EDDE 201 Course Manual

Foundations of Distance
Education: Experiences
from the Philippines
Ma. Cristina D. Padolina

Paz Eulalia Saplala
Maria Lurenda S. Westergaard
University of the Philippines

OPEN UNIVERSITY
Foundations of Distance Education: Experiences from the Philippines
By Ma. Cristina D. Padolina, Paz Eulalia Saplala, Maria Lurenda S. Westergaard
Copyright © 2007 Ma. Cristina D. Padolina, Paz Eulalia Saplala,

Maria Lurenda S. Westergaard and the University of the Philippines
Open University
Apart from any fair use for the purpose of research or private study,
criticism or review, this publication may be reproduced, stored
or transmitted, in any form or by any means
ONLY WITH THE PERMISSION
of the author and the UP Open University.
Published in the Philippines by the UP Open University

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First printing, 2007
Layout by Cecilia Geronimo-Santiago
Printed in the Philippines

Table of Contents
Module 1 What is Distance Education?

Distance Education Students, 1
Profile of Some UPOU Students, 2
Objectives, 2
Defining Elements of Distance Education, 7
Some definitions of distance education, 7
Elements of distance education, 10
Suggested Reading, 11
Module 2 The Development of Distance Education and Related Concepts, 13

The Development of Distance Education, 13
Related Concepts, 27
Module 3 Distance Education Models, 31

Objectives, 31
The Six Models of Distance Education, 31
Type I, 31
Type II, 32
Type III, 32
Type IV, 33
Type V, 33
Type VI, 34
Reference, 35
Module 4 Theories of Distance Education – 1, 37

Interaction and Communication, 37
Objectives, 38
Learner-content interaction, 38
Learner-instructor interaction, 39
Learner-learner interaction, 41
Technologies for interaction, 42
Timing of interaction, 43
Counseling, 44
Independence and Autonomy, 45
References, 53
Module 5 Theories of Distance Education – 2, 55
Industrialization of Teaching and Learning, 55
The concept of industrialization as applied to education, 55
Objectives, 56
Neo-industrialization (or neo-Fordism), 58
Post-industrialized teaching and learning, 60]
Integration of the Teaching Acts, 61
Integration of the teaching acts through quality learning packages, 62
Integration of the teaching acts through two-way communication, 63
Comprehensive Theory, 65
Independent study and learning (Wedemeyer), 65
Industrialized teaching and learning (Peters), 66
Guided didactic conversation (Holmberg), 66
Transactional distance (Moore), 67
The educational control model (Garrison and Shale), 68
Towards a comprehensive theory, 69
References, 72
Unit III A Systems View of Distance Education
Module 6 Distance Education System — 1 Course Design and Development

Subsystem, 73
Objectives, 73
The ADDIE Model, 73
Self-instructional materials, 75
Radio for distance education, 76
Television for Distance Education, 78
Computers and the Internet for Distance Education, 80
Collaboratively constructing knowledge and meaning, 81
The quality circle, 83
Enabling environments for course design and development, 84
References, 89
Module 7 Teaching and Learning Subsystem, 91

Objectives, 91
Teaching at a distance, 93
Learning at a distance, 96
Referrences, 103
Module 8 Distance Education System — 3 Student Support System, 105

Objectives, 105
Components of student support, 105
Basic orientation of distance learners, 108
Development of students into independent learners, 110
Referrences, 110
Module 9 Organization and Management, 111
Objectives, 111
Goal Setting, 112
Programs and Courses to be Offered, 113
Orientation to the Distance Education Mode of Study, 114
Assessment of the Financial Capability of the Organizing Institution and the
Resources Needed, 115
Coordinating the Activities of the Subsystems, 116
Keeping a Pulse on the subsystems, 117
Other Concerns of Organization and Management, 117
The Future of the Teaching Staff in a Distance Education Institution, 118
References, 119
Unit I Module 1 1
Module 1
What is Distance Education?
Ma. Cristina D. Padolina
Distance education students

Distance education is an alternative way of studying that is suitable for
some individuals for various reasons. Take yourself, for example, what
made you decide to enroll in this kind of program?
Activity 1-2
Getting to know your fellow learners in the course.
Post in the course website the following information about your-

self:
Name:
Information about yourself (where you live, where you work,
etc)
What made you decide to study at the UPOU?
Why do you think distance education suitable for you?
Your classmates will also post the same information. You can get
to know them while learning what makes distance education stu-
dents special.
In the meantime, you will find below, the profiles of some students of the
U. P. Open University, some of whom have graduated. Get acquainted
with them.
UP Open University
2 Foundations of Distance Education
Profile of some UPOU students

Objectives
Ma. Celina Angela P. Pedro
Upon completion of this (33 yrs on application; graduated MPS Development
module you should be able Communication, 2005)
to:
Prior to enrollment in UPOU, Ms Pedro tried to ac-
1. List the characteristics quire training as a broadcaster/newscaster. How-
of students who under- ever, she could not fit this into her schedule given
take studies by distance her family responsibilities and the training programs
education; and were not appropriate for what she wanted to do in
2. Describe each of the the future.
defining elements of
distance education. In her application to enroll in the UP Open Univer-
sity, MS. Pedro wrote, “I resigned from Chase Man-
hattan Bank two years ago for the purpose of hav-
ing more time to care for my two young daughters. The UP Open Univer-
sity has provided an opportunity for me to undertake further studies,
while still having adequate time for my family. I intend to work again for
a financial institution or corporation. The two-year program precisely fits
my time frame since my daughters will be older by then, and will both be
in school. After completion of this graduate study, I aim to work anew as
a marketing professional. By then I will be better equipped with the skill
of conceptualizing and producing effective communication materials. This
will aid me in efficiently imparting information to colleagues and compe-
tently presenting information to others.”
As a UPOU student she attended tutorials in UP Diliman and did some of

her course work online.
Farida Jane M. Tiongson

(27 yrs on application, pursuing MPS Development Communication)
Ms. Tiongson wrote in her application:
“As I grow in years and mature, I realize the importance and essence of
education in my life. My mother consistently and frequently uttered the
value of schooling when I was young….
“I am a paraplegic (spinal cord injury) due to a vehicular accident. Life

truly is not an easy road to travel. Somewhere along the journey, trials
will come our way. Sometimes it hits us unknowingly and is considered
an inevitable ingredient of our lives….
UP Open University
Unit I Module 1 3
“I intend to attain higher education through distance education because

it is convenient (due to my disability, paralysis), but it entails a lot of disci-
pline, perseverance, patience and hard work. Furthermore, I know that I
will greatly benefit from this two year graduate degree program on the
grounds that it is specifically designed to help individuals – to help me
bring out the best of my abilities, to enhance my skills to perfection, to
increase my knowledge, to learn new ideas and acquire new crafts.
“The completion of a master’s degree will allow me to advance, to seek

more job opportunities and possibilities at my present work. It will also be
an avenue in pursuing employment from other companies. More so, I will
be able to apply what I have learned and utilize the skills accordingly.
“Learning is a continuous process. I believe that it is one of the essentials in

life that enables us to live, to laugh, to dream, to persist, to strive, to suc-
ceed….”
Haidee N. Aquino
(25 years old on application to the Master in Education, major in Lan-
guage Studies)
In support of her application for admission to the UP Open University,

she wrote:
“After teaching here in China for almost four years, I feel I am running
out of fresh ideas and its high time that I should recharge and update
myself in such an era of knowledge explosion. New technology, new theo-
ries come out like mushrooms… it is really hard to catch up. I find it
beyond my ability to systematize what I come across on websites without
the necessary nudges from professors.
“A chance encounter through the Internet sparked my hope: UP, my alma

mater where I graduated with honors in 1999 is offering distance courses
for master’s degrees. This is absolutely good news to those who are un-
able to take advantage of the traditional modes of education. A well-
planned, syllabus-based, and quality-oriented course provided by the UP
Open University is one that I have been yearning for.
“Innovation and professional development are two missions for me… it is

every teacher’s responsibility to improve his/her creativity in teaching so
as to satisfy the student’s quest for knowledge and perfection.
After I finish my master’s, I plan to go back to the Philippines to continue

my PhD and my teaching career. .. I really want to keep the job I’ve al-
ways loved —teaching —and to be able to be of some help to my mother-
land.”
UP Open University
As a UPOU student based in China, Ms. Aquino did all her tutorials and
consultations with her professors online, and submitted her assignments
by email. Her examinations were administered through a proctor assigned
by UPOU, mostly at the Philippine Embassy in China.
Ricardo B. Oribiana
(47 years old at the time of application to the Diploma/Master’s in Envi-
ronment and Natural Resource Management)
In Mr. Oribiana’s job as a Supply Sales Operations Assistant of Pilipinas

Shell Petroleum Corporation, he ensures that their products which are
largely transported by ship tankers, barges and lorries, arrive and are
discharged to their customers with minimum spillage.
In his application he said that his main reason for enrolling at the UP
Open University is for personal advancement in an area close to his heart
which is the protection of the environment.
He wrote, “The course Diploma leading to Master in Environment and

Natural Resource Management would make me fully understand and
expand my knowledge about the environment we are at the moment try-
ing very hard to protect and maintain….The knowledge that I would
gain I am sure will give me the information needed to perhaps convince
and prod our management to use its huge resources do something more.
“…I am also keen on taking up the Upland Resources Management be-

cause of my residence. I live with my family in Nagcarlan, Laguna—an
idyllic town nestled between Mt. San Cristobal and Mt. Banahaw…. I am
intent on keeping and making sure that future generations will not lose
this God-given natural treasure….
“In summary, although I would like to take up the course for personal
knowledge and advancement, I possess a deep conviction to translate this
to something concrete that eventually will help and improve the
sustainability of our natural resources.”
Emery C. Graham
(55 years old at the time of application for admission in 2003. Completed
all course requirements for MPS Development Communication)
Mr. Graham has spent his entire work life “serving the development needs
of the marginalized and oppressed peoples in urban America.” He had
experienced frustration, however, in some government development
schemes, like neighborhood development and community revitalization,
UP Open University
Unit I Module 1 5
that he had been involved with because they “failed to produce the type
of development that was transferable between generations and across
cultures.”
Searching through the Internet for alternatives both in development pro-

cesses and for ways that he can obtain training, he came across the web
site of the UP Open University. He enrolled initially in the University’s
online teaching and learning course; bought a book being used in one of
the courses in the MPS Development Communication program and then
finally applied for admission to the program.
In his application for admission, he expressed interest in the “perspec-

tives and visions of practitioners and academics who have had develop-
ment training and experiences in both the First and Third worlds” and
anticipation of a “unique learning experience and shared insights that
would not be possible in any First World academic setting.”
Jejomar C. Binay
58 years old at the time of application; graduated from the Diploma in
Environment and Natural Resources Management)
Mr. Binay was mayor of Makati City, Philippines, where the country’s
biggest financial district is located, when he was enrolled at the UP Open
University.
In his application for admission, he said:
“It is said that man should not stop learning.
“The UP Open University is a blessing for us who have less time to attend
formal schooling to acquire a diploma/masteral [degree]. The Open Uni-
versity is one of the positive developments in education. It is practical and
would answer the needs of those who wanted to acquire a [degree] even
without having to devote most of their time inside the classroom.
“In my case, I am interested in the courses being offered by the UP Open

University because it would help me both in my work as a local chief
executive, at the same time, in managing the family business that is pri-
marily agriculture-based….Although I had read a lot of books about agri-
culture and environment, I think it is not yet enough to consider myself as
an authority on the subject concerned. In our country, having a title at-
tached to a name is considered more credible than having none to offer.
UP Open University
“Another thing, being a Law graduate, a law practitioner, and currently

a public servant, I consider myself lacking the technical background re-
lated to agriculture, environment, and its related fields.
“Any public official could just hire a consultant or expert on these fields,
but I find it more practical and sensible if a leader is equipped with the
basic knowledge on these aspects, especially on environment and natural
resources management, to make him an effective policy maker.”
Lara Serena R. Ortaleza

(Age 22 when she applied to enroll in the Associate in Arts)
Ms. Ortaleza started an undergraduate degree with another university

but was unable to continue because of the demands of her career as an
artist, a popular one at that, working for a major television station in the
Philippines. Her work schedule was very irregular and demanding,
oftentimes overflowing into the wee hours of the morning and many times
in different locations. She recognized, however, the value of a formal edu-
cation and a college degree, thus her search for an alternative way to
acquire the same.
As a UPOU student, she makes time to attend the occasional face-to-face

tutorials. She is better able to cope with this rather than the frequent and
regular schedule of a conventional class.
Activity 1-2
Check the course website and read the information posted by your
classmates about themselves and their own reasons for enrolling
in a distance education program.
Having read the profiles of some students of the U. P. Open Uni-

versity, gotten acquainted with the circumstances of your own
classmates and knowing your own, make a summary of the fol-
lowing:
1. Characteristics of distance education students. List the char-

acteristics you think are common to all distance education stu-
dents; list those characteristics that may be found in many but
not all distance education students.
2. Reasons why individuals undertake study by distance educa-
tion.
UP Open University
Unit I Module 1 7
The most recent survey of the Distance Education and Training Council
presented by its Executive Director, Michael P. Lambert, in the 2005 con-
ference of the European Association for Distance Learning, gave the fol-
lowing information about students enrolled in degree programs in 36 of
their member institutions:
l The average age of students is 37

l 45% of the students are female
l 94% are employed at the time of enrollment
l 38% have their tuition paid by their employers
Many distance education programs target adults. At the UP Open Uni-

versity, for example, most of the programs are postbaccalaureate degree
programs. Many of the students have employment, family responsibili-
ties, and social and professional obligations. They desire to upgrade their
qualifications in terms of skills and/or knowledge with the hope of im-
proving their income-earning capabilities, either as an employee or as a
self-employed individual. Their responsibilities, however, limit their op-
portunities for further studies in the traditional, classroom-based courses.
Some cannot attend regular classes because their work require traveling
or because the hours are very irregular. Some have to take care of their
children or an elderly or sickly relative. Some may be based in a place
where there are no nearby educational institutions that would meet their
requirements. Some may not have the capacity to pay for the cost of fre-
quent travel to a campus.
The circumstances of students who take distance education courses may

be varied, but common to these individuals is a seriousness of purpose.
While this characteristic may be the driving force for their enrollment,
they soon find that this same characteristic is needed for them to be suc-
cessful in their studies.
Defining elements of distance education

Some definitions of distance education
Let us now look at some definitions of distance education from various
sources. It will be helpful if you list the critical element(s) in each defini-
tion and then come up with a compiled list of these elements picked up
from all the definitions.
UP Open University
M. G. Moore and G. Kearsley 1996. Distance Education: A Systems

View. Wadsworth Publishing Co.
“Distance education is planned learning that normally occurs in a differ-

ent place from teaching and as result requires special techniques of course
design, special instructional techniques, special methods of communica-
tion by electronic and other technology, as well as special organizational
and administrative arrangements.”
Critical element(s):
J. R. Verduin, Jr and T. A. Clark, 1991. Distance Education: The Foun-

dations of Effective Practice. Jossey-Bass Inc., Publishers
A short definition of distance education might be “any formal approach

to learning in which a majority of the instruction occurs while educator
and learner are at a distance from one another.”
Distance Education at a Glance, University of Idaho Engineering Out-

reach www.uidaho.edu/eo
At its most basic level, distance education takes place when a teacher and
student(s) are separated by physical distance, and technology (i.e., voice,
video, data, and print), often in concert with face-to-face communica-
tion, is used to bridge the instructional gap.
UP Open University
Unit I Module 1 9
B. Holmberg, 2003. Distance Education in Essence: An overview of

theory and practice in the early twenty-first century. Carl von Ossietzky
University of Oldenburg
… I have repeatedly described distance education as covering various

forms of organized teaching and learning that are not under the immedi-
ate supervision of tutors present with their students in lecture rooms or
on the same premises but nevertheless benefit from the planning, guid-
ance and teaching of a supporting organization.
C. Yates and J. Bradley (eds.) 2000. Basic Education at A Distance.

World review of distance education and open learning, vol 2. Com-
monwealth of Learning
Distance education is an educational process in which for the majority of

the time the learning occurs when the teacher and learner are removed in
space and/or time from each other.
UP Open University
Elements of distance education

One of the leading authorities in distance education is Desmond Keegan
and his description of distance education which lists its defining elements
is one of the most cited definitions in the literature. His book, The Founda-
tions of Distance Education, first published in 1986 and translated to Ital-
ian and Chinese is widely regarded as a basic reference. The defining
criteria which he proposed in 1986, a revision of one he made in 1980,
are:
1. The quasi-permanent separation of teacher and learner throughout

the length of the learning process: This distinguishes it from conven-
tional face-to face-instruction
2. The influence of an educational organization both in planning and

preparation of learning materials and in the provision of student sup-
port services. This distinguishes it from private study and teach-your-
self programs.
3. The use of technical media, print, audio, video, or computer, to unite

teacher and learner and carry the content of the course.
4. The provision of two-way communication so that many benefit from

or even initiate dialogue. This distinguishes it from other uses of tech-
nology in education.
5. The quasi-permanent separation of the learning group so that people

are usually taught as individuals and not in groups, with the possibil-
ity of occasional meetings for both didactic and socialization purposes.
Verduin and Clark revised the first criterion listed by Keegan into the
“separation of teacher and learner during at least a majority of the in-
structional process.” The amount of time that teacher and learner are
physically present in a specific place varies in different practices of dis-
tance education. Advances in technology have vastly improved commu-
nication between two physically distant individuals so that the physical
presence in the same place of teacher and learner is becoming de-empha-
sized in new distance education programs.
The second criterion about the presence of an organization responsible

for planning, organizing, supporting and carrying out the program of
instruction and the evaluation of students is considered as an indispens-
able part of distance education. The learning and teaching activities in
distance education are purposeful, planned and deliberate. The educa-
tional organization finds and organizes resources, and determines strate-
gies to enable students to achieve learning goals. It also organizes the
UP Open University
Unit I Module 1 11
process of assessing and reporting the extent to which students achieve

these goals.
As in any educational process, the learner and the teacher must be brought
together, as does the learning programs and the teaching programs. In
distance education, various media may be employed depending on what
is appropriate and/or what may be available or accessible. Developments
in information and communication technology have broadened the choice
of means by which the interaction between learning and teaching is car-
ried out. It is possible to bring together several groups of learners located
in different places, both synchronously so that they see and hear each
other in real time, or asynchronously where the interaction or communi-
cation between teacher and learners or among learners are done at their
choice of time. In some cases, however, the choice of technology is limited
by the cost of using the more modern means of communication and infor-
mation exchange.
Verduin and Clark omitted the fifth criterion in Keegan’s 1986 list in their
own version thinking that there should not be any restriction for group
study in distance education programs. With modern means of communi-
cation, there are, in fact, many ways that learners can form learning
groups, carry out group activities and even accomplish group tasks.
Activity 1-3
Post definitions of DE that you encounter (from the Internet, books
or journal articles). Be sure to properly cite your sources. You can
also propose your own definition.
What differentiates distance education from conventional class-

room-based instruction? What is common to distance education
and conventional classroom-based instruction?
What differentiates distance education from private self-study?

