FLUID MECHANICS AND HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING

Fluids Mechanics

What is fluid mechanics? As its name suggests it is the branch of applied mechanics
concerned with the statics and dynamics of fluids - both liquids and gases. The analysis of the
behaviour of fluids is based on the fundamental laws of mechanics which relate continuity of
mass and energy with force and momentum together with the familiar solid mechanics
properties.

Hence: Fluid mechanics is the branch of applied mechanics that studies fluids (liquids, and
gases,) and the forces on them.

Fluid mechanics can be divided into:

- Fluid statics, the study of fluids at rest;

- Fluid kinematics, the study of fluids in motion;

- and fluid dynamics, the study of the effect of forces on fluid motion.

Fluid statics (also called hydrostatics) is the science of fluids at rest, and is a sub-field
within fluid mechanics. The term usually refers to the mathematical treatment of the subject.
It embraces the study of the conditions under which fluids are at rest in stable equilibrium.
The use of fluid to do work is called hydraulics, and the science of fluids in motion is fluid
dynamics.

Fluid mechanics assumes that every fluid obeys the following:

Conservation of mass

The law of conservation of mass, or principle of mass conservation, states that for
any system closed to all transfers of matter and energy (both of which have mass), the
mass of the system must remain constant over time, as system mass cannot change
quantity if it is not added or removed. Hence, the quantity of mass is "conserved"
over time. The law implies that mass can neither be created nor destroyed, although it
may be rearranged in space, or the entities associated with it may be changed in form.
Example: Like when you have an ice cube it melts into a liquid and when it gets
heated it becomes a gas. It may disappear to the human eye but it is still there

Conservation of energy

The law of conservation of energy is a law of science that states that energy cannot be
created or destroyed, but only changed from one form into another or transferred from one
object to another. This law is taught in physical science and physics classes in middle schools
and high schools, and is used in those classes as well as in chemistry classes.

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Example: - When a moving car hits a parked car and causes the parked car to move, energy is
transferred from the moving car to the parked car.

- When you push a book across the table, the energy from your moving arm is
transferred from your body to the book, causing the book to move.

Conservation of momentum

The law of physics that states that the linear momentum does not change unless an external
force acts upon it. The law of conservation of momentum explains that momentum is neither
lost or gained. "when two bodies collide with one another, the total energy remains constant"

That means that the total amount of momentum doesn't change. This is relevant, for example,
in a collision. (5 balls hanging on a string, when you move one to hit the other balls, there is a
reaction.)

What is hydraulic engineering?

Hydraulic engineering as a sub-discipline of civil engineering is concerned with the flow

and conveyance of fluids, principally water and sewage.

One feature of these systems is the extensive use of gravity as the motive force to cause the
movement of the fluids. This area of civil engineering is intimately related to the design of
bridges, dams, channels, canals, and to both sanitary and environmental engineering.

Scope of Hydraulics

Hydraulic engineering is the application of fluid mechanics principles to problems dealing

with the collection, storage, control, transport, regulation, measurement, and use of water. The
use of fluid to do work is called hydraulics.

Before beginning a hydraulic engineering project, one must figure out how much water is
involved.

The hydraulic engineer is concerned with the transport of sediment by the river, the
interaction of the water with its alluvial boundary, and the occurrence of scour and deposition.

"The hydraulic engineer actually develops conceptual designs for the various features which
interact with water such as spillways and outlet works for dams, culverts for highways, canals
and related structures for irrigation projects, and cooling-water facilities for thermal power
plants."

Fundamental principles

A few examples of the fundamental principles of hydraulic engineering include fluid

mechanics, fluid flow, behavior of real fluids, hydrology, pipelines, open channel hydraulics,
mechanics of sediment transport, physical modeling, hydraulic machines, and drainage
hydraulics.

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DIMENSIONS AND UNITS

Physical quantities require quantitative descriptions when solving engineering problems.

Density, which is one such physical quantity, is a measure of the mass contained in unit
volume. Density, however, does not represent a fundamental magnitude. There are nine
quantities considered to be fundamental magnitudes, and they are: length, mass, time,
temperature, amount of a substance, electric current, luminous intensity, plane angle, and
solid angle. The magnitudes of all the quantities can be expressed in terms of the fundamental
magnitudes.
To give the magnitude of a quantity a numerical value, a set of units must be selected. Two
primary systems of units are commonly used in Fluid Mechanics, namely, the Imperial
System (sometimes called the English units) and the International System, which is referred
to as SI (System International) units.
The fundamental magnitudes and their units in SI are shown in the table below.

