transformers:

Vg – V d(t)
L
1:D D' : 1

+
–
+

vg(t) + I d(t) I d(t) v(t)

– C R

Small-signal ac equivalent circuit model of the buck-boost converter

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 41 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 7.2.7. Results for several basic converters

Vg d(t) L
buck 1:D

+
–
i(t) +

vg(t) + I d(t) v(t)

– C R

boost L
V d(t)
D' : 1

+
– +
i(t)

vg(t) + I d(t) C R v(t)

–

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 42 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Results for several basic converters

buck-boost

Vg – V d(t)
L
1:D D' : 1

+
–
i(t) +

vg(t) + I d(t) I d(t) v(t)

– C R

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 43 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 7.3. Example: a nonideal flyback converter

Flyback converter example

D1
1:n
ig(t) + • MOSFET has on-
resistance Ron
L
C R v(t) • Flyback transformer
vg(t) + has magnetizing
– – inductance L, referred
to primary
Q1

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 44 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Circuits during subintervals 1 and 2

Flyback converter, with Subinterval 1

transformer equivalent transformer model
circuit ig i iC
+
+ 1:n
ig(t) D1
+ L vL C R v
+ vg
–
i(t) + 1:n iC(t) –
–
L vL(t) C R v(t)

vg(t) + – ideal
Ron
– –
Subinterval 2
Q1
transformer model i/n
ig +
i 1:n iC
=0 +
–
+ vL v/n C R v
vg
– +
–
–

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 45 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Subinterval 1

Circuit equations: transformer model

vL(t) = vg(t) – i(t) Ron ig +

i + 1:n iC
v(t)
iC(t) = – vL
R vg + L C R v
ig(t) = i(t) –
–
–

Small ripple approximation:

Ron
vL(t) = vg(t) Ts
– i(t) Ts
Ron
v(t) Ts
MOSFET conducts, diode is
iC(t) = – reverse-biased
R
ig(t) = i(t) T
s

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 46 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Subinterval 2

Circuit equations:
transformer model i/n
v(t)
vL(t) = – n ig +
i 1:n iC
i(t) v(t) =0 +
iC(t) = – n – –
R + vL v/n C R v
ig(t) = 0 vg
– +
–
–
Small ripple approximation:
v(t) T
vL(t) = – n s
MOSFET is off, diode
i(t) T v(t)
iC(t) = – n – s Ts
conducts
R
ig(t) = 0

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 47 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Inductor waveforms

i(t) vg(t) – Ron i(t) Ts

vL(t) Ts
vg – iRon L
i(t) Ts
vL(t) Ts
0 – v(t) Ts
dTs Ts t nL

– v/n
0 dTs Ts t
Average inductor voltage:
– v(t) Ts
vL(t) Ts
= d(t) vg(t) Ts
– i(t) Ts
Ron + d'(t) n

Hence, we can write:

d i(t) Ts
v(t) Ts
L = d(t) vg(t) T – d(t) i(t) T Ron – d'(t) n
dt s s

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 48 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Capacitor waveforms

iC(t) v(t) i(t) v(t)

i v Ts
–
Ts
n–R nC RC
i C(t) Ts
v(t) Ts
0 v(t)
dTs Ts t Ts
–
RC
– v/R
0 dTs Ts t
Average capacitor current:
– v(t) Ts
i(t) Ts
v(t) Ts
iC(t) = d(t) + d'(t) n –
Ts R R
Hence, we can write:
d v(t) T i(t) Ts
v(t) Ts
s
C = d'(t) n –
dt R

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 49 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Input current waveform

ig(t) i(t) Ts

i g(t)
Ts

0
0
0 dTs Ts t
Average input current:
ig(t) Ts
= d(t) i(t) Ts

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 50 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 The averaged converter equations

d i(t) Ts
v(t) Ts
L = d(t) vg(t) T – d(t) i(t) T Ron – d'(t) n
dt s s

d v(t) Ts
i(t) T v(t) T
s s
C = d'(t) n –
dt R

ig(t) Ts
= d(t) i(t) Ts

— a system of nonlinear differential equations

Next step: perturbation and linearization. Let

vg(t) Ts
= Vg + vg(t) i(t) Ts
= I + i(t)
d(t) = D + d(t) v(t) Ts
= V + v(t)
ig(t) Ts
= I g + i g(t)

