中图分类号：TP381 论文编号：1028706 12‐0113 
学科分类号：080503   

硕士学位论文 
  

可变形机翼潜在智能复合材料的研究
 

  研究生姓名 Syed Ahmed Ali Tirmizi

学科、专业 材料加工工程
研究方向 先进复合材料
指导教师 沈以赴 教授
 

南京航空航天大学 
研究生院 材料科学与技术学院
二О一二年三月
 
  

 
Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics
The Graduate School
College of Materials Science & Engineering

The study of the candidate smart composite

materials of the morphing wing
 

A Thesis in

Materials Processing Engineering 
 
by 
Syed Ahmed Ali Tirmizi   

Advised by 

Prof. Shen Yifu 
 
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements

for the Degree of

Master of Engineering

March, 2012

 
  

承诺书 
 

本人声明所呈交的博/硕士学位论文是本人在导师指导下进行的
研究工作及取得的研究成果。除了文中特别加以标注和致谢的地方
外，论文中不包含其他人已经发表或撰写过的研究成果，也不包含为
获得南京航空航天大学或其他教育机构的学位或证书而使用过的材
料。
本人授权南京航空航天大学可以将学位论文的全部或部分内容编
入有关数据库进行检索，可以采用影印、缩印或扫描等复制手段保存、
汇编学位论文。 
（保密的学位论文在解密后适用本承诺书） 
 
 
 
 
                         
作者签名：
日 期：
  

ABSTRACT 

Wing morphing can significantly improve the performance of future aircraft by adapting the
wing shape to the specific flight regime requirements, but also represents a challenging problem:
the structure has to be stiff to maintain its shape under loads and yet be flexible to deform without
collapse. One solution is to adopt structural elements made of smart composite materials; Shape
Memory Alloy (SMA) has demonstrated their suitability for many static applications due to their
high structural integration potential and remarkable actuation capabilities.
The first part of this thesis, comprise of overview and classification of smart composite
materials, including their properties and ability. Moreover, the properties of shape memory alloy
(SMA) and analysis of its stress-strain by using constitutive equation of SMA is discussed. The
SMA behavior is modeled using a dedicated routine to evaluate the internal stress state and the
minimum activation temperature. A theoretical model for the bending of a laminated beam bonded
with shape memory alloy (SMA) fiber reinforced layer is presented. The constitutive relations of
the SMA layers are obtained by using the method of micromechanics. The bending of the laminated
beam is then discussed, and the relationship between bending moment, curvature and temperature
are provided. The governing relationships obtained in this paper can be used for theoretical
predications of thermo mechanical properties of beam-like SMA actuators. The main discussion of
the thesis will be written as below:
1. The introduction of morphing wing, including its structure, advantage and disadvantage of
using morphing wing. Furthermore, introduction of smart composite materials and their
classification. The stabilization of material by using SMA, the analysis of the case of using SMA in
morphing wing will be discussed along with the applications and examples.
2. Fundamental characteristics of Shape memory alloy, including the principle of SMA and
the properties of SMA.
3. The numerical analysis of SMA by using constitutive equation, the stress-strain of SMA
will be discussed and the bending of laminated beam with SMA fiber will be analyzed.
4. The experimental section consists of stress-strain and deflection of a laminated beam with
SMA fiber embedded layer. The conclusion of SMA and the future of SMA will be discussed.

Keywords: Morphing, smart composite materials and structures, Shape memory alloy.

 
  

摘要

通过调节机翼形状来满足特殊飞行状态的要求，可以显著提高未来飞机的性能，但也代表了一个具有
挑战性的问题：既要在外力作用下有足够的刚度来保持它的形状，同时又能够自由地变形。解决办法之一
是采用智能复合材料制成的结构单元;形状记忆合金（SMA）具有很好的结构一体化的潜力和显著的驱动
能力，使其具有很好的静态适应性。

本论文的第一部分，包括智能复合材料的概述和分类，包括它们的特性和性能。此外，还讨论了形状
记忆合金（SMA）的性能，并利用本构方程对其应力应变关系进行了分析。 采用专用的程序对 SMA 的行
为进行建模，并评估其内部的应力状态和最低活化温度。建立了用形状记忆合金强化的夹层梁的弯曲理论
模型。利用微观力学的方法获得的 SMA 层的本构关系。然后讨论了层合梁的弯曲，并提供了弯矩，曲率
和温度之间的关系。在本文中获得主导的关系，可用于梁式 SMA 驱动器的热力学性能的理论预测。本论
文主要内容如下：

1.变形翼的介绍，包括其结构，和使用变形翼的优缺点。此外，介绍了智能复合材料及其分类。SMA
材料的稳定，形状记忆合金在变形翼中的使用分析将一起讨论。

2.形状记忆合金的基本特征，包括形状记忆合金的原理和性能。

3.使用本构方程对形状记忆合金进行数值分析，并没讨论形状记忆合金的应力应变关系，以及 SMA
纤维层合梁的弯曲。

4.实验部分包括嵌入式形状记忆合金纤维层合梁的应力应变和变形实验。对形状记忆合金进行了总结
和展望。

关键词：变形机翼，智能复合材料和结构，形状记忆合金，数值模拟。
  

Content
Abstract ............................................................................................................................................... i

摘要...................................................................................................................................................... ii

Chapter 1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………....1

1.1 Morphing wing Challenge………..…………………………………………………….1

1.2 Introduction to material requirements……………………………………………….....3
1.3 Materials overview…………………...………………………………………………..3
1.3.1 Polyurethane………………........................................................................................4
1.3.2 Co polyester …………………. ……………………………………………………..5
1.3.3 Shape Memory Materials………………………………………………………….....5
1.3.4 Woven Materials……………………………………………………………………..6
1.4 Operational Concept of Smart Materials…………………………………………….7
1.5 Classifications of Smart composite materials………………………………………..8
1.6 Candidate Morphing Concepts………………………………………………………9
1.7 Stabilization of material response.…………………………………………………….11
1.8 Aerospace application of SMA..……………………………………………………12
1.8.1 Fixed wing aircraft applications…………………………………………………….12
Chapter2 Fundamental characteristics of Nickel-Titanium Shape memory alloy.…………………18
2.1 History of shape memory alloy.………………………………………………………18
2.2 The principle of shape memory alloy.………………………………………………..18
2.3 Hysteresis…………………………………………………………………………….19
2.4 The shape memory effect…………………………………………………………….20
2.5 Pseudo-elasticity……………………………………………………………………...21
2.6 Thermoelastic martensite transformation…………………………………………….21
2.7 Engineering effects of SMA..………………………………………………………...22
2.8 Limitations of shape memory alloy & Superelastic behavior………………………..23
2.9 Mechanical properties of NiTi………………………………………………………..23
2.10 Electrical resistance characteristics………………………………………………….24
2.11 High damping properties…………………………………………………………….24
2.12 The spark & heat treatment methods of SMA..……………………………………...25
2.12.1 The spark methods…………………………………………………………………25

 
  

2.12.2 Heat treatment……………………………………………………………………..25

Chapter 3 The numerical analysis of SMA………………………………………………………..27
3.1 Constitutive equations for SMA fibers………………………………………………..27
3.1.1 Constitutive equation of NiTi SMA…………………………………………………27
3.1.2 Determination of NiTi alloy thermo parameters…………………………………….27
3.1.3 Prediction of thermo parameters…………………………………………………….29
3.2 Modeling for bending of a laminated beam with SMA fibers embedded layer……………30
3.2.1 Effective properties of SMA fiber reinforced lamina………………………………..31
3.2.2 Bending of laminated beam with SMA fiber embedded layer……………………....35
3.2.3Numerical analysis of bending of laminated beam with SMA fiber embedded layer39
3.3 Concluding remarks………………………………………………………………….42
Chapter 4 simulation and experiment of laminated beam of SMA fiber embedded layer…………43
4.1 Simulation…………………………………………………………………………….43
4.1.1 Setup of solid model………………………………………………………………...43
4.1.2 Setup of finite element model……………………………………………………….44
4.1.3 Simulation analysis…………………………………………………………………..44
4.1.4 Simulation result……………………………………………………………………..48
4.2 Experiment of laminated beam of SMA fiber embedded layer…………………………….49
4.2.1 Preparation…………………………………………………………………………...49
4.2.2 Material and device………………………………………………………………….50
4.2.3 Sample manufacture process………………………………………………………...50
4.2.4 Deflection experiment……………………………………………………………….52
4.2.5 Analysis of deflection experiment…………………………………………………..55
4.3 Experiment of stress-strain…………………………………………………………………56
4.3.1 SMA fiber……………………………………………………………………………56
4.3.2 (0.05mm) SMA fiber laminated plate……………………………………………… 56
4.3.3 (1.00mm) SMA fiber laminated plate……………………………………………….57
4.4 Conclusion remarks…………………………………………………………………...58
Chapter 5 Conclusion & the future of SMA design………………………………………………...59
5.1 Advantage & challenges of SMA design……………………………………………..60
  

5.2 The future of SMA…………………………………………………………………..60

Reference………………………………………………………………………………………….63
Appendix………………………………………………………………………………………….67
 

 
  

Chapter 1

Introduction
In the past few decades interest in morphing structures has increased due to the superior benefits
they can provide. A structure that can change its geometric characteristics and tune its properties
(stiffness and damping) to meet the flight requirements or different load conditions is appealing.
Furthermore, the use of smart materials will reduce the complexity of the system, hence improving
the system reliability and reducing the production costs.

Figure 1.1 The aircraft of morphing wing

1.1 Morphing Wing Challenge

Morphing aircraft are multi-role aircraft that change their external shape substantially to adapt to a
changing mission environment during flight. This creates superior system capabilities not possible
without morphing shape changes. The objective of morphing activities is to develop high
performance aircraft with wings designed to change shape and performance substantially during
flight to create multiple-regime, aerodynamically-efficient, shape-changing aircraft.
Compared to conventional aircraft, morphing aircraft become more competitive as more mission
tasks or roles are added to their requirements.
Researchers have proved how these master aviators change the shape of their wings to improve
performance, providing clues as to how aircraft engineers can improve their designs.
They looked at 15 pairs of real swift wings taken from dead birds from sanctuaries by placing them
in a wind tunnel and varying their orientation to measure the effect of wing shape and position on
flight efficiency.
Scientists learned that flying slowly with extended wings gives swifts maximum flight efficiency.
But swept wings deliver a better aerodynamic performance for flying fast and straight. Swept wings
are also better for fast and tight turns; but this time swept wings are better because they do not break
as easily as extended wings.
1 
  

They found that swifts could adjust the shape of their wings to increase the efficiency of their glide
or to make faster turns.

Figure 1.2 Next Gen Morphing Swept & extended Wings

Extended wings provided the best slow glide, whereas those swept back away from the head
functioned better at high speeds. Extremely fast turns required swept-back wings, as extended
wings had the tendency to break under the extreme force. Elsewhere, swept-back wings did not
flutter; they protected against bone fractures under these conditions of high force.
Findings further revealed that a proper co-ordination of the wings in relation to each activity
allowed the birds to fly 60 percent further in a single glide and improve their turning efficiency by
three times.
Morphing wings are the latest trend in aviation. The best wing shape to save fuel costs depends on
flight speed. These birds inspired NASA to design a revolutionary "morphing wing" aircraft. Also,
the so-called micro-aircrafts, which are the size of a bird, begin to exploit the benefits of varying
wing shapes. These tiny flyers, equipped with cameras and sensors to assist in surveillance and
espionage, imitate faithfully the flight behavior and appearance of birds.
The development of morphing wing structures employing smart materials can bring the following
advantages:

• Improve of flight envelope

• Reduction of system complexity by eliminating the traditional control surface
• Increase reliability
• The quality of air flow surrounding the aircraft improved and hence drag reduction
• Power savings
• Reduction of the aircraft weight and increase payload
• Improvement of stealth characteristics
• Reduction of manufacturing costs
  

•
Figure 1.3 The structure of morphing wing

The capability of current smart materials is relatively limited. Hence their use for morphing wing
has mainly been applied to micro UAVs, which are subject to smaller wing loads and simple,
cheaper flight test than traditional aircraft. The use of advanced composites and smart materials,
will take into account power consumption issues, and should be easier and cheaper to manufacture
by using low coast resin infusion techniques.

1.2 Introduction to Material Requirements

Morphing wing skin material cannot be a completely rigid material. Therefore an investigation was
performed to discover what types of materials are currently available that could be used as a skin
material for a morphing wing. After reviewing some of the different wing configurations of a
morphing wing, criteria for skin materials were developed. A plausible skin material will have to be
flexible and elastic so the material can be easily deformed, while still having the strength to carry
the aerodynamic loads of the aircraft.
Also the material has to have the abrasion resistance of metal so the material would not be damaged
when subject to changing environments. After the material has been deformed to a different wing
shape, the material should be able to recover its original size. Plastic deformation could occur where
there is excess material after the wing is brought back to its original position. This excess material
could cause more drag. If there is additional drag, the efficiency of the aircraft will decrease. The
criteria provided a fundamental basis that was used to investigate plausible skin materials.

1.3 Material Overview

Engineering advancements in the area of polymers have allowed materials to be more durable,
flexible, elastic, and have a higher recovery percentage. Due to these advancements, there are
different materials that have the opportunity to be used as skin materials over different parts of a
morphing wing. Specifically the material can be used around the area of the ribs, the location where
the wing will be changing shape. A possible skin material would be made out of polyurethane.
Polyurethane is a synthetic material, which allows it to be combined with other chemicals so
different properties can be achieved depending on the application (Thermedics Polymer Products
2003). A material that has similar characteristics of polyurethane is copolyester. Copolyester is a
type of material that is easy to process and has the characteristics of thermoset elastomers (Ticona
2003). Another plausible material are shape memory materials.
3 
  

Shape memory materials have a transition temperature above which the properties of the material
change. The transition temperature is referred to as the glass transition temperature, Tg. Below the
glass transition temperature the material is rigid, while above the glass transition temperature it acts
like a flexible rubber. The final type of material that was investigated is stretchable woven materials,
such as Spandex. These materials have elastic properties and have high recovery abilities.

1.3.1 Polyurethanes
One material studied is polyurethane, which was invented in the 1930’s by Otis Bayer. According to
Bunker corporation (2003) polyurethane was originally invented as an alternative to rubber because
rubber became in short supply during world war two. After years of chemical engineering
refinement, there are different versions of polyurethane for various applications in the commercial
market. Polyurethane is popular because it has the ability to provide the elasticity of rubber, while
having the advantages of toughness and durability of metal. Since polyurethane is a synthetic
material, there are different chemical formulas which allow the material to have a different hardness.
Figure 1.4 shows a Durometer range. Typically polyurethanes have a hardness range between Shore
A 30-100 and Shore D 20-75.

Figure.1.4 Durometer scale

A couple of other advantages polyurethane has are the ability to withstand abrasions and the ability
for polyurethane to handle pressure loads. Polyurethane is resistant to oils, solvents, fats, greases,
and gasoline. Polyurethane can be designed to handle various loads, depending on the chemical
formula. Since aircraft are subject to various weather conditions, the skin material has to have the
ability to withstand different weather elements. Polyurethane is resistant to oxygen, ozone, and
sunlight.

The elastic characteristic of polyurethane is due to entropy. The disordered polymer chains that
make the polyurethane material allows the un-stretched to be in its natural state. When the material
is stretched the polymer chains are in a state of order. Since the natural state of polyurethane is
when the polymer chains are disorder, the material returns to its original state and size when it is
allowed to un-stretch.

1.3.2 Co polyester
  

There are two specific materials that were tested that fall under the copolyester category.
One material is Arnitel® and the other is Riteflex®, specifically these materials are a type of
thermoplastic. One reason why these materials were chosen to test is the availability of these
materials. According to the manufacture of Riteflex® (Ticona 2003) they “combine the features of
thermoset elastomers and the easy processing capabilities of plastics.” Riteflex® is manufactured
by Ticona. The molecular structure of Riteflex allows the material to be formulated with different
degrees of hardness through the relative proportion of the soft phase and hard phase (Ticona 2003).
This is done by the alternating soft and hard polyether components the molecular structure level.
The main design objective for Riteflex® is the ability to work well with applications that rubber and
other elastomers cannot perform (Ticona 2003).
These material characteristics are also similar to polyurethane. After reading the information
provided on Ticona’s website, Riteflex® seemed to meet many of the criteria that were determined
that would make the material a good candidate for a skin material for a morphing wing. The two
specific materials there were tested are Riteflex® 640 and Riteflex® 663.
The final copolyester material tested was Arnitel®. Arinitel® is a copolyester elastomer that is
produced by DSM. DSM (2003) states that Arnitel® has many characteristics of a polyurethane, by
“combining the advantages of engineering thermoplastics, being easy to process with excellent
mechanical properties, at the same time with the flexibility of rubbers.” Arnitel® has the same
characteristics as polyurethanes like, strength, abrasion resistant, heat resistant, and chemically
resistant.

