THE NATURE OF PHYSICS

PHYSICS
- is a branch of science which deals with
the study of the interrelationship between
matter and energy without reference to the
chemical change.
 Branches of Physics
1.  Mechanics
2.  Heat and Thermodynamics
3.  Electricity and Magnetism
4.  Optics and Acoustics
5.  Modern Physics
 Branches of Physics
l  Mechanics
- It deals with the study of the bodies and
systems and the forces acting on them. This is
divided into two:
1. Statics – study of bodies at rest
or in equilibrium
2. Dynamics – the study of the bodies
in motion particularly the forces
that affect the motion of the body.
 Branches of Physics
l  Heat and Thermodynamics
Heat – the branch of physics which studies the
principle of the energy associated with the
kinetic random motion of large numbers of
molecules. It also includes the principle of
temperature measurement, the effect of
temperature change on the properties of
materials and heat flow.
Thermodynamics – the study of transformation
of heat energy into work.
 Branches of Physics
l  Electricity
and Magnetism
Electricity – the branch of physics which
deals with the study of electric charges at
rest (electrostatics) or in motion
(electrodynamics / electric current).
Magnetism – a phenomenon in which it is
not in contact (action of a distance).
 Branches of Physics
l  Optics and Acoustics
Optics – the branch of physics concerned with light and
vision. It is divided into two major branches:
1. Geometrical Optics – studies the
geometry of light rays as they
pass through an optical system.
2. Physical Optics – studies the
properties of light and its
interaction with matter.
Acoustics – the branch of physics concerned with
the production, propagation, reception
properties, and uses of sounds.
 Branches of Physics
l  Modern
Physics
-branch of physics which studies the
modern aspects of the subjects which
include quantum mechanics, relativity,
nuclear physics, particle physics, solid-
state physics and astrophysics.
 MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
(Conversion)
Measurement
- a process that brings precision to a
description by specifying the “how much”
and “of what” of a property in a particular
situation.
- always reported with a number or value
and a name or unit.
 MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
(Conversion)
l  System of Units

Systems of Units Length Mass Time

pound seconds
FPS – English foot (ft)
(lb) (s)
kilogram seconds
MKS – Metric System meter (m)
(kg) (s)
centimeter gram seconds
CGS – Metric System
(cm) (gm) (s)
 The SI ( Systéme International d’
Unités)
l  SI
stands for the Internttional System of
Units, a consistent unit developed in the
Eleventh General Conference on Weights
and Measures in Paris (1960). This
system inlcudes three classes of units:
l  Base Units
l  Supplementary Units
l  Derived Units
 The SI Base Units
Quantity Name Symbol
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric Current ampere A
Thermodynamic Temperature kelvin K
Amount of Substance mole mol
Luminous Intensity candela Cd
 The SI Supplementary Units

Quantity Name Symbol

Plane Angle Radian rad
Solid Angle Steradian sr
 The SI Derived Unit
Special
Quantity Derived SI Unit Symbol
Name
Area square meter - m2
Volume cubic - m3
Linear Velocity meter per second - m/s
Angular Velocity radian per sec - rad/s
Linear Acceleration meter per sec2 - m/s2
Frequency (cycle) per second Hertz Hz
Density Kilogram/meter3 - Kg/m3
Force kilogram meter per second2 Newton N
Moment of Force Newton-meter - N.M
Pressure Newton per square meter Pascal Pa
Stress Newton per square meter Pascal N/m2
Work, Energy Newton-meter Joule J
Power Joule per second Watts W
 FORCE AND MOTION
(NEWTON’S LAW)
l  FORCE
l  Is arbitrarily defined as any influence that would
change or tend to change the state of the body.
 FORCE AND MOTION
(NEWTON’S LAW)
l  NEWTON
l  The SI unit of force.
l  One Newton is the amount of net force that gives an
acceleration of one meter per second squared to a
body with a mass of one kilogram.

m
N = 1 kg m 2
s
 FORCE AND MASS UNITS
1 pound force = 32.2 poundals
1 slug = 32.2 pound mass
1 gram force = 981 dynes
1 pound-force = 4.448 Newtons

cm ft
1 dyne = gm 2 1 pound - force = 1 slug 2
s s
 NEWTON’S LAWS
NEWTON’S FIRST LAW (Law of Inertia)
A body will remain at rest or in equilibrium
motion at constant speed unless it is acted by
unbalanced or external force.