What is common to distance education and self-study?
Suggested Reading
Greville Rumble, On Defining Distance Education, American Journal of

Distance Education, vol 3, no 2, 1989.
UP Open University
UP Open University
Unit I Module 2 13
Module 2
The Development of Distance Education
and Related Concepts
Maria Cristina D. Padolina
The Development of Distance Education

It is difficult to say exactly when distance educa-
tion started because our concept of distance edu- Objectives
cation is circumscribed by the conditions of our
situation today, in particular, the tools we have
Upon completion of this
for communicating with each other. There are
module you should be able
some authors who go farther back and say that
to:
Paul, one of the Apostles of Jesus, was the first
distance educator having sent letters to early
1. Trace the development
Christian communities in an effort to educate
of distance education
them about the teachings of Christ.
and relate this to devel-
opments in technology;
The following table traces the development of dis-
2. Describe concepts or
tance education. Although available resources are
terms related to dis-
mostly from the US, UK and Australia, efforts
tance education; and
are made to include information from Asia. Still,
3. Differentiate distance
there is a need for further research to map the
education from these re-
development of distance education in China,
lated concepts.
South Korea and Japan.
Read through the table and learn what factors

influenced the development of distance education. Take note of the changes
in the means of communication used. Pay attention to the students ad-
dressed by the programs and the reasons or motivations of the individu-
als or institutions that organized the programs.
UP Open University
YEAR EVENT
1728 The March 20, 1728, Boston Gazette (USA) contains an advertisement
from: Caleb Phillipps, “Teacher of the New Method of Short Hand,” advis-
ing that any “Persons in the Country desirous to Learn this Art, may by
having the several Lessons sent weekly to them, be as perfectly in-
structed as those that live in Boston.”
http://www.degreeinfo.com/timeline.html
1836 The University of London (UK) is established to act as an examining

body for its Colleges and other “approved institutions” and acted solely in
this capacity until 1858. This has been referred to as a “distance exam-
ining system.”
http://www.london.ac.uk/history.html#c32
1840 Isaac Pitman begins teaching shorthand by correspondence, using Great

Britain’s Penny Post system. Students wrote passages from the Bible in
shorthand and sent their work for grading to Pitman using the postal
system.
Verduin and Clark, Distance education: The Foundations of Effec-

tive Practice
1844 Samuel Morse invents the electric telegraph. The first telegraph line is
laid in the United States from Baltimore to Washington and Morse sends
the first message, “What hath God wrought!”
1956 Charles Toussaint and Gustav Langenscheidt teach language courses

by correspondence in Europe.
1858 The University of London creates its External System and offers its de-
grees to any qualified student.
http://www.degreeinfo.com/timeline.html http://www.london.ac.uk/
history.html
UP Open University
Unit I Module 2 15
YEAR EVENT
1873 Anna Ticknor establishes the Society to Encourage Studies at Home in

Boston, MA (USA) to provide educational opportunities for women across
class boundaries. Although a largely volunteer organization, over 10,000
members participate in its correspondence instruction over a 24-year
period. Ticknor becomes known as the “mother of American correspon-
dence study.”
http://www.seniornet.org/edu/art/history.html
1873 South Africa’s first university, the University of the Cape of Good Hope
(later to become the University of South Africa) is established as an
examining body. It is modeled after the University of London as it offered
examinations but not instruction, and had the authority to confer de-
grees upon successful examination of candidates.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_the_Cape_of_Good_Hope
1876 Alexander Graham Bell patents the telephone.
1883 The State of New York (USA) authorizes degrees by correspondence at

the Chautauqua Institute. Chautauqua trained Sunday school teachers
during the summer and then completed training through correspondence
study during the winter.
1890 The Colliery Engineer School of Mines begins a home study course on
mine safety in Wilkes-Barre, PA (USA). In 1891, it evolves into the Inter-
national Correspondence Schools (ICS), providing training by correspon-
dence to railroad, ironworkers and mine. By 1923, ICS had enrolled over
2.5 million students in its courses. It remains the largest commercial
provider of home study courses in the U.S. today.
1892 William Rainey Harper establishes the first college-level courses by mail
at the University of Chicago (USA) creating the world’s first university
distance education program.Harper is said to have instituted the first
Extension Service in America designed to bring classes to those who
could not attend regular classes because of work or other conflicts. One
of Harper’s ideas, that students should be able to study the first two
years of college in their own communities to be better prepared for the
UP Open University
YEAR EVENT
rigors of college, helped lead to the creation of the community college

system in the United States.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Rainey_Harper
1892 The term “distance education” first appears in a University of Wisconsin

catalog.
http://www.uwex.edu/ics/design/disedu2.html
1892 Pennsylvania State University develops a program of correspondence

study and within two years had four graduates.
http://www.outreach.psu.edu/DE/history.html
1895 While experimenting with a homemade apparatus that sends long-wave

signals over a few kilometers, Italian physicist Marchese Marconi in-
vents the wireless telegraph (radio). He patents the system in 1896 and
founds Marconi’s Wireless Telegraph Company, Ltd., a year later in Lon-
don to develop its commercial applications. In 1899, he established com-
munication across the English Channel between England and France,
and in 1901 he communicated signals across the Atlantic Ocean be-
tween Cornwall, England, and St. John’s, in Newfoundland.
1901 Moody Bible Institute begins offering courses through the Moody Corre-
spondence School project.
1906 The Calvert School of Baltimore becomes the first elementary school in
the United States to offer correspondence study.
1906 The University of Wisconsin offers extension courses in engineering.
1914 The Federal Schools (which later changes its name to Art Instruction
Schools) begins offering art courses by correspondence.
Art Instruction Schools (AIS) said to be the “granddaddy of home study

art instruction schools,” is founded to train illustrators. The art course
and distance education teaching method was so successful that the
AIS-trained artists soon were in vast demand throughout the printing,
UP Open University
Unit I Module 2 17
YEAR EVENT
advertising and newspaper industries. Art Instruction Schools continues

to be recognized as the premier home study art school in the country.
http://www.homeschoolnewslink.com/homeschool/productguide/
artinstruction.shtml
http://ais.imswebmktg.com/ais/unique/86476.php
The Norsk Korrespondanseskole (NKS) is established as the first dis-

tance education institution in Norway.
http://www.nettskolen.com/forskning/23/deos2-19.htm
1915 The National University Continuing Education Association (NUCEA) is

formed at the University of Wisconsin at Madison to coordinate the cor-
respondence and extension courses of its member schools. The cre-
ation of this Association broadened the focus of distance education to
other issues, such as necessity of new pedagogical models and new
national level guidelines, university policies regarding acceptance of credit
from correspondence courses, credit transferal, and standard quality for
correspondence educators. Renamed the University Continuing Educa-
tion Association, it now helps institutions expand access to higher edu-
cation while providing national leadership in support of policies that ad-
vance workforce and professional development.
1916 University of the Cape of Good Hope (refer to year 1873) changes its
name to the University of South Africa.
1919 Elementary courses by correspondence are first offered by the Canadian

Education Department where notes and textbooks were provided to chil-
dren living in isolated parts of the province of British Columbia. The popu-
larity of the courses prompted the Education Department to establish its
“Elementary Correspondence School.
”Initially, the Elementary Correspondence School catered only to chil-

dren in isolated areas. Later, its programs broadened to include disabled
children who were unable to attend regular schools, under-educated
adults, and new immigrants who wished to learn English.
UP Open University
YEAR EVENT
During the Depression, the Elementary Correspondence branch provided

courses to unemployed men in federal government relief camps, and
during the Second World War it provided education to Japanese children
who had been interned by another federal government agency, the Brit-
ish Columbia Security Commission.
http://www.mala.bc.ca/homeroom/content/Topics/Programs/corresp.html
1920 The United States Marine Corps begins enrolling troops in correspon-
dence courses through the Marine Corps Institute, originally known as
the Vocational Schools Detachment, Marine Barracks, and Quantico,
Virginia. The Marine Corps Institute continues to thrive with approximately
150 courses at both vocational and baccalaureate levels.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_Corps_Institute
1922 The first educational radio licenses are granted to the University of Salt
Lake City, the University of Wisconsin and the University of Minnesota.
Pennsylvania State College broadcasts courses over the radio.
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) would grant educa-

tional radio broadcasting licenses to 202 colleges, universities, and school
boards between 1918 and 1946. By 1923 over ten percent of all broad-
cast radio stations were owned by educational institutions, which deliv-
ered educational programming.
1923 Russian immigrant Vladimir Zworykin patents the first practical televi-
sion camera tube, the iconoscope. His development of the kinescope
cathode ray picture tube forms the basis for subsequent advances in the
field. Most historians credit Zworykin as “the father of television.”
1925 The State University of Iowa offers courses for credit through radio and
correspondence.
1926 Sixteen institutions help form the National Home Study Council under
the sponsorship of the National Better Business Bureau and the Carnegie
Corporation. It is established to improve the standards of private and
federal correspondence schools. Within its first year, the Council pre-
vailed upon the Fair (later Federal) Trade Commission to develop the
“Fair Trade Practice Rules for the Private Home Schools.” With Council
cooperation, the rules were first issued in 1927 and were revised in 1936.
UP Open University
Unit I Module 2 19
YEAR EVENT
For the next 40 years, the rules remained the primary enforcement code
the federal government had to prosecute unethical home study school
operators. Renamed the Distance Education and Training Council, the
independent Accrediting Commission of the DETC was established in
1955. Shortly thereafter it gained the approval of the U.S. Department of
Education as a “nationally recognized accrediting agency” under the
terms of Public Law. Today, more than 2.5 million Americans are enrolled
in DETC-accredited institutions.
1929 The University of Saskatchewan allows students to take some of their

university classes by correspondence. These classes were limited to
those not requiring laboratory work and to those not prescribed for the
honors program. Throughout WW II, these correspondence courses were
used extensively by the armed forces.
http://scaa.usask.ca/gallery/uofs_events/articles/1929.php
1933 The University of Illinois begins offering correspondence courses. These

courses were placed under the Guided Individual Study program in 1997.
http://web.library.uiuc.edu/ahx/uaccard/adminhist/showsg.
asp?rg=31&sg=8
1934 Already one of the first colleges to offer radio courses for credit, the State
University of Iowa becomes the first educational institution to broadcast
courses via television.
1938 The International Council for Correspondence Education is founded.
1946 The University of South Africa asks one of its professors, Professor AJH
van der Walt, to investigate the possibility of devising a system of postal
or correspondence tuition for non-residential students. On 15 February
1946, the Division of External Studies is established. This transformed
UNISA froms an examining body into a teaching university.
http://www.unisa.ac.za/default.asp?Cmd=ViewContent& ContentID=
15922http://www.degreeinfo.com/timeline.html
1955 The Accrediting Commission of the Distance Education and Training

Council is established. Shortly thereafter it gained the approval of the
U.S. Department of Education as a “nationally recognized accrediting
agency” under the terms of Public Law. Today, more than 2.5 million
Americans are enrolled in DETC-accredited institutions.
UP Open University
YEAR EVENT
1960 PLATO, one of the first generalized computer assisted instruction or

computer-based education systems, is built in the 1960s at the Univer-
sity of Illinois at Urbana (USA). Donald Bitzer, a lab assistant at that
time is credited for building the first prototype.
http://thinkofit.com/plato/dwplato.htm#plato
1963 The Instructional Television Fixed Service (ITFS) is created as a result of

a Federal Communications Commission (FCC) resolution reserving se-
lected transmission frequencies to be licensed to local credit-granting
institutions for educational purposes. The channels can be used solely
to deliver instruction, or in partnership with companies that deliver sub-
scriber-based video services that compete with land-based cable televi-
sion systems to deliver entertainment programming. ITFS provides low-
cost, limited (20-35 mile range) distribution of broadcast courses. The
full allocation of 20 channels is usually available to be used by school
systems, colleges and universities in most communities. The first uni-
versity to apply for ITFS licensing was the California State University
(CSU) System.
1964 Television provides the impetus for the next generation in distance edu-
cation courses. Funded by the Carnegie Corporation and directed by Dr.
Charles Wedmeyer, the University of Wisconsin’s Articulated Instruc-
tional Media (AIM) Project sought ways to incorporate various communi-
cation media into instructional curriculums. The idea tested by the AIM
Project was that self-directed learners could benefit from the strengths of
multiple modes of content presentation and interaction alternatives when
compared to the more traditional correspondence format. The program
utilized correspondence materials, study guides, radio and television
broadcasts, audiotapes and telephone conferencing to provide instruc-
tion for “off-campus” students. The project demanded a systems ap-
proach to program development, and it demonstrated that the functions
of a teacher could be divided between teams of specialists and then
reintegrated to provide a total distance learning program.
Although AIM represented a significant milestone in the history of dis-

tance learning, it lacked control over its faculty, curriculum, funds and
students. A committee established by the British Government to plan a
new educational institution would examine the successes and flaws of
the AIM Project in 1967.Their findings would be foundational to the ad-
vent of the British Open University.
UP Open University
Unit I Module 2 21
YEAR EVENT
1967 President Lyndon Johnson signs the Public Broadcasting Act authoriz-
ing the creation of the Corporation for Public Broadcasting to promote
non-commercial use of television and radio. CPB’s primary purposes
included developing high quality programs, establishing a system of na-
tional interconnection to distribute the programs, and strengthening and
supporting local public TV and radio stations. In January of 1969, CPB
negotiated with AT&T to interconnect 140 stations, creating the first true
national public television system. This system became permanent in
November 1969 with the establishment of the Public Broadcasting Ser-
vice (PBS). The establishment of National Public Radio (NPR) in 1970
ensured equal interconnection between public radio stations.
1968 Stanford University creates the Stanford Instructional Television Network.

It was recognized as recognized as the “Most Outstanding Distance
Education Network in the U.S. for 1993” by the United States Distance
Learning Association (USDLA). It claims to be largest single university
provider of live graduate courses in the world, uses microwave, satellite,
videotape and two-way video to deliver degree programs, non-credit
courses, certificate programs, seminars and customized offerings to in-
dustry and government sites in the United States and abroad.
http://www.stanford.edu/dept/news/pr/93/931129Arc3033.html
1969 The British Open University is established as a fully autonomous, de-

gree-granting institution. The first students started to work on their learn-
ing materials in January 1971.
http://www.open.ac.uk/about/ou/p3.shtml
The university initially utilized television courses developed by a team of

content specialists and instructional designers. Courses are supple-
mented by study guides, textbooks, other learning resources and vari-
ous interactive opportunities.
The British Open University has broken traditional barriers to education

by allowing any student to enroll regardless of previous educational back-
ground or experience. It currently has more than 200,000 students and
has enrolled more than 2 million people. It is recognized throughout the
world as a prototype for current day non-traditional learning.
1970 The state of California funds a two-year task force under the leadership of
Coast Community College vice chancellor, Dr. Bernard Luskin, to design
the television course or “telecourse” of the future. The task force defines
the telecourse as “a complete course of study in a given subject, not
adjunct curricula like a single movie, filmstrip, slide show, audiotape, or
vinyl record. Students are separated from the teacher, standing or sitting
before a camera in a classroom or studio somewhere else, in real time or
UP Open University
YEAR EVENT
not. Provisions must be made for such teaching functions as answering

student questions, giving and grading tests, reporting student progress
to the school. All curricula must meet established academic standards.”
(Freed 1999)
Distribution and licensing of Luskin’s telecourses was assigned to a new

institution, Coastline Community College. Coastline arranged for classes
to be broadcast by public television station KOCE-TV to colleges, uni-
versities and libraries in Orange County. Having no physical campus,
Coastline becomes the first “virtual college” in the United States. By
1972, three community college districts-Miami-Dade Community Col-
lege District (FL), Coast Community College District in Costa Mesa (CA),
and Dallas County Community College District (TX)-would be producing
and offering telecourses.
1971 The first United States open university, New York State’s Empire
State College (NYSES), commences operation. One of the main
purposes of the NYSES was to make higher education degrees
more accessible to learners unable to attend traditional programs,
campus-based courses.
1971 Intel invents the microprocessor. The first email messages are sent.
1972 Spain establishes the Universidad Nacional de Educacion a Distancia
http://apliweb.uned.es/comunicacion/plantilla2.asp?pag=36
1978 The first computer Bulletin Board Systems (BBS) is established.
1978 The Sukhothai Thamathirat Open University, Thailand, is established in

order to provide the people with increased educational opportunities at
university level. It is the first open university in Southeast Asia.
http://www.stou.ac.th/
1981 Annenberg/Corporation for Public Broadcasting (CPB) begins funding

the development of television courses. The Public Broadcasting Service
(PBS) then establishes a programming service devoted to national deliv-
ery of educational programs known as the Adult Learning Service (ALS).
ALS currently coordinates with over 190 public television stations and
some 2,000 colleges to deliver telecourses for college credit. Beginning
with a small portfolio of seven telecourses, the catalog has grown to over
100 courses with an annual enrollment reaching over 500,000.
UP Open University
Unit I Module 2 23
YEAR EVENT
1982 The National University Teleconferencing Network (NUTN) uses satellite

broadcasting among 40 of its institution members.
The first online undergraduate courses are delivered by the New Jersey
Institute of Technology.
The International Council for Correspondence Education changes its name