1.3.3 Shape Memory Materials

Another family of material that was investigated was shape memory materials (SMM). Within the
family of SMM there are different types, such as, shape memory polymer (SMP), shape memory
alloy (SMA), and liquid crystalline elastomers (LCE). Lui et al. (2002) states SMM “are materials
that can be deformed into a temporary and dormant shape under specific conditions of temperature
and stress and will later, under thermal, electrical, or environmental stimuli, relax to their original,
stress-free conformation due to the elastic energy stored during the initial deformation.” Although
SMAs are introduced within the family of SMM, this report is not investigating them. The emphasis
will be on the shape memory polymers, since a sample SMP was provided by Cornerstone Research
Group. The identification number for the SMP from Cornerstone Research Group is JLR-055-24A.
LCE have properties of mechanical anisotropy, soft elasticity, and a coupling between
rubber-elasticity and liquid crystalline ordering (Lui 2002). Although liquid crystalline elastomers
were discussed no samples were available to test. Yet, they seem to provide properties that met the
criteria set for plausible skin materials for a morphing wing.
Shape memory polymers have similar characteristics of rubber, but since there is a chemical or
physical cross-link in the polymer chains, the SMPs have superior “elasticity above a critical
temperature controlled by its glass transition temperature (Tg)” (Chen, Zhu, and Gu p.1504-1512).
This phenomenon allows the shape of the material to change, depending on the temperature (Chen,
Zhu, and Gu p. 1504-1512). Figure 1.5 shows a generic elastic modulus versus temperature plot for
a shape memory polymer (Liang, Malafeew, and Rogers p 382, Hayashi et al. p 29, Lee, Kim, and
Xu p 5782, Monkman p 490). SMPs made out of polyurethane take advantage of the glass transition
temperature, since the mechanical properties of the material changes (Hayashi, Lin, and Tobushi
p. (109-114). Below the glass transition temperature, the material acts like a rigid solid. During the
transition state, the material has both solid and rubber characteristics. Once beyond the transition
5 
  

state the material is in a rubbery state, which allows deformation to occur. Most SMPs have flow
state, which once the material is heated beyond this point the material loses its ability to recover.
Specifically for the SMP provided by Cornerstone Research Group, the glass transition temperature
is 85 degrees Celsius. A product engineer suggested the viable state to apply deformation is at 100
degrees Celsius. This is also the temperature to induce recovery of the material after being
deformed.

Figure 1.5 A plot showing the elastic modulus range versus temperature for an SMP.

Bhattacharyya (In Press) stated SMPs are a class of polyurethanes that have the ability to undergo
significant deformations, since the thermomechanical input allow the material to change its elastic
modulus. Polyurethane SMPs also have become popular because they have the ability to be
injection molded, the ability for the SMPs to be colored since the original color is transparent, and
finally the glass transition temperature can be designed for a specific application (Hayashi et al.
p.296-302). It is important to clarify that all polymers have a glass transition temperature, but not all
polymers exhibit the shape memory effect.

1.3.4 Woven Materials

The final type of material that was investigated is made out of elastane fibers or yarns. These
synthetic yarns are made out of segmented polyurethanes which consist of alternating polyurethane
hard segments and polyether or polyester soft segments (Gaymans, Krijgsman, and Niesten p.
46-48). These elastane fibers are within the family of fibers that are commonly referred to as
Spandex®. According to Fourné and GmbH (2001), these yarns are known for both their high
elasticity and recoverability. Since these types of materials have the elasticity and recoverability
effects that are suited for a skin material for a morphing wing, sample materials were sought. The
two available types of woven materials were Spandura® and Tru-Stretch®, which were provided by
  

H. Warshow & Sons. Spandura® is a product of Dupont, specifically in their Invista division.
Spandura® is made out of a Cordura® and Lycra® blend. According to Seattle Fabrics (2003), a
manufacture and supply company of Spandura®, Spandura® is a product that combines the
durability of Cordura® nylon and the stretching ability of Lycra®. According to the Lyrca’s website
(2003), Lycra® is also shape retention, meaning Spandura recovers after being stretched. Cordura’s
website stated Cordura® is ten times more durable than cotton duck, three times more durable than
standard polyester, and two times more durable than standard nylon as well as the durability allows
it to be resistant to not only abrasions, but also to tears and scuffs.
Tru-Stretch® is made out of a Lycra® and Nylon® blend. It has the same material characteristics as
Spandura®. The only difference between Tru-stretch® and Spandura® is Spandura® is elastic in all
directions, while Tru-stretch® is only elastic in one direction. The reasons for the differences are the
way the material was woven as well as the chemical formulation of the yarns. A visual
representation is shown in Figure 1.6.

Figure 1.6 Visual representation on the elastic effect available for Spandura and Tru-Stretch.

1.4 Operational Concept of Smart Materials.

Smart materials have the ability to perform both sensing and actuating functions which sense a
change in the environment and responds by altering one or more of its property coefficients. In this
way, it can tune its sensing and actuating capabilities in time or space to optimize behavior. With the
help of a feedback system, a very smart material becomes smarter with age.
Smart materials are able to respond to a stimulus in a useful and reproducible manner. The materials
themselves are not “smart”, in the sense that they passively react to an input rather than making
decisions or adapt themselves to environment.

7 
  

Figure 1.7 Operational concept of smart material

1.5 Classifications of Smart composite material

z “Intrinsically adaptive materials” like shape memory alloy (SMA) and polymers (SMP). As
a result of a particular external stimulus, these materials are subject to transformation in their
molecular or microscopic structure, resulting in changes in mechanical properties.
z “Active materials” like electro active polymers, piezoelectric ceramics, and magnetostrictive
(Terfenol-D). They act as transducers converting some forms of energy (typically electrical,
magnetic, and thermal) to mechanical energy.
Active materials with high electromechanical coupling can also be used in an “intrinsically adaptive
mode”; in this case they require less power supply but their performance is more limited.
Since the aim is to change the shape of the wing for flight control, the morphing system should
have:

z Relatively fast dynamics

z Capability of repetitive actuations
z Robustness against uncertainties and disturbances
z Low power consumption
z Insensitivity to environment variation

The ideal smart composite material should respond quickly to the external stimuli be capable of
large and recoverable free strains, transform effectively the input energy to mechanical energy, and
are not affected by fatigue issues.

Table 1: Most common smart composite materials

  

Material Max Max Elastic Max Relative

Strain Stress Energy Efficiency. speed
(%) (MPa) Density
(J/g)
Dielectric
Polymer Acrylic
Silicone 215 16.2 3.4 60-80 Medium
63 3 0.75 90 Fast
Electrostrictor
Polymer 4 15 0.17 - Fast
P(VDF-TrFE)
Piezoelectric
Ceramics (PZT) 0.2 110 0.013 >90 Fast
Single Crystal
(PZN-PT) 1.7 131 0.13 >90 Fast
Polymer (PVDF)
0.1 4.8 0.013 n/a Fast

SMA (TiNi) >5 >200 >15 <10 Slow

SMP 100 4 2 <10 Slow
Terfenol-D Fast
Conducting
polymer 10 450 23 <1 Slow
(Polyaniline)

SMA and SMP can undergo large free strains and exhibit large blocking forces, but they have slow
response and limited efficiency. PZT and single crystal piezoceramics, exhibit a much lower free
strain, but they are electrically activated, capable of producing quite high blocking forces and
sensibly more efficient. Electroactive polymers exhibit good properties, although they can produce
low blocking stress.
In this paper, we will use SMA (TiNi) in our smart composite material; mainly
we will focus on the research of the properties such as strain, stress and bending behavior.

1.6 Candidate Morphing Concepts

A number of solution studied in the past which may be suitable for flight control purpose are:
z Deform some (compliant) parts of the wing
z Twist the entire wing
z Use multi stable composite structures
z Employ variable stiffness materials to actively change the wing properties and exploit aero
elastic effects.

Solution 1 has been investigated to deform a compliant trailing edge using a lightweight
9 
  

piezo-composite actuator (LIPCA) bonded on the upper part of the skin. Kota et al. proved the
effectiveness of novel compliant mechanism to change the wing camber of an airfoil to minimize
the drag without causing flow separation (see figure 1.8)

Figure 1.8 Flexsys Inc. – Trailing edge control

In this case, power is required to deform both the (compliant) structure and to generate the required
aerodynamic forces. Because of the high chord- wise bending stiffness of a typical closed wing
section, twisting the whole wing or part of the wing would be more effective.

Solution 2 has been considered for flight control of fixed wing aircraft, rotorcraft, and missiles.
Previous concepts made use of directionally attached piezoelectric actuators (DAP) embedded
within the outer skin of high ratio wings. For low aspect ratio wings and missiles fins a design with
integral main spar and active torque plate were considered.
Later designs employed a bender element included into the wing, in order to achieve greater
deflections, actively pitching the aerodynamic surface. More recently Cesnik et al studied a solution
with anisotropic piezocomposites (AFCs) distributed along a high aspect ratio wing. It has been
concluded that novel single crystals fiber composites may be capable of providing the required
control capability.

Solution 3 exploits the possibility of changing the shape of an unsymmetrical composite laminate
from one stable position to another, but using the strain energy of the material during mode
switching. The advantage is that no further power is required to keep the structure in one shape. The
main drawback is that few (two or three) stable shapes are possible so that the resulting control
system could not be used for maneuvering over different range of speeds.

Solution 4 exploits the energy on the fluid (aerodynamic forces), rather than directly using the smart
actuators to change the shape of the wing. Griffin et al. suggested the Variable Stiffness Spar (VSS)
concept to improve the maneuverability of flexible aircrafts (eg. To counteract aileron reversals).
The solution is based on the simultaneous actuation of a control surface and modification of the
wing stiffness. In the VSS a spar made of separated part linked with hinges can be rotated in order
to change its ability to react the shear forces. Another design, the Torsion-Free (TF) wing concept,
consists of two closely spaced very stiff spars that carry most of the shear. The stiffness of the other
spars is reduced in order to produce a wing with low torsional stiffness. Two VSS, placed along the
leading and trailing edge, are used to tune the wing torsional stiffness. The TF concept was also
investigated by Chango et al employing variable stiffness SMA spars to increase roll effectiveness.
Amprikidis et al have recently developed an “adaptive internal structure” to twist a wing, by
moving the position of the elastic axis. This can be obtained by rotating two spars or changing their
  

chord-wise position. With this approach a considerably lower amount of energy is required to twist
the wing and keep it in the desired position.
For the specific problem of morphing wing roll control, solution 2 and 4 seems to be the most
promising. In order to achieve large deformations with small power consumption the interaction
between the fluid and wings structure will be exploited. Smart materials will be employed either to
twist the whole wing or to tune its stiffness.

1.7 Stabilization of material response

For polycrystalline SMA materials, the exact strain versus temperature and stress versus strain
responses are heavily dependent on the loading history of the material. Transformation-induced
plasticity (TRIP) is a phenomenon by which plastic strains are generated during a transformation
cycle. Such permanent irrecoverable strain will often be generated more quickly during initial
material cycles and will then stabilize as the number of applied cycle’s increases. Many SMA will
cease to generate plastic strain after sufficient cycling, and this stabilizes the overall material
response. Such repetition until stabilization is often referred to as training. Aside from producing a
stable material. Sufficient training can also effectively eliminate the A ➝ M transformation,
thereby driving the minimum stress for shape recovery during (A ⇄ M) transformation to zero. This
ability to recover shape at zero stress is known as two way shape memory effect. The phase diagram
for a material exhibiting such behavior would therefore not require A ⇄ M regions.
For SMA material which will be used as an actuator via utilization of SMA, such training often
occurs by applying constant stress to an element and then cycling the temperature until the response
has stabilized. An example of this can be seen in Fig.1.9, where the final cycle has been darkened.
For material intended for pseudoelastic application, training is often performed by applying many
stress cycle while maintaining a constant temperature. Figure 1.10, illustrates an example of such
pseudoelastic training.

Fig.1.9 Experimental results for training via isobaric thermal cycling

11 
  

Fig.1.10 Experimental result for training via isothermal cycling of stress

The several cycles are required before the stress- strain response become repeatable, and this is
common in all SMA.

1.8 Aerospace application of SMA

From the early ‘thermal engines’, engineers and other designers in many field have been
developing ways to convert thermal energy into mechanical work via the crystallographic phase
change of SMA, which have now been used in real world applications for several decades. One of
the most well know of the early application was the hydraulic tubing coupling used on F-14 in 1971.
Since that time, designers have continued to utilize both the shape memory and pseudoelastic effect
of SMA in solving engineering problems in the aerospace industry. Such implementations of SMA
technology have spanned the areas of fixed wing aircraft, rotorcraft, and spacecraft; work continues
in all three of these areas. The following section describe some of the more recently explored
aerospace applications of SMA and then briefly summarizes the challenges facing the designers of
such system.

1.8.1 Fixed wing aircraft applications

Applications which apply specifically to the propulsion systems and structural configurations of
fixed wing aircraft will first be considered. Perhaps two of the most well-known fixed wing projects
of the past are the Smart Wing program and the Smart Aircraft and Marine Propulsion System
demonstration (SAMPSON). The Smart Wing program was intended to develop and demonstrate
the use of active materials, including SMA, to optimize the performance of lifting bodies. The
project was split into two phase with the first being the most SMA-intensive. Here, SMA wire
tendons were used to actuate hingeless ailerons while an SMA torque tube was used to initiate span
wise wing twisting of a scaled down F-18. In each of these applications, the SMA is used to provide
actuation via shape recovery, and the recovery occurs at a non-zero stress. Unlike the previous
discussion, however the stress state during actuation is variable and is a function of the elastic
response of the actuated structural, in this case the wing. Although the SMA was able to provide
satisfactory actuation at 16 per cent scale, it was found that the SMA torque tube in particular was
not of sufficient strength to actuate a full-scale wing. As SMA material providers continue to
  

increase their output, however, fabrication of larger SMA components for stronger actuation is now
practical. The as- tested torque tube installation can be seen in Fig 1.11. This work was performed
as part of a Defense Advanced Research Project Agency contract to Northrop Grumman and
monitored by the Air force research lab.

The SMAPSON program was designed to demonstrate the usefulness of active materials in
tailoring the inlet geometry and orientation of various propulsion systems. An experimental
validation was performed on a full scale F-15 inlet. The first series of wind tunnel tests performed at
NASA Langley’s high speed facility tested an antagonistic system in which one SMA Cable is set in
opposition to another. Here the SMA employing the SME were used to rotate the inlet cowl in order
to change its cross- sectional area. Two opposing SMA bundles were used to actuate in two
directions, with the heating of one bundle causing shape recovery and thereby detwinning the
unheated bundle. After the heated bundle was allowed to cool, the previously detwinned bundle was
then heated and reverse actuation occurred. SMA bundle consisting of 34 wire/rods were used to
provide up to a 26700N force and rotated the inlet cowl 9°. Further tests demonstrated more
complex SMA actuation, including inlet lip shaping. This experimental setup can be seen in
Fig.1.12. This work was performed as part id a DARPA contract to Boeing and monitored by NASA
Langley Research Center and the office of Naval Research.

Portions of the SAMPSON project also studied the use of SMA cables wrapped
circumferentially around the aft portion of the fan cowling of a high-bypass jet engine in order to
increase/decrease fan nozzle area in different regions of the flight regime. In the design, high
exhaust temperature produced during take-off and landing (slow speed flight) was used to cause
SMA structural elements to transform into austenite, thus providing recovery strain and opening the
nozzle to its maximum cross-sectional area. At cruise, however, lower temperature would allow the
nozzle to close, optimizing performance at high altitudes. The experiment, which utilized SMA
Cable bundles for both opening and closing of the nozzle, proved the technology to be practical.

13 
  

Fig 1.11 Total and cut-away view of SMA torque tube as installed in the model wing during phase 1 of the
SMART Wing project

Research into a similar principle utilizing bending actuation of SMA is also being performed. In
this case the goal is to optimize the trade-off between noise mitigation at take-off and landing and
performance at altitude. Such engine noise levels are often highly regulated by various civil
agencies. Often, flow mixing devices known as ‘chevrons’ are statically installed along the trailing
edges of the exhaust nozzles. Here the composite chevrons were designed to be reconfigurable with
SMA beam components embedded inside. Again, actuation was based in the principle of changing
flow temperature with altitude. The SMA beam elements area formed such that they force the
chevron inward and mix the flow of gases (reducing noise) at low altitude and low speeds where the
engine temperature is high. They then relax and straighten at high altitude and high speeds,
increasing engine performance. In reference, results are presented for both autonomous operation as
well as controlled operation via installed heaters. Tests demonstrated that the device works as
expected, and development continues. Figure 1.13 illustrates the current Boeing design for the
variable geometry chevron. Note that the composite layer has been removed from the chevron for
exposition of the active SMA elements. Figure 1.14 illustrates the results of current efforts to model
the Boeing chevron system. Here complex behaviors such as elastic laminate response of the
composite substrate, sliding contact, and three dimensional non-homogeneous SMA loading have
all been considered.
NASA has approached the same chevron problem with a different design. In this case the
active chevron is induced to bend by the incorporation of tensile SMA strips during chevron
laminate fabrication. The strips are installed on each side of the chevron centroid. Upon sufficient
heating, the SMA elements contract and this leads to asymmetric stresses within the beam and thus
an effective internal bending moment. Modeling was performed by considering both the SMA
  

transformation and thermal strains as being caused by one effective coefficient of thermal expansion
and implementing a model which predicted the non-linear evolution of this strain in a finite-element
design environment. Experimental results were consistent with those of the model, and actuator
performance was shown to meet the design goals. Each of these chevron research efforts
demonstrate the capability of SMA to be fabricated in the form required and then to be completely
embedded within a structure, providing truly integrated actuation.