∑F = F net =0
 NEWTON’S LAWS
NEWTON’S SECOND LAW (Law of Acceleration)
A resultant force acting on a body causes it to
accelerate with an acceleration that varies
directly proportional to the magnitude of the
resultant force and inversely proportional to the
mass of the body.
where:
F F F is the force
aα a=k a is the acceleration

m
m is the mass
m k is the proportionality constant
NEWTON’S SECOND LAW (Law
of Acceleration)
The Proportionality Constant (k):
ma
F=
k
k is unity
CGS system: 1 dyne force accelerates 1 gram
mass at 1 cm/s2
MKS system: 1 newton force accelerates 1kg
mass at 1 m/s2
FPS system: 1 pound force accelerates 1 slug
mass at 1ft/s2
 NEWTON’S SECOND LAW (Law
of Acceleration)
The Proportionality Constant (k):
When the same word is used for both mass and force in a given system, k
is neither unity nor dimensionless.

1lb force accelerates a 1lb mass at 32.2 ft/s2

1 g force accelerates a 1g mass at 981 cm/s2
1kg force accelerates a 1kg mass at 9.81 m/s2

k=
Thus, giving the above equation k=ma/F with ff. k:

lbm − ft g m − cm
k = 32.2 k = 981
lbf − s 2 gf − s2
kg m − m N
k = 9.81 k = 9.81
kg f − s 2
kg f
 NEWTON’S SECOND LAW (Law
of Acceleration)
Conversions: F = ma
To convert kg to N: To convert gram to dyne:

N = kg x 9.81 m/s 2
Dyne = gram x 980 cm s 2

To convert slugs to To convert weight in pound

pound: to mass in slugs:

Pound = slugs x 32.2 ft/s 2 weight in pounds

mslugs =
32.2
 NEWTON’S LAWS
NEWTON’S THIRD LAW (Law of Action
and Reaction)
If a body exerts on another body the second
body reacts with a force of the same
magnitude that it exerts on the first body.
The geometric sum of these forces is
equal to zero.
F1 = F2
NEWTON’S UNIVERSAL LAW OF
GRAVITATION
Every particle in the universe exerts an attractive
force on every other particle with the force of
attraction which is directly proportional to the
product of the two masses and inversely
proportional with the square of the distance.

m1m 2 m1m 2
Fα 2
F=G 2
s s
where:
G = 6.673 x 10-11 N-m2/kg2
FORCE GRAVITY OR WEIGHT
WEIGHT
-the gravitational force exerted by the earth (or
some other large astronomical body) on an
object.

W = mg

where:
m = mass
g = 9.81 m/s2 = 32.2 ft/s2
FRICTIONAL FORCE (FRICTION)
Friction (f)
-the force that an object encounters when
in moves or attempts to move along the
surface in question
- it is the component of the force parallel to
the surface and is usually opposite in the
direction of the (unbalance force) moton of
the body.
FRICTIONAL FORCE (FRICTION)
Normal Force
- the perpendicular component of the force
that a surface exerts on an object with
which it is in contact.
Figure page 70
FRICTIONAL FORCE (FRICTION)
Static friction (fs)
is the frictional force experience by non
moving bodies in contact.
- this is the force that prevents one body
from sliding on another body
Kinetic friction (fk)
is the frictional force experience by the
moving bodies in contact.
FRICTIONAL FORCE (FRICTION)
Coefficient of static friction (µk)
- the ratio of the static frictional force to the
normal force.

fk fk = µk N
µk =
N

Note: 0 ≤ µk ≤
FRICTIONAL FORCE (FRICTION)
Approximate Coefficients of Friction.
Materials Static(µk) Kinetic (µk )
Steel on steel 0.74 0.57
Aluminum on steel 0.61 0.47
Copper on steel 0.53 0.36
Brass on steel 0.51 0.44
Zinc on cast iron 0.85 0.21
Glass on glass 0.94 0.40
Copper on glass 0.68 0.53
Teflon on teflon 0.04 0.04
Teflon on Steel 0.04 0.04
Rubber on concrete (dry) 1.00 0.80
Rubber on concrete 0.30 0.25
Problems
 WORK, ENERGY & POWER
WORK
- the product of displacement and force in
the direction of the displacement.
ENERGY
-is the capacity or capability to do work.
POWER
- the time rate of doing work.
 WORK, ENERGY & POWER
POTENTIAL ENERGY
- the energy at rest. It is the energy in a
body due to its height relative to a
reference line (datum).
KINETIC ENERGY
- the energy in motion
PRINCIPLE OF CONVERSATION
OF ENERGY
Energy cannot be created nor be destroyed.
It can only be tranformed.
 WORK – ENERGY THEOREM
The net work done by the forces acting on a
particle is equal to the change in kinetic
energy of the particle.
 UNITS OF WORK/ENERGY
Units of Work/Energy:
Metric: (SI): N-m = Joule or (J)
Metric (CGS): ( gm cm/s2) – cm = dyn-cm =erg
English: (FPS): ft-lbf
Other Related Units of Work, Energy and Power:
778 ft-lbf = 1 BTU
4.186J = 1 Calorie or (Cal)
1x107 ergs = I J
746 W = 1Hp
1 J/s = 1W
33000 ft-lbf / min = 1 Hp
550 ft-lbf = 1Hp
 EQUATIONS
The work done on an object by force fF.

Work = Fx. S
W = Fcosθ. S where:
W = work (J)
W = F S cosθ S = distance (m)
θ = the angle of the force from the
direction of the displacement
 THE GRAVITATIONAL
POTENTIAL ENERGY
P.E. = mgh

where: (SI)
P.E. is the potential energy (J)
M is the mass (kg)
H is the height (m)
g = 9.81 m/s2 = 32.2 ft/s2
g is the acceleration due to gravity
 THE KINETIC ENERGY

1
K.E. = mV 2

where:
K.E. is the kinetic energy (J)
m is the mass (kg)
V is the velocity (m/s)
THE TOTAL MECHANICAL ENERGY (E)
E = K.E + P.E.
THE WORK-ENERGY THEOREM
Work done on an object = change in K.E. +
change in P.E. + Work done by the system
Won = ∆P.E. + ∆K.E. + WS
POWER

W
P=
t

W is the work done (J)

t is the time (s)
Joule/second = Watts
 IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM
Impulse (I)
-is the product of the average force and the time
interval during which the force acts.
Momentum (P)
- is the product of the mass and velocity
Collision
- refers to the mutual action of the molecules,
atoms, and etc., when they encounter one
another.
 IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM
Momentum
is conserved by all collisions as well as in
all explosions. In the conservation of
momentum; the final total momentum is
equal to the initial total momentum. The
essential effect of collision is to redistribute
the total momentum of the colliding
objects.
 IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM
Collision falls into 3 categories:
1.  Elastic Collision
- a collision which conserves kinetic energy.
2. Inelastic Collision
- a collision which does not conserve. Some
kinetic energy is converted into heat energy,
sound energy, and so forth.
3. Completely Inelastic Collision
is the collision in which the objects stick
together afterward. In such collision, the KE
loss is maximum.
 IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM
Coefficient of Restitution (e)
- is the ratio between the relative speeds
of two colliding objects after and before
they collide.
e=1 for perfectly elastic collision
e=0 for completely (perfectly) inelastic
collision
0<e<1 for inelastic collision
 EQUATIONS
The impulse (I) of a body is the product of a
certain force (F) at a certain period of time
(∆t):
I = F . ∆t

The momentum (P) of a body is the product

of its mass (m) and its velocity.
P = mV
The Impulse-Momentum Theorem:
Impulse = momentum
F. Δt = m ΔV
ΔV
F=m = ma
Δt
where:
F = force
m = mass
V = velocity
T = time
a = acceleration
I = impulse
P = momentum
Elastic Collision:

V1 − V2 = −(V1 '−V2 ' )

Coefficient of Restitution:

V2 '−V1 '
e=
V1 − V2
Conservation of Momentum:
Po = P1
 TEMPERATURE AND THERMAL
EXPANSION
TEMPERATURE
- is defined as the average kinetic energy
of the molecules. It is the property that
determines the transfer of heat to or from
the object
 TEMPERATURE
THERMOMETER
- a device used for measuring temperature.
Matter usually expands when heated and
contracts when cooled.
Four types of Temperature Scales:
a.) Fahrenheit Scale
b.) Celsius Scale
c.) Rankine Scale
d.) Kelvin Scale
 TEMPERATURE
Fahrenheit
-the common temperature scale which
assigns 320 and 2120 as the freezing and
boiling points of water respectively.
Celsius
- the formerly called centigrade degree, it
assigns 00 and 1000 as the freezing and
boiling points of water respectively.
 TEMPERATURE
Kelvin Scale
- It is known as the absolute temperature scale
in SI which has the same degree as the Celsius
Scale, but assigns the lowest possible value.
Rankine Scale
- is known as the absolute scale in English
System which has the same degree as
Fahrenheit scale, but assigns the lowest
possible value.
 TEMPERATURE
Absolute Zero
- the zero point as of the Kelvin and
Rankine temperature scales. It is the
lowest possible temperature that can be
attained by cooling an object. It is believed
to be the point at which the motion of the
molecules ceases.
 CONVERSION FROM ONE
SCALE TO ANOTHER
A.) Celsius to Fahrenheit (0C to 0F)

9
F = C + 32
5
B.) Fahrenheit to Celsius (0F to 0C)

5
C = (F − 32)
9
 CONVERSION FROM ONE
SCALE TO ANOTHER
C.) Celsius to Kelvin (0C to K)

K = C + 273
D.) Fahrenheit to Rankine: (0F to R)

R = F + 460
 THERMAL EXPANSION
Thermal Expansion
- the change in physical size (length, area
or volume) of a substance when its
temperature changes. For most
substances, the physical size increases
with an increase in temperature and
decreases with the decrease in
temperature.
 THERMAL EXPANSION
Coefficient of Linear Expansion (α)
- is the change in length per unit length per
degree change in temperature.
Coefficient of Volume Expansion (β)
- is the change in volume per unit volume per
degree change in temperature.
Thermal Stress
- a stress develops within an object when it
attempts to expand or contract in response to a
temperature change.
 COEFFICIENT OF LINEAR EXPANSION

Material Coefficient of linear expansion (α) per

C0 or per K
Aluminum 2.4 x 10-5
Brass 2.0 x 10-5
Copper 1.7 x 10-5
Glass 0.40 to 0.90 x 10-5
Invar (Nickel-Iron alloy) 0.09 x 10-5
Quartz (fused) 0.04 x 10 -5
Steel
1.17 to 1.2 x 10-5
Concrete 1.2 x 10-5
Cast Iron 1.2 x 10-5
SOLIDS Coefficient of LIQUIDS Coefficient of
Volume Expansion Volume
(β) per C0 or per K Expansion (β)
per C0 or per K
Aluminum 7.2 x 10-5 Ethanol 75 x 10-5
Brass 6.0 x 10-5 Carbon 115 x 10-5
disulfied
Copper 5.1 x 10-5 Glycerin 49 x 10-5
Glass 1.2 to 2.7 x 10-5 Mercury 18 x 10-5
Steel 3.6 x 10-5
Invar 0.27 x 10-5
Quartz (fused) 0.12 x 10-5
 EQUATIONS
ΔL
α= ΔL = α Lo ΔT
LOΔT
ΔV ΔV = β Vo ΔT
β=
VOΔT
where:
α is the coef. of linear expansion
β is the coef. of volume expansion
∆T is the change in temperature (∆T=Tf – To)
∆V is tha change in volume
∆L is the change in length (linear expansion)
 HEAT PHENOMENA AND HEAT
TRANSFER
HEAT
- the form of energy associated with the
kinetic random motion of large number of
molecules.
 HEAT PHENOMENA AND HEAT
TRANSFER
Units of Heat:
a. Calorie (Cal)
b. British Thermal Unit (BTU)
c. Joules (J)
Conversion:
4.186J = 1 Calorie
252 Calories = 1 BTU
1J = 9.48 x 10 -4 BTU
778 ft – lbf = 1 BTU
1055 Joules = 1 BTU
 HEAT PHENOMENA AND HEAT
TRANSFER
Calorie
- the amount of heat needed to change the
temperature of 1 gram of water by one
Celsius degree
BTU
- the amount of heat needed to change the
temperature of one lb of water by one
Celsius degree.
 HEAT PHENOMENA AND HEAT
TRANSFER
Joule
- it is known as the mechanical equivalent
of heat
Calorimetry
- is the science of measuring quantities of
heat.
 HEAT PHENOMENA AND HEAT
TRANSFER
Heat Capacity
is the name given to the ability of an object to
take up heat.
Specific Heat
the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of units mass of the substance
through 10C.
Specific Heat Capacity
the quantity of heat needed to raise a unit of
mass of substance by 10C. It is measured in
Joules/K.
 HEAT PHENOMENA AND HEAT
TRANSFER
Latent Heat
- the quantity of heat required to change a unit of
mass of substance from one states without a
change of temperature. Latent heat of ice is 80
cal/gm. Latent heat of steam is 540 cal/gm.
Latent Heat of Fusion
the amount of heat that must be added to a unit
quantity of a substance at its melting point from
solid to liquid.
 HEAT PHENOMENA AND HEAT
TRANSFER
Latent heat of vaporization
the amount of heat that must be added to a unit quantity
of a substance at its boiling point to change it from liquid
to gas.
Triple Point
it is the temperature at which the gas, liquid and solid
phases of a substance can co-exist in equilibrium.
Critical point
the temperature and pressure beyond which it is no
longer possible to distinguish a liquid from a gas.
HEAT PHENOMENA AND HEAT
TRANSFER

C=
Q
mΔT
Q = mcΔT
where:
Q is the heat
m is the mass
c is the sp. Heat
∆T = Tf –To = change in temp.

Note: The specific heat of water varies so slightly with temperature;

but, at normal temperature it can be as:
CW = 1.0 Cal / gm . C0 = 4.186 KJ / kgm . K = 4.186 J / gm . C0
CW = 1.0 BTU / ibm. F0 = 1.0 BTU / ibm . R0
THE CALORIMETER CONDITION
“The heat lost by the hot body is equal to the heat
gained by the cold body.”
Q LOST = Q GAINED

m1C1ΔT = m2C2ΔT
 Latent Heat of Fusion: (Lf)

Q where:
Lf = Lf = 144 BTU/lb (English)
Lf = 80 Cal/gm (CCS)
m Lf = 334 kJ / kg (SI)

Latent Heat of Vaporization: (Lv)

where:
Q n is the number of moles
LV = m is the molecular mass
m C is the sp. Heat
C = m c is the molar sp. Heat
C = m c =75.4 J / mol.K