to the International Council for Distance Education to reflect the develop-
ments in the field.
1985 National Technological University (NTU) opens as an accredited univer-

sity offering graduate and continuing education courses in engineering
and awarding its own degrees. Courses are up-linked to NTU by satellite
from an originating university and then redistributed by satellite by NTU.
1984 Universitas Terbuka (UT) is established and is Indonesia’s only higher

education institution that is entirely using distance education mode of
learning.
http://public.ut.ac.id
1985 Indira Gandhi National Open University is established to democratize

higher education in India.
http://www.ignou.ac.in/
1987 Mind Extension University, a cable network broadcasting courses and

full degree programs developed by community colleges and universities,
is founded.
1987 The Asian Association of Open Universities is founded.
1990 Tim Berners-Lee develops the World Wide Web.
1993 The Graduate School of America (now Capella University) is founded. It

is accredited by the North Central Association.
1993 Vietnam establishes the Hanoi Open University.
http://www.dhm-hnou.edu.vn/Trang%20moi%202006/English/
defaultTA.html
UP Open University
YEAR EVENT
1995 The University of the Philippines Open University (UPOU) is estab-

lished on 23 February 1995 as the fifth constituent university of the
University of the Philippines System
http://www.upou.org/about/history.htm
Mid-1990s By the mid-nineties UKOU begins the massive exploitation of the

internet that has made the OU the world’s leading e-university.
Today more than 180,000 students are interacting with the OU
online from home.
http://www.open.ac.uk/about/ou/p3.shtml
1997 The California Virtual University, a consortium of nearly 100 Califor-

nia colleges and universities, opens with over 1500 online courses.
1997 The Universiti Tun Abdul Razak (UNITAR) is established. It claims

to be Malaysia’s first e-learning, MSC-status and ISO 9001:2000-
certified private university in Malaysia where education is delivered
through the pervasive use of e-learning technology like the Internet,
web-based or CD-based courseware and facilitator-based tutorials
or academic meetings.
http://www.unitar.edu.my/main.html
1998 Western Governors University and the British Open University an-
nounce the creation of a distance education consortium called the
Governors Open University System.
1999 The British Open University opens a new sister institution – The
United States Open University.
The US Department of Education establishes the Distance Learn-

ing Education Demonstration Program, which serves as a pilot
program of 15 post-secondary schools, systems and consortia
permitted to offer federal financial aid for distance learning pro-
grams.
2000 Open University (Universiti Terbuka) Malaysia, a private university,

is established as the first open and distance learning university in
Malaysia.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_University_Malaysia#History
UP Open University
Unit I Module 2 25
YEAR EVENT
2000 Learning portals, including HungryMinds, Click2Learn, eCollege, and

onwards Blackboard emerge on the education landscape.
Internet-assisted discussion involving participants located in various

physically separated locations is introduced.
Internet-based learning management systems designed to manage

and support education are developed.
e-Learning and online learning become popular.
These developments, embodied in what is now referred to as infor-

mation and communication technology, provided distance education
with a wider range of alternatives for bridging the distance between
learner and teacher and therefore a more flexible delivery of and ac-
cess to education.
Activity 2-1
To aid you in your study of the distance education timeline, try
answering the following questions. You don’t have to post your
answers in the discussion forum since you can easily glean these
from the table. What is important is that you take some time to
reflect on these important questions and figure out the answers
for yourself.
1. As you would have learned from table, the precursor of dis-

tance education is correspondence study. What medium was
used in correspondence study? How is the distance between
the teacher and the learner bridged in correspondence study?
2. What inventions were made in the 19th century that may have
had an impact in the development of distance education? How
did these inventions advance the objectives of distance educa-
tion?
3. In the first half of the 20th century, a more powerful vehicle for
mass communication was invented - the television. How did
this invention advance the objectives of distance education?
UP Open University
Activity 2-1 continuation
4. In the second half of the 20th century, computers and later com-
puter networks were invented. Refer to Module 1 and discuss
how computers and computer networks address each of the
five elements of distance education.
5. One type of education institution mentioned in the table is the

so-called examining body. In the table, there are two such bod-
ies located in different continents that are mentioned. Name
these institutions and trace how these institutions evolved.
6. Aside from technology, two modern-day types of bodies played

a role in the development of distance education: (1) associa-
tions of distance education providers (such as the International
Council for Correspondence Education which evolved into the
International Council for Distance Education); and (2) accred-
iting bodies. What do you think are the roles of these two types
of bodies in the development of distance education?
7. China Central Radio & TV University (CCRTVU) is a dedi-

cated distance education institution, which offers multi-media
university courses through radio, TV, print, audio-visual ma-
terials and computer software. Do an online search about
CCRTVU. When was this established? Under whose regime
was it established? What is its current status?
In summary, it may be said that the development of distance education

has been influenced by the following:
1. The desire of an entity (an individual who knows he/she has some-
thing to teach others, an institution or a government) to give access to
education to those who cannot personally attend regular classes, e.g.,
those serving in the military who may be in training camps or as-
signed to military bases in combat missions.
2. The desire of individuals to learn or get certification for knowledge

and skills gained.
UP Open University
Unit I Module 2 27
3. The inventions that led to various ways of communicating between

and among individuals especially those separated by distance. In the
last half of the twentieth century, rapid developments took place in
mass media (television and radio), synchronous tools (video and au-
dio teleconferencing), and of course the Internet. Note that earlier tech-
nologies (e.g., print correspondence and radio) are not entirely dis-
placed by new ones. So what we have is a landscape of many differ-
ent types of technologies that can be used in combination.
These three “players”—the education provider, the learner, and the me-
dium that links them—are the main factors that influence the develop-
ment of distance education.
Related Concepts
There are many terms related to distance education. We shall briefly dis-
cuss these terms and differentiate them from distance education but as
you go through this course you will be able to understand the nuances
that differentiate the use of these different terms.
Correspondence education. This may be considered as an old form of

distance education when the communication between the education pro-
vider and the learner was through the postal system. The student received
learning materials through postal mail and sent back assignments and
other course requirements through the same system. The term acquired a
reputation of questionable quality in some cases. Developments in other
systems of communication led to a change in terminology to “distance
education.” As you would have noted in the above table, in 1982, the
International Council for Correspondence Education changed its name
to the International Council for Distance Education.
Home study. This term was most likely coined to refer to forms of study
where a major portion of the learning process takes place at the home of
the student. The present use of the term refers to systems where the stu-
dents are children and the learning process is assisted by a parent or a
personal tutor.
External studies. This usually refers to education or training conducted

by an educational institution at a place outside of its campus. Some refer
to this as extension classes. An example would be the extension classes
in drought-tolerant crops conducted by U.P. Los Baños for farmers in the
Ilocos region. Instruction in external studies may be through the tradi-
tional face-to-face classroom instruction and may not involve distance
education at all. The distance education programs in some institutions,
however, may have started with its extension or external programs as
UP Open University
they found ways to cope with the distant location of learners without
having to send its staff.
Independent study. The learning process in a distance education pro-

gram takes place with the students working largely on their own, guided
only by instructions contained in a study guide. But independent study
may also refer to one that is solely the initiative of an individual who
would determine what and how to study.
Open learning. Distance education may be considered as a way of deliv-

ering education. Open learning, on the other hand, is considered by some
as a view or perspective about learning where the student is given wide
latitude in what, how and when to learn. The student is given a large de-
gree of control of the learning process. The openness refers to entry crite-
ria, time (including the pace) of learning, the place where learning takes
place, the learning materials used and the learning process itself.
Flexible learning. There are some who use flexible learning interchange-
ably with open learning. One may consider flexible learning to be more
limited, where the choices available to the student are wider than usual
but not totally open. For example, a student may be allowed to choose
when to be tested but is limited to taking the test in a testing center or
through a deputized individual.
Distributed learning. The word distributed in this term comes from “dis-
tributed resources” which refers to learning resources that are not located
in a centralized place such as the case of traditional learning in a univer-
sity where the experts, books and other information resources, and peers
are all located on campus. Distributed learning may take place in a tradi-
tional class where the teacher provides opportunities for students to learn
from individuals and resources not found on campus. Distributed learn-
ing may also be implemented in a distance education environment. Some
consider distance learning as a subset of distributed learning.
Online learning. In online learning, learning resources are accessed by

the student through the Internet; communication among the educational
institution, teacher and students is also through the Internet.
eLearning. The prefix “e” originally stood for “electronic” but eventually
this was applied to anything that made use of computers and more re-
cently to one that involves the use of the computer networks – a local area
network (LAN), a wide area network (WAN) or the Internet.
m-Learning. The prefix “m” refers to “mobile” so m-learning refers to the

use of mobile or portable technology (such as cellular phones, hand-held
computers or PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants) in the learning process.
UP Open University
Unit I Module 2 29
Mobile learning like open learning is considered by some as a way of learn-

ing that addresses the mobility of individuals in our present world.
Blended learning. A combination of multiple approaches to learning con-

stitutes blended learning. Learning in a classroom situation may be blended
with learning from Internet resources. Numerous combinations are pos-
sible.
Activity 2-2
Evaluate the learning process you are now undertaking in this
course and discuss how each of the terms above apply or do not
apply to it. Use at most two sentences per related concept.
1. Correspondence education
2. Home study
3. External studies
4. Independent study
5. Open learning
6. Flexible learning
7. Distributed learning
8. Online learning
9. eLearning
10. m-Learning
11. Blended learning
UP Open University
UP Open University
Unit I Module 3 31
Module 3
Distance Education Models
The Six Models of Distance Education

Verduin and Clark, wrote the book “Distance
Education: The Foundations of Effective Practice”
in 1991, Chapter 3 of which presents six models
of distance education. Although there is a bias Objectives
towards describing tertiary level institutions, the
definitions can be adapted to basic education and After going this module
vocational/technical training as well. you should be able to:
Most distance instruction occurs in Type III, IV 1. Compare and contrast

and V institutions, although the biggest category the six models of dis-
is Type VI. As you read about the models, think tance education institu-
about which ones appeal to you and your tions (as defined by
institution. Verduin and Clark);
2. View examples of how
Type I the six models are
currently practiced;
l Post-secondary educational institution and
l Offers college degrees to students not 3. Reflect on the type of
directly taught by the instituion distance education
through: institution that you
- proficiency examination would like your organi-
- credit for equivalent academic work zation to adopt.
and experiential learing
- portfolio evaluations of prior
learning, life, and work experiences
l Founded on the principle that “people with knowledge
equivalent to that denoted by a college degree should be able to
UP Open University
earn a degree by demonstrating that knowlede regardless of

how it was acquired”
l Uses Learning Contracts, “specific, negotiated plan(s) or study,
covering a particular period of time, yielding a fixed number of
credits, and including specification of resources and agreed
mode of evaluation”
l Does not necessarily have a campus or full-time faculty
For Type I, Verduin and Clark described the Regents College of

the University of the State of New York (SUNY). It has since
evolved into Excelsior College: https://www.excelsior.edu/
Another example of the Type I model is DANTES – Defense

Activity for Non-Traditional Educational Support: http://
education.military.com/timesaving-programs/defense-activity-
for-non-traditional-education-support-dantes
Type II
l Post-secondary educational institution

l Offers degrees to students taught by the institution in some
measure through a combination of:
credit for prior learning, life and work experiences
credit by examination
distance education
experiential learning
l Offers External Degrees defined as those in which “half or more
of the credits needed for a degree may be earned or awarded for
work external to the traditional on-campus programs of the
institution”
l An external degree program may be mostly distance or mostly
conventional in nature, depending on the coursework of
individual students - if more credit is given for distance study
than for classroom study, then the prorgram is called a distance
education program.
For an example of a Type II institution, visit the website of the

University of Massachusetts Amherst http://www.umass.edu/
uww/
Type III
l Conventional university
l Offers distance education through extension, independent
study, or continuing education units
UP Open University
Unit I Module 3 33
Type III is the most common type of distance education model

encountered in tertiary education. At the program level, students
may take some of their courses in the conventional mode, and
others via distance education or independent study. With
advances in information and communication technology, a
distance education course is almost always an online course. Read
this interesting paper: The Sloan Consoritium. (2003). Sizing the
Opportunity: The Quality and Extent of Online Education in the
United States, 2002 and 2003. Available from: http://www.sloan-
c.org/resources/sizing_opportunity.pdf
Type IV
l Consortium of education-related institutions formed to provide

distance courses in common or over a wide geographic area. A
consortium is defined as a “formal organization of two or more
member institutions, administered by a director, with tangible
evidence of member support.”
l The consortium shares costs, materials, and programs; provides
constitency in distance education practices
Verduin and Clark described the University Without Walls

program as it is practiced in a specific college (Type II). However,
UWW exists as a consortium involving many institutions. As an
educational innovation, it has a difficult history. Read about it in
this article: Hendra, R. and Harris, E. (2002). Unpublished Results:
The University Without Walls Experiment. Available from
http://www-unix.oit.umass.edu/~hendra/Unpublished%20Results.html
Type V
l Autonomous institution established specifically for teaching at a

distance
l Can be at any level – elementary, secondary, vocational/
technical, and college
The prime example of Type V is the Open University of the United

Kingdom http://www.open.ac.uk/ . Another example is the
University of the Air of Japan http://www.u-air.ac.jp/eng/
index.html which uses broadcast technology, supplemented by
print materials.
We will be discussing more examples of Type V institutions in

Module 10, when we look at the practice of distance education in
various countries.
UP Open University
Type VI
l Recognized educational or informational organizations that

develop educational media
l Promotes learning that is individual, and informal, without
providing assistance in the process
l Based on the principle that learning is integral, even essential, to
one’s life
There are many examples of this type of organizations. Two

notable ones are the Concord Consortium: http://
www.concord.org/ and the British Broadcasting Corporation
(BBC) http://www.bbc.co.uk/learning/.
Activity 3-1
Which model of distance education is best suited for your
organization? What is the advantage of using that model in
contrast to the other types?
UP Open University
Unit I Module 3 35
Activity 3-2
From among the six types, which ones do you think will not
thrive in your organization? Why?
Reference
Verduin, J.R. Jr. and Clark, T.A. (1991). Distance Education: The
Foundations of Effective Practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
UP Open University
UP Open University
Module 4
Theories of Distance
Education – 1
Paz Eulalia Saplala
I n Unit 2, covering modules 4 and 5, you will read about several theories
which will help you gain a better understanding of the practice of dis-
tance education. We will discuss the following:
• Interaction and communication
• Independence and autonomy
• Industrialization of teaching and learning
• Integration of the teaching acts
• Comprehensive theory
Each theory will be discussed in turn, but keep in mind that these theories
interact with each other and are closely interrelated. In this module, we
will be discussing interaction, communication, independence and au-
tonomy. We will deal with the other concepts in the next module.
Interaction and Communication

The two constituent elements of distance education are learning-matter
presentation and communication in the interaction between tutors and
students (Holmberg 1995, 104).
Moore (1989, 1) distinguishes between three types of interaction: learner-

content interaction, learner-instructor interaction, and learner-learner
interaction.
Learner-content interaction
Objectives
Moore (1989, 2) points our that learner-con-
After you have read and studied this tent interaction “is the process of intellectu-
module, you should be able to: ally interacting with content that results in
changes in the learner’s understanding, the
1. Describe the three kinds of inter- learner’s perspective, or the cognitive struc-
action and their importance: tures of the learner’s mind.” Moore (1989, 2)
learner-content interaction, points out further that he believes that this type
learner-instructor interaction, of learner-content interaction is what is in-
and learner-learner interaction; volved in what Holmberg (1986) calls the “in-
2. Discuss the purposes of two-way ternal didactic conversation”, when learners
communication between tutors “talk to themselves” “about the information
and learners; and ideas they encounter in a text, television
3. Discuss the responsibilities of the program, lecture, or elsewhere.”
tutor in maintaining communica-
tion and interaction with the Wagner (1994, 21) as cited by Stirling 1997)
learners; notes that interaction “should be viewed as a
4. Discuss the role of the learners in situation-specific contingency to be managed
the two-way communication; by means of instructional design methods.”
5. Discuss the importance of coun- Internal didactic conversation takes place
seling of students in the commu- when the learners react to the teaching cues
nication and interaction between built into the modules. The students respond
tutors and learners; to these teaching cues as though they were in
6. Trace the roots of independent conversation with a teacher (as in a classroom
study; setting). The student may be led to ask ques-
7. Discuss the importance of inde- tions regarding the statements or ideas in the
pendent study to the success of a module, relate what they read to their own
distance learner; personal experiences, draw comparisons,
8. Be familiar with the guidelines to reach conclusions, and answer self-assessment
develop independent study; questions. Learners have to be very active
9. Discuss the need for distance readers to get the most out of their modules.
learners to change from receptive
learning to active learning;
10. Define the term “learner au-
tonomy”;
11. Discuss the extent of learner
autonomy that distance learners
enjoy in distance education; and
12. Discuss the arguments for and
against learner autonomy.
UP Open University
Unit II Module 4 39
SAQ 4-1
In your own words, explain what you understand by an “internal
didactic conversation”. Describe how you conduct your own “in-
ternal didactic conversations”. What is its role in distance learn-
ing?
Learner-instructor interaction
A strength of distance education is in the rapport that the institutional
organization seeks to develop between tutor and learner, the second type
of interaction according to Moore (1989, 1). Student-tutor interaction is
vital in both face-to-face and non-contiguous teaching situations. In the
latter, the communication may be mediated by postal correspondence,
telephone, e-mail, fax, audio/tele-conferencing, and the Internet. The in-
teraction between tutor and student should have continuity during the
term for it is an important aspect of student support.
According to Moore (1989, 3-4), the “instructor is especially valuable in

responding to the learners’ application of new knowledge.” He points out
that students are especially vulnerable when it comes to the application
of new knowledge, no matter what “self-directed learners can do alone
for self-motivation and interaction with content presented.”
Holmberg (1995, 104) points out the purposes of two-way communica-

tion between tutor and student:
• To support students’ motivation and interest
• To support student learning
• To give students opportunity to develop their thinking
• To assess student progress
UP Open University
The encouragement given by the tutor to students helps motivate them