Meaning of dimension and unit

Dimension = A dimension is the measure by which a physical variable is expressed

quantitatively.

Unit = A unit is a particular way of attaching a number to the quantitative dimension.

Thus length is a dimension associated with such variables as distance, displacement,

width, deflection, and height, while centimetres or meters are both numerical units for
expressing length.

Primary Quantity: In fluid mechanics, there are only four primary dimensions from which
all the dimensions can be derived: mass, length, time, and force. Symbol like [M] mean “the
dimension” of mass.

Secondary Quantities : All other variables in fluid mechanics can be expressed in terms of
[M], [L], [T], and [F]. For example, acceleration has the dimensions [LT-2]. Force [F] is
directly related to mass, length, and time by Newton’s second law,

Force = Mass x Acceleration

F= ma
From this we see that, dimensionally, [F] = [MLT-2].

1 kg-force = 9.81 Newton of force = 9.81 N

Representative Systems

The SI System of units

The SI system consists of six primary units, from which all quantities may be described. For
convenience secondary units are used in general practise which are made from combinations
of these primary units.

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Primary Units

The six primary units of the SI system are shown in the table below:

Quantity SI Unit Dimension

length metre, m L
mass kilogram, kg M
time second, s T
temperature Kelvin, K 
current ampere, A I
luminosity candela Cd

In fluid mechanics we are generally only interested in the top four units from this table.

Notice how the term 'Dimension' of a unit has been introduced in this table. This is not a
property of the individual units, rather it tells what the unit represents. For example a metre is
a length which has a dimension L but also, an inch, a mile or a kilometre are all lengths so
have dimension of L.

Note: The centimetre is not an accepted unit of length in the SI system, so for most problems
in fluid mechanics in which SI units are used, lengths will be expressed in millimetres or
meters.

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Derived Units

There are many derived units all obtained from combination of the above primary units.
Those most used are shown in the table below:

Quantity SI Unit Dimension

velocity m/s ms-1 LT-1
acceleration m/s2 ms-2 LT-2
N
force
kg m/s2 kg ms-2 M LT-2
Joule J
energy (or work) N m,
kg m2/s2 kg m2s-2 ML2T-2
Watt W
power N m/s Nms-1
kg m2/s3 kg m2s-3 ML2T-3
Pascal P,
pressure ( or stress) N/m2, Nm-2
kg/m/s2 kg m-1s-2 ML-1T-2
density kg/m3 kg m-3 ML-3
N/m3
specific weight
kg/m2/s2 kg m-2s-2 ML-2T-2
a ratio 1
relative density
no units no dimension
N s/m2 N sm-2
viscosity
kg/m s kg m-1s-1 M L-1T-1
N/m Nm-1
surface tension
kg /s2 kg s-2 MT-2
The above units should be used at all times.

British Gravitational(BG) System(or English: Units)

length=foot(ft), time=second(s), mass=slug, force=pound(lb), temperature=Fahrenheit( 0F),
absolute temperature= Rankine(0R)

International System (SI)

 Length: m
 Time: second
 Mass: kg
 Temperature : K : K＝oC+273.15
 Force: Newton: 1 N＝1 kg1 m / sec2

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  Work: Joule ( J ) ; J ＝1 Nm
 Power: Watt (W) ;W＝J / sec＝Nm/sec
 Gravity: g = 9.807 m / sec2
 Weight: W (N) = m (kg) g (m/ sec2) : 1 kg-mass weights 9.81N

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF FLUIDS

Definition of a fluid
A fluid is defined as a substance that deforms continuously whilst acted upon by any force
tangential to the area on which it acts. Such a force is termed a shear force, and the ratio of
the shear force to the area on which it acts is known as the shear stress. Hence when a fluid is
at rest neither shear forces nor shear stresses exist in it.
Hence: Fluids deforms continuously(=flows) when acted on by a shearing stress of any
magnitude - a substance which must continue to change shape(=deform) as long as there is a
shear stress1 present, however small, i.e., a substance which, when at rest, cannot sustain a
shear stress.

The deformation is caused by shearing forces which act tangentially to a surface. Referring to
the figure below, we see the force F acting tangentially on a rectangular (solid lined) element
ABDC. This is a shearing force and produces the (dashed lined) rhombus element A’B’DC.

Shearing force, F, acting on a fluid element.

We can then say:
A Fluid is a substance which deforms continuously, or flows, when subjected to shearing
forces.

and conversely this definition implies the very important point that:

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Shear force, or shear stress, is when a force is applied to the face of a material. The force is applied
parallel to the object instead of perpendicular.