Fig 1.12 The SAMPSON F-15 inlet cowls as installed in the NASA Langley Transonic Wind Tunnel

In addition to propulsion system applications, SME actuation is also commonly applied to the
problem of adaptable lifting bodies, including the morphing of wing structure. The concept of
integrating SMA elements into an aerostructure has been the topic of a number of studies. One such
research effort led to an aerofoil which could effectively change its configuration from symmetric to
cambered via actuation SMA wires. It was shown that the wing configuration could be changed
during flight to optimize performance. The shape memory behavior of the SMA wires was exploited
and they were arranged in a span wise configuration to increase actuation displacement. A series of
pulleys transferred the load, now acting in a chord wise direction, to chosen points on the aerofoil
skin inner surface. During the design process, a generic algorithm was used to determine the
placement of these attachment points in order to achieve a predetermined final aerofoil
configuration. This modeling effort considered the full thermomechanical problem of SMA
actuation and the coupled aerodynamic/structural response. A nine percent increase in lift at
constant 5 ° angle of attack was measured in the wind tunnel experiments. These result
demonstrated the usefulness of an integrated design/analysis environment that accounts for both the
constitutive response of the SMA actuator behavior and other external system effect (i.e.
aero-elastic loads).

15 
  

Fig 1.13 Boeing variable geometry chevron

A different and interesting structural implementation of SMA actuation is found in a patent

pertaining to actuation of the wing main spar. Here the active elements are placed inside tubular
spars which would be used to extend and/or retract a telescoping portion of the wing in the span
wise direction, again using SME. Another example of lifting body morphing is the ‘macro-scale
morphing’ which involves alterations in geometry with dimensional changes of the same order as
the wing span. Although the final morphed configuration chosen in this case was not explicitly
intended to provide any type of aerodynamic enhancement, it demonstrated the feasibility of
designing the mechanism required, should such morphing prove to be advantageous. Finally, in
another application, researchers studied both the theoretical and experimental responses of
morphing entire structures utilizing an antagonistic flexural unit cell, in which two opposing
one-way SMA linear elements (ribbons or wires) are installed on either side of a simple hinging
mechanism. This subsystem (the unit cell) is then repeated lengthwise to form a morphing truss-like
structure. This idea was shown to be experimentally feasible and generally can apply to both aircraft
as well as spacecraft as the structural unit cells can be arranged to fit the needs of the designer.

Although morphing entire structures such as wings is one possibility, SMAs are also commonly
used to actuate other smaller aerodynamic elements. This is possible because the behaviors’ which
are unique to SMAs are exhibited across a large range of sizes. One recent example of small scale
actuation is an extension of an earlier study into actuating wing surface vortex generators using
shape memory wires, other proposed application pairs SMAs and micro-electromechanical systems
(MEMS). This MEMS-activated active skin would include many devices incorporating thin-film
SMA elements which could be micro fabricated and placed under the skin of an aerodynamic
surface. Activated span wise in a sinusoidal sense, such devices would create a travelling wave in
the skin which would help to energize the boundary layer and thus decrease turbulent drag.
Although it is a problem that SMA components of standard size provide low actuation frequencies,
sufficiently thin SMA films have exhibited actuation frequencies of 30 Hz
  

Fig 1.14 stress contour result; FEA analysis of Boeing VGC, actuated position

In addition to developing actuation applications, research is being performed into optimizing

the dynamic properties of aircraft structural panels using SMA elements. Such applications often
take advantage of the simple fact that an SMA will exhibit a change in elastic stiffness as it
undergoes transformation. This behavior is often secondary in other applications but can be very
important in manipulating the dynamic response of a structure. In one study, it was shown that
thermally-induced post buckling deflection could be decreased by increasing the volume fraction of
SMA fibers or the pre strain (detwinned strain) of the SMA. It also happened that the natural
frequencies for each mode of vibration were decreased due to the added weight and reduced
stiffness of the added SMA, thus changing the structural flutter response. Modeling was performed
by simply considering only the known non-linear stress¨C strain behavior of SMA elements during
loading with the hysteresis being neglected. Such a model was implemented in a finite element
environment. In a similar attempt to alter dynamic properties, the concept of a tunable SMA (Smart
Spar) has also been introduced. It should be noted that while the fabrication of SMA panels has
been proven to be difficult, especially due to the curing step, investigations of alternative fabrication
methods have been performed, which utilize thinner wire configurations.

17 
  

Chapter2

Fundamental characteristics of Nickel-Titanium

Shape memory alloy

2.1 History

The first reported steps towards the discovery of the shape memory effect were taken in the 1930s.
According to Otsuka and Wayman (1998), A. Ölander discovered the pseudo elastic behavior of the
Au-Cd alloy in 1932. Greninger & Mooradian (1938) observed the formation and disappearance of
a martensitic phase by decreasing and increasing the temperature of a Cu-Zn alloy. The basic
phenomenon of the memory effect governed by the thermo elastic behavior of the martensite phase
was widely reported a decade later by Kurdjumov & Khandros (1949) and also by Chang & Read
(1951).

The nickel-titanium alloys were first developed in 1962–1963 by the Naval Ordnance Laboratory
and commercialized under the trade name Nitinol (an acronym for Nickel Titanium Naval Ordnance
Laboratories). Their remarkable properties were discovered by accident. A sample that was bent out
of shape many times was presented at a laboratory management meeting. One of the associate
technical directors, Dr. David S. Muzzey, decided to see what would happen if the sample was
subjected to heat and held his pipe lighter underneath it. To everyone's amazement the sample
stretched back to its original shape.
There is another type of S.M.A., called a ferromagnetic shape memory alloy (FSMA), that changes
shape under strong magnetic fields. These materials are of particular interest as the magnetic
response tends to be faster and more efficient than temperature-induced responses.
Metal alloys are not the only thermally-responsive materials; shape memory polymers have also
been developed, and became commercially available in the late 1990s.

2.2 The principle of Shape Memory Alloy

NiTi shape memory metal alloy can exist in a two different temperature-dependent crystal structures
(phases) called martensite (lower temperature) and austenite (higher temperature or parent phase).
Several properties of austenite NiTi and martensite NiTi are notably different.
When martensite NiTi is heated, it begins to change into austenite (Figure 2.1). The temperature at
which this phenomenon starts is called austenite start temperature (As). The temperature at which
this phenomenon is complete is called austenite finish temperature (Af). When austenite NiTi is
cooled, it begins to change onto martensite. The temperature at which this phenomenon starts is
called martensite start temperature (Ms). The temperature at which martensite is again completely
reverted is called martensite finish temperature (Mf) (Buehler et al. 1967).
Composition and metallurgical treatments have dramatic impacts on the above transition
temperatures. From the point of view of practical applications, NiTi can have three different forms:
martensite, stress-induced martensite (Superelastic), and austenite. When the material is in its
martensite form, it is soft and ductile and can be easily deformed (somewhat like soft pewter).
  

Superelastic NiTi is highly elastic (rubber-like), while austenitic NiTi is quite strong and hard
(similar to titanium) (Figure 2.2). The NiTi material has all these properties, their specific
expression depending on the temperature in which it is used.

Figure 2.1 Phase transformation and hysteresis upon a change of temperature.

Figure 2.2 Stress-strain behaviors of different phases of NiTi at constant temperature.

2.3 Hysteresis
The temperature range for the martensite-to-austenite transformation, i.e. soft-to-hard transition that
takes place upon heating is somewhat higher than that for the reverse transformation upon cooling
(Figure 2.1). The difference between the transition temperatures upon heating and cooling is called
hysteresis. Hysteresis is generally defined as the difference between the temperatures at which the
material is 50 % transformed to austenite upon heating and 50 % transformed to martensite upon
cooling. This difference can be up to 20-30 °C (Buehler et al. 1967, Funakubo 1987). In practice,
this means that an alloy designed to be completely transformed by body temperature upon heating
19 
  

(Af < 37 °C) would require cooling to about +5 °C to fully retransform into martensite (Mf).

2.4 The shape memory effect

A shape memory alloy (SMA, smart metal, memory metal, memory alloy, muscle wire, smart alloy)
is an alloy that "remembers" its original, cold-forged shape: returning the pre-deformed shape by
heating. This material is a lightweight, solid-state alternative to conventional actuators such as
hydraulic, pneumatic, and motor-based systems. Shape memory alloys have applications in
industries including medical and aerospace.

1. One-way memory effect

When a shape memory alloy is in its cold state (below As), the metal can be bent or stretched and
will hold those shapes until heated above the transition temperature. Upon heating, the shape
changes to its original. When the metal cools again it will remain in the hot shape, until deformed
again.
With the one-way effect, cooling from high temperatures does not cause a macroscopic shape
change. A deformation is necessary to create the low-temperature shape. On heating, transformation
starts at As and is completed at Af (typically 2 to 20 °C or hotter, depending on the alloy or the
loading conditions). As is determined by the alloy type and composition and can vary between
−150 Cºand 200 Cº

2. Two-way memory effect

The two-way shape memory effect is the effect that the material remembers two different shapes:
one at low temperatures, and one at the high-temperature shape. A material that shows a shape
memory effect during both heating and cooling is called two-way shape memory. This can also be
obtained without the application of an external force (intrinsic two-way effect). The reason the
material behaves so differently in these situations lies in training. Training implies that a shape
memory can "learn" to behave in a certain way. Under normal circumstances, a shape memory alloy
"remembers" its high-temperature shape, but upon heating to recover the high-temperature shape,
immediately "forgets" the low-temperature shape. However, it can be "trained" to "remember" to
leave some reminders of the deformed low-temperature condition in the high-temperature phases.
There are several ways of doing this. A shaped, trained object heated beyond a certain point will
lose the two-way memory effect; this is known as "amnesia".
  

Figure 2.3 Transformation from the austenite to martensite phase and shape memory effect. The high temperature
austenitic structure undergoes twinning as the temperature is lowered. This twinned structure is called martensite.
The martensite structure is easily deformed by outer stress into a particular shape, and the crystal structure
undergoes parallel registry. When heated, the deformed martensite resumes its austenitic form, and the
macroscopic shape memory phenomenon is seen.

2.5 Pseudo-elasticity (Super elasticity)

One of the commercial uses of shape memory alloy exploits the pseudo-elastic properties of the
metal during the high-temperature (austenitic) phase. The frames of reading glasses have been made
of shape memory alloy as they can undergo large deformations in their high-temperature state and
then instantly revert back to their original shape when the stress is removed. This is the result of
pseudoelasticity; the martensitic phase is generated by stressing the metal in the austenitic state and
this martensite phase is capable of large strains. With the removal of the load, the martensite
transforms back into the austenite phase and resumes its original shape.
This allows the metal to be bent, twisted and pulled, before reforming its shape when released. This
means the frames of shape memory alloy glasses are claimed to be "nearly indestructible" because it
appears no amount of bending results in permanent plastic deformation.
The martensite temperature of shape memory alloys is dependent on a number of factors including
alloy chemistry. Shape memory alloys with transformation temperatures in the range of 60–1450 K
have been made.

2.6 Thermoelastic martensitic transformation

The unique behavior of NiTi is based on the temperature-dependent austenite-to-martensite phase
transformation on an atomic scale, which is also called thermoelastic martensitic transformation.
The thermoelastic martensitic transformation causing the shape recovery is a result of the need of
the crystal lattice structure to accommodate to the minimum energy state for a given temperature
(Otsuka & Wayman 1998).
In NiTi, the relative symmetries between the two phases lead to a highly ordered transformation,
where the displacements of individual atoms can be accurately predicted and eventually lead to a
shape change on a macroscopic scale. The crystal structure of martensite is relatively less
symmetric compared to that of the parent phase.

21 
  

If a single crystal of the parent phase is cooled below Mf, then martensite variants with a total of 24
crystallographically equivalent habit planes are generally created. There is, however, only one
possible parent phase (austenite) orientation, and all martensitic configurations revert to that single
defined structure and shape upon heating above Af. The mechanism by which single martensite
variants deform is called twinning, and it can be described as a mirror symmetry displacement of
atoms across a particular atom plane, the twinning plane (Buehler et al. 1967, Andreasen et al.
1987).
While most metals deform by slip or dislocation, NiTi responds to stress by simply changing the
orientation of its crystal structure through the movement of twin boundaries.
A NiTi specimen will deform until it consists only of the correspondence variant which produces
maximum strain. However, deformation beyond this will result in classical plastic deformation by
slip, which is irrecoverable and therefore has no “memory effect”. If the deformation is halted
midway, the specimen will contain several different correspondence variants. If such a specimen is
heated above Af, a parent phase with an orientation identical to that existing prior to the
deformation is created from the correspondence variants in accordance with the lattice
correspondences between the original parent phase and each variant (Figure 2.2 ). The austenite
crystal structure is a simple cubic structure, while martensite has a more complex rhombic structure.
This phenomenon causes the specimen to revert completely to the shape it had before the
deformation (Andreasen et al. 1987, Gil et al. 1998).The above phenomenon is the basis of such
special properties as the shape memory effect and super-elasticity.

2.7 Engineering effects of SMAs

Having introduced the key properties of an SMA, it is now possible to review two important
behaviors exhibited by such materials. These are the shape memory effect (SME) and the
pseudo-elastic effect. The usefulness of SMAs is most commonly found in the application of one of
these two engineering effects, with SME used for actuation and pseudo-elasticity employed for
application such as vibration isolation and dampening. The stability of the material response when
considering both effects will also be reviewed.
  

Figure 2.4 Phase diagram scheme highlighting stress-free SME, Isobaric SME, and isothermal pseudoelastic
loading paths.

2.8 Limitations of shape memory and superelastic behavior

About 8% strain can be recovered by unloading and heating. Strain above the limiting value will
remain as a permanent plastic deformation. The operating temperature for shape memory devices
must not move significantly away from the transformation range, or else the shape memory
characteristics may be altered. A shape memory NiTi implant must be deformed at a temperature
below As (usually < +5 °C). Moreover, the deformation limit determined by distinctive implant
design (sharp angles, etc.) and the intrinsic strain tolerance of NiTi material must not be disregarded
(Otsuka & Wayman 1998).

2.9 Mechanical properties of NiTi

For orthopedic biomaterial applications, the two properties of major importance are strength
(mechanical) and reactivity (chemical). Generally, there are two basic mechanical demands for the
material and design of the implant. Service stresses must be safely below the yield strength of the
material, and in cyclic loads the service stress must be kept below the fatigue limit (Figure 2.5).

The mechanical properties of NiTi depend on its phase state at a certain temperature (Buehler et al.
1967, Van Humbeeck et al. 1998) (Figure 2.3). Fully austenitic NiTi material generally has suitable
properties for surgical implantation. There are some exceptional properties that might be useful in
surgery. NiTi has an ability to be highly damping and vibration-attenuating below As. For example,
when a martensic NiTi ball is dropped from a constant height, it bounces only slightly over half the
height reached by a similar ball dropped above the Af temperature. From the orthopedic point of
view, this property could be useful in, for example, dampening the peak stress between the bone
and the articular prosthesis. The low elastic modulus of NiTi (which is much closer to the bone
elastic modulus than that of any other implant metal) might provide benefits in specific applications.
NiTi has unique high fatigue and ductile properties, which are also related to its martensitic
transformation. These properties are usually favorable in orthopedic implants. Also, very high wear
23 
  

resistance has been reported compared to the CoCrMo alloy (Sekiguchi 1987). NiTi is a
non-magnetic alloy. MRI imaging is thus possible. Electrical resistance and acoustic damping also
change when the temperature changes.

Figure 2.5 Schematic presentation of the stress-strain behavior of ordinary implant metals. The material exhibits
elastic behavior until sufficient stress is applied to reach the tensile yield strength, at which point permanent
deformation occurs. In the elastic range, the stress/strain ratio determines the elastic modulus. The metal breaks
when the stress exceeds the ultimate tensile strength.

2.10 Electrical resistance characteristics

Shape memory alloy (SMA)’s electric resistance can be known during the change of inner structure
of composite, being used for the research of the transformation on SMA. From the figure, we can
read the resistance of SMA on max martensite state, max austenite state and the mixture of
martensite austenite, change linearly with the increase of temperature. When temperature increase
to As (austenite transformation begins), resistance R increases rapidly. When temperature decrease
to Ms (martensite transformation begins), resistance R decreases rapidly. In engineering
applications we can use the rate of change of resistance R to monitor and control the use of SMA.

2.11 High damping properties
The high damping properties of Shape memory alloy (SMA) are caused by the phenomenon of
internal friction of thermo elastic martensitic transformation. In the process of thermo elastic
martensitic transformation, the viscosity movement of the inner materials like twin crystal interface,
and boundary interface needs to absorb a lot of energy, resulting in a shape memory alloy in the
high or low temperatures having excellent damping performance.