and keep up their interest in the course they are taking. The close moni-
toring by the tutor of the progress of students in the tasks assigned to
them, with helpful comments to assignments, helps students gauge their
progress in their studies. Such comments also give the students a chance
to get into their learning materials with more thoroughness and depth.
In the non-contiguous situation where students are separated from the

learning institution in space and time, the tutor helps maintain contact
between students and the educational situation. Interaction with the tu-
tor serves to reassure distance education students that they are not study-
ing in isolation. Someone cares enough to follow up their progress and
help them to become independent learners. The successful tutor is one
who helps wean the student from dependence on the tutor. Such a stu-
dent becomes emboldened to seek opportunities to think independently
and to be a problem-solver.
A good tutor supports and helps develop independent learning, an as-

pect of student autonomy. An important task of a tutor, particularly some-
one who is tutoring at a distance, is to motivate students to be active
independent learners.
Several writers have pointed out the importance of personal rapport be-
tween student and tutor (Holmberg 1995, 126; Stein, 1960, 165-6 as cited
by Holmberg 1995, 126; Rekkedal 1985, 9, as cited by Holmberg 1995,
126-7; Durbridge 1984, 99-100 as cited by Holmberg 1995, 127). Students
become more active learners when they work with tutors who were warm
and friendly, and who reach out sincerely to students to help them with
their learning problems. Tutors have to master the art of tutoring – to be
supportive without curtailing the development of the student towards
independent learning; to have a friendly personal approach to help cre-
ate a learning environment that promotes spontaneous self expression of
ideas and to dispel a feeling of isolation of the learners in their physical
separation from the organizing distance learning institution.
In face-to-face sessions, the tutor should avoid “teaching” or repeating

the module. Students may tend to ask the tutor to explain parts of the
module they cannot understand but the tutor should not take over the
session and “teach” the course. This does happen in some face-to-face
sessions.
To promote independent learning, the tutor should ask questions to stimu-

late students to think for themselves, and guide them to discover the
answers to their questions. This kind of group discussion gives students
an opportunity to interact with each other and collaboratively find solu-
UP Open University
Unit II Module 4 41
tions to problems. It may be easier for the tutor to lecture rather than
guide students with questions, but such an act is spoon-feeding and does
not encourage students to think and learn by drawing from their own
inner resources.
Students should also be able to avail of the services of the tutor for one-on-
one consultations whether face-to-face or via technology-mediated means.
Holmberg (1995, 110) points out that for students to learn, they must do
the work and put into the activity their own input. It is the task of the
tutor to help students get into the learning activity. The tutor has to en-
courage, frame questions, lead students to read carefully, think deeply
and integrate ideas. The tutor helps students analyze and synthesize. It is
helpful to students if the tutor creates a learning atmosphere that is
friendly (Holmberg 1995, 110) and pleasant.
In non-contiguous communication, the most important function of the

tutor is to give students effective feedback (Baath 1980, as cited by
Holmberg 1995, 105). It is most helpful to students to know how well or
how poorly they performed, and to have the chance early in the term to
correct their mistakes in the assignments they submit. Delay in the turn-
around time to provide feedback may be detrimental to student learning.
The quicker the students know their standing in the work they submitted,
the sooner they can reassess the quality of the work they put into the
course, and the sooner they can make adjustments to correct poor study
habits. This is all part of the learning process.
Learner-learner interaction
Another aspect of interaction and communication is linking students with
each other, the third type of interaction cited by Moore (1989, 4). Moore
points out that “learner-learner interaction among members of a class or
other group is sometimes an extremely valuable resource for learning,
and is sometimes even essential”. Moore (1989,4) observes, as pointed
out by Phillips et al., that learner-learner interaction prepares students for
committee and group work essential in modern society. Peer group inter-
action can be carried out by asynchronous e-mail or discussion boards,
and by synchronous computer “chatting” or video-/teleconferencing.
In this way, students keep abreast of the ideas of fellow students in a

course and are able to exchange ideas with each other. The tutor could be
reacting with the students as well, and thus the online activity becomes a
virtual classroom discussion.
UP Open University
Technologies for interaction

The telephone provides an opportunity for a vital one-on-one link be-
tween student and tutor. The same can be said for computer-mediated
communication, whether this involves emailing or synchronous interac-
tion. It means a lot to students to know that they can ring up or contact
the tutor whenever a need arises. The tutor may designate specific days of
the week and times of the day when a student may call, but the tutor
should be willing to lend an ear particularly when the student is in a
stressful learning situation.
The distance learning institution must provide facilities that will enable
interaction. This means designing and implementing systems that simu-
late face-to-face classroom discussion. Deciding upon what technologies
to use, and implementing such systems may be a complicated and expen-
sive proposition. It is also important to consider whether the technologies
selected are available and accessible to students, particularly those living
at a distance from urban media facilities.
We will discuss technologies in distance education more in Modules 6

and 7. There is also an entire course - EDDE 203 Technology in Distance
Education - devoted to this topic.
SAQ 4-2
Make a list of various means of mediated communication between
tutor and student that you consider to be the most effective in
your context.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
UP Open University
Unit II Module 4 43
Timing of interaction
A very important aspect of distance education is speed and frequency of
communication (Holmberg 1995, 122). Delay in the delivery of learning
materials to students from the distance education institution, delay in sub-
mission of assignments by students, delay in the turn-around time for
marking assignments, are some of the aspects of the delivery system that
the distance learning institution must address.
There may be various causes for the delays. In the case of sending the
study materials (like modules, CDs), there may be a breakdown in the
delivery system of the carrier. It is also possible that the modules missed
the deadline for completion and are still being written. As for student
assignments not sent on time to meet the deadline, the reason may be the
lack of efficiency either of the postal system, or student’s inability to finish
the work.
The use of e-mail and fax helps speed up the sending of assignments. On
the other hand, if the tutor delays in marking the assignments, the stu-
dents fail to find out within a reasonable time the quality of their perfor-
mance in the course. A quick turn-around time lets students know their
standing in the course and gives them a chance to make adjustments in
their study patterns. Helpful comments made by the tutors on assign-
ments submitted provide a motivating force for students to learn.
As raised in Holmberg (1995,124), is it frequency of communication be-
tween student and tutor or the quality of student-tutor interaction that
serves the supportive function of communication in distance education?
Comments on tutor-marked assignments should help students determine
whether or not they are making progress in their studies, whether or not
they are able to meet the goals and objectives of the course. It is not ac-
ceptable that tutors mark an assignment with a grade alone without indi-
cating by well-thought out comments why the student earned such a grade.
Tutors should avoid dismissive remarks of student efforts.
SAQ 4-3
Give three reasons why speed of communication is an important
aspect of distance education.
1.
2.
3.
UP Open University
Counseling
Another aspect of interaction and communication is counseling, which
Maslow (as quoted by Thornton; and Mitchell 1978, 2-3 as quoted by
Holmberg 1995, 128) describes as a “systematic exploration of self and/or
environment by a client with the aid of a counselor to clarify self-under-
standing and/or environmental alternatives so that behaviour modifica-
tions or decisions are made on the bases of greater cognitive and affective
understanding.”
Prospective distance learners who may be unfamiliar with how distance

education works need advice on:
• what distance education is as compared to the conventional or tradi-
tional form of education
• what are the choices of studies open to students (depending upon
their educational background)
• what career paths or job opportunities distance education programs
will lead them towards
• what adjustments they must make in their family life, work responsi-
bilities, social and community obligations.
In other words, prospective distance learners should know what they are
getting into.
Prospective students should be asked to consider the following (UPOU

brochure “Deciding to Enroll at the UPOU 1997, 3) before they enroll:
• The characteristics of distance education as a mode of study
• The study habits and study skills required of a distance learner
• The course or program they would like to take up
• For the adult learner with job and family responsibilities, the re-pro-
gramming of their daily schedule to include study time
Much of the success of distance learners depends on their study skills and
study habits. A tutor/counselor can help encourage distance learners to
cultivate effective study skills/habits. A simple habit mentioned by
Holmberg (1995, 129) is for learners “to read with pencils in their hands,
to underline what seems important, to list key words, etc.” To this may
be added, that students may write on the margins of their modules ques-
tions and comments that come to their mind as they read their modules.
Thornton and Mitchell (1978, as quoted by Holmberg 1995, 132), stress

that “the counselor in his relation with the student should try to work
himself out of rather than into, a job, by promoting and encouraging stu-
dent self-help.”
UP Open University
Unit II Module 4 45
The path for a distance learner is towards independent study. The coun-
selor/tutor should encourage and motivate students by interacting with
them and helping them understand their needs and problems, but the
response of the counselor/tutor is to lead the students to learn to solve
their own problems in the progress of their lives as distance learners.
Activity 4-1
How important is personal interaction to you as a learner? How
do you benefit as a distance education student and as an indi-
vidual from interactive communication with your tutor and your
fellow students.
Independence and Autonomy

The term “independent study” traces its roots to correspondence study.
Moore and Kearsley (1996, 20, 23) point out that independent study has
two subconcepts:
• Students are independent of their instructors in time and place, and
therefore are learning at a distance;
• Student independence means that students make their own decisions
concerning their learning as a consequence of their geographical sepa-
ration from the instructors.
Distance learners “are asked to change from receptive learning to active

learning” (Peters 2003). The learning materials require active learners
(readers), the mediated communication demands student participation,
and the various tasks of a course call for good management by the stu-
dents to use their time, space and energy efficiently. A student who relies
on the banking concept of education (merely receiving instruction) will be
left behind in the course and will have difficulty catching up.
UP Open University
Wedemeyer (1971 , 550, as cited by Moore and Kearsley, 1996, 24) states
that in independent study, teachers and learners carry out their tasks
apart from one another, and in a variety of ways. Students continue to
learn in their own environments, and develop the capacity to be self-di-
rected learners. This capacity for learners to be self-directed leads to the
idea of learner autonomy.
Moore (in Keegan 1993, 31) states that “learner autonomy is the extent to
which, in the teaching/learning relationship, it is the learner rather than
the teacher who determines the goals, the learning experiences, and the
evaluation decisions of the learning programme.”
Students exercise their autonomy early when they make a decision on the
course or program they wish to take through distance education. Some
institutions allow students to plan what courses to take, when to take
them, and even when they would like to take the tests for the course.
Other distance education institutions, however, prescribe the curricula,
the courses to be taken, the sequence, the prerequisites if any, the sched-
ule for taking examinations. They may prescribe a maximum period in
which a degree must be earned, and may set an average grade to earn a
degree, particularly at the master’s or doctorate level. Students who are
not interested in earning a degree may decide to take courses (without
credit) to enhance their understanding of certain subject matter. For non-
credit courses, it may be easier for students to exercise their freedom of
choice.
What this means is that student autonomy is not unlimited, even in open
universities using the distance education mode.
SAQ 4-4
Make a list of the ways students may exercise their autonomy.
A meaningful application of student autonomy is to direct it to indepen-

dent learning. Students take control of their learning process, learn to set
their goals and to achieve those goals by strong self-motivation. Indepen-
UP Open University
Unit II Module 4 47
dent learning focuses on the need for students to manage their learning
activities for a course. They are given learning materials and learning
guides, and it is their responsibility to manage their time, space and effort
in response to the goals and objectives of the course. They do not wait for
the tutor to tell them what to study, when, how. They allow the tutor to
guide the learning process, but the students take full responsibility for the
study activities from beginning to end. Students should not rely on a
teacher or tutor to direct their activities day by day. It takes mature-think-
ing students to apply autonomy to independent study.
Students also exercise autonomy when they take the initiative to consult
the tutor about learning problems. They should be able to discern through
self-analysis their progress or lack of it in their studies. Learners can be
supremely self-confident and believe highly in their abilities, but it would
be a loss to dismiss the services and help of a tutor. Certainly, the learner
should be weaned away from dependence on the tutor. But the tutor can
help in assessing student progress, and may act as counselor for both
academic and other related problems.
Distance education students who underwent early years of learning in a

face-to-face teacher-controlled or teacher-managed classroom will have
difficulty shifting from receptive to active learning. Students who are used
to expecting and receiving instructions from their teachers in the conven-
tional type of teaching-learning mode will have to make an effort to switch
from a passive to an active learning style in distance education. This switch
might be difficult for students who are used to being passive recipients.
They will have to make a very conscious effort to exercise self-discipline in
order to become active independent learners.
The difficulty for students to become active learners may also be a matter
of the cultural environment. When children are not very free to speak out
in the home environment and defer to elders to make decisions, they may
find it difficult to switch from quiet submission to active self-directed par-
ticipation in the learning process.
Although the responsibility for learning rests largely upon the student,
this does not mean that the distance learning institution will not provide
student support. The institution gives support to independent learning
by setting up a learning environment wherein students are encouraged
to take hold of and manage their learning process. One activity that can
help students adjust is for them to undergo orientation to the active and
independent mode of study so that they are in a better position to succeed
as distance learners, despite having diverse cultural and educational back-
grounds.
UP Open University
As you learned in Module 3, there are different ways by which distance

education is practiced, with students being given different degrees of au-
tonomy. Holmberg (1995, 168) points out that based on ideological and
practical considerations, there are arguments for and against giving stu-
dents full autonomy. He points out that “uninvited interventions” in adult
students’ work may encroach on their personal integrity. For practical
reasons, according to Holmberg, student autonomy allows students to
prioritize their family, job and social obligations. Holmberg observes that
full student autonomy, while attractive to many, is not likely to lead to
completion of the course.
At the UP Open University, the system is cognizant of the demands on its

adult students: job priorities, family concerns, social and other obliga-
tions. It has liberalized the completion policy of a course by including a
grade of EXT (Extended) instead of the UP grade of INC (Incomplete).
Students who fail to meet deadlines for requirements may take another
year to complete activities, such as submission of papers, taking of exami-
nations, and other work activities. The student must have participated to
some degree in the course to indicate that he/she is still an active member
of the course and therefore may be given an EXT grade. The Extended
grade is more liberal than the Incomplete grade.
“Distance educators and adult educators generally have to navigate be-

tween Scylla and Charybdis” (Holmberg 1986, 64-71) with regard to stu-
dent autonomy. Should students be left to fend for themselves, or should
there be some intervention when study problems arise and solutions are
needed for successful learning and completion? Intervention may be viewed
as minimizing wastage of time, effort and finances in successful comple-
tion of a distance education program.
“If students are to be treated as mature people, and if student autonomy

is to be promoted, this must have methodological consequences”. Holmberg
(1995, 171) suggests a number of principles, such as student participation
in the planning of the study, flexibility in the structure of courses, subject
matter presentations that engage students to question and investigate on
their own, and dialogue (contiguous or non-contiguous).
SAQ 4-5
List the pros and cons of student autonomy in distance education.
UP Open University
Unit II Module 4 49
Activity 4-2
In two or three paragraphs, write how much independence and
autonomy you would like to enjoy as a distance learner.
In our course, the study process starts with a careful reading and under-
standing, not just of the learning materials (modules and other readings),
but also of the schedules, activities, and requirements, apportioning these
within the term. You will have to follow deadlines for submitting require-
ments and the schedule for taking the final examination, but you also
exercise autonomy in determining how to harness your background and
experience in achieving a deep understanding of what you study.
You can develop independent study habits by doing the following (Saplala
1997):
• Study the basic format of the learning materials.
• Develop an interactive learning approach to the materials, which are
your “teachers”.
• Go beyond the modules and do research on other related materials.
• Adjust your timetable to incorporate daily study time.
• Cultivate an independent learning attitude and not expect the tutor
to explain material. Make an effort to understand even difficult mate-
rial.
• Set up study groups with fellow distance learners living close by, or
interact with them on the Internet.
• Carry out assignments to be submitted as individual and independent
tasks. Discussions may be carried on within the peer group, but as-
signments for submission are to be done individually.
We have observed that students who do well in our courses have these
characteristics:
• They are mature and independent learners who take upon themselves
the responsibilities of learning without needing to be prodded by tu-
tors.
• They know their learning capacity (their limits and strengths).
• They have an insight into their personality traits which may or may
not be conducive to successful learning. They are willing to accept the
reality of their personal characteristics and make an adjustment in
order to curb weaknesses and be able to harness their strengths.
UP Open University
• There are very organized individuals, and tend not to procrastinate,

so they are able to complete course requirements.
• They are able to tailor the demands of distance learning to their situa-
tion in life (family, jobs, and other social obligations).
• They have given themselves a goal to succeed in their studies.
In addition to the above points, we must add to the list the students’ abil-
ity to access computers and the Internet, and their skills in computer me-
diated communication. Now that much of our learner-tutor and learner-
learner interaction occurs online, students can easily miss out on learning
opportunities if they are unable to participate. Technology should be an
enabler, rather than a barrier, and there are many factors at play in en-
suring that students have a level playing field in this regard: from macro
(national efforts to enhance connectivity up to the last mile), to institu-
tional (university efforts to provide facilities and training), to personal
(willingness of a student to learn basic computer skills and find ways to
enhance access and connectivity).
Activity 4-3
Where are you now at this point in your development as a learner?
Write a self-analysis, candidly examining what kind of a learner
you are – whether you are a receptive or an active learner. What
should you, as a distance learner, do to shift from being a recep-
tive to an active learner?
UP Open University
Unit II Module 4 51
Answers to Self-Assessment Questions

ASAQ 4-1
An “internal didactic conversation” is the active interaction students have

with their learning materials. There are many individual styles: analyz-
ing the material in one’s mind in light of previous experience, making
comments, noting key ideas, asking questions, marking what needs fur-
ther explanation, correlating ideas.
This is important in distance education because it promotes independence

and the development of study skills.
ASAQ 4-2
Given the advances in information and communication technology, there

are many options to choose from here. Some possibilities are:
1. E-mail
2. Telephone
3. Correspondence
4. Tele- or audio- conferencing
5. Fax
6. Discussion forums on the Internet
ASAQ 4-3
Here are several possible answers to this question, you might want to add
more:
1. Students remain on schedule in their study calendar.

