Course Notes in Fluid Mechanics University of Benghazi Lecturer: Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili

Course Notes in Fluid Mechanics University of Benghazi
Lecturer: Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili Faculty of Engineering

‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬
INTRODUCTION
Fluid mechanics is concerned with the behavior of fluids (liquids and

gases) at rest and in motion.
Fluid Mechanics
Fluid Dynamics Fluid Kinematics Fluid Statics

Laws of fluid Studys the type of Studys the
movement, the movement: equilibrium of
relation between velocities, fluids at rest
velocities, accelerations, ...
accelerations, and
forces. but do not take into
account the forces.
1.1 Definitions of a Fluid

A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under the application of
a shear (tangential) stress no matter how small the shear stress may be.
Because the fluid motion continues under the application of a shear stress,
we can also define a fluid as any substance that cannot sustain a shear
stress when at rest.
A solid deforms when shear stress is applied, but it is deformation does not
continue to increase with time (Fig.1.1)
Fig. 1.1 Difference in behavior of a solid and a fluid due to a shear force.
Chapter (1) - Introduction Page 1 of 15
1.2 Dimensions, Dimensional Homogeneity, and Units
Since in our study of fluid we will be dealing with a variety of fluid

characteristics, it is necessary to develop a system for describing these
characteristics both qualitatively and quantitatively.
The qualitative description The quantitative description
 Identify the nature or type of the  Provides a numerical measure of

characteristics(such as length, the characteristics.
time, stress, and velocity)
 Requires both a number and a
standard.
 A standard for length might be a

meter or foot, for time an hour or
second, and for mass a slug or
kilogram. Such standards are
called units.
The qualitative description is given in terms of certain primary

quantities, such as length, L, time, T, mass, M, and temperature, These
primary quantities can then be used to provide any other secondary
quantity.
The primary quantities are also referred to as basic dimensions.
The secondary quantities are also referred to as derived dimensions.
Two sets of primary dimensions are commonly used in mechanical
engineering applications as follows:
Mass, length and time (MLT or MLTT)
Force, Mass, length and time (FMLT or FMLTT)
The table below provides a list of dimensions for a number of common

physical quantities.
All theoretically derived equations are dimensionally homogeneous—that

is, the dimensions of the left side of the equation must be the same as those
on the right side.
All additive separate terms must have the same dimensions.
All equations describing physical phenomena must be dimensionally

homogeneous.
For example, the equation for the velocity, V, of a uniformly accelerated
body is V = V0 + at
In terms of dimensions the equation is

𝐿𝑇 −1 =̇ 𝐿𝑇 −1 + 𝐿𝑇 −1
Thus the Eq. is dimensionally homogeneous.
Example 1.1
A liquid flows through an orifice located in the side of a
tank as shown in Figure. A commonly used equation for
determining the volume rate of flow, Q, through the orifice
is 𝑄 = 0.61 𝐴√2𝑔ℎ
Where A is the area of the orifice, g is the acceleration of
gravity, and h is the height of the liquid above the orifice.
Investigate the dimensional homogeneity of this formula.
Solution:
The dimensions of the various terms in the equation are:
Q = volume/time =̇ L3T-1
A = area =̇ L2
g = acceleration of gravity =̇ LT-2
h= height =̇ L
These terms, when substituted into the equation, yield the dimensional
form:
(L3T-1) =̇ (0.61) (L2) (√2) (LT-2)1/2 (L)1/2
h
Or A
3 -1 3 -1 Q
(L T ) =̇ [(0.61) √2 ] (L T )
It is clear from this result that the equation is dimensionally homogeneous

(both sides of the formula have the same dimensions of L3T-1),and the
numbers (0.61 and √2) are dimensionless.
If we were going to use this relationship repeatedly we might be tempted to
simplify it by replacing g with its standard value of 32.2ft/s2
and rewriting the formula as
𝑄 = 4.90 𝐴√ℎ (∗)
A quick check of the dimensions reveals that
L3T-1 =̇ (4.90) (L5/2)
and, therefore, the equation expressed as Eq. (*) can only be dimensionally
correct if the number 4.90 has the dimensions of L1/2 T-1 ,and units of ft1/2/s.
Equation (*) will only give the correct value for Q (in ft3/s) when A is
expressed in square feet and h in feet. Thus, Eq. (*) is a restricted
homogeneous equation, whereas the original equation is a general
homogeneous equation that would be valid for any consistent system of
units.
1.2.1 Systems of Units

There are several systems of units in use and we shall consider two systems
that are widely used in engineering.
British Gravitational (BG) System:
In the BG system the unit of length is the foot (ft), the time unit is the second
(s), the force unit is the pound (lb), and the temperature unit is the degree
Fahrenheit ( oF) or the absolute temperature unit is the degree Rankine ( oR)
where
°𝑅 = °𝐹 + 459.67
The mass unit, called the slug, is defined from Newton’s second law (force =
mass * acceleration) as
1lb = (1 slug) (1 ft /s2)
International System (SI):
In SI the unit of length is the meter (m), the time unit is the second (s), the
mass unit is the kilogram (kg), and the temperature unit is the Kelvin (K).
Note that there is no degree symbol used when expressing a temperature in

Kelvin units. The Kelvin temperature scale is an absolute scale and is
related to the Celsius (centigrade) scale through the relationship
K = °C +273.15
The force unit, called the newton (N), is defined from Newton’s second law
as
1 N = (1 kg) (1 m/s2)
Important
 In mechanics it is very important to distinguish between weight and

mass.
 When solving problems it is important to use a consistent system of units,

e.g., do not mix BG and SI units.
The standard earth gravity g = 9.81 m/s2 (SI)

g = 32.2 ft/s2 (BG)
Conversion from one system of units to another;
1 ft = 0.3048 m
1 mi = 5280 ft = 5280(0.3048) = 1609 m
1 in = 1/12 ft = 1/12 (0.3048) = 0.0254 m
1 slug = 32.2 lbm = 14.59 kg
1 lbm = 0.454 kg
1 lb = 4.448 N
1.3 Measures of Fluid Mass and Weight
Density ():
The density of a fluid is defined as its mass per unit volume.
𝑚
𝜌= 
𝑉
In the BG system it has units of slug/ft3 and in SI the units are kg/m3
For liquids, variations in pressure and temperature generally have a small

effect on the value of density, but the density of gas is strongly influenced by
both pressure and temperature.
Water density at 20 ºC = 999 kg/m3 = 1.94 slug/ft3

Water density at 4 ºC = 1000 kg/m3
Specific weight ():

The specific weight of a fluid is defined as its weight per unit volume.
𝑊 𝑚𝑔
𝛾= = = 𝜌𝑔
𝑉 𝑉
In the BG system it has units of lbf /ft3 and in SI the units are N/m3
Specific Gravity (SG):
It is defined as the ratio of density of the fluid to the density of water at
specified temperature.
Usually the specified temperature is taken as 4 ºC.
Normally gases are related to air and liquid (and solids) are related to
water.
𝜌
𝑆𝐺 =
𝜌𝐻2 𝑂 @4℃
Viscosity ():
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to shear or angular
deformation.
Consider a fluid element sheared in one plane by a single shear stress 𝜏, the
shear strain angle  will continuously grow with time as long as the shear
stress is maintained.
For most common fluids (water, oil, air), there is a linear proportionality
between the applied shear, and the resulting strain rate,
𝛿𝜃
𝜏∝ (#)
𝛿𝑡
From the figure,
𝛿𝑢𝛿𝑡
tan 𝛿𝜃 = 𝛿𝜃 = (for small angles)
𝛿𝑦
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑢
Thus; =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦
Equation (#) can be rewritten as:

𝑑𝑢
𝜏∝
𝑑𝑦
For Newtonian fluids
𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦
Where the constant of proportionality  is called the absolute viscosity, or
dynamic viscosity, or simply the viscosity of the fluid, and has the units of
(kg/m.s) or (N.s/m2) , also
1 poise = 0.1 N.s/m2
The kinematic viscosity of a liquid is the ratio of its absolute viscosity to its
density.
Kinematic viscosity = , m2/s
1 stoke = 10-4 m2/s
Fluids for which the shearing stress is linearly related to the rate of
𝛿𝜃
shearing strain (𝜏 ∝ ) are designated as Newtonian fluids.
𝛿𝑡
Fortunately most common fluids, both liquids and gases, are Newtonian.
Fluids for which the shearing stress is not linearly related to the rate of
shearing strain are designated as non-Newtonian fluids.
Although there are a variety of types of non-Newtonian fluids, the simplest

and most common are shown in previous figures.
Variation of viscosity with temperature
The pressure effect on the viscosity of both liquids and gases is neglected.
For gases the viscosity increase as the temperature increase, and the
common approximations are the power law and the Sutherland law:
For liquids, the viscosity decrease as the temperature increase (WHY?), and
the viscosity of liquids can be calculated from the following empirical
formula:
For water with To =273 K; o = 0.001792 N.s/m2, a = - 1.94, b = -4.8

and c = 6.74
Example 1.2
The velocity distribution for the flow of a Newtonian fluid between two wide,
parallel plates is given by the equation
3𝑉 𝑦 2
𝑢= [1 − ( ) ]
2 ℎ
where V is the mean velocity. The fluid has a viscosity of 0.04 lb . s/ft2. Also,
V = 2 ft /s and h = 0.2 in.
Determine:
(a) the shearing stress acting on the bottom wall.
(b) the shearing stress acting on a plane parallel to the walls and passing
through the centerline (midplane).
Solution:
For this type of parallel flow the shearing stress is obtained from Equation:
𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇 (1)
𝑑𝑦
Thus, if the velocity distribution u = u(y) is known, the shearing stress can
be determined at all points by evaluating the velocity gradient, du / dy. For
the distribution given
𝑑𝑢 3𝑉𝑦
=− 2 (2)
𝑑𝑦 ℎ
(a) Along the bottom wall y = - h , so that (from Eq. 2)
𝑑𝑢 3𝑉
=
𝑑𝑦 ℎ
and therefore the shearing stress is
3𝑉 (0.04 𝑙𝑏. 𝑠⁄𝑓𝑡 2 )(3)(2 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠)

𝜏𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 𝜇( ) =
𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 ℎ (0.2 𝑖𝑛. )(1 𝑓𝑡⁄12 𝑖𝑛. )
= 14.4 lb/ft2 (in direction of flow)

This stress creates a drag on the wall. Since the velocity distribution is
symmetrical, the shearing stress along the upper wall would have the same
magnitude and direction.
(b) Along the midplane where y = 0 it follows from Eq. 2 that:
𝑑𝑢
=0
𝑑𝑦
and thus the shearing stress is

𝜏midplane = 0
Example 1.3
A shaft 6.00 cm in diameter is inserted in a bearing sleeve 6.02 cm in

diameter and 40 cm long. The clearance, assumed uniform, is filled with oil
whose properties are v = 0.003 m2/s and SG = 0.88. Estimate the torque and
power required to rotate the shaft at 1500 rpm.
Solution:
= 150×2×π /60 = 157 rad/sec
V = .r = 157×3×12-2 = 4.71 m/s
du
  
dy
Assuming linear velocity distribution
du V 4.71
   4.71 103 ( s 1 )
dy Ro  Ri 0.01 102
 oil×oil×SG oil×water =0.003×880 = 2.64 kg/m.s
= 2.64 × 47.1 ×103 = 124.3 kN/m2
F= × A = ×  × Di ×l= 124.3 ×103 ×3 ×10-2 =9.4 ×103 N
T (torque) = F.r = 9.4 ×103×3 ×10-2=282 N.m
P (power) = × T = 157 ×282 = 44.3 ×103W (44.3 kW)
‫‪Course Notes in Fluid Mechanics‬‬ ‫‪University of Benghazi‬‬
‫‪Lecturer: Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili‬‬ ‫‪Faculty of Engineering‬‬
‫‪Chapter (1) - Introduction‬‬ ‫‪Page 14 of 15‬‬
Problems
2. Two layers of fluid are dragged along by the motion of an

upper plate as shown in Fig. The bottom plate is stationary.
The top fluid puts a shear stress on the upper plate, and the
lower fluid puts a shear stress on the bottom plate.
Determine the ratio of these two shear stresses.

Course Notes in Fluid Mechanics University of Benghazi Lecturer: Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili

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Course Notes in Fluid Mechanics University of Benghazi

Lecturer: Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili Faculty of Engineering

Fluid mechanics is concerned with the behavior of fluids (liquids and

Fluid Dynamics Fluid Kinematics Fluid Statics

1.1 Definitions of a Fluid

Since in our study of fluid we will be dealing with a variety of fluid

The qualitative description The quantitative description

 Identify the nature or type of the  Provides a numerical measure of

 A standard for length might be a

The qualitative description is given in terms of certain primary

The primary quantities are also referred to as basic dimensions.

The secondary quantities are also referred to as derived dimensions.

Mass, length and time (MLT or MLTT)

Force, Mass, length and time (FMLT or FMLTT)

The table below provides a list of dimensions for a number of common

All theoretically derived equations are dimensionally homogeneous—that

All additive separate terms must have the same dimensions.

All equations describing physical phenomena must be dimensionally

In terms of dimensions the equation is

It is clear from this result that the equation is dimensionally homogeneous

A quick check of the dimensions reveals that

L3T-1 =̇ (4.90) (L5/2)

1.2.1 Systems of Units

British Gravitational (BG) System:

Note that there is no degree symbol used when expressing a temperature in

 In mechanics it is very important to distinguish between weight and

 When solving problems it is important to use a consistent system of units,

The standard earth gravity g = 9.81 m/s2 (SI)

For liquids, variations in pressure and temperature generally have a small

Water density at 20 ºC = 999 kg/m3 = 1.94 slug/ft3

Specific weight ():

Usually the specified temperature is taken as 4 ºC.

Equation (#) can be rewritten as:

Kinematic viscosity = , m2/s

1 stoke = 10-4 m2/s

Although there are a variety of types of non-Newtonian fluids, the simplest

Variation of viscosity with temperature

For water with To =273 K; o = 0.001792 N.s/m2, a = - 1.94, b = -4.8

and therefore the shearing stress is

3𝑉 (0.04 𝑙𝑏. 𝑠⁄𝑓𝑡 2 )(3)(2 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠)

= 14.4 lb/ft2 (in direction of flow)

(b) Along the midplane where y = 0 it follows from Eq. 2 that:

and thus the shearing stress is

A shaft 6.00 cm in diameter is inserted in a bearing sleeve 6.02 cm in

= 150×2×π /60 = 157 rad/sec

V = .r = 157×3×12-2 = 4.71 m/s

Assuming linear velocity distribution

 oil×oil×SG oil×water =0.003×880 = 2.64 kg/m.s

= 2.64 × 47.1 ×103 = 124.3 kN/m2

F= × A = ×  × Di ×l= 124.3 ×103 ×3 ×10-2 =9.4 ×103 N

T (torque) = F.r = 9.4 ×103×3 ×10-2=282 N.m

P (power) = × T = 157 ×282 = 44.3 ×103W (44.3 kW)

2. Two layers of fluid are dragged along by the motion of an

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