2.12 The spark and heat treatment methods of SMA

  

2.12.1 The spark methods

The sparks of Shape memory alloy (SMA) is driven by heating and cooling. For example NiTi
SMA spark methods can be divided into two parts which are internal heating and external heating.
For internal heating, we can directly use electrical heating method. For external heating, we can use
thermal contact, thermal radiation and light, microwave transmission or other methods. Cooling
methods basically can divide into natural cooling and mandatory cooling. For natural cooling we
can use air, but for mandatory cooling we can use cool water, cool wing, liquid nitrogen or heat
absorbing material.

z Electrical heating methods

NiTi SMA is suitable for electrical heating method because of it’s high electrical resistivity. Based
on the electrical heating technology of NiTi SMA, now the main control device are PWM (Pulse
Width Modulator) and PCM (Pulse Bits Modulator). For this paper, we used PWM to heat our NiTi
SMA fibers, because of its good control performance and simple control.
 
z Semiconducting thermoelectric heating and cooling
Semiconductor cooling device with small size, fast cooling speed and wide adjustment range of
cooling characteristics. However, semiconductor materials have side effect and the cooling
efficiency is low.

z Natural cooling

2.12.2 Heat treatment

The heat treatment of one way shape memory effect NiTi SMA can be divided into three methods:
medium temperature treatment, low temperature treatment and aging treatment.
Medium temperature treatment is to fix the shape of extended NiTi SMA. To fix the shape, NiTi
SMA have to stay at 400-500ºC temperature for a few minute to a few hours, this treatment will let
NiTi SMA remember its shape. Material undergoes 400ºC heat treatment will have large recovery
stress in high temperature. Moreover, material undergoes 500ºC heat treatment will have low yield
stress in low temperature. Therefore, when simply needed to increase force, material can undergo
400ºC heat treatment ,but for deviation or differential acting elements which needed to increase the
force differential between low temperature and high temperature, we need to use 500ºC heat
treatment. Please pay attention here, during the medium temperature heat treatment, the highest the
temperature the highest recovery strain, therefore, the lowest the temperature the highest the cycle
life. For this research, NiTi SMA simply needed to increase force, so we choose 400ºC heat
treatment.
Low temperature heat treatment is used for annealed state of which material is kept at 800ºC or
higher temperature to fix its shape. Because of the annealed state of material, it is good for SMA
to remember its complex shape, but its cycle life and shape memory is lower than medium heat
treatment.
Aging treatment is a type of material quench under 800-1000ºC, after its aging on 400ºC for few
hours. This kind of heat treatment is better than medium heat treatment because SMA has a better
SME, but its process is complex and involves high cost.
25 
  

During the process of using SMA, to get good shape memory effect, the deformation strain should
not increase over specific parameters, i.e. suitable deformation strain based on heat treatment, cycle
life, load, SMA shape and size.

Warning: Prevent overloading. & prevent overheating.

 Chapter3 The numerical analysis of SMAs
 

3.1 Constitutive equations for SMA fibers

3.1.1 Constitutive equation of NiTi SMA
Based on Tanaka, Liang and Rogers, Brinson and Lammering, the first dimension Constitutive
equation of NiTi is:

⎧ ∂σ e ∂σ ∂σ
⎪σ = ∂ε e ε + ∂t t + ∂ξ ξ =
⎪⎪
⎨ D(ξ )ε + Θt + Ω(ξ )ξ
e

⎪ D(ξ ) = D + ξ ( D − D )
⎪ A M A

⎪⎩Ω(ξ ) = −ε L D(ξ )
(1)
 

Where σ is recovery stress of NiTi Alloy; ε is elastic strain of Niti Alloy; t is temperature;
e

ξ is volume fraction of martensite; D (ξ ) elastic modulus; Θ thermoelastic tensor;

Ω(ξ ) is transformation tensor; DA is 100% austenite elastic modulus;

DM is 100% martensite elastic modulus; ε L is limit of recovery stress.

Phase transition from martensite to austenite, as

C A (t − Af ) < σ < C A (t − As ) :
ξ0 ξ0
dξ = − sin [ a A (t − As ) + bAσ ] a A dt − sin [ a A (t − As ) + bAσ ] a A dσ
2 2 (2)
DM
dσ = dε e
1 + bAΩ(ξ0 2)sin [ aA (t − As ) + bAσ ]
Θ − aAΩ(ξ0 2)sin [ aA (t − As ) + bAσ ]
+ dt
1 + bAΩ(ξ0 2)sin [ aA (t − As ) + bAσ ]
(3)

Where ξ0 is volume of fraction before phase transition from martensite to austenite;

a A = π / ( A f − As ); bA = − a A / C A

3.1.2 Determination of NiTi alloy thermo parameters

        Using DSC method determination, the phase transition temperature of NiTi alloy
Shown as table 3.1.
The elastic strain of NiTi alloy:
ε e = ε − (ε t + ε p ) (4)

Where ε is total strain; ε is thermo strain, ε = αΔt , α is thermo expansion coefficient of NiTi
t t

27 
  

alloy; ε disguised strain.

p

Determine temperature t = t1 (t1 < As ), t = t2 (t2 = As ) recovery strain σ 1andσ s ,

Total strain ε 1 , ε 2 , Solve equation (5), we can get DM andΘ .

⎧⎪σ 1 = DM (ε1 − ε 1t ) + Θ(t − t0 )
⎨
⎪⎩σ s = DM (ε 2 − ε 2 ) + Θ(t − t0 )
t
(5)

Where t0 is initial temperature

t = t3 (t3 = A f ), t = t4 (t4 > A f ) σ f andσ 4

Determine temperature recovery strain

Total strain ε 3 , ε 4 , Solve equation (6), we can get DA and ε max

p

⎧⎪σ f = DA (ε 3 − ε 3t − ε max
p
) + Θ(t − t0 ) + ε L DA
⎨
⎪⎩σ 4 = DA (ε 4 − ε 4 − ε max ) + Θ(t − t0 ) + ε L DA
t p
(6)

σ s , σ f , As andA f
Substitute into equation (2), we can calculate C A .

The result of NiTi properties are shown in Table 3.1 

Table 3.1 Properties of NiTi Alloy
Coefficient of Constitutive equation 
DA = 65.17GPa, DM = 25.82GPa
 
Θ = 0.56 MPa / oC
Recovery strain limit 
ε L = 0.04  
4 phase transition temperature  As = 45 oC , Af = 60
 
M s = 16.5 oC , M f = 0
Transition Stiffness 
C A = 13.08MPa / oC  

Coefficient of thermo expansion  α x = 6.61×10−6 (20 < t < 45)

α x = 7.87 ×10−6 (45 ≤ t ≤ 60)  
α x = 11.0 ×10−6 (60 < t < 100)
 
 

3.1.3 Prediction of thermo parameters

 

When t0 < t < t1 , the elastic modulus and recovery strain of NiTi alloy can be determine by equation (7) 

  

⎡ t −t ⎤
σ = DM ⎢ 1
(ε1 − ε1t ) ⎥ + Θ(t − t0 )                                                                                                                   (7) 
⎣ t2 − t1 ⎦

When t1 < t < t2 , the elastic modulus and recovery strain of NiTi alloy can be determine by equation (8) 

⎡ t − t1 ⎤
σ = DM ⎢ε1 − ε1t (ε 2 − ε 2t − ε1 + ε1t ) ⎥ + Θ(t − t0 )  
⎣ t2 − t1 ⎦

When As ≤ t ≤ A f ,  assuming  during  the  phase  transition  process,  transition  strain  &temperature  change 

satisfied recovery strain &temperature change in linear relationship. 
t − t2
ε = ε 2 − ε 2t + (ε 3 − ε 3t − ε max
p
− ε 2 + ε 2t )
t3 − t 2
                                                                                        (9) 
t − t2
d ε = ε − (ε 2 − ε ) = t
2 (ε 3 − ε 3t − ε max
p
− ε 2 + ε 2t )
t3 − t 2

σ f −σs
σ =σs + (t − As )                                                                                                                                   (10)   
Af − As
Substitute equation (9)and (10) into (3), we get 
t − As
DM (ε 3 − ε 3t − ε max
p
− ε 2 + ε 2t )
A f − As Θ − a AΩ(ξ 0 2) sin α
σ = σs + + × (t − ts )                                       (11) 
1 + bAΩ(ξ 0 2) sin α 1 − bAΩ(ξ 0 2) sin α
 
⎡ σ f +σs ⎤
Where  α = a A (t − As ) + bA ⎢σ s + (t − As ) ⎥      
⎢⎣ Af − As ⎥⎦

When  A f < t < t4 , we can calculate the recovery strain and elastic modulus by   

σ = DA (ε 4 − ε 4t − ε max
p
) + Θ (t − t 0 ) + ε L D A
 
Table 3.2 Result of the calculation of recovery strain and elastics modulus
 
σ / MPa   D / GPa  
t / oC  
25  2.13  25.82 
45  47.38  25.82 
60  217.90  65.17 
100  442.50  65.17 

3.2 Modeling for bending of a laminated beam with SMA fiber embedded layer
Based on continuum mechanics, Tanaka developed a constitutive model for the modeling of
thermomechanical behavior of shape memory alloys. The model has been modified and extended
relations for the modified models are shown as follows.
The general constitutive law in rate form of the SMA fibers is expressed as
29 
  

σ& f = D f ε& f + Θ f T& + Ω f ξ&

  (1)

Where σ f , ε f , T and ξ are stress, total strain, temperature and martensite fraction of the SMA fiber,

respectively;
D f is the modulus of material; Θ f the thermal coefficient; and Ω f the phase-transformation

coefficient. The subscript f in Eq.(1) indicates the material properties for fibers.

It is known that D f , Θ f and Ω f are in general functions of the variables ε f , T and ξ [12,10]. In

some studies, however, Θ f or Ω f were assumed to be constant for simplicity [4,5,8–10]. By

investigating various models in literature, a set of relatively more general relations are considered in
the present work.

The thermal coefficient Θ f is related to the thermal expansion coefficient α f by

Θ f = −Df α f , (2)

And the transformation coefficient is expressed as

Ω f = −ε f D f , (3)

Where ε f L is the maximum residual strain for the given SMA fibers, and is a material constant.

Therefore, the constitutive relation (1) can be effectively described by Hooke’s law in expanded
form as
σ& f = D f ⎡⎣ε& f − α f T& − ε& f ξ& ⎤⎦
L
(4)

The thermal expansion coefficient α f and the elastic modulus of the shape memory

alloys D f in (4) are known to depend on the martensite volume fraction. In some literature, a linear

dependence of α f and D f on ξ is assumed, and can be expressed as

D f (ξ ) = D fA + ξ ( D Mf − D fA ),
                                                             (5)
α f (ξ ) = α fA + ξ (α Mf − α fA ),.

Where D fA and D Mf are elastic moduli of austenite and martensite, respectively, α fA and α Mf are

thermal expansion coefficients of austenite and martensite, respectively.

  

Furthermore, the transformation kinetics relations can be expressed based on the cosine model
proposed by Liang and Rogers. For the martensite to austenite transformation, ξ is given by
1
{
ξ = ξ M cos ⎡⎣ a A (T − As ) − bAσ f ⎤⎦ + 1} ,
2
(6)

And for the austenite to martensite transformation,

1 1
ξ = (1 − ξ A ) cos ⎡⎣ aM (T − M F ) − bM σ f ⎤⎦ + (1 + ξ A ) (7)
2 2
Where the material constant are
π π aA a
aA = , aM = , bA = , bM = M , (8)
AF − AS MS − MF CA CM

And AS , AF , M S and M F are the austenite and martensite start and finish temperature of the SMA

under stress free condition, respectively; C A and CM are SMA material constants related to

stress-induced phase transformation; ξ M and ξ A are the initial martensite fractions when the M➝A

or the A➝M transformation starts from a state which has mixed austenite and martensite phases.

Relations (4)-(8) are the constitutive equations for the SMA fibers used in this paper.
Comparing with some of the constitutive relations for SMA materials used in literature, in which
Θ f or Ω f are assumed to be constant, the constitutive relations given in (4)-(8) are more general.

3.2.1 Effective properties of SMA fiber reinforced lamina

In this section, the effective properties of a lamina with embedded shape memory alloy fibers
are derived based on the constitutive equations given above. The lamina is composed of a matrix
with a series of embedded pre-strained SMA fibers, as shown in Fig. 3.1. Assuming no sliding
between the fiber and the matrix, the iso-strain condition requires that

dε m = dε f = dε l , (9)

Where ε m , ε f and ε l are the total strain of the matrix, the fibers and the lamina, respectively.

The matrix strain in (9) can be described as

d ε m = d ε mel + d ε mt , (10)

31 
  

Where ε mel and ε mt are the matrix elastic and thermal strain, respectively and the total strain of the

SMA fibers in (9) can be expressed as

d ε f = d ε elf + d ε tf + d ε trans
f , (11)

Where ε elf , ε tf and ε trans

f are fiber elastic strain, thermal strain and transformation strain, respectively.

The fiber and the matrix thermal strains in (11) and (10) are determined by

d ε tf = α f dT , d ε mt = α m dT , (12)

Where α f and α m are the thermal expansion coefficients of the fiber and matrix, respectively.

Furthermore, according to the relations (3) and (4), the transformation strain of SMA fibers in (11)
can be expressed as

d ε trans
f = ε f L dξ (13)

On the other hand, the stress equilibrium relation of the lamina along the fiber axis direction is
given by

dσ l = V f dσ f + (1 − V f ) dσ m , (14)

Fig 3.1 A SMA composite lamina

where σ l is the applied stress of lamina, σ f and σ m are the stresses of the fibers and the matrix,

respectively, and V f the volume fraction of SMA fibers. The elastics constitutive equation of the

fiber and the matrix in (14) are given as

dσ f = D f d ε elf , dσ m = Em d ε mel (15)

  

where D f and Em are the elastic modulus of fiber and matrix, respectively.

With the stress and strain relations in the fiber and matrix given above, the effective
constitutive relation of the SMA lamina is derived below. By substituting the matrix related
relations in (12) and (15) into (10), the matrix strain can be written as

dσ m
dε m = + α m dT (16)
Em

By eliminating dσ m from (14) and (16), the matrix strain can be further expressed as

1
dε m = (dσ f − V f dσ f ) + α m dT (17)
(1 − V f ) Em

On the other hand, by substituting the fiber related relations in (12), (13) and (15) into (11), the total
strain of the SMA fibers can be written as

dσ f
dε f = + α f dT + ε f L d ξ (18)
Df

The martensite fraction ξ in (18) is a function of σ f and T according to (6) and (7) can be

expressed as

∂ξ ∂ξ
dξ = dσ f + dT (19)
∂σ f ∂T

By substituting (19) into (18), the fiber strain can be further written as

1 ∂ξ ∂ξ
dε f = ( + ε fL )dσ f + (α f + ε f L )dT (20)
Df ∂σ f ∂T

Finally, by eliminating dσ f from (17) and (20) and by making use of the relationship (9), the

increment form of the effective constitutive relation with the variables σ l , ε l and T for the SMA

lamina thus can be obtained as

33 
  

⎡ Gf ⎤ Gf ⎡ G ∂ξ ⎤
⎢1 + Em (1 − V f ) ⎥ dε l = dσ l + ⎢ Emα m (1 − V f ) f + α f + ε f L ⎥ dT (21)
⎣⎢ V f ⎥⎦ Vf ⎢⎣ Vf ∂T ⎦⎥

Where

1 ∂ξ
Gf = ( + ε fL ) (22)
Df ∂σ f

Defining

Vf
Q1 = Em (1 − V f ) +
Gf
(23)
Vf ∂ξ
q1 = −(1 − V f ) Emα m − (α f + ε f L )
Gf ∂T

So we simplified Eq. (21) as

dσ l = Q1d ε l + q1dT (24)

Eq. (24) is the increment constitutive relation for the SMA lamina. Q1 and q1 in (23) are the

effective mechanical and thermal properties of the composite layer. It is seen that if the volume
fraction of SMA fibers is zero. Q1 and q1 are reduced to the elastic and thermal constants of the

matrix only. Relation (24) is used as constitutive equation of the SMA layer in the next section.

3.2.2 Bending of laminated beam with SMA fiber embedded layer

  

Fig 3.2 Schematic of SMA reinforced laminated beam (not to scale)

Consider a thin beam-like SMA composite structure formed by a pair layers bonded together as
shown in Fig 3.2 one layer of the beam is a shape memory alloy fiber based lamina with the
constitutive relations obtained in (24). When the SMA layer and the substrate layer are bonded
together, non-uniform axial strain in the beam arises due to thermally induced phase transformation
of the SMA fibers. This results in a deflection of the beam structure. Therefore, the structure can be
used as a temperature induced actuator to control the deflection or bending of a device or
mechanism. The bending effect of the SMA laminated beam is studied and the corresponding
relations are derived in this section.

The geometry if the beam is schematically shown in Fig 3.2. The thickness of the SMA
composite layer and the elastic substrate layer are h and H, respectively, and b is the width of the
beam. Since the thickness of both SMA and the substrate layers are much smaller than the length in
the considered beam structure, i.e (h+H)/L<0.1, the thin beam theory is used in the model.
Therefore, the normal strain in the beam can be expressed as

ε = ky (25)

Where k is the curvature and y the distance from the neutral surface if the beam as illustrated in
fig3.3

Firstly, the equilibrium condition of the normal stress resultants is considers. Since the
deformation or deflection of the smart structure is induced by temperature and there is no external
force acting on the structure, the resultant normal force on the cross section of the beam is zero. The
integration of the normal stress over the entire area of the cross section of the beam can be thus
written as

h+e
b∫ σ ( y )dy = 0 (26)
− H +e

where e is the distance between the neutral surface and the interface of the two layers, as shown in
Fig 3.3.

35 
  

For the thin laminated beam structure considered in the study, the thickness of the SMA
composite layer is about one order thinner than of the substrate layer. Therefore, the variation of the
stress or strain along the thickness direction of the SMA layer cross section is very small. Without
losing accuracy, the stress or strain component within the SMA layer can be thus replaced by its
average value along the thickness. With the treatment, (26) can be further written as

e
b∫ σ S ( y )dy + σ l hb = 0 (27)
− H +e

Where σ l is the average normal stress in the SMA layer, and σ S the thickness dependent normal

stress in the substrate layer, which is given by

σ S = ES ( ε S − α S ΔT ) = ES (κ y − α S ΔT ) (28)

Where ES is the elastic modulus and α S the thermal expansion coefficient of the substrate layer.

By substituting σ S into (27) and by integration, the average normal stress σ l in the SMA

lamina can be obtained as

HES ⎡ H ⎤
σl = ⎢⎣α S ΔT − (e − 2 )κ ⎥⎦ (29)
h

Fig 3.3 SMA laminated beam under bending

In addition, according to (25), the average strain in the lamina is given by

h
ε l = κ yl = ( + e)κ (30)
2

Where yl = h 2 + e is defined as the distance between the neutral surface and the middle plane of

the SMA layer. The increment form of (29) and (30) are then obtained as

HES ⎡ H ⎤
dσ l = ⎢⎣α S dT − (e − 2 )d κ − κ de ⎥⎦ (31)
h
  

h
d ε l = ( + e) d κ + κ de (32)
2

On the other hand, σ l can also be determined by the relation (24). By

eliminating dσ l and d ε l from (31), (32) and (24), a relation with respect to the increment

variables de , dT and dκ based on the equilibrium condition of the normal stress resultants is
obtained as

c2α s − ql 1 c H − hQl
κ de = dT − (e − 2 )dκ (33)
c2 + Ql 2 c2 + Ql

Where

c2 = HEs / h (34)

Is a constant, and Ql and ql are given by (23).

Secondly, consider the relation of the moment equilibrium over the cross section of the beam given
by

e h
b∫ σ s ( y ) ydy +σ l hb(e + ) = M (35)
− H +e 2

Where M is the external bending moment. By substituting the expressions of the normal stresses in
(28) and (29) into (35) and after integration and manipulation, we obtain

1 2 2M
( H + h)κ e − ( h + H ) H κ − ( H + h)α s ΔT + =0 (36)
2 3 Es Hb

From relation (36), the distance e can be determined as

ΔT M
e = c3 + α s − cl (37)
κ κ

Where

37 
  

2 h H
c1 = , c3 = (3 + ) (38)
( H + h) HEs b H +h 6

Are constants. Differentiation of (37) leads to

c1dM = (c3 − e)d κ + α s dT − κ de (39)

Which is the relation with respect to the increment variable de , dT and dκ based on the equilibrium
condition of the moment.

By eliminating the variable e from (33) into (39), the differential constitutive relations
of M , κ and T for SMA laminated beam are obtained as

h c2 H + h q +c α
c1dM = (c3 + − ) d κ + (α s + l 2 s ) dT (40)
2 2 c2 + Ql c2 + Ql

By investigating the coefficients of dκ and dT in (40), it is found that only terms

containing Ql and ql reflect the influence of SMA effect. It is seem from relations (23), (22), (6) and

(7) that Ql and ql are functions of σ f and T via the martensite fraction, which is explicitly given in

Appendix A. In turn, σ f relies on variables T , κ and e according to (31), and e further depends

on M , T and κ by relation(37). The explicit expression of σ f is given in Appendix B. Therefore, the

thermomechanical constitutive relation (40) of the SMA composite beam contains only variables of
the applied moment M , the temperature T and the curvature κ and their differentials. It is a
multi-variable differential equation in general. If one of the variables is fixed, however, the equation
could be simplified.

When the composite beam is subjected to a uniform temperature Eq(40) becomes an ordinary
equation for M and κ due to dT = 0 . The relationship between M and κ can be obtained by
numerical integration for given initial conditions. On the other hand, in a process free from external
load, i.e. dM = 0 , Eq. (40) is reduced to another ordinary equation containing variable T and κ . In
many applications, the SMA beam structures are used as temperature induced actuators for
deflection controls, which have no external force and moment actions. In such cases, the external
bending moment can be set to zero.

As soon as the material properties of the SMA fibers and matrices are known, Eq. (40) or its
reduced form can be solved numerically to predict the responses overall thermomechanical
properties and for design of the SMA structure related actuators.
  

3.2.3 Numerical analysis for bending of laminated beam with SMA fiber

embedded layer

To observe the thermomechanical behavior of the laminated beam with SMA fiber embedded
layer as a temperature induced actuator, numerical examples for the deflection of the laminated
beam with respect to the changes of temperature are presented in this section by using the
constitutive relations obtained above.

Table 3.3 Material properties of SMA fiber

Moduli Transformation temperature Transformation

(°C) constants

D Mf = 26.3 ×103 MPa M S = 14.85 CM = 7.7MPa/ °C

D fA = 67 ×103 MPa M F = 6.85 C A = 7.1MPa/ °C

α Mf = 6.6 ×10−6 / °C AS = 44.85 ε f = 0.06

L

α fA = 11×10−6 / °C AF = 55.85

The material properties if the SMA fibers are given in Table 3.3, and the variation of martensite
fraction ξ with temperature under stress free condition is shown Fig.3.4. The material for the

matrix of the SMA lamina is glass/epoxy with properties Em = 39.3GPa and α m = 6.6 × 10 −6 / °C ;

and the substrate material is graphite/epoxy with properties Es = 146GPa and α s = −1.1× 10 −6 / °C .

The geometry parameters of the laminated beam are defined by h = 0.5mm, H =b=5mm, L=150mm.
the maximum deflection of the beam can be approximately obtained asν max ≈ κ L2 / 8 , where κ is

the curvature.

39 
  

Fig. 3.4 Relation of ξ with temperature for SMA fiber.

Fig. 3.4 shows the variation of the deflection of the beam with temperature. The initial martensite
fraction is assumed to be ξ M = 1 . It is seen that the deflection increases with the temperature rising

and the SMA fibers are kept in pure martensite phase before the austenite-starting temperature.
When the temperature is higher than the austenite-starting temperature, the SMA fibers are
contracted under austenite phase transformation. This cause the laminated beam to change the
bending direction, and the deflection is thus reduced in the period of the austenite phase
transformation a seen in the figure [12]. When the temperature is higher than the austenite-finishing
temperature, the bending of the beam is again dominated by the thermal expansion and the
deflection increase again. In the cooling stage, the deflection is reduced as the temperature
decreases. When the temperature is less than the martensite- starting temperature, the martensite
transformation of the SMA fibers causes the increase of the beam deflection until the
martensite-finishing temperature. The deflection of the beam with respect to temperature in the
heating and cooling process form a loop due to the phase transformation of the SMA fibers. It is
seen that the deflection of the beam can be effectively actuated by the thermal induced phase
transformation properties of the SMA layer.

Fig 3.5 Variation of deflection with temperature of the laminated SMA beam with ν f = 0.2
  

In addition, it is also noted from Fig 3.5 that the starting and finishing temperatures for both the
austenite and the martensite transformation for the laminated beam are larger than the values of the
corresponding temperature for the SMA fibers under stress free conditions. The reason for this is
that the volume fraction of the SMA fibers is much smaller than the volume fractions of the matrix
and the substrate [34]. The deformation of the laminated beam is thus dominated by the thermal
properties of the matrix and the substrate materials until the temperature intervals in which the
combined effects of both the temperature and the stress cause the phase transformation of SMA
fibers. Therefore, it demonstrates that the starting and finishing phase transition temperatures of the
SMA fibers are strongly dependent on the stress, as Fig 3.6.

Fig 3.6 variation of deflection with temperature of the laminated SMA beam with ν f = 0.4

Fig 3.7 variation of deflection with temperature of the laminated SMA beam with ν f = 0.6

The influence of the volume fraction of the SMA fibers, ν f on the deflection of the beam compared

in Figs 3.5-3.7. It is seen that when ν f increase, the starting and finishing temperature for both the

austenite and martensite transformations are shifted to left, and the values of deflections induced in

41 
  

the corresponding phase transformation periods are also increased. It means that as the increase of

the volume fraction ν f , the influences of the material properties of the SMA fibers on the overall

mechanical properties of the laminated beam are also increased.

3.3 Concluding remarks

This chapter includes a theoretical model for the bending of a laminated beam bonded with shape
memory alloy fiber reinforced layer. In the model, a set of general constitutive relations for the
SMA fibers is used, by reviewing the various constitutive equations for SMA from the literature.
The laminated beam with SMA layer under bending is then studied, and the corresponding
governing equations between bending moment, curvature and temperature are derived. Comparing
with some models reviewed in the introduction for SMA beams, some improvements are made in
the present model: (ⅰ) a set of relatively general constitutive relations of SMA fiber reinforced
lamina are obtained separately before it is bonded to the substrate of the laminated beam. This
treatment is reasonably compared to the one- layer SMA beam models. Therefore, the present work
is a modification and extension of the similar work in literature. The relationship obtained in this
chapter provides a theoretical prediction of thermomechanical properties for beam-like SMA
actuators.
Since the main purpose of the present work is to suggest a theoretical model to predict the overall
thermomechanical properties of thin beam-like SMA structures as actuation mechanism, the
strength related properties of the structure, such as interface stress between the SMA layer and the
substrate, are not involved.

Chapter 4

Simulation and Experiment of Laminated beam of SMA fiber embedded layer

4.1 Simulation
For the simulation analysis, two samples were made, which were analyzed for the deflection angle
by increasing temperature.
The dimensions samples are shown in table 4.1
Table 4.1
Sample Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Interspacing(mm)
1 200 150 2 5/10/15
2 200 150 2 5/10/15
Note:
Sample 1: SMA was embedded in eccentric position of the laminated plates.
Sample 2: SMA was embedded in eccentric position of the laminated plates. (Lattice structure)
For eccentric position of laminated plates, SMA was embedded in between layer two and layer
three, for which there are total four layers of the laminated plates as Figure 4.1.
  

Figure 4.1 structure of eccentric model

4.1.1 Setting up solid model

For the set-up of model, “GLUE” function was used to combine the two unit, SMA and composite
epoxy. According to the different of interspacing (5mm, 10mm, 15mm), three different models

were set up according to different of number of SMA wires which are 29, 13 and 9 respectively.

Figure 4.2 Sample 1 Figure 4.3 Sample 2

4.1.2 Setting up Finite element model

1) The Element attribute

Element type: We used solid46 and solid45 element, which is a kind of three dimensions
8 node structure. Each node has three degree of freedom to support the inter plane load and
normal load.

Constant: According to the solid model the diameter of SMA is 0.5mm, the laminated
plate’s length is 200mm and width is 150 with 2mm thickness.

43 
  

2) Finite element model is shown as under

Figure 4.4 Sample 1 Figure 4.5Sample 2

4.1.3 Simulation analysis

Point A was set to be the end of model and displacement constraint was applied at another end of a
model at (point B),which is subjected to 8 temperature loads which are 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70
and 75C respectively. The results of defection are shown as under:

a) Deflection of SMA laminated plates in eccentric position

Temperature 40℃ Temperature 45℃ 

  

 
Temperature 50℃  Temperature 55℃
 

 
Temperature 60℃      Temperature 65℃ 
 

 
Temperature 70℃  Temperature 75℃ 

Figure 4.6 Deflection of SMA laminated plate in different temperature

Using same procedure, finite element analysis of SMA laminated plate with (interspacing 5mm,
15mm); we can get the displacement Z as shown below:

Table 4.2 value of Z in different temperature

temperature 40  45  50  55  60  65  70  75 

45 
  

（℃） 
Z 
0  0.047  0.094  0.094  0.238  5.473  22.443  22.789 
  5（mm） 
Z 
0  0.023  0.046  0.046  0.116  2.656  10.751    10.916 
  10（mm） 
Z 
0  0.018  0.035  0.035  0.101  1.579  7.989  8.566 
  15（mm） 

b) Deflection of SMA laminated plates in eccentric position (Lattice structure)

Temperature 40℃  Temperature 45℃ 

 
 
 
 

 
Temperature 50℃  Temperature 55℃ 
 
  

 
Temperature 60℃  Temperature 65℃ 
 

 
Temperature 75℃ 
Temperature 70℃ 

Figure 4.7 Deflection of SMA laminated plate in different temperature (lattice structure)

With same procedure, finite element analysis of SMA laminated plate (interspacing 5mm, 15mm);
we can get the displacement Z as shown below:

Table 4.3 value of Z in different temperature (Lattice structure)

Temperature
40 45 50 55  60 65  70 75
（℃）
Z
0 0.280 0.756 0.756 1.900 10.776 28.134 30.456
5（mm）
Z
0 0.218 0.686 0.686 1.785 8.836 17.286 19.002
10（mm）
47 
  

Z
0 0.156 0.519 0.519 1.031 6.756 11.892 12.282
15（mm）

4.1.4 Simulation result

66 66
60 60
54 54
deflection Z

deflection Z
48 48
42 15mm 42 15mm
36 10mm 36 10mm
30 30
5mm 5mm
24 24
18 18
12 12
6 6
0 0
40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
Temperature of deflection Temperature of deflection

Figure 4.8 deflection of SMA laminated plate Figure 4.9 deflection of SMA laminated plate
(Lattice structure)

According to the result of simulation, the process of deflection can be divided following parts:

Part 1: At temperature below 55ºC deflection of the SMA laminated plate is small because the
temperature of phase transformation is higher than martensite temperature so the SMA remains in
martensite state, a small deflection happens.

Part 2: temperature above 55ºC, phase transformation takes place in SMA, a high deflection occurs
making the laminated plate bend.

Part 3: When temperature reaches at 70ºC, phase transformation ends, the deflection of laminated
plate also ends and remain at the max deflection value.

4.2 Experimental Section

4.2.1 Preparation
For the experimental investigations, two samples of SMA laminated plates were manufactured
  

according to the following specifications.

Table 4.4 the dimension of SMA sample

Sample Length(mm) Width(mm) Thickness(mm) Interspacing(mm)

1 200 150 2 15
2 200 150 2 15

Sample 1: SMA embedded in eccentric position of laminated plates. (A)

Sample 2: SMA embedded in eccentric position of laminated plates. (Lattice structure) (B)

(A) (B)

Figure 4.10 experimental sample

4.2.2 Materials and device

Ni-Ti shape memory alloy(wires); soak solution, wax release agent, resin matrix composite and
volume fraction is 50%, elastic modulus E x =30GPa, E y =10GPa, G xy =5GPa， V xy =0.22。Device

used for manufacturing SMA laminated plate is shown in Fig 4.11.

49 
  

Figure 4.11 Device of manufacture SMA laminated plate

4.2.3 Sample manufacturing process

The process flow for manufacturing is shown as Fig 4.12, That includes SMA preparation,
assembly device preparation and materials preparation followed by sample solidification and then
applying vacuum to remove any trapped air bubbles in the sample.

SMA preparation Assembly device Materials

preparation preparation

Sample solidification 

vacuum 

Figure 4.12 Process of manufacture sample

1) SMA preparation

Annealing treatment: Before the sample assembly, SMA fiber was put into electric
furnace for annealing to reduce the strain, at a 400ºC for 30 minutes, cooling time inside
furnace is 12 hours.

SMA stabilization: SMA fiber was first put into hot bath and then into the cold bath for
about 2 minute each, and the cycle was repeated for 50 times to reduce the residual phase.
  

2) Assembly device preparation

Aluminum device was used for the final assembly as shown in figure 4.6. Wires were
carefully adjusted into the device and special care was taken to maintain the dimensions.

3) Materials for sample preparation

i. Resin matrix composite: Considering the high intensity and stiffness required for the
morphing wing. we selected QY8911 series material, due to its good thermal
resistance, solubility, manufacturability, machinability and low cost.
ii. Wax release agent: Wax release agent was used to protect the mold and the sample
during the manufacturing process.

iii Soak solution: fabric soak solution was used for the experiment because of its good

overlaying and cover-ability.

Sample solidification

For the experiment, first we cut the fabric soak solution and then coat with QY8911 to cover it fully.
After 30 minutes, we put it on our mold and seal it. During the process of manufacturing the layer
order is arranged as 45°/0°/-45°/90°, total four layers, SMA fiber is embedded between layer 0° and
layer 45°.

Table 4.5 solidification temperature and time

temperature（℃）  120  190  210  220 

time（hours）  0.5  2.0  3.0  4.0 

4) Vacuum

Vacuum is applied for the better adhesion of SMA fiber with resin matrix composite and to
remove any air bubbles trapped during manufacturing.

Figure 4.13 fine sample of experiment

51 
  

4.2.4 Deflection experiment

Deflection theory: We applied DC current to SMA fibers to get the deflection. Because of the
electric resistance of SMA fibers its temperature increased. The increase of temperature induced the
phase transformation to occur inside SMA fiber. Due to the resin lamination to the SMA fibers, the
laminated plate bended to a certain angle. A laser sensor was used to record the deflection of the
laminated plate as shown below:

Figure 4.14 Experiment process

The deflection experiment is illustrated by the images shown as under, The SMA fibers were
connected parallel to the DC current
  

Figure 4.15 Deflection experiment

Sample 1: SMA fiber embedded in laminate plate

Figure 4.16 Before experiment of sample 1

Figure 4.17 experiment begin Figure 4.18 experiment finish

Result of experiment sample 1: Sample failure due to the week interface between the SMA fiber
and resin matrix composite. The laminated plate failed to bend as some of the SMA fiber protruded

53 
  

from the sample plate. It happened because of the high stiffness of resin matrix. Sample did not
bend and destroyed the internal structure of SMA and laminated plate.

Sample 2: SMA fiber embedded in laminate plate (Lattice structure)

 
（1）experiment begin  （2）deflection start 
 

 
(3)  (4) 
 

 
(5)  (6)deflection end 

Table 4.6 The result of experiment sample 2

Temperature ºC Deflection(mm)
  

40 0
45 1.001
50 3.787
55 7.880
60 14.668
65 40.556
70 60.009
75 62.556

4.2.5 Analysis of deflection experiment

130
120
110
100
deflection Z

90 E
80
70 15mm
60 10mm
50
40 5mm
30
20
10
0
40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
Temperature of deflection

Table 4.19 simulation result and experiment result of sample 2

Results and Discussion

By comparing the simulation and experimental results of composite sample the process of
deflection can be divided into the following parts:
Part 1: At temperature below 55ºC deflection of the SMA laminated plate was little because of the
temperature of phase transformation was higher than martensite temperature so the SMA remained
in martensite state and only a little deflection happened.
Part 2: At temperature above 55ºC, phase transformation took place in SMA and a significant
deflection occurred making the laminated plate to bend.
Part 3: When temperature reaches 70ºC, phase transformation started to end, the deflection of
laminated plate also ended and remained at the maximum deflection value that is why the deflection
between temperatures 70ºC and 75ºC was only 5 mm which is very small and indicates that the
deflection process has come to an end.

The bending behavior of the actual sample followed the same temperature stages in deflection
process, but after 60 ºC the bending trend had a sharp rise that is because of the characteristics of
Ni-Ti alloy used in the sample which is a very positive characteristic for the use of this alloy in
various (SMA-Composite) actuator applications.
55 
  

4.3 Stress-Strain Experiment

4.3.1 SMA fiber

Experimental Samples:

SMA fiber laminated plate (0.05mm), SMA fiber laminated plate (1.00mm).

Device: Stress-strain test machine

Figure 4.20 stress-strain test machines

4.3.2 SMA fiber laminated plate (0.05mm)

Figure 4.21 Sample of 0.05mm SMA laminated plate

  

Figure 4.22 SMA 0.05mm

When the strain reaches above 85N, SMA fiber undergoes plastic deformation. After 85N, sudden
decline in the value of the strain i.e. 45N, means that the force is strong enough to destroy the inner
structure between the SMA fiber and resin matrix laminated plate. After it, the strain increases
again to 70N and stabilizes at this value which is higher than the frictional force between the inner
layer, because of this force SMA fiber got protruded from the laminated layer.

4.3.3 SMA fiber laminated plate (1.00mm).

Figure 4.23 Sample of 1.00mm SMA laminated plate

57 
  

Figure 4.24 SMA 1.00mm

When the strain reaches above 130N, SMA fiber undergoes plastic deformation. After 130N,
sudden decline in the value of the strain i.e. 60N means that the force is stronger enough to destroy
the inner structure between the SMA fiber and resin matrix laminated plate. After it, the strain
increase again to 90N and stabilizes at 100N which is higher than the friction force between the
inner layer, SMA fibers protruded from the laminated layer with a constant force 100 N causing the
structural failure.

4.4 Conclusion

Based on the experimental results the design of SMA fibre embedded laminated plate is practicable.
Although the results of the simulation and experiment are different but it undergoes same three
stages in the deflection process. By the above experiment we can deduce that:
The deflection value is proportional to the number of SMA fibres, by increasing the number of the
SMA fibres, deflection value also increases. The structure of laminated plate, (lattice structure) is
preferred. Due to lattice structure the laminated bending stress can be released before it destroys the
structure of laminated plate. The comparison obtained in this paper can be used for practical
application for thermo mechanical behaviour of smart SMA composite actuators especially for the
application of morphing wings.
  

Chapter 5

The future of SMA

5.1 Advantages and challenges of SMA design

As reviewed above, SMAs are capable of providing unique and useful behaviors. The SME,
especially when utilized under applied stress, provides actuation. The pseudoelastic effect provides
two very useful advantages to the aerospace designer: a non-linearity which allows vibration
isolation and large recoverable deformations as well as an accompanying hysteresis which can
dissipate energy and therefore dampen
vibration. Because of these, SMA can provide a highly innovative method of addressing a given
design problem and are often the only viable option. When considering actuation, a single SMA
component represents a significantly more simplified solution than a standard electromechanical or
hydraulic actuator. Compared
to other classes of active materials, SMAs are able to provide substantial actuation stress over large
strains. The subsequent high energy density leads to compact designs. Finally, SMAs are capable of
actuating in a fully three-dimensional manner, allowing the fabrication of actuation components
which extend, bend, twist, or provide a combination of these and other deformations. Each of the
actuation application examples listed above exploit one or more of these positive attributes of SMA
behavior. Some require simplicity and resulting reliability (Mars Pathfinder [54],
LFSA [58]). Others require compact actuation (active skin [38], micro space actuation [55]), and
still others impose geometric challenges (active chevrons [27], rotor blade actuation [50]). Because
of their unique properties, SMAs are able to provide solutions to each of these sets of problems.

The SMA design process is not without some challenges, however, and several material attributes
must be carefully considered. One common design challenge is the difficulty in rapidly transferring
heat into and especially out of an SMA component. This is a result of the fact that, as a metallic
material, SMAs have a relatively high heat capacity and density. When considering repeated
actuation of SMA elements, for example, this heat transfer difficulty leads to a limited frequency of
system response.
Although the material mechanisms involved in the diffusion less phase transformation can occur
almost instantaneously, the time-dependent process of sufficiently changing temperature to drive
that transformation can limit actuation speed. Moreover, while
the supply of thermal energy can be quickly accomplished (e.g. by direct Joule heating via the
application of electricity), the speed of energy removal is limited by the mechanisms of heat
conduction and convection. Several methods have been employed in the hopes of expediting heat
transfer, including forced convection via flowing cooled water and forced conduction through the
use of thermoelectric cooling modules. A second challenge is the low actuation efficiency.
Efficiencies can reach levels in the range of 10–15 per cent though in some studies they have fallen
short of the idealistic Carnot predictions of ‫׽‬10 per cent . This is often not important for
commercial and military aircraft applications because engine power and waste heat are often in
excess. However, this property can present a significant challenge to those proposing SMA use on
spacecraft, where power is more limited.
59 
  

Finally, there are challenges stemming from the response of an SMA material when subjected to
multiple transformation cycles. If a low number of cycles are required, the issue is material stability.
For consistent multi-cyclic actuation, SMA elements which have developed a sufficiently stable
thermomechanical response via repeated training cycles should be used, as discussed in section
1.2.3. SMA components which are not completely trained yet are repeatedly transformed will lead
to system responses which evolve with every cycle. However, if a device is intended for one-time
operation, such as a micro actuator for satellite use, then training is not necessary. Designers must
also consider the possible degradation of material response due to the generation of TRIP,
especially when considering many actuation cycles. The topic of SMA fatigue has been discussed in
references [4], [56], and [63]. For the first 10–100 cycles, the material will stabilize, as previously
discussed. As with all other metals, however, repeated deformation of sufficient magnitude will
eventually lead to failure. Experimental studies on NiTi or NiTiCu SMA wires undergoing up to 2
per cent transformation strain have shown that such SMA components can survive for ‫׽‬10 000
cycles [4]. This implies a limitation on the number of cycles an SMA application can provide.

As a summary of the various advantageous and challenging traits exhibited by SMAs, Table 1 has
been provided. Note that while some behaviors are clearly positive or negative, others will depend
upon the details of a given utilization. These have also been summarized. Although some of the
challenges described above can be met by creative engineering solutions, others will only be
mitigated by future improvement of the material itself.

5.2 The future of SMA

The ‘smart materials’ market worldwide is growing at a strong pace, and will continue to grow into
the foreseeable future [22]. In 2005, these materials represented a global market of $8.1 billion,
with products that use these materials valued at $27.7 billion. By 2010, it is projected that these
numbers will rise to $12.3 and $52.2 billion, respectively [22]. SMAs represent 15 per cent of the
smart materials market and will also continue to grow in production and utilization. They are widely
used in the biomedical industry where the number of vascular stents made from NiTi has grown
dramatically, for example.

Table 5.1 Summary of various SMA properties and their effects

SMA traits Consequences
Shape memory effect Material can be used as an actuator,
providing force during shape recovery.
Pseudoelasticity Material can be stressed to provide large,
recoverable deformations at relatively
constant stress levels.
Hysteresis Allows for dissipation of energy during
pseudoelastic response
High actuation stress (400-700Mpa) Small component cross-sections can
provide substantial forces
High actuation strain (8%) Small component lengths can provide
large displacements
  

High energy density(~1200 J/kg) Small amount of material required to

Three dimensional actuation
Actuation frequency
Energy efficiency (10-15%)
Transformation induced plasticity
provide substantial actuation work
Polycrystalline SMA components
fabricated in a variety of useful geometric
configurations
Difficulty of quickly cooling components
limits use in high frequency applications
Amount of thermal energy required for
actuation is much larger than mechanical
work output
Plastic accumulation during cyclic
response eventually degrades material
and leads to failure

Although the market for conventional SMAs continues to grow, new alloys are also being
developed. As described above, conventional SMAs are capable of providing motion and force as a
result of manipulating a single field, namely temperature, over a
reasonable range. However, new alloy systems are being designed which increase the utility of
SMAs, and research on these classes of materials is currently very active. One class can be used to
provide actuation as a result of applied magnetic fields, and
these materials are known as magnetic shape memory alloys (MSMAs) [52]. Because they convert
the energy of magnetic fields into actuation, MSMAs are not hindered by the relatively slow
mechanisms of heat transfer. Therefore, high frequency actuation is possible. Although several such
alloys have been discovered (NiMnGa, FePd,NiMnAl) and actuators based on these alloys are
already commercially available, fundamental research will continue as the mechanics community
seeks to understand the constitutive behavior of these novel alloys [34]. Another new alloy type can
actuate at high temperatures, and this class is therefore known as high temperature shape memory
alloys (HTSMAs) [51]. HTSMAs, include NiTiPd, NiTiPt, and TiPd, and are being widely studied.
These alloys can actuate at temperatures ranging
from 100 to 800 ◦C, and potential applications include oil drilling support [62] and actuation of
internal jet engine component. Basic research on these materials will include experimental
observation and theoretical modeling of any viscous behavior exhibited due to sometimes lengthy
exposure times at elevated temperatures.

Considering the variety of research and development currently being performed in the area of
SMAs, it is clear that new applications will continue to be developed and that this field will
continue to grow. The needs of various defense agencies will continue to present greater challenges
to engineers and designers. The complexity of space operations is ever increasing and more is
demanded of aircraft, both commercial and military, thus more innovative technological solutions
will be required. The fields of SMA research and application are providing the tools to meet these
challenges. The ability to custom order SMA material with particular properties manufactured to
prescribed specifications has improved. The design and analysis environments are becoming more
powerful by becoming more comprehensive. At the same time, systems integration capabilities have
grown. These developments will result in an increased prevalence of integrated multi-functional
SMA systems for aerospace applications. Such systems will be highly beneficial to the design of
61 
  

new UAVs and micro- and nano-satellites. Other industries will also benefit from the advances
made in the SMA field. The automotive and oil exploration sectors, each of which has already
shown increasing interest, will continue to employ the properties of SMAs in solving design
problems where constraints are imposed by extreme environments and operating conditions. It is
widely expected that medical applications will further increase in number. This overall growth in
the utilization of SMAs and other active materials will provide designers with more options, and
those in the aerospace industry should continue to take advantage of the unique engineering
solutions provided by SMA.
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Signal Process., Vol.29, p. 7-15
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Mach., Vol.25, p. 493-524
47. Larsen U.D. et al., 1997, “Design and fabrication of compliant micromechanisms an structures with negative
Poisson’s ratio”, J. Microelectromech. Syst., Vol.6, p. 99-106
48. Pedersen C.B.W. et al., 2001, “Topology synthesis of large-displacement compliant mechanisms”, Int. J.
Numer. Methods Eng., Vol.50, p. 2683-2705
49. Saggere L. And Kota S., 1999, “Static shape control of smart structures using compliant mechanisms”, AIAA
J., Vol.37, p. 572-578
50. Lu K.J. and Kota S., 2003, “Design of compliant mechanisms for morphing structural shapes”, J. of
Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, Vol.14, p. 379-391
51. Sauter M., 2008, “A Graph-Based Optimization Method for the Design of Compliant Mechanisms and
Structures” (Zurich: Swiss Federal Institute of Technology)
52. Goldberg D., 1989, “Genetic Algorithms in search, optimization and machine learning”, Addison-Wesley
53. Katz, J., Plotkin, A., 1991, “Low-Speed Aerodynamics: From Wing Theory to Panel Methods”, McGraw-Hill,
New York
54. Richter F., Kastner O., Eggeler G., 2009, “Implementation of the Müller-Achenbach-Seelecke Model for
Shape Memory Alloys in ABAQUS”, J. of Materials Engineering and Performance (JMEP), Vol.18, No.5-6,
p. 626-630
55. Collet M., 2008, “Modeling Implementation of Smart Materials such as Shape Memory Alloys and
Electro-Active Metamaterials”, Proceedings of the COMSOL Conference 2008, Hannover, Germany
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actuator using ANSYS”, Computational Materials Science, Vol.36, No.4, p. 397-410
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Behaviour”, Res. Mechanica, Vol.18, No.3, p. 251-263
58. Smith S.T., 2000, “On the design of compliant mechanisms using topology optimization”, Mech. Struct.
Mach., Vol.25, pp. 493-524
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Challenge to Engineering Design, Vol.2, ed. Liebe R. (Southampton: WIT Press), p.400-419
61. Thill C., Etches J., Bond I., Potter K., Weaver P., 2008, “Morphing Skins”, The Aeronautical Journal, Vol.112,
No.1129
  

在硕士期间发表的学术论文

[1] Syed Ahmed Ali Tirmizi, Xing Shen. Finite Element Analysis, Simulation and Experimental Investigation for
Epoxy Laminated Lattice Structure Embedded with SMA Wires. 2011机械工程与材料能源国际会议.
2011.10，大连，中国.

67 
  

Appendix

Appendix A
For M➝A, we have from (6) that
∂ξ 1
= ξ M bA sin ⎡⎣ a A (T − AS ) − bAσ f ⎤⎦ ,
∂σ f 2
(A1.1)
∂ξ 1
= − ξ M a A sin ⎡⎣ a A (T − AS ) − bAσ f ⎤⎦
∂T 2
And (5) can be written as
1
{ }
D f (ξ ) = D fA + ξ M cos ⎡⎣ a A (T − AS ) − bAσ f ⎤⎦ + 1 ( D Mf − D fA ),
2 (A1.2)
1
{ }
α f (ξ ) = α fA + ξ M cos ⎡⎣ a A (T − AS ) − bAσ f ⎤⎦ + 1 (α Mf − α fA ),
2

By substituting (A1.1) and (A1.2) into (22) and (23), the explicit expressions of Ql and ql for M➝

A are given by

(1 − V f ) Em + V
Ql = ,
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
⎜ + ε ξ b sin ⎡ a (T − A ) − b σ ⎤ ⎟
⎝ { ⎣ ⎦ }
⎜ D fA + 1 2 ξ M cos ⎡ a A (T − AS ) − bAσ f ⎤ + 1 ( D Mf − D fA ) 2 L
f M A ⎣ A S A f ⎦
⎟
⎠
(A1.3)
⎛
⎝
1
{ } ⎞
ql = −(1 − V f ) Emα m − ⎜ α fA + ξ M cos ⎡⎣ a A (T − AS ) − bAσ f ⎤⎦ + 1 (α Mf − α fA ) − ε f L a A sin ⎡⎣ a A (T − AS ) − bAσ f ⎤⎦ ⎟
2 ⎠
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
×V f ⎜ + ε f ξ M bA sin ⎣ a A (T − AS ) − bAσ f ⎦ ⎟
⎡ ⎤
⎝ { ⎣ ⎦ }
⎜ D fA + 1 2 ξ M cos ⎡ a A (T − AS ) − bAσ f ⎤ + 1 ( D Mf − D fA ) 2 L ⎟
⎠

(A1.4)

In which σ f are given in Appendix B.