2. Students promptly find out about their progress (or lack of it) in the
course.
3. Students are assured that the distance institution cares for them and
they are not studying in isolation.
4. It is a motivating factor for students.
5. Students’ inquiries, doubts, problems are quickly resolved.
UP Open University
ASAQ 4-4
Here are some ways by which students may exercise their autonomy:
1. Participate in the planning of a course (if the distance education insti-
tution allows it)
2. Register program and courses of the student’s choice
3. Manage personal time, space and effort in achieving the goals and
objectives of a course
4. Make a choice to be an independent learner; exercise freedom to be-
come an independent learner
5. Schedule submission of assignments and taking of tests or certifica-
tion examinations (if the distance institution allows it)
ASAQ 4-5
Here are some pros and cons of student autonomy in distance education.
I’m sure you can add to the list.
Pros:
1. Learners take the initiative to assess the learning situation and locate
themselves and their needs in it. They do not go blindly into uncharted
paths, stumbling and bumbling along the way.
2. Since they makes their own decisions and choices, they have a genu-
ine interest in the studies they pursue.
3. They know what they want to accomplish and go after it.
4. They make an effort to know their strengths and weaknesses and to
make the adjustments necessary to be a successful learner.
5. As autonomous learners, they most likely will be active, not passive,
learners.
Cons:
1. Autonomous learners may tend to ignore or overlook guidelines set
up by the distance education institution, and thus may tend to neglect
fulfilling certain obligations as a student on time.
2. Autonomous learners may disregard schedules and be unable to com-
plete the requirements of a course (if there is a prescribed period).
They may find themselves soon in the drop-out list.
3. Non-completion is a waste of time and resources.
4. Autonomous learners may neglect an important aspect of distance
learning – interacting and communicating with the tutor and fellow
learners. Thus, they would not be getting the most out of available
learning opportunities.
5. The students may not have enough background or know-how to be
part of planning course objectives and goals, or to determine teach-
ing-learning methods.
UP Open University
Unit II Module 4 53
References
Holmberg, B. (1986). Growth and structure of distance education..

Beckenham: Croom Helm.
Holmberg, B. (1995). Theory and practice of distance education. London and
New York: Routledge.
Keegan, D. (1996). Theoretical principles of distance education. New York:
Routledge.
Moore, M.G. and Kearsley, G. (1996). Distance Education: A systems View.
Belmont, California.:Wadworth Publishing Company.
Peters, O. (1998). Learning and teaching in distance education. London: Kogan
Page.
Wedemeyer, C. (1981). Independent study. In L.C. Deighton (ed.), The En-
cyclopedia of Education, 4. New York: Macmillan.
UP Open University
Module 5
Theories of Distance
Education – 2
Paz Eulalia Saplala
This module is a continuation of our discussion of the theories of distance

education. This time, we are discussing three concepts:
l Industrialization of teaching and learning

l Integration of the teaching acts
l Comprehensive theory
Industrialization of Teaching and Learning
The concept of industrialization as applied

to education
Peter Raggatt (1993, 21 as cited by Peters 1998, 111) enumerates features
of industrialization which characterize the teaching methods of distance
education universities:
1. Production of a limited number of standard products
2. Application of mass-production methods
3. Automation
4. Division of labor
5. Centralized control
6. A hierarchically structured bureaucracy
Raggatt describes this industrialized stage of development in distance

education as “Fordism” (after the mass production of cars). He notes that
in the UK Open University, the number of courses offered was restricted,
there was mass production (in high volume) of learning materials at low
cost, and these materials had a life span of about

Objectives eight years.
After you have read and studied this Peters (1998, 109) observes that “the aspect of
module, you should be able to: industrialization is not found in pedagogical lit-
erature with regard to teaching and learning.”
1. Discuss the influence of industri- However, it cannot be denied that the impetus
alization on the creation of for the creation of distance education can stem
distance education; from commercial reasons (Peters, 1998, 110).
2. Discuss the characteristic features Businessmen could make money out of “educa-
of industrialization on distance tion” as a product to sell. And so the methods of
learning; industrial goods production are applied to teach-
3. Discuss what each characteristic ing and learning. Teaching is objectivized, i.e.
entails; “offered to all participants of a defined course
4. Discuss the pedagogical concept in the same way and with the possibility of rep-
of industrialized teaching and etition at will” (Peters 1998, 110). The most im-
learning; portant consequence of objectivization, Peters
5. Discuss the reshaping of industri- notes, is that “teaching became a product that
alized teacher and learning could be altered and optimized, and above all sold
(Fordism) into neo-industrializa- – not just locally but anywhere, like an industri-
tion or neo-Fordism; ally manufactured product.”
6. Discuss the effect of post-industri-
alization or post-Fordism on In industrialization of teaching, there is division
teaching and learning; of labor controlled by a central bureaucracy,
7. Discuss the meaning of ”transac- with parceling out of tasks to different teams of
tional distance” as a term to refer experts. Whereas traditionally the teaching re-
to the separation or distance sponsibility is undertaken by a “single hand,”
between tutors and learners; now there is division of labor (Peters 1998, 110)
8. Discuss how the teaching and carried out by many hands and at different times
learning acts can be integrated; and locations.
9. Discuss the essential roles of
tutors and students in this inte- These tasks are:
gration; and 1. Planning, developing and presenting the sub-
10. Discuss the comprehensive view ject matter
of educational transaction which 2. Correcting assignments
replaces the concept of indepen- 3. Developing written materials before the
dent study. course begins
4. Presenting subject matter on a mechanized
(automated) basis
5. Standardized, normalized and formalized teaching
6. Objectivized teaching
The different tasks are carried out by experts in their fields. Production of
learning materials requires a team of experts composed of content spe-
cialists/writers, instructional designers, editors, graphic artists, format-
UP Open University
Unit II Module 5 57
ting experts worked together to produce the written modules. For video
modules, other experts came in. Learning materials are distributed through
a delivery system (e.g., commercial carriers), and reach students scattered
in different locations of the country or even in other countries.
As part of the division of labor, tutorials and counseling are likewise orga-
nized to serve students separated from the distance institution in time
and place. The writer of the learning modules is not necessarily the tutor
who assesses and marks assignments.
Whereas in the traditional classroom the subject matter is presented by a

teacher physically present in the classroom, in distance education such a
presentation makes use of technology. Media and technology facilitate
communication between tutors/teachers and learners.
Without the physical presence and the personality of the teacher influ-
encing the presentation of subject matter, the presentation is now stan-
dardized, normalized, formalized, and objectivized. True, an evenness
and standard quality of presentation could be achieved, but lost would be
the strong presence and personality of an excellent teacher.
Students send their assignments through the computer, fax, or through a

carrier, and these are assessed and marked by the teachers/tutors. Ad-
ministrative matters, e.g., registration, payment of fees, completion, sched-
uling of exams, etc. could be carried out online and handled by adminis-
trative staff who are oriented to the distance education mode of learning.
The system works efficiently as long as the teams that make it up perform
according to a production schedule (just as in an assembly line in the
industrialized production of goods).
Peters (1998, 116-117) enumerates the pedagogical concept in industrial-

ized teaching and learning.
1. Industrialization opens up a macro- rather than a micro-pedagogical

concept of education, taking into account a totality of all the activities
of teachers and learners and all other participants.
2. Students are cognizant of their connection to and integration in all
teaching and learning activities starting with planning of the course,
developing, distributing, presentation, counseling and evaluation.
3. There is a far-reaching change in teaching behavior brought about by
the work of subject-matter specialists, distribution of teaching matter
using technical media, self-study even in isolation with occasional face-
to-face sessions.
4. Conformity to the concept of industrialized teaching and learning
UP Open University
makes it easier for participants to behave according to the system and

avoid dysfunctional pedagogical actions.
5. Many thousands of persons are provided with an opportunity to study
through distance education, which they would not be able to do in
the conventional system.
6. Division of labor with teams of specialists ensures high-quality teach-
ing materials. The disadvantage is that this would perpetuate the ex-
pository type of teaching and receptive learning.
7. The highly organized structure of industrialized teaching and learn-
ing creates efficiency, but it is a closed model that would make it diffi-
cult to develop “open curricula” created out of a flexible program that
is multi-faceted and takes into account the life situation of the stu-
dents.
SAQ 5-1
How did it come about that the methods of industrialization were
applied to distance education? How did the idea of the assembly
line in the manufacture of cars work out in distance education?
Neo-industrialization (or neo-Fordism)

As the world moves out of the industrial era and into the era of informa-
tion and communication, the industrialized character of distance educa-
tion has undergone change. Industrialization reshapes into neo-industri-
alization (or neo-Fordism) and then into post-industrialization (or post-
Fordism). Industrialization or Fordism in distance education has be-
come an obsolete model.
Peters (1998, 113, citing Raggatt, Campion and Renner 1992, Farnes 1993
and Campion 1995) notes that the trend in neo-industrialization is prod-
uct innovation and process variability. Consumers have more specific
demands and so the goal is to meet these demands and not produce in
UP Open University
Unit II Module 5 59
such large volumes. Goods are produced ‘on demand’ and ‘in time’. The
division of labor that characterizes industrialization is limited; in neo-
industrialization, smaller teams are formed and the “hierarchical forms
of organization are replaced by horizontal networks of relationships” (Pe-
ters 1998, 114).
Peters (1998, 115) raises the question of whether distance-teaching uni-

versities should not alter their working processes to meet the demands of
student-consumers. Mass producing learning materials that are kept in
stock for years and become outdated in relation to the needs of students is
no longer desirable. Instead of the hierarchically structured organization
with division of labor carried out by teams, Peters suggests decentralizing
the structure and having smaller working groups that would be respon-
sible for their own teaching programs. As a result, there would be more
flexibility and allowance for variation. “Phrases such as ‘autonomous
learning’, ‘independent learning in the digital learning environment’, ‘tele-
conferencing’, ‘intensive personal counseling’, ‘contract learning’ and the
combination with, and integration of, forms of traditional university teach-
ing indicate the direction that the development might take. It would be a
revolution” (Peters 1998, 115).
In neo-industrial teaching and learning, major courses (with a long ser-

vice life) would be replaced with short-term minor courses that meet the
needs of students, and may be easily revised since their learning materials
have not been produced in large volumes (Peters 1998, 117). Teaching
would be more local in study centers, with more face-to-face sessions.
Students will have to take a more active part in making their needs known
so they could be incorporated in the planning and development of courses.
There is still division of labor, but mass production in large volumes is
minimized. Peters further suggests that there be mixed mode universities,
or a combination of distance learning and traditional teaching institu-
tions.
UP Open University
SAQ 5-2
How is neo-Fordism fundamentally different from industrializa-
tion of teaching and learning?
Post-industrialized teaching and learning

Peters (1998,118) creates a scenario for post-industrialized teaching and
learning (or post-Fordism). The development of short study courses will
be handled by small working groups that are part of the faculties and
departments of the university. These groups of professors and lecturers
would take care of planning and developing their courses, and also pro-
duction, distribution, evaluation and follow-up. Students would be con-
sulted on their specific needs, which would be the basis for new short
courses. There will be a modification in the learning behavior compared
to traditional learning, since students themselves will determine their learn-
ing patterns. A dual or mixed-mode university will be organized to serve
both kinds of students—those in the traditional mode and those in dis-
tance learning. Campion (1991 as cited by Peters 1998, 119) says that
distance education would become “more decentralized, more democratic,
more oriented to co-determination, more open and more flexible.”
UP Open University
Unit II Module 5 61
Activity 5-1
Create your own scenario of how you would like distance educa-
tion to develop in the post-industrial era. Be sensitive to the changes
taking place in your environment and most important of all, to
your needs as a student.
Integration of the Teaching Acts

The initial reaction of traditional schools or universities to distance educa-
tion is to question the quality of the teaching-learning process in a set-up
where the student is separated from the teacher. Undeniably, the distinc-
tion achieved by many traditional schools and universities rests in part on
the eminence of its professors who have earned the admiration and re-
spect of students and colleagues by their manner of teaching in the class-
room and their scholarly grasp of the subject matter. The ”presence” of
the teacher/tutor is perhaps the greatest asset of a teacher-managed class-
room.
UP Open University
In Module 1, when we discussed the definition and elements of distance

education, we pointed out the separation of teachers/tutors and students
in time and space. Students do their learning acts separate from the tu-
tors, and teacher/tutors carry on their teaching acts separate from stu-
dents. Peters (1993 as cited by Keegan 1993:129-130), points out that a
central characteristic of distance education is the lack of eye contact, the
absence of “eyeball-to-eyeball” communication between teacher and stu-
dent.
The leaning and teaching acts have to be bridged by a system of commu-

nication. This distance was labeled “transactional distance” by Moore
(1996, 2000). This transactional distance is a pedagogic distance that in-
volves dialogue and structure.
Keegan (1993, 130-131) proposes the concept of the reintegration of the

teaching acts by establishing two-way communication between distance
learners and the teacher. How can this be done? Keegan (1990, 152-154)
cites Kaye and Rumble who point out that distance education systems
have two characteristic subsystems: course development and student sup-
port services. These two operating subsystems are the avenues where in-
tegration can be implemented. Keegan (1993, 131) summarizes as fol-
lows:
l The learning materials, both print and non-print, should be designed

to carry the characteristics of interpersonal communication: easily read-
able style, anticipation of students’ problems, careful structuring of
content, self-testing questions, instructional objectives, inserted ques-
tions, model answers, typographical considerations like designs, dia-
grams and drawings. These learning packages should simulate the
“intersubjectivity” of the classroom, tutorial, or lecture.
l When the courses are ongoing, reintegration of the teaching acts is

carried out through communication by correspondence, telephone tu-
torials, on-line computer, comments on assignments by teacher/tu-
tor, television/video/ computer conferencing.
Integration of the teaching acts through

quality learning packages
Interpersonal communication can happen as a student interacts with
materials specifically designed for distance learners. The teacher’s pres-
ence and guidance are built into the learning materials so that even with-
out actual person-to-person contact, two-way communication occurs. In
the planning, preparation and writing of learning materials in various
media (such as print, video and audio), the author anticipates the reac-
UP Open University
Unit II Module 5 63
tions of the learner to the text, and the possible problems the learner may
encounter in understanding the material. The course writer, instructional
designer, editor and critic, and the graphic artist work closely together to
produce learner-friendly (i.e., easy to read) modules, without detracting
from substance and depth.
Comments from students are valued since these can be used to improve
materials. Depending on the policies of the distance education institution
with regard to the shelf life of learning packages, materials prepared five
years or earlier may no longer suit the needs of the students.
Integration of the teaching acts through

two-way communication
Where students are used to the traditional teacher-managed classrooms,
well-planned and well-designed modules alone cannot be expected to make
the “connection” to facilitate student learning. In addition to the printed
word, the teacher/tutor and student will need to avail of communication
facilities. The student should have no difficulty using various means to
communicate with the teacher/tutor or the office providing student sup-
port services. The teacher/tutor may initiate contact if the tutor perceives
that the student shows signs of poor performance or poor understanding
of course content and work activities. Such show of concern on the part
of the teacher/tutor may help minimize the impersonal character created
by separation in time and space from the student. Deliberately reaching out
to the students in an institutionalized organized manner will help reduce the
feeling of isolation that may be experienced by distance learners.
Student support may be given by way of face-to-face meetings, telephone,

postal correspondence, e-mail, computer discussion forum, video/tele-
conferencing, and other facilities. Keegan (1993, 131) points out that the
revolution in electronic telecommunications brings benefits to distance
education, and “make it possible for mankind for the first time to teach
face-to-face at a distance.”
Student needs differ. Some students may need the two-way communica-
tion more than others who are comfortable with their student autonomy
and independence. Integration of the teaching acts seeks to provide help
for various kinds of students according to their level of competency and
capability for independent learning.
UP Open University
Consequences of lack of “eyeball-to-eyeball” contact
Keegan (1993, 129-130) refers to the search by Peters (1993) for the cen-
tral characteristic of distance education which led him to the Russian
term zaochny for “distance” in distance education. Peters explains that
etymologically, zaochny means “without eye contact”. What this means is
that the “decisive criterion according to which distance education can be
distinguished from conventional teaching and learning is the lack of eye
contact.” Or as Wedemeyer puts it, “eyeball-to-eyeball” contact does not
take place. Keegan observes that “a form of education in which eye-to-
eye contact between the learner and the teacher is absent, limps” (1993,
130).
Distance learning is able to provide access to education for many indi-

viduals who may not have the opportunity to pursue a study program
because of work schedules, family responsibilities, distance from the
school/university or other reasons. To be able to pursue a degree or take
courses without having to take time off from work or other responsibili-
ties democratizes access to education. A strength of distance education is
that learners can pursue an education even though they may be sepa-
rated in time and place from the teacher/tutor and the distance educa-
tion institution. But the consequence of this is the lack of eye contact in
the communication between teacher and learner. Without “eyeball-to-
eyeball” contact, students do not enjoy the rich and varied nuances of the
subject; the learning process is incomplete, or it “limps”.
Keegan (1993, 128-129) refers to Oakeshott’s (1967, 174-175) observa-

tion, that what is needed in addition to information is knowledge to inter-
pret information. “Interpretation,” says Oakeshott, “depends on the abil-
ity to determine relevance, thus emancipating learners from crude abso-
lutes and allowing them to give assent or dissent in graduate terms.”
In this light, “How, then, does the pupil learn intellectual honesty, disin-
terested curiosity, concentration and doubt? How does the learner come
to inherit the disposition to submit to refutation?” (Keegan 1993, 129). All
these, says Oakeshott, cannot be taught separately. It is injected into the
lesson unobtrusively “in the manner in which information is conveyed, in
a tone of voice, in a gesture, in asides and by example.” When students
are not physically present, how can the teacher exhibit the manner, the
voice, the gestures that accompany the information being transmitted?
That is a tough question, but there is an answer. “In spite of all this”, says
Keegan (1993, 132), “the daily work of the distance educator is still pains-
takingly to reintegrate the teaching acts, shattered by the benefits of dis-
tance education, so that quality education can be achieved year after year
by real students. In the same way, the responsibility of distance planners
UP Open University
Unit II Module 5 65
is to design systems for quality learning at a distance for even the poorest
students on the globe.”
We will discuss these systems for quality learning at a distance in Unit 3