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 If a fluid is at rest there are no shearing forces acting. All forces must be perpendicular to
the planes which the are acting.
In this connection fluid can also be defined as the state of matter that cannot sustain any
shear stress.

When a fluid is in motion shear stresses are developed if the particles of the fluid move
relative to one another. When this happens adjacent particles have different velocities. If fluid
velocity is the same at every point then there is no shear stress produced: the particles have
zero relative velocity.
Consider the flow in a pipe in which water is flowing. At the pipe wall the velocity of the
water will be zero. The velocity will increase as we move toward the centre of the pipe. This
change in velocity across the direction of flow is known as velocity profile and shown
graphically in the figure below:

Velocity profile in a pipe.

Because particles of fluid next to each other are moving with different velocities there are
shear forces in the moving fluid i.e. shear forces are normally present in a moving fluid. On
the other hand, if a fluid is a long way from the boundary and all the particles are travelling
with the same velocity, the velocity profile would look something like this:

Velocity profile in uniform flow

and there will be no shear forces present as all particles have zero relative velocity. In practice
we are concerned with flow past solid boundaries; aeroplanes, cars, pipe walls, river channels
etc. and shear forces will be present.

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Summary Box
 A fluid is a substance in the gaseous or liquid form
 Distinction between solid and fluid? Solid: can resist an applied shear by deforming. Stress is
proportional to strain
 Fluid: deforms continuously under applied shear. Stress is proportional to strain rate
 A fluid is a substance that can resist shear only when moving

- those liquids and gases that move under the action of a shear stress, no matter how small that shear
stress may be.

- case of solid : A solid can resist a shear stress by a static deformation.

When a constant shear force is applied:
 Solid deforms or bends
 Fluid continuously deforms.

Distinction Between Solid and Fluid

We normally recognise three states of matter: solid; liquid and gas. However, liquid and gas
are both fluids: in contrast to solids they lack the ability to resist deformation. Because a fluid
cannot resist the deformation force, it moves, it flows under the action of the force. Its shape
will change continuously as long as the force is applied. A solid can resist a deformation force
while at rest, this force may cause some displacement but the solid does not continue to move
indefinitely.

A solid, on the other hand, can resist a shear force while at rest. In a solid, the shear force may
cause some initial displacement of one layer over another, but the material does not continue
to move indefinitely and a position of stable equilibrium is reached. In a fluid, however, shear
forces are possible only while relative movement between layers is taking place. A fluid is
further distinguished from a solid in that a given amount of it owes its shape at any time to
that of the vessel containing it, or to forces that in some way restrain its movement.

Deformation of the fluid takes place continuously so long as a shear force is applied. But if
this applied force is removed the shearing movement subsides and, as there are then no forces
tending to return the particles of fluid to their original relative positions, the fluid keeps its
new shape.

Solid Fluid
 More Compact Structure  Less Compact Structure
 Attractive Forces between the  Attractive Forces between the
molecules are larger therefore more molecules are smaller therefore more
closely packed loosely packed
 Solids can resist tangential stresses in  Fluids cannot resist tangential stresses
static condition in static condition.
 Whenever a solid is subjected to shear  Whenever a fluid is subjected to shear
stress stress
a. It undergoes a definite deformation α or a. No fixed deformation
breaks b. Continuous deformation takes

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b. α is proportional to shear stress up to some
limiting condition
 Solid may regain partly or fully its
original shape when the tangential stress
is removed
place until the shear stress is applied
 A fluid can never regain its original
shape, once it has been distorted by the
shear stress

Distinction Between Liquids and Gasses

Fluids may be sub-divided into liquids and gases. A fixed amount of a liquid has a definite
volume which varies only slightly with temperature and pressure.

If the capacity of the containing vessel is greater than this definite volume, the liquid occupies
only part of the container, and it forms an interface separating it from its own vapour, the
atmosphere or any other gas present.

A fixed amount of a gas, by itself in a closed container, will always expand until its volume
equals that of the container. Only then can it be in equilibrium.

In the analysis of the behaviour of fluids an important difference between liquids and gases is
that, whereas under ordinary conditions liquids are so difficult to compress that they may for
most purposes be regarded as incompressible, gases may be compressed much more readily.

Where conditions are such that an amount of gas undergoes a negligible change of volume, its
behaviour is similar to that of a liquid and it may then be regarded as incompressible. If,
however, the change in volume is not negligible, the compressibility of the gas must be taken
into account in examining its behaviour.

A second important difference between liquids and gases is that liquids have much greater
densities than gases. As a consequence, when considering forces and pressures that occur in
fluid mechanics, the weight of a liquid has an important role to play. Conversely, effects due
to weight can usually be ignored when gases are considered.

