CHAPTER: 1 “MEASUREMENTS”

1.1 PHYSICS:
What is physics?
Physic is that branch of science in which we study the properties of matter and energy
and their mutual relationship.
It also deals with the explanation of natural phenomena in terms of fundamental laws and
principles.
Any material object thrown upward in the air comes back to the ground. It is a natural
phenomenon, which can be explained by using the law of universal gravitation which is a
fundamental law of Physics.
Other natural phenomena are lunar eclipse, solar eclipse, variation of day & night,
and variation of seasons.
Properties: The facts on the basis of which different things are identified are called
properties. For example besides other properties mass and volume are used for
identification of matter.
Matter:
Anything which occupies space and has a specific mass is called matter.
Energy:
(1) Energy is the ability to do work.
(2) Energy is the agent, which bring some changes in the material objects.
According to second definition we can say that light is the form of energy because when
it falls on a photographic plate (film).Its color changes due to incident light. Since light
has brought changes in the film object. Hence we can say that light is a form of energy.
Mutual relationship between matter and energy:
Mutual relationship between matter and energy is that matter can be converted into
energy and energy can into matter i.e. Petrol is a matter as it occupies space and have a
mass/weight. When we add petrol in engine, it provides energy to the engine and a
vehicle start.

Scope of physics: The scope of physics is very wide. Its study ranges from the tiniest
sub-atomic particles to the huge galaxies;
The nature of physics: The nature of physics is qualitative rather than quantitative (or
descriptive). Physics emphasize accurate measurement and tries to express the existing
experimental finding as well as some new predictions in the form of mathematical
equations. Physics, therefore stresses upon accurate instrument and precision in
measurement. It is often called exact science of measurement.

1.2 THE BRANCHES OF PHYSICS

The subjects studied within the scope of physics are called branches of physics. The
most basic branches of physics are MECHANIC & FIELD THEORY. Mechanics deals
with the motion of the objects under the influence of certain force. The field theory
explain the origin and properties of the fields such as gravitational, electromagnetic and
nuclear field etc. however the conventional main branches of physics are the following
(i) Mechanics:
It deals with the motion of material objects under the influence of certain force.
(ii) Heat and thermodynamics:
 It deals with heats as a form of energy as will as with the transmission of heat energy by
means of conduction, convection and radiation.
(iii) Light / optics:
This branch of physics deals with the properties of light i.e. reflection, refraction,
dispersion and also the wave properties of light. Optical instrument are also discussed in
this branch of physics.
(iv) Electricity and Magnetism:
This branch of physics deals with the study of charges at rest as well as in motion.
(v) Atomic physics:
In this branch of physics we study the behavior and properties of atoms of different
substance.
(vi) Nuclear Physics:
Just clear from its name it is study of the nucleus of atom. It also deals with nuclear
reactions.
(vii) Solid-state Physics:
In this branch of physics we study the physical properties of the solid state of matter.
(viii) Elementary particle physics:
It has been observed that neutrons, protons and electrons are composed up of tiny
particles called elementary particles. The study of these elementary parties is known as
elementary particle physics.
(ix) Plasma physics:
The mixture of bare nuclei (completely ionized atom) and electrons is called plasma
and study is known as plasma physics. Some scientist considers plasma, as the fourth
state of matter.

(x) Astrophysics:

It deals with the physical properties of the heavenly bodies i.e. its chemical deposition,
temperature and light power etc. it also studies the interaction of matter and energy going
on within these bodies and the space between them.

(xi) Biophysics:

In this branch of physics we study the applications of the principles of physics to the
living organism, for example how living organism breath?

(xii) Geophysics:

This branch of physics deals with the study of physical properties of earth. i.e. its
structure, magnetism and its atmosphere. It deals with the study of weather also.

(xiii) Health Physics:

This branch of physics deals with the effects of radiation on living bodies as well as
with the methods of safeguarding against the harmful effects of radiation.

1.1 IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICS

 Physics has a great impact on our life and society. It has changed our life style.

Today:

We have succeeded in the applying for making many useful machines, with the help of
which we can increase our potentials.

Many deadly diseases have curved by the effective use of physics in the form of
radiations such as x-rays and laser light is being used to cure cancer.

Physics has made it possible to introduce Telecommunication system by inventing

wireless, telegraph etc.

We can observe stars, galaxies and look for the edges of the universe with telescope
easily.

Man has stepped on the moon and other planets as well as through physics.

Thus we can say that physics has brought remarkable change in human civilization.
Physics has played a leading role in the progress and development in the field of
chemical Technology, medical science, geological prospecting, textile and metallurgical
industries, agricultural techniques etc.