(Modules 6 to 9), and perhaps you will get a better impression of how
“painstaking” the distance education undertaking is.
Comprehensive Theory
A theory may be defined as the general or abstract principles of a body of
fact, a science or an art (Webster’s 9th Collegiate Dictionary 1991 c. 1223).
Or it is a scheme or system of ideas or statements held as an explanation
or account of a group of facts or phenomena (Oxford Universal Dictio-
nary 1965, 2167). “Theory provides a means (order and explanation) to
make sense of complex practices and phenomena.” “Theoretical frame-
works and models are essential to the long-term credibility and viability
of a field of practice.” (Garrison 2000).
In a journal article that surveys the core theoretical contributions to dis-

tance education in the last century, Randy Garrison (2000) argues that
the following merit the most attention: the work of Charles Wedemeyer
(1971) on independent study and learning; of Otto Peters on industrial-
ized teaching and learning; of Holmberg (1989) on didactic conversation;
of Michael Moore (1991) on transactional distance; and of Garrison and
Shale (1980) on placing the teaching-learning transaction at the core of
distance education practice. Although we have mentioned most of these
concepts already, let’s summarize them here.
Independent study and learning (Wedemeyer)

Recall that we discussed independence and autonomy in Module 4.
Wedemeyer (1981, as cited by Holmberg 1998, 8) believed that students
should be able to obtain an education wherever they are, whether or not
teachers are present at the same time and place. Learners should carry
the greater responsibility for learning. All teaching media and methods
that have been proven effective should be used in the instructional sys-
tem. Furthermore, the system should be flexible enough to adapt to differ-
ences among individual learners and also teachers. Independent learners
should have free choice of subject matter and methodology. The instruc-
tional system should have in place a system of evaluating as directly as
possible the achievement by students of the learning goals, and not rate
them in terms of their pace of study, where they are located, the methods
they employ in their studies, or the sequence they follow.
UP Open University
Wedemeyer’s concept of independent study and learning focus on the

individual instead of the group (Garrison 2000, 5). The individual would
be self-directed, and exercise freedom of choice as a learner. Since the
opportunity to learn is not denied to anyone, this concept of independent
learning espouses a “democratic social ideal” .
Wedemeyer is credited as contributing to the establishment of the UK

Open University (Sherow and Wedemeyer 1990, 18). He is regarded as a
pioneer in the study of distance education. He pointed out the impor-
tance of utilizing media and technology in course design.
Industrialized teaching and learning (Peters)

Otto Peters (1998,109) theorized as early as 1967 that distance education
is an industrialized form of teaching and learning. The methods of indus-
trial production of goods could be applied to the teaching and learning
process. Division of labor goes into the planning and design, development
and presentation of subject matter. Course materials are prepared before
the start of a course and reproduced in large volumes and distributed by
the educational institution. Teaching becomes a product that could reach
even the student staying at a distance from the teaching institution. The
structure of industrialized teaching-learning differs from face-to-face teach-
ing in the traditional classroom.
The passage of time brought changes to the practice of distance educa-

tion. Neo-industrialization (or Neo-Fordism) responds to new market de-
mands in distance education. Product development shifted from mass
production in large volumes (which may become outdated in time) to
more specific needs in small-scale production. The industrialized process
is still operational, but on limited specific consumer demands.
With “high-product innovation” and “high process variability (Peters 1998,

114) came a new direction: “high labour responsibility”. Division of labor
is limited. Small groups of highly qualified members of the teaching insti-
tution take care of designing and preparing the teaching-learning materi-
als for their distance education courses.
Guided didactic conversation (Holmberg)

Garrison (2000, 7 and 8) points out that Holmberg (1989) places the con-
cept of “guided didactic conversation” at the core of his theory of dis-
tance education. Holmberg views distance education as a “friendly con-
versation” achieved by well-written self-instructional materials. Such di-
dactic conversation is both real and simulated. Built into industrialized
UP Open University
Unit II Module 5 67
teaching-learning materials, it aims to simulate two-way communication

between teacher/tutor and learner. The teacher’s role in the teaching
material is carried out by written instructions, which may be qualitatively
different from verbal exchange.
It is the responsibility of the course writers to develop simulated conversa-

tions in the instructional materials. Garrison points out that Holmberg’s
concept of didactic conversation is directed at pre-produced course pack-
ages and is therefore within the industrial paradigm.
Transactional distance (Moore)

Garrison (2000, 9-10) recognizes the contribution of Michael Moore to
independent study with his idea of transactional distance, which is ex-
pressed in terms of dialogue and structure.
In the theory of transactional distance, distance is a pedagogical phenom-

enon (Moore and Kearsley 1996, 2000). Distance is pedagogic, not geo-
graphic. There is a transactional distance in any educational event, even
in a face-to-face encounter, point out Moore and Kearsley, but when the
distance leads to a communication gap, “a psychological space of poten-
tial misunderstandings between the behavior of instructors and those of
the learners,” then there is transactional distance. Transactional distance
has to be overcome by instructional design and interaction procedures. A
transaction must take place calling for “special organizational and teach-
ing behaviors” to overcome the communication gap.
The special teaching behaviors fall into two clusters: dialogue and struc-
ture (Moore and Kearsley 1996, 201). Dialogue refers to any form of in-
teraction between teacher/tutor and learner with an “interplay of words,
actions and ideas…” Structure refers to the extent that objectives, content
themes, implementation and evaluation procedures are able to meet a
particular learner’s program needs. This also refers to study guides or
directions given to students so that they will be able to succeed as autono-
mous self-directed learners.
Garrison (2000, 9-10) points out that Moore incorporates the “structure”
of the industrial approach with the “interaction” of transactional dis-
tance, but Garrison avers that the interrelationship among structure, dia-
logue and autonomy have to be clarified. He recognizes, however, that
Moore’s work “remains one of the most appealing and well known theo-
ries of distance education”.
UP Open University
SAQ 5-3
What do you understand by the statement that transactional dis-
tance is pedagogic, and not geographic? Explain.
The educational control model (Garrison and Shale)

Garrison (1989, 2000) places the teaching and learning transaction at the
core of distance education practice regardless of the separation of teacher
and student. Garrison believes that mediated communication, while a
function of distance education, does not characterize the essential nature
of the teaching-learning transaction. Garrison does not see “distance” as
a defining characteristic of distance education since “advances in com-
munications technology have rendered the structural constraint of dis-
tance a relatively minor design challenge” (2000, 11). He also states that
independence is only one set of variables to be considered in a complex
educational transaction.
By placing the teaching-learning transaction at the core of distance edu-

cation practice, Garrison notes the shift from the industrial model. The
educational transaction model, according to Garrison, puts the concept
of control at the center of the educational experience. Garrison defines
control as “the opportunity and ability to influence the educational trans-
action.” It is intended to replace the concept of independence (self-study),
UP Open University
Unit II Module 5 69
with a more comprehensive view of the educational transaction. Unlike

in independent study, which tends to minimize the role of the teacher
and risks the danger of isolating the student, control is now shared in
two-way communication
This control model, according to Garrison (2000, 10), places at the level of
the teacher, the student and the content “transactional elements of profi-
ciency (ability and motivation), support (human and non-human re-
sources), and independence (opportunity to choose).” The appropriate
balance of control of these transactional elements can be determined by
sustained two-way communication.
Towards a comprehensive theory

So how are we doing in terms of establishing the theoretical foundations
of distance education for the 21st century? The answer to that question is
this: we know what the challenges are, and we have a good overview of
the ground we have to cover. Any attempt to describe a comprehensive
theory of distance education must be able to describe the following:
l the opportunities and limitations of facilitating teaching and learning

at a distance for learners with varying needs
l current and emerging innovative practices of designing and deliver-
ing distance education
l how a variety of methods and technologies affect distance education
practice
l the interaction between collaboration and independent learning
l how the teaching and learning transaction can be adapted to various
contexts
l models that can predict and shape future practice
That is a complex, necessary, and ultimately rewarding undertaking.
UP Open University
Activity 5-2
Download the following article:
Garrison, R. June 2000. Theoretical Challenges for Distance Edu-

cation in the 21st Century: A Shift from Structural to Transac-
tional Issues. International Review of Research in Open and Distance
Learning. Vol. 1, No. 1. Available at: http://www.irrodl.org/
index.php/irrodl/article/view/2/22.
Explain Garrison’s concluding statement:
Grand theoretical syntheses may not be a realistic immediate goal of an

emerging field of study such as distance education. It remains to be seen
whether a masterful and comprehensive theory encompassing the struc-
tural characteristics of the industrial era along with the transactional
properties of the postindustrial era of distance education can be real-
ized.
UP Open University
Unit II Module 5 71
Answers to Self-Assessment Questions
ASAQ 5-1
One phase of the development of distance education has been character-
ized as the industrialization of teaching and learning. The term Fordism
(after the manufacturer of cars) was coined to described this “production
process”.
The parallelism between distance education and manufacturing was noted

because of the following qualities:
1. Production of a limited number of standard products

2. Application of mass-production methods
3. Automation
4. Division of labor
5. Centralized control
6. A hierarchically structured bureaucracy
ASAQ 5-2
Industrialization (Fordism) Neo-industrialization (Neo-Fordism)
Limited number of standard Product innovation and process variability

products
Products are mass produced Goods are produced ‘on demand’ and ‘just
under a pre-determined schedule in time’
Division of labor Limited division of labor
Centralized control Decentralized structure with small working

groups
Hierarchically structured “Hierarchical forms of organization are

bureaucracy replaced by horizontal networks of relation
ships” (Peters, 1998)
Major courses with long service Short-term minor courses that meet the
life needs of students, and may be easily
revised
UP Open University
ASAQ 5-3
A communication gap can occur in any educational event (whether face-
to-face or at a distance). When there exists “a psychological space of po-
tential misunderstandings between the behavior of instructors and those
of the learners (Moore and Kearsley)” then there is transactional distance.
In the distance education setting, the solution to the problem is found in
instructional design (structure) and interaction procedures (dialogue).
References
Campion, M. 1995. The supposed demise of bureaucracy: implications

for Distance education and open learning—more on the post-Fordism
debate. Distance Education 16 (2), 192.
Campion, M. and Renner, W. 1992. The supposed demise of Fordism:
implications for Distance education and higher education. Distance
Education 13 (1) 7-28.
Farnes, N. 1993. Modes of production. Fordism and distance education.
Open Learning 8 (1) 10-20.
Garrison, R. 2000. Theoretical challenges for distance education in the
21st century: a shift from structural to transactional issues. Interna-
tional Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning. 1(1). Available
at http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/2/22
Holmberg, B. 1995. Theory and practice of distance education. London and
Keegan, D. 1996. Theoretical Principles of distance education. London and
Moore, M.G. and Kearsley, G. 1996. Distance education: a systems view.
California: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Peters, O. 1998. Learning and teaching in distance education. London: Kogan
Page.
Raggatt. J-D/1003. Post-Fordism and distance education—a flexible strategy
for change. Open Learning 8(1) 21-31.
Sherow, S. and Wedemeyer, C. 1990. Origin of distance education in the
United States. In D.R. Garrison and D. Shale (eds.) Education at a dis-
tance: from issues to Practice (pp. 7-22). Melbourne, FL. Krieger.
Wedemeyer, C.A. 1971. Independent study. In R. Deighton (ed.), Encyclo-
pedia of Education 4 (pp. 548-557). New York: McMillan.
UP Open University
Module 6
Distance Education System – 1
Course Design and
Development Subsystem
I n Unit III, we will look at distance edu

cation from a systems perspective. We
will be discussing four subsystems (course
Objectives
development and design; teaching and After you have read and studied this
learning; student support; and organiza- module, you should be able to:
tion and management), which are closely
linked and whose interactions help us to 1. Define the terms “design” and
understand the whole. We will see how a “development” in relation to the
change in one subsystem can cause change ADDIE model of creating instruc-
in the larger system, and in the environ- tional materials;
ment where the system exists. 2. Describe characteristics of self-
instructional materials in various
In this module, we will focus on course media;
design and development. We will define 3. Discuss ways by which learning
these processes, the nature of the product experiences are created;
(self-instructional materials), the character- 4. Describe the composition and
istics of the persons involved, and the en- requisite expertise of the course
abling environment within which course design and development team;
design and development takes place. and
5. Discuss conditions in the educa-
tion/training institution that can
The ADDIE Model encourage the process of course
design and development.
In defining the terms “design” and “de-
velopment”, let’s look at the ADDIE
model, possibly the most common (but certainly not the only) model used
for creating instructional materials. ADDIE is an acronym that stands for

the five phases of the model:
l Analyze. Analyze learner characteristics (demographics), needs and

constraints; determine institutional needs and capabilities
l Design. Formulate learning objectives, choose an instructional ap-
proach, define information content (information design), media/for-
mat/layout/ colors/screen elements (presentation design) interaction/
navigation (interaction design)
l Develop. Implement the design: create instructional materials, assemble
pre-existing materials
l Implement. Train course facilitators, test prototypes, distribute the
instructional materials, deliver the course
l Evaluate. Make sure the materials achieve desired goals through the
use of formative (done during each of the earlier processes) and
summative evaluation tools and methods, ideally with end-user feed-
back
Activity 6-1
Visit this website for a comprehensive discussion of the ADDIE
model:
Strickland, A.W. (2006). ADDIE. Idaho State University College

of Education - Science, Math, & Technology Education. Accessed
28 March 2007 from http://ed.isu.edu/addie/index.html.
Be sure to read not only the definitions, but also the “Samples”
illustrating each step. Go through the “Problems” pages to see com-
monly encountered issues.
The ADDIE model is “a generic and simplified instructional systems de-

sign model” (Strickland, 2006) that serves as a foundation for understand-
ing, and perhaps even demystifying, the process of creating materials for
distance education. There are other models and approaches which lie
beyond the scope of this module, and will be discussed in other courses
(specifically, EDDE 202).
UP Open University
Unit III Module 6 75
Self-instructional materials
Lockwood’s (1998) work, The Design and Production of Self-Instructional
Materials, is a standard reference for practitioners of distance education.
In it he describes the distinctive features of self-instructional materials,
and he makes a distinction between self-instructional materials and text-
books. These ideas are summarized in Tables 6.1 and 6.2.
Table 6.1 Distinctive features of self-instructional materials

(Lockwood, 1998).
Individual learning No need to wait until there are enough learners to form
a group. Various media can be used.
Self-paced learning Each individual can work at his or her own pace rather
than at the pace of a group (which may be too fast or
too slow).
Private learning No danger of “loss of face” as might be feared in certain
kinds of group learning. Some students prefer to study
on their own. Some senior students may not wish to
be in a face-to-face class with younger students.
Available at any time Learners can learn when they wish rather than accord-
ing to an external timetable.
Available at any place In students’ homes or when traveling, unless fixed or
special equipment is needed.
Available to any There is no limit to the number of learners who can be
number studying a course at one time.
Standardized content All learners receive the same teaching materials.
Expert content Materials can include contributions from national and
international experts.
Updatable content Package materials can usually be updated more quickly
and cheaply than teachers.
Structured teaching The teaching strategy can reflect a consensus of the
most effective and efficient way to teach.
Active learning Individuals learn by using ideas presented in the teach-
ing rather than merely being told about them.
Frequent feedback Learners should be getting continuous feedback to help
them monitor and improve their own progress through
the teaching package.
Explicit aims and It should be clear what learners might be expected to
objectives do as a result of working through the package.
Individualized tutoring Tutors respond to individual learners’ needs rather than
repeating the teaching provided by the self-instructional
materials.
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Table 6.2 Some differences between textbooks and self-instructional materials

(Lockwood, 1998)
Textbooks Self-instructional materials

Assume interest Arouse interest
Written for teacher use Written for student use
No indication of study time Gives estimates of study time
Designed for a wide market Designed for a particular audience
Rarely state aims and objectives Always gives aims and objectives
Usually one route through May be many ways through it
Structured for specialists Structured according to needs of learner
Little or no self-assessment Major emphasis on self-assessment
Seldom anticipates difficulties Alert to potential difficulties
Occasionally offers summaries Always offers summaries
Impersonal style Personal style
Dense content Content unpacked
Dense layout More open layout
Readers views seldom sought Learner evaluation always conducted
No study skills advice Provides study skills advice
Can be read passively Requires active response
Aims at scholarly presentation Aims at successful teaching
Of course, self-instructional materials are not limited to printed media.

There is quite a range to choose from, with different technologies able to
achieve goals of outreach and flexibility to varying extents (Table 6.3).
Table 6.3 ICTs and their Potential for Education (Haddad and Jurich, 2002).
Technology Outreach Flexibility* Sensorial Stimulation Interactivity
Radio High Limited Audio Limited
TV High Limited Audiovisual Limited
Video Low High Audiovisual Limited
Computers Low High Audiovisual High
Internet Highest High Audiovisual Highest
* Limited = students and teachers must be present during transmission; High = students
can access the material at different times
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In putting together course materials, it is much more likely that a combi-

nation of technologies will be used, rather than having to choose between
one or the other. The most appropriate technology is “not necessarily the
latest and greatest” but rather a “relative mixing and matching of old and
new technologies” (Wachholz, 2005).
Radio for distance education

Since soon after its invention in the 1920s, radio has been used as a teach-
ing aid (through regular broadcasts for classroom use) and as an alterna-
tive school for both children and adults (through discussion of practical
topics not mandated by set curricula). With its high outreach and low
cost, it is particularly useful in remote areas.
In the Philippines, school-on-the-air initiatives (such as DZLB in UP Los

Baños, and DZJO run by the Bayanihan Broadcasting Center) have
reached farmers, teachers, and village healthcare workers since the 1970s.
Lucas (1999) calls these projects “community-based radio (CBR) broad-
casting.” As a tool for distance education, radio can “project to a mass
audience a mixed programme format in order to:
l Facilitate the enhancement of mass learning;

l Provide a process of information dissemination
l Establish a foundation for decision making and value formation; and
l Initiate behavioral transformation for social mobilization.”
A more recent example of the use of radio for distance education is the
experience of the National Institute for Science and Mathematics Educa-
tion (NISMED), which has a teacher training program delivered via 15-
minute segments on radio. The 16 lessons per course are aired once a
week over four months. Through its partnership with DZMM, the last 15
minutes of Bago ‘Yan Ah! are given to Titser’s Iskul on the Air. The latter,
however, is re-aired by other partner radio stations in other parts of the
country. The target audience (elementary school teachers) enroll through
NISMED, partner universities or government agencies (Department of
Science and Technology Regional Science Training Centers), are given
learning materials in print. They have to answer a question at the end of
each radio episode. All the answers are submitted during a face-to-face
meeting at the end of the 16 weeks. After discussions on the course con-
tent, they are given a test certifying their completion of the course. Around
253 teachers have so far attended the course in its first two offerings (E.
Bautista, personal interview 13 April 2005).
UP Open University
Perraton and Creed (2001), reviewed the achievements of radio schools

in Latin America and Africa:
The work of the radio schools was significant both socially

and methodologically. Their existence demonstrated that,
within some jurisdictions, it might be possible to create a
parallel system of education, reaching both children and
adults, and working where the state was unable or unwill-
ing to do so. The decline of the radio schools and the fact
that they have few equivalents in other parts of the world
suggest that the model is fragile and difficult to transplant.
The methods they used demonstrated the potential strength
of radio, with its relatively modest costs and its power for
change when linked with some kind of face-to-face study.
Perraton and Creed conceded that “with modest costs per student, (radio
schools) were able to offer some educational opportunities to children
who might otherwise have had none” (Ibid.).
With the advent of podcasting—the use of the Internet to distribute audio

files that can be played using mobile devices—the character of audio broad-
casting has significantly changed. It has become easier to produce audio
files (with readily available equipment, and user friendly capture/editing
software), and cheaper to disseminate them (no need for radio stations).
At the same time, the hardware used for playback (computers, laptops,
MP3 or MP4 players) are becoming less costly, although these devices are
far from being as widely available as radios.
Television for Distance Education

Since the 1960s, television has largely supplanted radio as the broadcast
medium most used for educational programs. The audio-visual character
of the medium makes it possible to transmit content that could not be
effectively presented by audio alone. The major drawback, however, is
cost, since it takes more resources to produce materials in video format,
and even more resources to broadcast. However, these costs can be offset
by the numbers reached, as shown by the experience of China’s Central
Radio and TV University which leverages the high outreach of radio and
TV to enroll two million students and graduate more than a million since
the 1970s.
In the Philippines, educational television shows for basic education are

broadcast over mainstream channels as well as cable TV (Knowledge
Channel). Program content is developed in cooperation with government
agencies such as the Department of Education, Department of Science
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and Technology, Department of Social Welfare and Development, Na-

tional Commission for Culture and the Arts, Literacy Coordinating Council
and the Council for the Welfare of Children (AFI, 2002).
Since 1994, the ABS-CBN Foundation has been airing educational pro-
grams:
l Sine’skwela - for Science (elementary)

l MathTinik - for Mathematics (elementary)
l Epol/Apple - for English (elementary)
l Hirayamanawari - for values education/Makabayan (elementary)
l Bayani - for Philippine History/Nationalism/ Makabayan (elementary)
l Pahina - for Philippine Literature (high school)
l SILIP - for Philippine arts & culture (high school)
l Detek Kids - for critical thinking (elementary)
l Art Jam - for creative arts and crafts (elementary)
Studies done by both ABS-CBN Foundation and independent researchers

show that children who watch educational television shows:
l Achieved higher scores in achievement tests

l Showed significant score differentials (before and after viewing the
show)
l Demonstrated greater understanding of concepts
l Improved process skills
l Enhanced reading ability and understanding of printed English
l Generated interest and appreciation for the subject
l Provided new and additional insights
l Recognized that the subject was useful and relevant in everyday life
l Demonstrated self-confidence through active participation in class
l Demonstrated good values
l Overcame fear of the subject because it was presented as fun
l Received more insights into Philippine culture (ABS-CBN Foundation,
2003)
As with the case of podcasting, video streaming and video-on-demand

over the Internet have changed the parameters of video broadcasting.
The cost of hardware has markedly declined, with digital video cameras,
and webcams being affordable enough for personal use, and mobile tele-
phones having built-in video recording capabilities.
The storage medium for videos (compact discs supporting DVDs and
VCDs) are low-cost, the hardware used to replicate them are standard
for any personal computer.
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As far as software is concerned, “movie makers” now make video editing

simple, even for novices. And online video streaming is made efficient by
software that compress video files for easier playback even in low-band-
width environments. Several websites offer to host your streaming video
for free, the most popular being YouTube (www.youtube.com).
Computers and the Internet for

Distance Education
In general, the education sector “follows the evolutionary pattern of the
private sector: from radio, TV to connected computers” (Wachholz, 2005).
Nobel laureate and science education advocate Sir Harry Kroto, in his
series of lectures entitled “TV is dead, long live the Web,” says:
In an analogous way to the printing press, the birth of the

Web has democratized broadcasting - the mainstream chan-
nels no longer control the dissemination of recorded audio-
visual material - individuals and groups of individuals can
now make and broadcast programmes themselves and so
the Internet has at last enabled audio-visual broadcasting
to fulfill the promise it has always had - to be a superb
educational medium. Already a wide range of exciting pos-
sibilities is being explored and mainstream TV just cannot
compete with the creative potential of every individual in
the world.
The stranglehold on the audio-visual educational process

that the media have had - usurping any socially respon-
sible mandate they might have had to provide something
in addition to entertainment—has been broken (Kroto,
2003).
Quite aside from audio or video-related applications, the most important

educational uses of computers and the Internet are built on their potential
for interactivity. When used appropriately, students are given greater con-
trol over their learning experience.
In the Philippine context, the greatest hurdle is poor access to computers

and the Internet. Estimates vary from 5 to 20% access for the general
population. A survey of 4,014 Philippine public high schools showed that
63.10 percent have electricity, only 22.80 percent have telephones, and
only 1.40 percent have access to the Internet (DepEd, 2003). A larger
study of 36,368 schools, both public and private, showed that only 66.07%
have electricity, ranging from 37.86 in ARMM to 98.52% in NCR. Only
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13.30 percent have landline telephones, 2.90 percent have fax machines.
Only 14.28 percent of schools in the entire country have computers. Most
of these schools with computers can be found in industrialized regions
such as NCR, Central Luzon and Southern Tagalog. Only 2.00 percent
have access to the Internet (SEAMEO INNOTECH, 2002).
Collaboratively constructing knowledge

and meaning
Producing self-instructional materials is one aspect of creating a distance
education course or program. Yet another aspect of course design and
development is creating environments that facilitate sharing and social
construction of knowledge and meaning.
A learner’s contact with self-instructional materials represents only one

type of interaction. Communications technologies, however, allow for
more:
l One-to-one – learner and teacher email each other; or learner commu-

nicates with a peer via SMS
l One-to-many – teacher uses an email list to send mass messages to all
students; teacher records a video or audio file distributed over the
Internet
l Many-to-many – learners and teachers post messages in a discussion
board or meet in a chatroom
The materials generated from these conversations are indeed instructional,

although these many not be highly refined (Table 6.4). We will discuss
these interactions further in Module 7, when we tackle the teaching and
learning subsystem.
UP Open University
Table 6.4 Characteristics of delivery technologies

(adapted from Taylor, 1996).
Characteristics of Delivery Technologies

Delivery Technologies Flexibility Highly Advanced
refined Interactive
Time Place Pace materials Delivery
Print Yes Yes Yes Yes No

Audio (broadcast radio) Yes Yes Yes Yes No
Video (broadcast TV) Yes Yes Yes Yes No
Audioteleconferencing No No No No Yes
Videoteleconferencting No No No No Yes
Podcast Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Video on demand Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Interactive multimedia
(on CD-ROM) Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Internet-based access
to WWW resources Yes Yes Yes Yes/No Yes
Computer mediated
communication
(e.g., chat) Yes Yes Yes No Yes
Activity 6-2
Let’s explore some of the different technologies that are used for
course materials design and development.
1. Visit the YouTube website: www.youtube.com. YouTube was

hailed by TIME magazine as the “Invention of the Year” for
1996. Google, Inc. paid US$ 1.65 billion to acquire it in Novem-
ber 1996. What are its potentials for education? Try searching
for learning materials that can be used in your field of study.
2. Search the web for podcasts in your field of interest. How

could these help you teach your courses? If you had an oppor-
tunity, describe a podcast that you would make.
UP Open University
The quality circle

Now that we have discussed the process of course design and develop-
ment, and reviewed the range of instructional materials in various media,
let’s look into the component that makes things happen – people!
More often, distance education faculty and administrators end up learn-

ing by trial-and-error, with some advice from more experienced colleagues.
“They do this with almost no background in distance education theory,
pedagogical models, or positive examples of good practice” (Bernath, 2000).
Hiring, training and retaining persons for a distance education undertak-

ing require investment. All too often, administrators are unwilling to bear
training costs and assume that veteran teachers can teach in any mode,
and using any technology. There is often very little support given to teach-
ers who want to try something new, and they often end up doing things
alone (the Lone Ranger approach). Another problem is stiff resistance to
change.
Bates (2000) describes four groups of highly skilled personnel involved in
this endeavor:
l Technology infrastructure support staff—those who ensure the net-

work is up and working, and hardware/software are appropriate
and available
l Educational technology support staff—web designers, graphic artists,
programmers, layout artists; crew for the production of audio and
video materials; interactive educational software designers
l Instructional design staff—instructional designers and language edi-
tors
l Teachers—content experts who are comfortable with the new tech-
nologies and are able to teach online; peer reviewers
Looking at the literature, the experiences of other distance education in-

stitutions, and our own experiences, developing materials for distance
education requires human resources in all four categories. Being strong in
one area (e.g., teachers), without any expertise in the others will not lead
to quality work that is sustainable over time. Poor materials will let down
students, will be a disservice to the field of study being taught, and per-
haps worst of all, can tarnish the image of the whole distance education
undertaking, playing up to the lingering suspicion of colleagues that dis-
tance education is inferior to traditional, face-to-face, classroom-based
education.
UP Open University
Enabling environments for course design

and development
Foshay (1998), based on the work of Charles Reigeluth, essentially calls
for a transformation among educational institutions entering the infor-
mation age:
Industrial Age Information Age
Grade levels Continuous progress

Covering the content Purposeful accomplishment
Testing for competitive grades Individualized testing for goals
Non-authentic assessment Performance-based assessment
Group-based content deliver Personal learning plans
Adversarial, competitive
learning Individual and collaborative learning
Classrooms Learning centers
Teacher as dispenser of
knowledge Teacher as coach or facilitator of learning
Memorization of facts out Whole act of thinking, problem solving skills
of context and meaning-making
Isolated, specialized skills Integrated, multidisciplinary, whole tasks
Books as tools Advanced technologies as tools
Bates (2000) argues that these changes can happen only if there is a vision
that drives it. There is often no lack of commitment from senior manag-
ers, or enthusiasm among the faculty, but “what often is lacking is strate-
gic vision, that is, how technology can be used to change the way a uni-
versity or college does its core activities so that it can reach out to new
needs and new target groups.”
People, services and materials to be used for course design and develop-
ment are going to cost money. Currently employed staff members have to
be re-trained and released from their other work commitments for certain
periods. This holds true not just for content experts but also secretarial/
clerical and support staff. There is often a need to employ individuals
outside the institution as consultants or peer reviewers. This means cur-
rent allotments for personnel will not suffice, and these costs are recur-
rent, because as the materials age, there is a need to update and revise.
Materials production, packing, handling, storing, mailing/delivery also

entail costs and likely, additional personnel.
There is also a need to look into institutional policies on who owns copy-
right for materials produced (the authors or the institution or both), how
personnel are paid for their services (regular salary or additional compen-
sation), and how excellent work is recognized.
UP Open University
Activity 6-3
At the end of this module, you will find Table 6-1: Distance Edu-
cation Course Proposal. Think of a course or programme that you
would like to deliver via distance education. You don’t have to
actually fill in the boxes in the template. What is important is for
you to see the range of issues that have to be addressed in the
process of course design and development.
Reflect on the following issues:
1. Compare the process of designing and developing courses in

the face-to-face and distance modes.
2. Which parts of the template are easy for you to answer? Which
parts are difficult? Explain why.
3. Let’s focus on personnel resources. If you were to design and

develop a course today, describe the personnel resources you
have on hand. Discuss the level of commitment or contribu-
tion available from your colleagues. Describe their experience
with (or prior training in) distance education. Also describe
the expertise that you don’t have access to at the moment, and
how you could acquire these in the near future.
UP Open University
Table 6-1: Distance Education Course Proposal
Provisional course title
Training institution/department
Academic level
Basic education, vocational, undergraduate, post-graduate, continuing education
Personnel Course materials developers/authors, materials reviewers, teaching faculty/train-

ers, instructional designer, language editor, multimedia developers
Name Institution/ Role/s Full time % Contribution

Unit or part time
Need for the course Course objectives

Institutional goals, program
goals, needs of target
audience
Context
Institutional experience,
faculty experience, partners,
competitors
Learners Course activities

Description, location, current Field trips, experiments, discussions, group work,
knowledge and capabilities, online interaction, etc.
access to technology,
constraints
Estimated annual number

of learners
Duration Mode of assessment Credit or certification

Number of hours or weeks Ways by which
to complete the course achievement will be
measured
Funds available Support staff available Existing materials

Honoraria and salaries; Research, encoding, Earlier version of
production, printing, layout, graphic design, modules (describe extent
distribution multimedia development of revision to be done),
available textbooks,
websites, multimedia
resources
Instructional media Copyright ownership

Overall strategy for use of media: print, video, audio,
online, interactive, blend of different media
UP Open University
Mode of delivery
Face-to-face, online, blended
Teaching staff Resources Support systems Use of technology

Number, qualifications, available to and staff Learning
full/part time, experience students Registration, payment, management
Library, computer technical support, system, email,
laboratory, etc. counseling, etc. videoconferencing,
etc.
Topics / Weeks
Unit No. No. Title Media Author/s
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
UP Open University
Date / Duration Estimated course life

Number of years of use of material before
major revision is necessary
Tasks for course materials Month

development
Identification of course
developers
Training of course developers
Contract signing
Module writing
Video or interactive media

production
Submission of first draft
Peer review
Editing
Production of copies/
uploading to web
Offering of the course
Gathering comments about

the course
Giving feedback to authors
Course revision
Submission of final version

of course materials
Prepared by Date
UP Open University
References
ABS-CBN Foundation, Inc. 2002. EMedia. Retrieved 14 March 2005, from

http://www.abs-cbnfoundation.com/emedia/abtus.html
________________. May 2003. Contributions of the Educational Televi-
sion Shows to Filipino Students and Teachers. (unpublished docu-
ment). Metro Manila: ABS-CBN Foundation Research and Teacher
Training Department.
Bates, T. 2000. Managing Technological Change, San Francisco: Jossey-
Bass.
Bernath, U. 2000. From Experiments to Everyday Practice in Online Dis-
tance Education, paper delivered at the 14th Annual Conference of
the Asian Association of Open Universities, Manila, October 27, 2000.
Commonwealth of Learning. 2000. Introduction to Open and Distance
Learning. Retrieved March 2, 2005 from www.col.org/ODLIntro/
introODL.htm
Department of Education. 2003. State of Infrastructure in Philippine Pub-
lic High Schools (School Year 2002-2003—Secondary Schools). Un-
published document. Manila: DepEd.
Foshay, R. 1998. Technical Paper #3: Instructional Philosophy and Stra-
tegic Direction of the PLATO System (Online). Accessed July 21, 2000
from: www.plato.com .
Haddad, W.D. and Draxler, A. 2002. The Dynamics of Technologies for
Education. In Technologies for Education: Potential, Parameters and
Prospects. Haddad, W.D. and Draxler, A. (Eds.). Paris/Washington:
UNESCO and the Academy for Educational Development.
Kroto, H. 2003. TV is Dead – Long Live the Web. Accessed 1 March 2005,
from http://www.mrl.ucsb.edu/mrl/outreach/edu_out/
kroto_abstract.html .
Lockwood, F. 1998. The Design and Production of Self-Instructional Ma-
terials. London: Kogan Page.
Oliver, R. 2002. The role of ICT in higher education for the 21st century:
ICT as a change agent for education. Accessed 10 February 2005
from http://elrond.scam.ecu.edu.au/oliver/2002/he21.pdf .
Oliver, R. and McLoughlin, C. 1997. Interactivity in telelearning environ-
ments: Using communication and dialoge meaningfully in the learn-
ing process. Accessed 4 March 2005, from http://elrond.
scam.ecu.edu.au/oliver/docs/97/ODLAA2do.pdf .
Perraton, H. and Creed, C. 2001. Applying New Technologies and Cost-
Effective Delivery Systems in Basic Education. Paris: UNESCO.
SEAMEO INNOTECH. 2002. Executive Summary. Profile of the Informa-
tion and Communication Technology (ICT) Capabilities of Elemen-
tary and Secondary Schools in the Philippines. Accessed 14 March
from http://www.seameo-innotech.org/resources/resources.asp
UP Open University
Strickland, A.W. 2006. ADDIE. Idaho State University College of Educa-

tion— Science, Math, & Technology Education. Accessed 28 March
2007 from http://ed.isu.edu/addie/index.html.
Taylor, J. 1996. “Technology, Pedagogy and Globalisation”, Proceedings
of the 4th International Workshop for Distance Education, October 8-
10, 1996, Seoul, Korea, pp. 75-82.
Taylor, P. and Maor, D. 2000. Assessing the efficacy of online teaching
with the Constructivist On-Line Learning Environment Survey. In A.
Herrmann and M.M. Kulski (Eds), Flexible Futures in Tertiary Teach-
ing. Proceedings of the 9th Annual Teaching Learning Forum, 2-4
February 2000. Perth: Curtin University of Technology. http://
lsn.curtin.edu.au/tlf/tlf2000/taylor.html.
Tiffin, J. and Rajasingham, L. 1995. In Search of the Virtual Class: Educa-
tion in an Information Society. London: Routledge.
Wachholz, C. 2005. Strategic Planning for ICTs in Education—a Regional
Perspective. Paper delivered at the National Strategic Planning for
ICTs in Basic Education Initiative Inception Meeting, Manila, 15 Feb-
ruary 2005.
UP Open University
Module 7
Teaching and Learning
Subsystem
Paz Eulalia Saplala and Maria Lurenda S. Westergaard
L et’s now discuss the teaching and learn