Liquid
A state of matter in which the molecules are
relatively free to change their positions with
respect to each other but restricted by cohesive
forces so as to maintain a relatively fixed volume .
- retain a definite volume in a container
- form a free surface in gravitational field
- strong intermolecular cohesive force
Gas
A state of matter in which the molecules are
practically unrestricted by cohesive forces. A gas
has neither definite shape nor volume.
- volume of gas=volume of container
- Gas cannot form a free surface, and thus gas
flows rarely concerned with gravitational effects
other than buoyancy.
- negligible cohesive forces

-
A liquid takes the shape of the container
it in and forms a free surface in the
presence of gravity
- A gas expands until it encounters the wall of the
container and fills the entire available space.
Gases cannot form a free surface
- A gas has no definite volume and left to itself
without confinement

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 Note: Gas and vapour are often used synonymously

SUMMARY BOX

Liquids and gasses behave in much the same way

Some specific differences are

1. A liquid is difficult to compress and often regarded as being incompressible. A gas is easily to compress and
usually treated as such - it changes volume with pressure.

2. A given mass of liquid occupies a given volume and will form a free surface. A gas has no fixed volume, it
changes volume to expand to fill the containing vessel. No free surface is formed

TYPES OF FLUID

Fluids can be classified according to their behaviours under stress as Newtonian fluids or non-
Newtonian fluids.

Newtonian Fluids
These are fluids which obey Newton’s law viscosity which says the shear stress is linearly
related to the rate of shear strain or velocity gradient; the constant of proportionality being the
coefficient of viscosity. In simple terms, the size of the drops is directly related to the
thickness of the fluid, all else being equal. Most common fluids such as water, gasoline,
ethanol, fall into this category.

Non-Newtonian Fluids
These are fluids which do not obey Newton’s law of viscosity. The group includes: liquid
plastics, blood, slurries, toothpaste

In a non-Newtonian fluid, the relation between the shear stress and the strain rate is nonlinear,
and can even be time-dependent. Therefore a constant coefficient of viscosity can not be
defined..

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 Linear variation of shearing stress with
Rate of shearing strain for common fluids
Newtonian Fluid

Variation of shearing stress with rate of shearing strain for several types of fluids, including
common Non-Newtonian fluids
Non-Newtonian Fluid

IDEAL FLUID and REAL FLUID

A fluid in which there is no friction is termed as ideal fluid, whereas, a fluid in which
shearing forces always exist whenever motion takes place due to the fluid’s inner friction –
viscosity.

THE FLUID AS A CONTINUUM

Concept of Continuum: The concept of continuum is a kind of idealization of the continuous
description of matter where the properties of the matter are considered as continuous
functions of space variables. Although any matter is composed of several molecules, the
concept of continuum assumes a continuous distribution of mass within the matter or system
with no empty space, instead of the actual conglomeration of separate molecules.
A fluid is considered to be a continuum in which there are no holes or voids ⇒velocity,
pressure, and temperature fields are continuous.

The term "fluid particle" is taken to mean a small element of fluid which contains many
molecules and which possesses the mean fluid properties at its position in space.

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Newton's Law of Viscosity

Newtonian fluids
Consider fluids are full of two parallel walls. A shear stress, τ , is applied to the upper wall.
Fluids are deformed continuously because fluids cannot support shear stresses. The
deformation rate, however, is constant. Furthermore, if the deformation rate or the so-called
rate of strain is proportional to the shear stress, then the fluid will be classified as a
Newtonian fluid, i.e.

Shear stress; τ = F/A

How can we make use of these observations? We can start by considering a 3d rectangular
element of fluid, like that in the figure below.

Fluid element under a shear force

The shearing force F acts on the area on the top of the element. This area is given by

. We can thus calculate the shear stress which is equal to force per unit area
i.e.

The deformation which this shear stress causes is measured by the size of the angle and is
know as shear strain.

- In a solid shear strain, , is constant for a fixed shear stress .

- In a fluid increases for as long as is applied - the fluid flows.

It has been found experimentally that the rate of shear stress (shear stress per unit time,
/time) is directly proportional to the shear stress.

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If the particle at point E (in the above figure) moves under the shear stress to point E' and it
takes time t to get there, it has moved the distance x. For small deformations we can write

shear strain

where is the velocity of the particle at E.

Using the experimental result that shear stress is proportional to rate of shear strain
then

The term is the change in velocity with y, or the velocity gradient, and may be

written in the differential form . The constant of proportionality is known as the

dynamic viscosity, , of the fluid, giving

This is known as Newton's law of viscosity.

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