MEASUREMENTS

Measurements and units:

As physics is an exact quantitative science and tries to formulate experimental and

theoretical data in mathematical form. Accurate measurement has great importance in the
physics as well as in engineering and technology. Measurement of any thing means
comparing it with some standard quantity to see how many times as big it is. The
standard quantity with which things are compared is called Unit. Different quantities have
different units. For example, the unit of mass is kilogram while that of time is second.

Now we are going to study some physical quantities along with their units.

1.3 LENGTH, MASS, TIME AND THEY’RE UNITS

Length:

The distance between two points is called length. It is a fundamental physical quantity
(basic quantity). It is usually represented by “l” and is a scalar quantity. In SI system its
unit is meter, represented by “m” and can be defined as

“it is the distance between two points on a platinum-iridium metal rod at 0 C,

which is placed in the international bureau of weights and measures at server, near Paris,
France. Copies f this standard meter rod is available all over the word. It is the ordinary
definition of meter; its scientific definition is that.
 1
The distance covered by light in vacuum in 299,792,458 seconds

Mass:

The quantity of matter in a body is called mass. It is also a fundamental physical quantity
(basic quantity) and is represented by “m”. In SI system its unit is kilogram, (kg) which
can be defined, as “it is the mass of a platinum-iridium Cylinder kept at the international
bureau of weights and measures at server, near Paris, France. Copies of the standard
kilogram are available allover the world.

Time:

It is a fundamental physical quantity and can be defined as “the interval between two
occurrence is called time. It is usually represented by “t”. In SI system its unit is “s”.

Where

1
1 second = 86,400 x one average solar days.

1
It means that 86,400 th part of one mean solar day is called one second. It is the
ordinary definition of second; its scientific definition is “ the time during which Cesium
(Cs-133 atoms complete 9,192,631,770 vibrations of Cs-133 atoms

(The time during which Cs-133 atoms emit 9,192,631,770 waves is called one second)

But in physics the word time is used in two different meaning

i- It is used to describe an interval of time i.e. duration of time. For

example, how long does it take to go from home to school?

ii- It is used to describe a particular instant of time. For example when will
you be free?

1.4 SYSTEM OF UNITS

As discussed above for the measurement of a physical quantity, we need a

standard quantity called unit. But the choice of this standard unit is arbitrary for
example; sometime length is measured in meter but another moment it is
measured in yards and inches. But different physical quantities have their own
standard unit. So different sets of the units of physical quantities are possible,
which are known as system of units. The most common system of unit is the
following.
 (I) C.G.S SYSTEM

In the system of units the unit of length is centimeter (cm) and that of mass and
time is gram (g) and second (s) respectively.

(ii) M.K.S SYSTEM

In this system of units the unit of length mass and time is meter (m) kilogram
(kg) and second (s) respectively.

(iii) F.P.S. SYSTEM

In this system of units the unit of length mass and time is foot (f) pound (lb) and
second (s) respectively.

S.I. SYSTEM

Physics deals with numerous physical quantities in term of which the laws of
physics are expressed. Which are length, mass, time, temperature electronic
current, intensity of light and amount of a substance. The units of these quantities
are called derived units e.g. speed, velocity acceleration volume density etc.

The basic quantities along with their conventional symbols and unit are given in the table
below

Quantities Quantity Symbol Unit name Unit Symbol

Length l Meter m

Mass m Kilogram kg

Time t Second s

Electric Current I Ampere A

Temperature T Kelvin K

Intensity L Candela Cd

Amount of n Mole Mol

substance

PREFIXES FOR SI UNITS:

As for the measurement of a quantity we compare it with some standard quantity. But
some times we have to deal with quantities that are either very large or very small as
compared to the standard unit. For example; the diameter of a wire is very small while
the distance between any two cities is very large as compared to the standard unit of
length i.e. meter. In such case we express the measurement by some special symbols
called prefixes. Some of the prefixes along with their symbols are given in the table

Prefix Symbol Value

Tera T 1012

Giga G 109

Mega M 106

Kilo K 103

Hecto H 10 2

Deca da 10

Deci D 10 1

Centi c 10 2

Milli M 10 3

Micro M 10 6

Nino n 10 12

Pcio P 10 12

Femto f 10 15

CONVERSION OF UNITS

Sometime, we have to convert a bigger unit into smaller unit or from one system of unit
to another. This process of conversion requires the relation between the two units or
systems.

Conversion facts between a few units are given below.

1 mile = 1.609 Km

1 m = 3.281 ft

1 inch= 2.54 cm

1 inch = 25.4 mm

ERRORS AND ACCURACY.

1.5 ERRORS.

As discussed above that for the measurement of different physical quantities, we use
various instruments always have a certain error. An error is defined as the difference
between the measured value and the actual value of a quantity. The error depends on the
measuring instrument as well as the person making the measurement. Practically, it is
found that measurement of same thing with different instruments may give different
observations and hence different errors. Similarly, when two observers measure same
quantity by the same instrument, their result may differ. Hence there are certain kinds of
errors, which could never be removed. The errors can, however, be minimized.

(1) CLASSIFICATION OF ERRORS.

There are three types of errors in the measurement of physical quantities
(i) Personal error.

An error can arise due to the tendency of a person to make reading in favor of the
particular reading. This error is due to the personal bias of the experimenter.

The personal error may be due to an incorrect method of reading a scale.

Placing the object in line with the scale of observation can minimize this type of error.
However, both types of errors are due to faulty procedure of a person.

(ii) Systemic error.

This error is due to the fault in the measuring instrument. The fault could be incorrect
calibration of the scale as the ruler or a watch. The error may also arise due to zero error
between scales as in measuring instruments. Using can check this type of error another
set of instruments.

(iii) Random error.

This type of error can arise due to accidental change in the experimental condition etc.
Maintaining strict control conditions in the laboratory may reduce the random error.

(2) ACCURACY.

Physical measurement is never absolutely accurate. There is always an error in the

measurement that depend on the measuring instrument and the experimenter, accuracy of
the measurement means how close is the measured value to the true or actual value. The
accuracy of the result is expressed by stating the error, that is, by giving the maximum
deviation of the result from the “true” value. Lesser the error more accurate is a
measurement. So reducing the error, the accuracy can be increased by taking a large
number of reading of the same measurement and then take their mean value. The mean
value is closer to the true value than any individual measured value.

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES.

Every measurement carries a possibility of some error. There is always an error or an

uncertainty in the measurement that depend on the person as well as the measuring
instrument. So, the accuracy and precision of every measurement is limited. Because
of the limited accuracy, the number that express the magnitude of a measured quantity
is written with the number of digits that express and signify with reasonable trust and
reliability the accuracy of the measurement/ these figures and only these are called
significant figure. Significant figure is one, which is known to be reasonably
reliable. In any measurement, the number of accurately known figure and the
first doubtful figure are known as significant figures.

Beside this, whenever we make calculations on numbers based on different

experimental observations, the number of significant figure in the final answer cannot
be greater than the least number of significant figures in any observation. So, in
numerical calculations the final resulting number is round off to contain only as many
significant figures as are contained in the least exact factor. The following example
illustrates further the concept of significant figures. Suppose we want to measure the
length of pencil with an ordinary foot-scale. This scale is granulated in cm as well as
in mm. The least count of the instrument is 1mm. suppose we note that the length of
the pencil is greater than 9.75cm and less than 9.8cm. We estimate that the length of
the length is 9.75cm. This length is accurate in mm up to 9.7 but the last fraction of
mm has been guessed. There is a chance of error in the last figure. If the same pencil
is measured with different scale or if different persons make the same measurement.
It is possible that the answer may be 9.74cm or 9.76cm.in this measurement. Every
one would accept the first two figures 9 and 7, but the third figure is an estimate only.
There is a doubt in the figure. The number of accurately known figures, and the first
doubtful figure are known as significant figures. In the present example, if the length
of the pencil is measured to be 9.74cm. Then there are three significant figures in the
number, namely 9,7 and 4.

In calculation, the following rules are applied in handling and determining the
significant figures.

1. All the non-zero digits, 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 are significant. For example, in

112.6mm, there are four significant figures.

2. The zeros between two non-zero digits are significant.

 3. The zeros to the right of the decimal symbol and to left of a non-zero digit are not
significant. For example, in 0.00647kg, there are only three significant figures, 6,
4, 7. Note that the only zero to the left of the decimal symbol is used to locate the
position of the decimal and is never significant.

4. All zeros to the right of the decimal that appear after a non-zero digit are
significant. For example, there are four significant figures in each of the measure
quantities 0.07080cm and 20.00mm.

5. In scientific notation, a number is often written in power of 10 in the form of MX

" M consist of all the significant figure of the original number. In M, the
10
decimal point occurs after the first non-zero digit.

6. When computations are made with number obtained experimentally, the number
of digits retained in the result is determined by the quantity in the data, which has
the least number of significant figures.

CONSTANT OF PROPORTIONALITY.

Whenever two quantities are so related that the graph between them is a straight line,
we say that the quantities are directly proportional. The converse is also true, that is,
when the quantities are directly proportional, the graph between them will be a
straight line.

The direct proportional between two quantities is symbolically written as follows:

M V

The symbol  is called the sign of proportionality.

Look at