For A➝M, we have from (7) that

∂ξ 1
= (1 − ξ A )bM sin ⎡⎣ aM (T − M F ) − bM σ f ⎤⎦ ,
∂σ f 2
(A1.5)
∂ξ 1
= − (1 − ξ A )aM sin ⎡⎣ aM (T − M F ) − bM σ f ⎤⎦ ,
∂T 2
And (5) can be written as
  

D f (ξ ) = D fA +
1
2
{
(1 − ξ A ) cos ⎡⎣ aM (T − M F ) − bM σ f ⎤⎦ + (1 + ξ A ) ( D Mf − D fA ), }
1
{
α f (ξ ) = α fA + (1 − ξ A ) cos ⎣⎡ aM (T − M F ) − bM σ f ⎤⎦ + (1 + ξ A ) (α Mf − α fA ),
2
} (A1.6)

By substituting (A1.5) and (A1.6) into (22) and (23), the explicit expressions of Ql and ql for A➝

M are given by
(1 − V f ) Em + V f
Ql = ,
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
⎜ + ε f L (1 − ξ A )bM sin ⎡⎣ aM (T − M F ) − bM σ f ⎤⎦ ⎟
⎝ f { ⎣ ⎦ }
⎜ D + 1 2 (1 − ξ A ) cos ⎡ aM (T − M F ) − bM σ f ⎤ + (1 + ξ A ) ( D f − D f ) 2
A M A
⎟
⎠
(A1.7)
⎛
⎝
1
{ } 1 ⎞
ql = −(1 − V f ) Emα m − ⎜ α fA + (1 − ξ A ) cos ⎡⎣ aM (T − M F ) − bM σ f ⎤⎦ + (1 + ξ A ) (α Mf − α fA ) − ε f L (1 − ξ A )aM sin ⎡⎣ aM (T − M F ) − bM σ f ⎤⎦ ⎟
2 2 ⎠ 
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
×V f ⎜ A + ε f (1 − ξ A )bM sin ⎡⎣ aM (T − M F ) − bM σ f ⎤⎦ ⎟
⎝ { ⎣ ⎦ }
⎜ D f + 1 2 (1 − ξ A ) cos ⎡ aM (T − M F ) − bM σ f ⎤ + (1 + ξ A ) ( D Mf − D fA ) 2 L ⎟
⎠

(A1.8)
In which σ f are given in Appendix B

Appendix B
From (14), we have
1 1−Vf
σf = σf − σm (A2.1)
Vf Vf
And from (16), we have
σ m = Emε m − Emα m ΔT (A2.2)

In which ε m can be obtained from (9) and (30)

⎛h ⎞
εm = ε f = εl = ⎜ + e ⎟κ (A2.3)
⎝2 ⎠

Therefore, σ f can be determined from (A2.1), (A2.2), (A2.3), and (29)

For the bending moment M =0, the variable e in (37) is reduced to

ΔT
e = c3 + α S (A2.4)
κ
⎡ 1 HES ⎛ H ⎞ 1−Vf ⎛h ⎞⎤ 1−Vf
σf =⎢ ⎜ − c3 ⎟ − E m ⎜ + c3 ⎟ ⎥ κ − Em (α S − α m )ΔT (A2.5)
⎣⎢ V f h ⎝ 2 ⎠ Vf ⎝2 ⎠ ⎦⎥ Vf

69 
  

中文简述 

第一章 引言
传统的固定机翼飞机只针对特定飞行用途而设计，但其性能却不尽如人意。例如变翼飞机的高空滞空
性能较好，却无法在低空高速飞行，这一问题促进了可变形机翼的出现及发展。可变形机翼是一种可变化
机翼的变形飞机，这种机翼有利于提高飞机的灵活性和使用效率。本论文主要研究智能复合材料用于可变
形机翼的可行性。
可变形的飞机是多用途飞机，大幅改变其外部形状在飞行过程中，以适应不断变化的任务环境。这需
要创建卓越的系统功能，进行机翼的形状变化满足相应的飞行任务。这样可大大改变形状和性能，提高空
气动力学效率。

图 1.1 下一代变形翼掠及延长 
变形机翼采用智能材料结构的发展可以带来以下优点： 
•提高飞行包线。 
•减少系统的复杂性，消除了传统的控制面 
•提高可靠性 
•质量围绕提高了飞机的空气流，从而减阻 
•节电 
•减少飞机的重量和增加有效载荷 
•隐身特性的改进 
•降低生产成本 
1.1  变形翼的蒙皮不能是一个完全的刚性材料。不仅具有灵活的弹性，还应很容易变形，同时还具有
较好的强度满足飞机的空气动力载荷。另外该材料还必须具有金属的耐磨性，保证材料在不断变化的环境
中不被损坏。基于这个标准，分别对以下材料进行相应的分析研究。 
（1）聚氨酯，它是一种人工合成的材料，这使得它与其他化学物质相结合，有不同的属性。不仅有
橡胶的弹性，还具有金属的韧性和耐用性。此外它还能承受抗压，抗油，抗氧化等特性。 
  

图 1.2 显示了硬度范围。通常情况下，聚氨酯有硬度范围邵氏 A30‐100 和邵氏 D20‐75 之间。 

图 1.2  硬度范围 
（2）共聚酯，它也具有类似聚氨酯的相关特性，同时它具有较好的机械特性，耐磨，耐热，耐化学
腐蚀。 
（3）形状记忆材料，该材料在转变温度以上其属性会有重大变化。该转变温度称为玻璃化转变温度。
在玻璃化转变温度以下时该材料具有较好的刚性；而处于玻璃化转变温度的过度状态时，不仅有固体的刚
性，还有橡胶的弹性；而且这两个状态可以相互转换，故具有一定的记忆效应；一旦远高于转变温度，其
具有流动状态，此时不具有良好的可回复状态。同时它还具有类似聚氨酯的特性，有较好的机械特性，耐
磨，耐热等特定，适合用于可变机翼的蒙皮。这类材料有形状记忆聚合物，形状记忆合金，液晶弹性体等。
并不是所有的聚合物也有形状记忆效应。图 1.3 显示了一个通用的弹性模量随温度的形状记忆聚合物的过
程。 

图 1.3    AMP 弹性模量与温度的关系 

（4）可伸缩的编织材料，如氨纶。这些材料有高弹性和较好的恢复能力，耐用性好，适合用于可变
机翼的蒙皮。 
智能材料结构是将驱动元件和传感元件紧密融合在结构中，同时将控制电路、逻辑电路、信号处理以
及功率放大等硬件电路也集成在结构中，通过外部机械、电、光、热、化学、磁等激励和调控，使智能材
71 
  

料结构不仅具有承受载荷的能力，还可以实现识别、分析、处理、控制等功能，并能进行数据传输、参数
检测，能够自我动作，通过改变自身结构，来实现对外部激励变化的适应。 

 
图 1.4  智能材料的广义概念 
目前常用的驱动材料包括：磁致伸缩材料，压电材料，形状记忆合金，磁流变等等，其中形状记忆合
金由于驱动变形大等优点已经在智能结构中得到了一定的应用性研究，并显示了良好的应用前景。将形状
记忆合金以各种不同形式埋入结构件，如采用形状记忆合金丝、栅、板，他们将会起到不同的控制作用。
 
1.2 智能复合材料的分类
　“自适应材料”，如形状记忆合金（SMA）和聚合物（SMP）。由于一个特定的外部刺激的结果，这些材
料是在其分子或微观结构的转型，从而导致力学性能的变化。
“活性物质”像电活性聚合物，压电陶瓷和磁致伸缩（磁致伸缩三维）。他们充当某些形式的能量（通常
电，磁，热）转换为机械能的换能器。 
要达到改变飞行控制机翼的形状，变形系统应具有： 
相对快速的动态 
重复致动的能力 
对不确定性和扰动的鲁棒性 
低功耗 
不灵敏环境变化 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Material Max Max Elastic Max Relative
  

Strain Stress Energy Efficiency. speed

(%) (MPa) Density
(J/g)
Dielectric
Polymer Acrylic
Silicone 215 16.2 3.4 60-80 Medium
63 3 0.75 90 Fast
Electrostrictor
Polymer 4 15 0.17 - Fast
P(VDF-TrFE)
Piezoelectric
Ceramics (PZT) 0.2 110 0.013 >90 Fast
Single Crystal
(PZN-PT) 1.7 131 0.13 >90 Fast
Polymer (PVDF)
0.1 4.8 0.013 n/a Fast

SMA (TiNi) >5 >200 >15 <10 Slow

SMP 100 4 2 <10 Slow
Terfenol-D Fast
Conducting
polymer 10 450 23 <1 Slow
(Polyaniline)
形状记忆合金和 SMPS 的特点是形变较大，自锁力较大，但响应慢，效率有限。压电陶瓷和单晶的压
电陶瓷，行变量较低，但他们是电激活，能够产生很高的自锁力和更智能有效。电活性聚合物具有良好的
性能，但自锁力低。 
在本文中，主要研究智能复合材料 SMA（TINI）的属性，如应变，应力和弯曲等特性行为。 
 
1.3 变形机翼概念 
经过多年的分析研究得出适合飞行控制的标准： 
一些变形（标准）的翼； 
扭转整个机翼； 
使用多稳定的复合结构； 
利用变刚度材料或者气动弹性效应，灵活改变机翼的性能。 
本文分别从四个方案进行相应的分析研究， 
方案 1，一个兼容的尾部使用一个轻量级的压电复合驱动器（LIPCA）保税上部皮肤边缘变形。改变翼
型机翼的弯度，以减少阻力，没有造成气流分离。 
方案 2，利用定向连接压电驱动器内嵌入高比例的翅膀外皮（DAP）来使用的。 后来加入弯曲元纳入
翼，以实现更大的偏差，此设计此方案适用于旋翼飞机，固定翼飞机和导弹的飞行控制。 
方案 3，利用的变化从一个稳定的位置到另一个非对称复合材料层压板的形状，但模式切换过程中使
73 
  

用的材料的应变能的可能性。 
方案 4，利用流体能量（空气动力），而不是直接使用的智能执行器，以改变机翼的形状。 
方案 2 和 4 的变形机翼的滚转控制的具体问题，有比较好的实际应用效果。为了实现大变形，具有功
耗小，将利用流体和机翼结构之间的相互作用。将采用智能材料，要么扭转整个机翼或调整其刚度。 
 
1.4 形状记忆合金发现以来，众多科研工作者希望能够利用该合金的晶体转变将热能转化为力，达到
驱动的目的，经过几十年的努力，目前已在多个领域实现了成功应用，特别在航天航空、机械、医学等领
域最为常见。
随着技术的进步，研究人员发现，将 SMA 嵌入或混杂到基体中形成的复合材料，呈现出的优势是许多
其它材料所不能比拟的。随着复合材料在各种领域中的应用范围逐步扩大，人们对复合材料的性能要求也
是在不断提高，这也给 SMA 增强复合材料的广泛使用提供了良好的契机和诱人的应用前景。 
基于以上背景，本文将形状记忆合金和复合材料集成在一起，研究形状记忆合金对复合材料的基础驱
动性能，在此研究基础上所获得的相关参数和结果，可以用作以后设计飞行器变体机翼的参考，对于促进
航空技术的发展起到至关重要的作用。

 
第二章    基础理论 
形状记忆合金是一种兼具感知和驱动功能的智能材料，该合金经过较大变形以后，可以通过自发(超弹
性)或加热(形状记忆效应)恢复其原始形状，因而某种程度上具有自感知、自诊断和自适应的能力。其最显
著的特性是形状记忆效应，即该材料在高温下定形后，冷却到低温，施加变形并存在残余变形；若再加热
升温到某一特定的温度后，能恢复到变形前的形状。上述过程可以周而复始，仿佛合金记住了高温状态所
赋予的形状一样。 
形状记忆合金除了具有基本特性如形状记忆效应、超弹性、高阻尼特性外，还具有独特的电阻温度特
性、弹性模量随温度变化的特性等。下面对形状记忆合金的一些特性作简要介绍： 
2.1 形状记忆效应 
形状记忆性金属在发生塑性变形后，经过加热到某一温度以上，能够恢复到变形以前的形状。其基本
机理是降低温度可增加应力的情况下，母相奥氏体发生相变，形成低温马氏体或应力诱发马氏体；加热或
减少应力，低温马氏体或应力致马氏体逆相变返回到母相奥氏体状态，而恢复原来的形状。我们称这种现
象为形状记忆效应。 
  

 
图 2.1  形状记忆效应 
按照能否在低温时自动回复，可将形状记忆效应分为以下三种形式（如图 2.2）： 
(1) 单程形状记忆效应 
单程形状记忆效应即一般情况下的形状记忆效应。在低温马氏体状态下，使形状记忆合金产生较大的
塑性变形，加热发生逆相变时，合金便回到高温奥氏体状态的形状，当温度再降低到马氏体相时，其形状
不会再发生变化。本文复合材料驱动就是利用形状记忆合金的单程记忆效应，当形状记忆合金加热回复至
原始形状却受限时继而产生回复力，来驱动复合材料试验板偏转。 
(2) 双程形状记忆效应 
双程形状记忆效应不仅能记忆奥氏体状态时的合金形状，而且还能记住马氏体状态下的合金形状，即
当温度降低到马氏体相时，自发的产生变形，回复到马氏体状态时的形状。 
(3) 全程形状记忆效应 
对 Ni‐Ti 合金经过适当的处理后，还能出现全程形状记忆效应，即在高温和低温时记忆的形状恰好是
完全逆转形状。 

 
图 2. 1 形状记忆效应
2.2 电阻特性 
形状记忆合金的电阻是反映合金内部组织结构变化的物理量，常常被用来研究形状记忆合金的相变过
程。从图中可以看出，形状记忆合金的电阻率在完全奥氏体状态、完全马氏体状态、奥氏体和马氏体两相
共存状态下随温度的变化而基本上成线性变化。在温度升高过程中，当温度达到马氏体逆转变温度 As(奥
氏体相变开始温度)时，其电阻率会有一个突变；而在温度降低过程中，到达马氏体相变开始温度 Ms 时，
其电阻率也会有一个突变，这就是形状记忆合金的电阻突变性。在工程上利用这种特性可实现对形状记忆
合金进行实时监测和主动控制。 

75 
  

2.3  相变超弹性和伪弹性 
具有热弹性马氏体相变的形状记忆合金，在高于马氏体逆相变终了温度 Af 以上时，合金变形并发生应
力诱发马氏体相变，由于生成的马氏体相在以上温度 Af 不稳定，应力去除后即发生逆相变，在应力作用下
产生的宏观变形也随之消失，从而产生与传统材料相比大得多的可恢复变形，称之为超弹性，由于该性能
与相变密切相关，所以又称之为相变伪超弹性。 
2.4 高阻尼特性 
形状记忆合金的高阻尼特性是由于热弹性马氏体相变内耗现象所引起的。在热弹性马氏体相变过程
中，材料内的各种界面(孪晶面、相界面、变体界面)的滞弹性迁移需要吸收大量的能量，从而导致了形状
记忆合金在高温或低温下都具有优良的阻尼性能。 
 
2.5 形状记忆合金的触发方式和热处理方法 
2.5.1  触发方式 
形状记忆合金驱动器是通过加热和冷却形状记忆合金来达到驱动目的。Ni‐Ti 形状记忆合金的触发方式
主要分为外部加热和内部加热两大类，内部加热可以采用直接通电方式，利用材料的电阻加热；外部加热
可以采用热接触、热辐射及光、微波传递等方法。冷却方式主要分为自然冷却与强制冷却，自然冷却即在
空气中冷却，而强制冷却可采用水冷、风冷、液氮冷却或在 SMA 表面附上吸热材料等方法。 
2.5.2  热处理方法 
Ni‐Ti 合金获得单向形状记忆效应的热处理方法一般有三种：中温处理，低温处理和时效处理。 
中温处理是一种将轧制或拉丝加工后充分加工硬化的合金成形成给定形状，固定其成形形状，在
400‐500ºC 温度下保温几分钟到几小时，使之记住形状的方法。400ºC 下处理的材料在高温下的回复力大，
而 500ºC 下处理的材料在接近 Ms 点的低温下屈服应力非常低。因此，只需单纯增加作用力时，可在 400º
C 附近的温度下处理，而像偏动式或差动式元件那样需要加大低温和高温时的力差时，可在 500ºC 附近较
高的温度下处理。但要注意，在中温处理中，处理温度越高回复应变量越大，而处理温度越低循环寿命越
长。本文使用形状记忆合金只需要增加恢复力，所以文中使用的形状记忆合金选用 400ºC 中温处理进行形
状记忆预处理。 
低温处理是一种在高于 800ºC 的温度下保温后进行快冷使合金材料具有退火状态组织，然后成形成给
定形状，在 200‐300ºC 的低温下进行形状记忆处理的方法。但低温处理材料的形状记忆特性、特别是疲劳
寿命不如中温处理的材料。 
时效处理是一种在 800‐1000ºC 温度下固溶处理后进行淬火，然后在 400ºC 左右的温度下进行数小时
的时效处理的方法，采用这种处理方法可以获得和中温处理等同的良好的形状恢复特性，但工艺较复杂，
成本高。 
在使用形状记忆合金过程中，为了保持良好的形状记忆特性，有必要使变形应变量不超过一定值。适
宜的应变量取决于热处理、循环使用次数、载荷、元件的形状和尺寸等许多因素，不能一概而论。 
注意事项：避免过载和过热。 
 
第三章  本构关系模型 
  

第一本构方程是： 
⎧ ∂σ e ∂σ ∂σ
⎪σ = ∂ε e ε + ∂t t + ∂ξ ξ =
⎪⎪
⎨ D(ξ )ε + Θt + Ω(ξ )ξ
e

⎪ D(ξ ) = D + ξ ( D − D )
⎪ A M A

⎪⎩Ω(ξ ) = −ε L D (ξ )

式中 σ 是合金的恢复应力，ε 是合金的弹性应变，t 是温度，Ω 为相变模量、θ 为热弹性模量，D (ξ )

e

是弹性模量。 
用 DSC 法测定，NiTi 合金相变温度如表 3.1 所示以及热参数预测如表 3.2 所示。 
Table 3.1 Properties of NiTi Alloy
Coefficient of Constitutive equation 
DA = 65.17GPa, DM = 25.82GPa
 
Θ = 0.56 MPa / oC
Recovery strain limit 
ε L = 0.04  
4 phase transition temperature  As = 45 oC , Af = 60
 
M s = 16.5 oC , M f = 0
Transition Stiffness 
C A = 13.08MPa / oC  

Coefficient of thermo expansion  α x = 6.61×10−6 (20 < t < 45)

α x = 7.87 ×10−6 (45 ≤ t ≤ 60)  
α x = 11.0 ×10−6 (60 < t < 100)
 
Table 3.2 Result of the calculate of recovery strain and elastics modulus
σ / MPa   D / GPa  
t / oC  
25  2.13  25.82 
45  47.38  25.82 
60  217.90  65.17 
100  442.50  65.17 
 
嵌入 SMA 纤维层的层合梁的弯曲建模 
最初的 Tanaka 模型是基于热力学基本定律和约束得到的简单一维应力状态下的本构方程，从相变将使
自由能降低的观点出发，用热力学原理可以建立经受热弹性马氏体相变及逆相变材料的本构关系，其导数
形式的力学本构关系如下： 
σ& = Eε& + Ωξ& + θT&           
式中 σ 为应力、E 为弹性模量、 ε 为应变、Ω 为相变系数、 θ 为热弹性系数、 ξ 为马氏体体积百分数，T
为温度。 
当相变由马氏体向奥氏体方向转换时：
77 
  

ξM
ξ= {cos [ a A ( T − A S ) + b Aσ ] + 1}                               （3.1） 
2

当相变由奥氏体向马氏体方向转换时： 
1− ξA 1+ ξA
ξ= {cos [ a M ( T - M f ) + b M σ ] + }                         （3.2） 
2 2
上述两个公式中 ξ A 、 ξ M 表示相变过程开始时的马氏体含量比例； a A 、 a M 、 b A 、 bM 为材料常数，

用下式表示： 

π π aA a
aA = aM = bA = − ， bM = − M  
A f − As MS − Mf cA cM
基于上面的本构关系方程，设计了嵌入式 SMA 矩阵椎板和嵌入式 SMA 增强层示意图，如图 3.1，3.2 所示。
 

 
图 3.1    SMA 复合板层  图 3.2    SMA 增强层合梁的示意图 
 
基于上面的本构关系方程，建模仿真分析，观察 SMA 嵌入层合梁因温度变化产生的形变行为，便于得
出该机构的温度与层和梁的挠度间的关系，其 SMA 的材料特性如表 3.3   
Moduli Transformation Transformation
temperature
constants
(°C)

D Mf = 26.3 ×103 MPa M S = 14.85 CM = 7.7MPa/ °C

D fA = 67 ×103 MPa M F = 6.85 C A = 7.1MPa/ °C

α Mf = 6.6 ×10−6 / °C AS = 44.85 ε f = 0.06

L

α fA = 11×10−6 / °C AF = 55.85

马氏体分数与应力自由条件下的温度变化如图 3.4 所示。 

  

图 3.4  形状记忆合金纤维与温度的关系 
图 3.5  ν f = 0.2  

图 3.6  ν f = 0.4   图 3.7  ν f = 0.6  

由图 3.5-3.7 可知，当 Vf 增加时，奥氏体和马氏体的开始和结束的转变温度降低，并在相应的相变阶

段它的挠度值也有所增加。这说明随着体积分数的增加，SMA 丝对整个层合梁的力学性能的影响也增加
了。
 
 
第四章 嵌入式 SMA 层合梁的数字模拟和实验
4.1 数值模拟
建立两组模型，仿真分析每组模型加温度载荷之后的偏转情况。仿真模型结构如下表：
表 4.1 仿真模型结构尺寸
结构  长（mm）  宽（mm）  厚（mm）  间距（mm） 
1  200  150  2  5/10/15 
2  200  150  2  5/10/15 

结构 1：SMA 丝埋在层合板偏心位置；
结构 2：SMA 丝埋在层合板偏心位置（层合板为格栅状结构），其基体的偏心位置如下图所示：

79 
  

丝间距5/10/15

2mm

150mm
 
图 4. 1 偏心结构模型的横截面图示
4.1.1 实体模型建立
在实体模型建立中，对于每一种结构，根据丝间距不同（5mm、10mm、15mm），再次建立三个不同
的模型，其中形状记忆合金丝的数量分别是 29、13、9。
 

 
图 4. 2 结构 1 的实体模型 图 4. 3 结构 2 的实体模型
4.1.2 有限元模型建立 
1）定义单元属性 
单元类型：这里采用 solid46 和 solid45 单元，具有应力刚化和大变形的能力，是一种应用较为广泛的
单元； 
实常数设置：根据实体模型实常数分别为形状记忆合金直径 0.5mm，基体板长宽高为 200×150×2
（mm）； 
2）划分单元得到有限元模型如下图：       

   
图 4. 4  结构 1 的实体模型  图 4. 5  结构 2 的实体模型 
4.1.3 仿真分析
  

本文在模型一端(A 处)施加位移约束，对上表面的形状记忆合金单元(B 处)的节点施加温度载荷分别为

40，45，50，55，60，65，70，75 分为 8 个载荷步进行分析，可以得到如下图所示的结构变形情况：
a）对形状记忆合金丝埋在复合材料基体偏心位置的模型进行加载求解，变形情况如下：

 
温度载荷为 40℃时的变形情况  温度载荷为 45℃时的变形情况 
 

 
温度载荷为 50℃时的变形情况  温度载荷为 55℃时的变形情况 
 

 
温度载荷为 60℃时的变形情况      温度载荷为 65℃时的变形情况 
   
 

81 
  

 
温度载荷为 70℃时的变形情况  温度载荷为 75℃时的变形情况 
                                                图 4. 8 不同温度下模型的变形情况

同样步骤，对形状记忆合金丝贴在复合材料基体表面的另外两种结构（丝间距为 5mm、15mm）进行
有限元分析，可以得到不同温度下自由端的 Z 向位移，如表 4.2 所示。
表 4. 2 不同温度自由端的 Z 向位移
温度（℃）  40  45  50  55  60  65  70  75 
Z 位移 5
0  0.047  0.094  0.094  0.238  5.473  22.443  22.789 
（mm） 
Z 位移 10
0  0.023  0.046  0.046  0.116  2.656  10.751    10.916 
（mm） 
Z 位移 15
0  0.018  0.035  0.035  0.101  1.579  7.989  8.566 
（mm） 
 
b）对形状记忆合金丝集成在复合材料层合板（格栅状结构）模型进行加载求解，变形情况如下： 

 
温度载荷为 40℃时的变形情况  温度载荷为 45℃时的变形情况 
 
  

 
温度载荷为 50℃时的变形情况  温度载荷为 55℃时的变形情况 
 

 
温度载荷为 60℃时的变形情况  温度载荷为 65℃时的变形情况 
 

 
温度载荷为 70℃时的变形情况  温度载荷为 75℃时的变形情况 
图 4. 9 不同温度下模型的变形情况
同样步骤，对形状记忆合金丝贴在复合材料基体表面的另外两种结构（丝间距为 5mm、10mm）进行
有限元分析，可以得到不同温度下自由端的 Z 向位移，如表 4.3 所示。 
表 4.3 不同温度自由端的 Z 向位移
温度（℃）  40  45  50  55  60  65  70  75 
Z 位移 5
0  0.280  0.756  0.756  1.900  10.776  28.134  30.456 
（mm） 
Z 位移 10 0  0.218  0.686  0.686  1.785  8.836  17.286    19.002 
83 
  

（mm） 
Z 位移 15
0  0.156  0.519  0.519  1.031  6.756  11.892  12.282 
（mm） 

4.1.4 仿真结果分析

25 35

SMA丝间距5mm SMA丝间距5mm
30
20 SMA丝间距10mm SMA丝间距10mm
SMA丝间距15mm SMA丝间距15mm
25
Y-自由端Z向位移/mm

Y-自由端Z向位移/mm
15
20

10 15

10
5
5

0
0

35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
X-温度/℃ X-温度/℃

 
图 4. 2 结构 1 变形情况 图 4. 3 结构 2 变形情况
                                                      图 4. 10 不同温度下模型的变形情况
根据仿真结果，整个结构经历了较大的弯曲变形，大体结构分为三个阶段。 
第一个阶段，温度低于 55℃的时候，结构的变形量较小，这主要是由于合金带在受约束的情况下，马
氏体逆转变温度高于自由状态的马氏体逆转变温度，此时合金仍处于马氏体状态下，没有发生逆相变，产
生的回复力很小； 
第二个阶段，当温度超过 55℃时候，合金发生了逆相变，产生很大的相变回复力，因此结构发生了很
大的弯曲变形； 
第三个阶段，温度达到 70℃左右，合金相变结束，回复力减为零，试件偏转到最大值并保持不变。 
 
4.2 实验部分 
4.2.1 实验准备 
根据实验分析，需要依照下表尺寸制作两块复合材料基体和形状记忆合金丝集合而成的长方体层合板 
表 4.4 所要制备的试件结构尺寸

结构  长（mm）  宽（mm）  厚（mm）  丝间距（mm） 

（1）  200  150  2  15 

（2）  200  150  2  15 

:试样 1：形状记忆合金丝埋在复合材料基体偏心位置，如图（A）； 
:试样 2：形状记忆合金丝埋在复合材料基体偏心位置，其中复合材料基体为格栅状结构，如图（B）； 
  

SMA
SMA
复合材料基体

复合材料基体

   
(A)  (B) 
                                                  图 4.11 所要制备试件的立体结构图

4.2.2 原料、仪器和设备 
实验原料：Ni‐Ti 形状记忆合金丝；预浸料；蜡类脱模剂；树脂基复合材料，树脂的体积含量为 50％，

弹性常数为 E x =30GPa、 E y =10GPa、 G xy =5GPa， V xy =0.22。

 
图 4.12 制备样品所用工装示意图
4.2.3 试件制备工艺
试件制备的工艺流程如下图 5.5 所示。   
 
工装仪器的 工艺材料的
SMA 丝的预处
设计与制造 准备
理

试件的固化和成型 

抽真空 

图 4.13 制备试件工艺流程图

85 
  

表 4.5 预浸固化工艺温度及保温时间表

温度（℃）  120  190  210  220 

保温时间（小时）  0.5  2.0  3.0  4.0 

 
1) 对试件抽真空 
通过抽真空，提高合金丝与树脂基的粘合度，并去除制造过程中的气泡。 
    
 
 
 
 
 
    

图 4.14 试验板试件示意图
4.2.4 变形实验
偏转原理：对于所制备试件，通过稳压恒流源对集成在基体中的形状记忆合金丝通电，因为形状记忆
合金丝具有电阻，根据焦耳定律，其温度会随着通电时间的延长逐渐升高，当达到它的相变温度的时候，
形状记忆合金会发生相变，长度收缩，此时由于形状记忆合金丝受到基体复合材料的限制,继而产生回复
力，这种结构导致其产生的回复力驱动复合材料基体发生偏转。利用激光位移传感器记录试件的变形。

激光位移传感器

激光
激励源负极 试件
sma

激励源正极

试验平台

                                                              图 4.15 实验过程示意图 
试样 1：形状记忆合金丝埋在复合材料基体偏心位置 
  

 
                                                            图 4.16 实验开始前的试样 1 

        
                              图 4.17 实验开始                                                  图 4.18 实验结束 
 
试样 2：形状记忆合金丝埋在复合材料基体偏心位置（复合材料基体为格栅状结构） 

 
（1）初始位置  （2）偏转开始 

 
(3)  (4) 

87 
  

 
(5)  (6)偏转截止 
图 4.19 试件偏转过程示意图
4.2.5 变形实验分析

130
120
110
100
deflection Z

90 E
80
70 15mm
60 10mm
50
40 5mm
30
20
10
0
40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
Temperature of deflection

                                                  图 4.20 试样 2 的仿真和实验结果 
结果和讨论： 
通过比较试样的仿真和实验结果，样品的变形过程可以分为以下三个步骤： 
第一个阶段，温度低于 50℃的时候，结构的变形量较小，这主要是由于合金带在受约束的情况下，马
氏体逆转变温度高于自由状态的马氏体逆转变温度，此时合金仍处于马氏体状态下，没有发生逆相变，产
生的回复力很小； 
第二个阶段，当温度超过 50℃时候，合金发生了逆相变，产生很大的相变回复力，因此结构发生了很
大的弯曲变形； 
第三个阶段，温度达到 70℃左右，合金相变结束，回复力减为零，试件偏转到最大值并保持不变。 
 
4.3 应力—应变实验
4.3.1 形状记忆合金丝
试样:：0.05m 记忆合金复合板；1mm 形状记忆合金复合板。
设备：应力—应变实验机
  

 
图 4.21 应力—应变实验机 
4.3.2 记忆合金复合板（0.05mm） 

 
图 4.22    SMA0.05mm 
当载荷达到 85N 时，记忆合金发生塑性变形，随后应变突然减小，表明复合板内部结构遭到破坏。随
后载荷稳定在 70N，记忆合金丝在外用下被拉出。
4.3.3 记忆合金复合板（1mm） 

89 
  

 
    图 4.23    SMA1.00mm 
当载荷达到 130N 时，记忆合金发生塑性变形，随后应变突然减小，表明复合板内部结构遭到破坏。
随后载荷稳定在 100N，记忆合金丝在外用下被拉出。 
 
 
第五章  总结展望 
智能材料的世界市场在不断增长，并会持续增长下去。2005 年，智能材料的市场销售额高达 81 亿美
元，而实用这些材料的产品价值更是高达 277 亿美元。其中，形状记忆合金占了 15%的市场份额。它们被
大量使用在生物制药领域。虽然，传统形状记忆合金的市场持续增长，但同时，也有新型的合金被开发出
来。如上所述，形状记忆合金可以随着一定范围内的温度变化从而产生运动和力。然而，新型的合金系统
大大提高了合金的利用率，并且这一领域的研究方兴未艾。有一种合金能够在磁场的驱动下运动，被称为
MSMAs.因为它们把磁场的能量转换为动能，MSMAs 没有被相对缓慢的热传导所阻碍。因此，高频的驱动
成为可能。虽然，好多种此类的合金已经被开发出来，并且基于此类合金的驱动器在市场上已经有售，研
究工作任然会继续下去。还有一种合金能在高温下进行驱动，被称为高温记忆合金（HTSMAs）。 
考虑到在形状记忆合金领域的研究和发展现状，形状记忆合金的应用和发展一定会持续增长下去。各
个国防部门也会向工程师和设计者们提出更高的要求。空间操作的复杂程度空前提高，民用和军用飞行器
的需求也不断提高，这些都需要更为创新的技术来满足这些需求。形状记忆合金领域的研究和应用为满足
这些需求和挑战提供了有力的工具。同时形状记忆合金的设计和分析环境也变得更加综合化并且更加有
力。同时，系统集成性能在不断提高。这些发展最终会使航空应用中的多功能集成形状记忆合金系统变得
更为流行。这些系统的发展对于无人机以及微型卫星的发展大有裨益。其他产业也将从形状记忆合金的发
展中获益。汽车工业和原油探测领域都对形状记忆合金充满兴趣，并会继续利用形状记忆合金的特性解决
由极端环境条件和工作条件导致的约束设计问题。人们希望其在医药领域的实用能够进一步被推广。形状
记忆合金实用的发展以及其他主动性材料都将为设计者们提供更多的选择。同时，航天领域的设计者们应
该继续充分利用形状记忆合金的特性来解决工程实际问题。