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 51 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Perturbation of the averaged inductor equation

d i(t) Ts
v(t) Ts
L = d(t) vg(t) T – d(t) i(t) T Ron – d'(t) n
dt s s

d I + i(t) V + v(t)
L = D + d(t) Vg + vg(t) – D' – d(t) n – D + d(t) I + i(t) Ron
dt

0
L ⁄
dI
+
d i(t)
= DVg– D' V – DR I + Dv (t) – D'
v(t)
+ V + V – IR d(t) – DR i(t)
dt dt n on g n g n on on

Dc terms 1 st order ac terms (linear)

v(t)
+ d(t)vg(t) + d(t) n – d(t)i(t)Ron

2 nd order ac terms (nonlinear)

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 52 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Linearization of averaged inductor equation

Dc terms:

0 = DVg– D' V
n – DRonI
Second-order terms are small when the small-signal assumption is
satisfied. The remaining first-order terms are:
d i(t) v(t)
L = Dvg(t) – D' n + Vg + V
n – IRon d(t) – DRon i(t)
dt

This is the desired linearized inductor equation.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 53 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Perturbation of averaged capacitor equation

Original averaged equation:

d v(t) Ts
i(t) Ts
v(t) Ts
C = d'(t) n –
dt R

Perturb about quiescent operating point:

d V + v(t) I + i(t) V + v(t)

C = D' – d(t) n –
dt R

Collect terms:
0
dv(t)
C ⁄
dV + = D'I
n – V + D'i(t) – v(t) – Id(t) –
n n
d(t)i(t)
n
dt dt R R

Dc terms 1 st order ac terms 2 nd order ac term

(linear) (nonlinear)

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 54 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Linearization of averaged capacitor equation

Dc terms:
0 = D'I – V
n R
Second-order terms are small when the small-signal assumption is
satisfied. The remaining first-order terms are:
dv(t) D'i(t) v(t) Id(t)
C = n – – n
dt R

This is the desired linearized capacitor equation.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 55 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Perturbation of averaged input current equation

Original averaged equation:

ig(t) Ts
= d(t) i(t) Ts

Perturb about quiescent operating point:

I g + i g(t) = D + d(t) I + i(t)

Collect terms:

Ig + i g(t) = DI + Di(t) + Id(t) + d(t)i(t)

Dc term 1 st order ac term Dc term 1 st order ac terms 2 nd order ac term

(linear) (nonlinear)

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 56 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Linearization of averaged input current equation

Dc terms:
I g = DI

Second-order terms are small when the small-signal assumption is

satisfied. The remaining first-order terms are:

i g(t) = Di(t) + Id(t)

This is the desired linearized input current equation.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 57 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Summary: dc and small-signal ac
converter equations

Dc equations:

0 = DVg– D' V
n – DRonI
0 = D'I – V
n R
I g = DI
Small-signal ac equations:
d i(t) v(t)
L = Dvg(t) – D' n + Vg + V
n – IRon d(t) – DRon i(t)
dt
dv(t) D'i(t) v(t) Id(t)
C = n – – n
dt R
i g(t) = Di(t) + Id(t)

Next step: construct equivalent circuit models.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 58 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Small-signal ac equivalent circuit:
inductor loop

d i(t) v(t)
L = Dvg(t) – D' n + Vg + V
n – IRon d(t) – DRon i(t)
dt

DRon d(t) Vg – IRon + V

n
L

+
–
+ d i(t) –
L
dt
D vg(t) + + D' v(t)
– – n
i(t)

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 59 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Small-signal ac equivalent circuit:
capacitor node

dv(t) D'i(t) v(t) Id(t)

C = n – – n
dt R

dv(t) + v(t)
C
dt R
D' i(t) I d(t)
n n C v(t) R

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 60 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Small-signal ac equivalent circuit:
converter input node

i g(t) = Di(t) + Id(t)

i g(t)

vg(t) + I d(t) D i(t)

–

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 61 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Small-signal ac model,
nonideal flyback converter example

Combine circuits:
d(t) Vg – IRon + V
n
i g(t) L DRon

+
–
i(t) +

vg(t) + + D vg(t) D' v(t) + D' i(t) I d(t) C v(t)

– I d(t) D i(t) n R
– – n n

Replace dependent sources with ideal transformers:

d(t) Vg – IRon + V
n
i g(t) L
1:D D' : n

+
–
i(t) DRon +

vg(t) + I d(t) I d(t) C v(t)

– n R

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 62 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling