The basic purpose of hardening is to produce a fully martensitic structure, and the minimum

cooling rate that will avoid the formation of any of the softer products of transformation is known
as the critical cooling rate.

The critical cooling rate, determined by chemical composition and austenitic grain size, is an
important property of the steel since it indicates how fast a steel must be cooled in order to form
only martensite.

The isothermal-transformation diagram

Since austenite is unstable below the lower critical line A1, it is necessary to know at a particular
subcritical temperature
• How long it will take for austenite (  ) to start to transform,
• How long it will take to be completely transformed, and
• What will be the nature of the transformation product.
1
o Step 1: Prepare a large number of samples (0.8% C).

o Step 2: Place the samples in a furnace at proper austenizing temperature,

for a 1080 steel this temperature approximately (774 °C).

Step 3: Place the samples in molten salt bath (below A1 line) at (704 °C).

o Step 4: After varying time, each sample is quenched in cold water or iced brine.

o Step 5: After cooling, each sample is checked for hardness and studied microscopically.

o Step 6: The above steps are repeated at different subcritical temperature until sufficient
points are determined to plot the curves on the diagram.

Figure 46. Atypical sample which is used to determine an I-T diagram

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2020 Dr. Mohamed Almalki
o Martensite is formed only from austenite
almost instantaneously at low temperatures.

o If austenite transforms at a higher temperature

to a structure which is stable at room
temperature, rapid cooling will not change the
transformation product.

o In other words, if pearlite is formed at 704 °C, 704 °C 2

the pearlite will be exactly the same at room

temperature no matter how drastically it is
quenched, since there is no reason for the 100P 100P
pearlite to change.
Figure 47. The progress of austenite transformation to coarse
pearlite at 1300°F (704 °C) as related to the structure at room
temperature; A is austenite, M is martensite, P is pearlite.

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The typical isothermal transformation curve at 1300°F (704 °C) and several of the room-
temperature micro-structures are shown in the Figure 48.

Time-hour, long scale

Figure 48. Typical isothermal-transformation curve of austenite to pearlite for a 1089 (eutectoid) steel at- 1300 °F; martensite is
the light area. Magnification 500X. (Micros courtesy of Research Laboratory, U.S. Steel Corporation.)
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2020 Dr. Mohamed Almalki
As a result of this experiment, two point may be plotted at (675 °C),
• the time for beginning and
• the time of the end of transformation.

Figure 49. Demonstration of how an isothermal

transformation diagram (bottom) is generated
from percentage transformation-versus logarithm
of time measurements (top).

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2020 Dr. Mohamed Almalki
The diagram is know as an I-T (isothermal-
transformation) diagram.
Coarse pearlite R/C 15
Other names for the same curves are TTT (
Medium pearlite R/C 30
transformation, temperature, time) curves or S Nose
A1 Fine pearlite R/C 40
curves.
The I-T diagram for a 1080 eutectoid steel is shown Upper bainite R/C 40

in Figure 50.
Lower bainite R/C 60

Martensite R/C 64

Figure 50. The complete isothermal transformation

diagram for an iron–carbon alloy of eutectoid composition:
A, austenite; B, bainite; M, martensite; P, pearlite. 6
Isothermal transformation diagram

Figure 51. Isothermal transformation diagram for a eutectoid iron–carbon alloy, with superimposed isothermal heat treatment
curve (ABCD). Microstructures before, during, and after the austenite-to-pearlite transformation are shown.
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2020 Dr. Mohamed Almalki
To determine the progress of martensite formation metallographically, let us drastically quench a
sample to a temperature below the Ms line, say 350 °F (176.7 °C).

Figure 52. Typical example of the transformation of

austenite to martensite. Microstructures at 500X, (From
"Atlas of Isothermal Transformation Diagrams," U.S. Steel
Corporation.)

Percentage martensite observed

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2020 Dr. Mohamed Almalki
Transformation to Pearlite and Bainite
Returning to Figure 50, the transformation product above the Coarse pearlite R/C 15
Medium pearlite R/C 30
nose region is pearlite. Nose Fine pearlite R/C 40
• The pearlite microstructure is the characteristic lamellar Upper bainite R/C 40

structure of alternate layers of ferrite and cementite.

Lower bainite R/C 60

• Pearlite is coarse, medium and fine pearlite. with different in

microstructure and mechanical properties, Figure 53.
Martensite R/C 64

• Between the nose region of approximately 950°F and the Ms

temperature, a new, dark-etching aggregate of ferrite and
cementite appears. This structure, called bainite.

• Bainite is upper and lower bainite, Figures 54 and 55.

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2020 Dr. Mohamed Almalki
 Figure 53. pearlites formed by
isothermal transformation of austenite
at various subcritical. temperatures;
(a) 1300°F, (b) 1225°F, (c) 1150°F, (0)
1075°F. Magnified 1.500X. Note the
increase in the fineness of pearlite
with decreasing transformation
temperature. (Courtesy of Research
Laboratory, U.S. Steel Corporation.)

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2020 Dr. Mohamed Almalki
- Bainite
Because bainitic steels have a finer structure (i.e., smaller ferrite and particles), they are
generally stronger and harder than pearlitic ones; yet they exhibit a desirable combination of
strength and ductility.

Figure 54. Brinell hardness and tensile strength (at room

temperature) as a function of isothermal transformation
temperature for an iron–carbon alloy of eutectoid
composition, taken over the temperature range at which
bainitic and pearlitic microstructures form.

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2020 Dr. Mohamed Almalki
• If hot quenching temperature is between 550 0C to 250 0C, an intermediate structure Bainite is
produced.
• Bainite contain nonlamellar eutectoid structure of α ferrite and cementite.
• Upper Bainite between 550 0C and 350 0C
• Lower Bainite between 350 0C and 250 0C

Upper Bainite Lower Bainite

Figure 55. 12
 It consists of tiny carbide platelets generally
oriented parallel with the long direction of
the ferrite needles which make up the
matrix.

Figure 56. Feathery bainite and fine pearlite in a martensitic (white) matrix, 1.000X.
(b) The microstructure of bainite transformed at 850°F, taken with the electron
microscope, 15.000X. (Courtesy of Research Laboratory, U.S. Steel Corporation.)
(Upper Bainite).

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2020 Dr. Mohamed Almalki
 As the transformation temperature decreases, the
ferrite needles become thinner and the carbide
platelets become smaller and more closely
spaced. The carbide platelets are usually oriented
at an angle of about 60° to the long axis of the
ferrite needles, rather than parallel to this
direction (see Figure 57b).

Figure 57. (a) Acicular or lower bainite, black needles in a martensitic

(white) matrix, 2.500X. (b) The microstructure of bainite transformed at
500 F, taken with the electron microscope, 15.000X. (Courtesy of
Research Laboratory, U.S. Steel Corporation.) (Lower Bainite).

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2020 Dr. Mohamed Almalki
Figure 58. Transmission electron micrograph showing the structure of bainite.
A grain of bainite passes from lower left to upper right-hand corners, which consists of elongated and needle-shaped particles of
Fe3C within a ferrite matrix. The phase surrounding the bainite is martensite.

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2020 Dr. Mohamed Almalki
Whereas pearlite is nucleated by a carbide crystal, bainite is nucleated by a ferrite crystal, and this
results in a different growth pattern, as illustrated in Figure 59.

Pearlite

Bainite

Figure 59. Growth of pearlite, nucleated by a carbide crystal, and of bainite, nucleated by a
ferrite crystal with carbide rejected as discontinuous small platelets.

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2020 Dr. Mohamed Almalki
 Cooling Curves and the I-T Diagram

Figure 60. Cooling curves superimposed on a

hypothetical I-T diagram for a eutectoid steel.
Cross-hatched portion of the cooling curve
indicates transformation
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2020 Dr. Mohamed Almalki
Cooling curve 1 shows a very slow cooling rate typical of
conventional annealing.
Cooling curve 2 illustrates "isothermal" or "cycle annealing"
and was developed directly from the I-T diagram.

Cooling curve 3 is a faster cooling rate than annealing and

may be considered typical of normalizing.

Cooling curve 4, typical of a slow oil quench, is similar to the one just
described, and the microstructure will be a mixture of medium and fine
pearlite
Cooling curve 5, typical of an intermediate cooling rate, will start to transform (at x5) to fine
pearlite in a relatively short time. The transformation to fine pearlite will continue until the curve
becomes tangent to some percentage transformed, say 25 percent, at x'5.

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2020 Dr. Mohamed Almalki
Cooling curve 6, typical of drastic quench, is rapid enough to avoid transformation in the nose
region. The final microstructure will be entirely martensite of high hardness.

Cooling curve 7, Critical cooling rate (CCR).

Position of the I-T Curves

There are only two factors that will change the
position of the curves of the I-T diagram, namely,
chemical composition and austenitic grain size.

With few exceptions, an increase in carbon or alloy

content or in grain size of the austenite always
retards transformation (moves the curve to the
right), at least at temperatures at or above the nose
region.

This in turn slows up the critical cooling rate, making Figure 61. Diagram of 1035 steel, 0.35 %C,
it easier to form martensite. 0.37 %Man. Isothermal Transformation
Diagrams." U.S. Steel Corporation.
Since this is a hypoeutectoid steel, notice the presence of the austenite-to-ferrite region.
The nose of the curve is not visible, indicating that it is very difficult to cool this steel fast enough
to obtain only martensite.
The microstructure of a low-carbon steel water quenched, Figure 62, shows a white ferrite
network surrounding the gray low-carbon martensite areas.

Figure 62. Microstructure of a low-carbon steel, water-1quenched showing a white ferrite network surrounding
the gray low-carbon martensite areas. (a) 100x; (b) 500x. etched in 2 percent nital.
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2020 Dr. Mohamed Almalki
Figure 63, shows the I-T diagram for a 1050 steel.

The increase in carbon content has shifted the curve far

enough to the right to make the nose just visible, and the M,
temperature has been reduced to 620°F.

Theoretically, in order to form only martensite, it is necessary

to cool fast enough to get by 1000°F in approximately 0.7 s.

Notice that the A + F region has become much narrower and

disappears in the vicinity of the nose.
Figure 63. I-T diagram of 1050 steel:
0.50% C, 0.91% Man at 1670 °F. (Atlas
The microstructure of a medium-carbon steel water-quenched, of isothermal transformation diagram,
Figure 64, shows dark areas of fine pearlite that seem to U.S. steel corporation.)
outline some of the previous austenite grain boundaries, some
dark feathery bainite, and substantially more martensite as the
matrix than appeared in the low-carbon steel.
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2020 Dr. Mohamed Almalki
Figure 64. Microstructure od medium-carbon steel, water quenched, showing dark areas of fine
pearlite that seem to outline some of the previous austenite grain boundaries, some dark feathery
Bainite, and a matrix of martensite. (a) 100x, (b) 750x. Etched in 2% nital.

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2020 Dr. Mohamed Almalki
Although alloy additions tend in general to delay the
start of transformation and to increase the time for its
completion, they differ greatly in both magnitude and
nature of their effects.

Figure 65, shows the I-T diagram of a 1335 manganese

steel. Comparison of this diagram to Figure 61, shows
that the addition of 1.50 percent manganese has shifted
the entire curve to the right.

The nose of the curve is now visible, and it should be

possible to completely harden this steel much more
easily than the plain carbon steel.
Figure 65. I-T diagram of a 1335 steel, 0.35% C,
Notice that the end-of-transformation line now shows 1.85% Man Austenitized at 1550 °F. (from Atlas of
Iso-thermal Transformation Diagrams, U.S.Steel
an S shape. Where there is a pronounced minimum time Corporation.)
in the ending line at relatively high temperature.
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2020 Dr. Mohamed Almalki
As shown in the diagram, the upper minimum (point x) is approximately 5 min at 1100 °F for the
end of transformation, whereas at 1200 °F the end of transformation is approximately 1 h.

continuous cooling transformation (CCT) diagram.

Figure 66. Moderately rapid and slow cooling

curves superimposed on a continuous Cooling
transformation diagram for a eutectoid iron–
carbon alloy.

2020 Dr. Mohamed Almalki

Figure 67. Continuous cooling transformation
diagram for a eutectoid iron–carbon alloy and
superimposed cooling curves, demonstrating the
dependence of the final microstructure on the
transformations that occur during cooling.

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2020 Dr. Mohamed Almalki
Figure 86, shows the C-T diagram for a triple-alloy
steel. This is hypoeutectoid steel, so there is an
additional area, austenite-to-ferrite, which was not
present in the eutectoid steel.

In this alloy steel, the pearlite zone lies relatively far

to the right and does not shelter the bainite region,
therefore, with cooling rates between 0.3 and 8.3 °C/s
it is possible to obtain appreciable amounts of bainite
in the microstructure.

Notice that the cooling rate tangent to the "upper

nose" (0.3 °C/s) is not the critical cooling rate.

The cooling rate tangent to the "lower nose" or "knee

the diagram (8.3 °C/s) would have to be exceeded to
Figure 68. Continuous cooling transformation diagram for an alloy steel (type
form martensite. 4340) [0.42% carbon, 0.78% manganese, 1.79% nickel , 0.80% chromium and
0.33% molybdenum] and several superimposed cooling curves demonstrating
dependence of the final microstructure of this alloy on the transformations that
2020 Dr. Mohamed Almalki occur during cooling. 26
To summarize, there are only two factors that will decrease the critical cooling rate or move the I-
T diagram to the right:
• Increase the amount of carbon and Alloying elements added
• Coarsening the austenitic grain size.

The addition of alloying elements does not affect the maximum hardness
A plain carbon steel my have to be water-quenched to obtain full hardness,
while the same steel when alloyed may attain the same hardness and may be hardened to a
greater depth even when cooled more slowly by oil quenching.
The use of a slower cooling rate reduces the danger of distortion and cracking during heat
treatment.

While coarsening the austenitic grain size has an effect similar to that of adding alloying
elements: the coarser grain will tend to reduce the toughness of the steel.

Therefore, if it is desired to reduce the critical cooling rate, this may be done best by changing
the chemical composition rather than by coarsening the austenitic grain.
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