ing subsystem, one of the components
of a distance education system. We have
Objectives
already discussed course development and After you have read and studied this
design. In subsequent modules, we will module, you should be able to:
discuss student support, and organization
and management. 1. Enumerate the salient points of
the teaching-learning process in
The most important aspect of the teaching distance education; and
and learning subsystem is communication: 2. Discuss the difference between
the internal “voice” of the teacher woven teaching and learning in distance
into the learning materials; the technology- education and in the traditional
based one-on-one communication between classroom.
teacher and learner and between learner
and his/her peers; the speedy dispatch of
learning materials; the institutionalized sending and receiving of assign-
ments, papers, projects with a quick turn-around time; and the meaning-
ful, substantial comments in the marking of the students’ work activities;
all help the distance education system to work towards successful learn-
ing.
Holmberg (1995, 176-177) tells us that:
l Teaching and counseling can be carried out even if teacher and learner
are separated from one another in time and space by means of medi-
ated communication.
l Personal contacts between learner and teacher/tutor and other mem-

bers of the supporting institution promote emotional involvement.
As we discussed in previous modules, the teaching-learning process in

distance education exists in an environment where teacher/tutor and
learner are separated in space and time, but there are means by which
they can communicate to help motivate independent mature learners to
pursue their studies diligently. Communication takes many forms:
1. There is internal communication (or Holmberg’s “guided didactic con-

versation”) built into the learning materials (most often in print), which
convey to the learner what the teacher/tutor would like to communi-
cate to the learner. Holmberg suggests the following:
l The presentation of course goals and objectives, which allow stu-

dents to assess their relevance
l A course structure based on established earlier learning of the stu-
dents
l Pre-produced materials written in a conversational style and invit-
ing an exchange of views that may involve the student emotionally
l Self-assessment exercises in pre-produced materials, with answers
provided
l A high degree of readability of the printed materials
l Use of graphical and typographical presentation that facilitate ac-
cess to printed courses
The adult independent learner must take the initiative to respond to this
internal communication so that there is interaction between the learner
and the learning material.
2. The educational institution may set up a means of communication

between teacher/tutor and learner outside of the learning material
via correspondence and technology: a dialogue using computers, the
telephone, or tele/video conferencing. These make possible a more
direct communication between teacher/tutor and learner. The teacher/
tutor is expected to give feedback. In assessing assignments, papers
and tests, teacher/tutor markers convey through their remarks the
kind of progress made by the learners. Such marking comments are
part of the interaction between teacher/tutor and learner. The stu-
dents’ reaction may be conveyed by telephone or the Internet. The
distance education institution facilitates the prompt and speedy send-
ing/receiving of assignments and evaluations of work between
teacher/tutor and learner. The quicker the turn-around time for as-
sessment of work done, the greater the motivation to study and the
satisfaction of students who are always eager to know their standing
as learners. In this case, the communication between teacher/tutor
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and learner is basically individualized. However, when observations

by the teacher/tutor are addressed to all the students of a specific
course, the students may react in a free discussion which would simu-
late a face-to-face discussion in a classroom.
3. Similarly, the educational institution may set up systems which will

enable learners to communicate with each other, as in a computer-
assisted discussion forum or chat room.
Teaching at a distance
Whether the teaching-learning process occurs at a distance or face-to-
face, expert teaching requires three types of knowledge (Taylor, 1996):
1. Content knowledge of the subject matter to be taught,

2. Pedagogical knowledge of how to teach, and
3. Practical knowledge of the social and political context in which teach-
ing and learning occur.
Within the processes of teacher training, hiring, continuing education,

and retention in an educational institution, we take it for granted that the
first prerequisite, content knowledge, is addressed. The second and third
items, however, present special challenges to distance education institu-
tions.
Pedagogical knowledge and practical knowledge among teachers in the

distance education milieu have several unique aspects. To begin with, a
teacher must fundamentally believe that the distance education enter-
prise is worthwhile.
In a study by the Sloan Consortium (2003), academic leaders were asked

about their perceptions of the degree to which faculty accept the value
and legitimacy of online education, a subset of distance education. The
researchers found that over a quarter of the academic leaders at private,
nonprofit schools state that their faculty question the value and legiti-
macy of online learning. In private institutions, close to 50% see the value
of online education. They surmise that the high rate of acceptance in the
public sector may be due to the longer experience that these schools have
in delivering online courses and programs.
UP Open University
Table 7.1 Answers to the question: “Faculty accept the value and legitimacy
of online education” (Sloan Consortium, 2003)
Public Private, non- Private, for- Total

profit profit
Agree 70.5% 50.9% 51.4% 59.6%
Neutral 18.3% 21.5% 31.5% 21.3%
Disagree 11.3% 27.6% 16.0% 18.7%
Jones et al. (2002) discussed faculty adoption of, and attitudes toward,
distance education in a study that showed that “the majority of educa-
tors are not philosophically opposed to distance education,” meaning they
do not believe that distance education is inferior to traditional modes of
delivering courses. But those who were least opposed philosophically also
happened to be the ones most open to the use of various technologies to
accomplish teaching and learning. And, presumably, these teachers also
performed their distance teaching functions better.
Activity 7-1
What do you think are the reasons why teachers do not accept the
value and legitimacy of online education in particular, and dis-
tance education in general?
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Perhaps one major reason for slow adoption (if not suspicion) of distance
teaching methods by teachers schooled in the traditional mode of class-
room-based teaching is that they feel they don’t have the requisite skills to
succeed. Being able to teach effectively in the distance education setting
requires a different set of skills. Instead of public speaking skills which are
prized in the face-to-face setting, a person teaching at a distance must
master:
l How to use a variety of communication media, practicing the “skills

and self efficacy to integrate the technology” (Jones et al., 2002)
l How to pace and use time appropriately in both synchronous and
asynchronous environments
l How to write clear, concise, encouraging and personable messages,
aware that body language and tone of voice do not factor into most
communication methods (print correspondence, email, discussion
boards, and chat rooms)
l How to project one’s self on video and speak clearly for audio record-
ings
l How to “connect” to people online, respond to messages in a timely
manner, and manage learners’ expectations
l How to promote interaction
l How to value diversity and acknowledge/respect differences in opin-
ion
So what ultimately, is the goal of the teacher in distance education? In-

deed it involves ensuring social presence, facilitating interaction and col-
laboration, presenting an array of meaningful learning activities using
various media. But Garrison and Shale (as cited by Keegan, 1995, 125-
127) remind us that the purpose of teaching is to help the student inte-
grate new knowledge with existing knowledge and thus develop new
perspectives. The student applies these new perspectives through an in-
teraction, an exchange of ideas with the teacher/tutor and fellow learn-
ers. Teacher and student engage in a two-way communication vital to the
stages of the learning process.
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Activity 7-2
How is teaching in distance education different from teaching in
the traditional classroom? Enumerate, briefly explaining each point
you make.
Learning at a distance
“Open learning” has started to fuse with “distance learning”, according
to Peters (1998, 97), but while the two terms are used synonymously, they
are “distinct but overlapping”. Open learning is democratizing learning
and opening it to all. Learning is made more accessible to more people
because of the use of alternative means of communication other than just
face-to-face as in the traditional university (Daniel 1988, 127, as cited by
Peters 1998, 99). In an open learning institution, the students can exercise
their autonomy in the choices that they make. They may even have an
opportunity to participate in the planning and design of courses. And in
some institutions, prerequisite requirements for courses may be waived or
may not exist, leaving the student free to take such courses as he/she
chooses.
For purposes of economy in terms of resources and time spent, “open

learning” is not so “open” in distance education institutions that have
prerequisites or qualifications for registration in their courses, particu-
larly in the pursuit of a degree. In the University of the Philippines Open
University, there may even be the need to pass an admission test to qualify
for enrollment in some programs.
Holmberg (1995, 176) presents 10 hypotheses derived about distance learn-

ing:
1. Even without the presence of a teacher/tutor, organized learning can

occur.
2. Intrinsic motivation is a necessary condition for learning.
3. Learning is facilitated when students are able to fit in subject matter
into existing cognitive experience.
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4. A warm relationship in the study situation promotes emotional in-

volvement.
5. Emotional involvement in the study leads to deep learning and achieve-
ment of goals.
6. Rapport with teacher, tutors, counselors and the distance teaching
institution strengthens motivation for study and promotes study plea-
sure.
7. The intellectual pleasure of the learner promotes deep learning, the
use of problem-oriented processes and achievement of study goals.
8. Participation by the learner in determining study goals and study plan-
ning helps commit the learner to the learning and to the responsibility
to attain study goals.
9. Learning is encouraged by communication with all those interested in
the study.
10. The mature learner is in a position to achieve motivational stability
and has the capacity to cope with difficulties. Moreover, he is inclined
to be an independent learner.
What did Holmberg mean when he described the “mature” learner in his
10th hypothesis? Is “maturity” a function of age? Holmberg insists that
the distance education system should be geared towards helping the adult
learner become an independent learner. Recalling our discussion in Mod-
ule 4 about independence and autonomy, those who have been schooled
in the teacher-managed classrooms will have to adjust to becoming inde-
pendent learners in distance education. Separated in time and place from
the teacher/tutor, distance learners will have to learn how to manage
their studies without waiting for the tutor to tell them what to do. This
means reading and understanding their learning materials and respond-
ing to the built-in instructions and interactive style of the written mod-
ules. Similarly they have to participate in interactive communication con-
ducted over facilities like networked computers. Independent students
learn efficient time management, prioritizing their activities and allotting
time to their studies, to their jobs, to their families and other obligations.
Many distance education enrollees are adults; they are professional people,
with families, and full-time jobs. They would like to pursue a higher de-
gree or enroll in continuing education which they would not be able to
do, for one reason or another, in a conventional or traditional educational
institution. Distance education enables them to study and at the same
time keep their jobs, look after their families, and continue with their so-
cial and community responsibilities.
Young learners are also enrolled in distance education - those in special

basic education programs, undergraduate programs, or those taking
courses for continuing education. These learners may not yet have fami-
lies to look after, or job responsibilities, unless they are working and study-
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ing at the same time. The distance teaching institution will have to ad-
dress their needs as well, because their needs differ from those of adult
learners.
Kuhne (2000) listed ten characteristics of adults as learners, to which we

add an eleventh, considering the increasing use of online technologies in
learning environments. The characteristics listed on the first column have
corresponding implications for teachers as well as support staff in the
distance education institution.
Characteristic #1 - Adults generally desire to take more control over their learning
than youths
Adults tend to be self-directed in l Always seek to include adult

their lives, although responsibilities learners in the planning of educa
with jobs, families, and other organi- tional efforts.
zations can remove a degree of their l Allow for self-assessment and
freedom to act. Adulthood brings an evaluation.
increasing sense of the need to take
responsibility for our lives and adults l Understand that adult learners
strongly resent it when others take desire a peer relationship with
away their rights to choose. This instructors, rather than a hierar-
fact is clearly seen in educational chical one.
efforts among adults. When not
given some control over their l Recognize that adults also expect
learning, most adults will resist greater availability of instructors.
learning and some will even attempt
to sabotage education efforts. They
do not like being relegated to a
“passive” position.
Characteristic #2 - Adults draw upon their experiences as a resource in their

learning efforts more than youths
The adult’s experience is a key l Take the time to get to know more
resource in any learning effort. Adults about the experiences of our learn-
have a greater reservoir of life ex- ers and seek to help them to link
periences simply because they have new ideas to such prior learning.
lived longer and seen and done more.
This is a critical distinction between l Encourage discussion on how
adults and traditional learners. Con- new ideas fit the experience of
sciously or unconsciously, adults learners.
tend to link any new learning to their
prior learning, a body of knowledge
that is rooted in their life experiences.
They evaluate the validity of new
ideas and concepts in light of how the
idea or concept “fits” their experience.
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Characteristic #3 - Adults tend to be more motivated in learning situations than

youths
Higher motivation is linked to the fact l Spend less effort trying to moti-
that most adult learning is voluntary. vate adult learners and concen-
Adults are making personal choices trate give more time to facilitating
to attend training, even when this is the learning they are already
tied to professional development or motivated to pursue.
job skills. Whenever an individual is
able to choose to learn, s/he is much
more motivated to learn.
Characteristic #4 - Adults are more pragmatic in learning than youths
Adults are particularly motivated to l Tie the content of programs to the

learn information that seems imme- application needs of the learners.
diately applicable to their situation
and needs. They tend to be frustrated l Always use needs assessment
with “theory” that needs to be stored strategies.
away for future use or learning for the
sake of learning. Certainly there are l Weigh the content of education
exceptions to this principle, but the toward the utilitarian, not the theo-
percentage of exceptions is quite low. retical.
Characteristic #5 - In contrast to youth, the learner role is secondary for adults
For most adults, the “student” role is a l Allow for more flexibility in the
minor and secondary role. This is in design of the programme.
sharp contrast to traditional age
learners for whom the learner role is l Give assignments far ahead of
both their primary social role and the time.
main basis for their self-identity.
Adults fulfill multiple roles and these l Accept that jobs and families can
multiple roles inevitably create con- create obstacles for the learner,
flicting and competing demands on and be willing to extend deadlines
the adult learner. Multiple roles cause for assignments.
most adults to have far less time and
energy to read, study, or learn. l Accept that the learners will not
see their educational efforts as
necessarily the highest priority in
their lives.
l Accept that learners will be pre-

occupied at times with other roles
and responsibilities.
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Characteristic #6 - Adults must fit their learning into life’s “margins”
Adult roles take energy and time to l Adult educators must prioritize
fulfill. Everyone faces the reality that student advising to provide guid-
there are limits on their energy and ance to help learners to be realis-
time. An important principle to under- tic about the demands of learning
stand is that learning takes time and and provide time management and
energy. If an adult is going to undertake study suggestions.
a learning activity, s/he must realisti-
cally evaluate his/her life and see if
there is actually room for the added
demands of learning. Adult learners
must learn to carve out some margin
in their lives to allow learning to occur,
a process of priority setting. If the
existing demands on an adult require
all the energy they possess, then the
learning will be compromised.
Characteristic #7 - Many adults lack confidence in their learning
Many adults have had somewhat nega- l Employ learning strategies that
tive learning experiences in their tra- build higher confidence in adult
ditional schooling. For a variety of learners.
reasons, they feel inadequate when it
comes to learning through formal l Take the time to teach better study
educational programs. Still other skills and ways of improving read-
adults, who may have done well in their ing comprehension.
earlier schooling, still lack confidence
for further schooling efforts due to what l Use of collaborative learning
they perceive as rusty study skills, poor approaches in the classroom can
reading skills, test anxiety, or other do much to alleviate anxiety.
such learning barriers. (i.e., turn the classroom from a
competitive environment to a
collaborative one)
Characteristic #8 - Adults are more resistant to change than youths
Learning often involves changes in l Adult learners need more ex-

our attitudes or actions. Adults tend planation of the “why” of changes,
to be somewhat resistant to such not just the “how.”
changes because life itself teaches us
that change is not always for the better l Link new concepts to older, under-
and that many of the outcomes of stood, and accepted concepts for
change are unpredictable.Youth tend adult learners.
to be more idealistic and are often
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Characteristics #8 continuation
open to change just for the sake of l Seek incremental changes through
change. our education efforts rather than
global changes, allowing the “proof”
gained from such incremental
change to encourage the adult
learner to explore yet more
change.
Characteristic #9 - Adults are more diverse than youths
Adults vary from each other as learners l Allow more time for interaction
in terms of age and experiences much between adults to allow learners
more than traditional age learners. to network and share their
Such differences can be used as a perspectives and experiences.
powerful resource for adult learning.
Through collaboration in small groups, l Make an effort to present material
adults can benefit from their variety of in a variety of ways to accommo-
experiences. Dialogue with other adults date different learning styles.
enables adult learners to perceive more
nuances of application, and possible
problems with new concepts, then could
ever be gained from private reflection.
Characteristic #10 - Adults must compensate for aging in learning
Aging brings with it a number of l Pay more attention to the physi-

physical changes that can impact on cal learning environment (sound,
adult learning efforts. The percentage lighting).
of such complications increases with
age. Although the speed of learning
tends to decrease with age, the depth
of learning tends to increase. In other
words, adults tend to learn less rapidly
with age, but what they learn is learned
at a deeper and more integrative level.
As adults age, vision and hearing can
also create barriers in educational
programs.
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Characteristic #11 - Adults are less likely to be adept at using educational tech-
nologies compared to youths
Unlike young people who are growing l Create a supportive environment,

up with a wide array of information and emphasizing that online learning
communication technologies, many is new to everyone.
adult learners feel inept when it
comes to using computers and the l Describe the benefits of online
Internet. Partly, this is because of learning in terms of greater flex-
physical changes (particularly vision ibility and access to resources.
problems), but mostly it is because they
lack basic computer skills. This may l Present the experience of using
be a major stumbling block because educational technologies as a
they do not want to feel inept (especial- learning opportunity in itself – that
ly compared to younger colleagues), they are learning skills that will
they feel anxious about not being able allow them to communicate in
to interact with another person face-to- increasingly ubiquitous online
face, or they fear that they will never be environments.
able to learn a new skill.
l Give more time for adult learners
to do online activities, considering
that they are learning the techno-
logy too, not just the content.
l Be proactive by providing adult

learners with printed manuals and
step-by-step guidelines.
l When providing technical support,

empathize with their difficulties and
strive to be encouraging. Never use
a condescending or impatient tone.
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Activity 7-3
As an adult learner yourself, do you think that the 11 characteris-
tics listed describe you accurately? Choose one characteristic and
describe how it affects your success as a distance learner.
References
Daniel, J. 1988. The worlds of open learning, in N. Paine (ed) Open Learning
in Transition. Cambridge, UK. National Extension College.
Garrison, D.R. and Shale, D. (eds.). 1990. Education at a distance: from
issues to practice. Melbourne, FL: Krieger.
Jones,E.T., Lindner, J.R., Murphy, T.H., Dooley, K.E. 2002. Faculty Philo-
sophical Position Towards Distance Education: Competency, Value
and Educational Technology Support. Online Journal of Distance Learn-
ing Administration, 5(1).
Keegan, D. 1996. Theoretical principles of distance education. London and
Kuhne, G. (2000). 10 Characteristics of Adults as Learners. Accessed 23
July 2007 from https://courses.worldcampus.psu.edu/public/fac-
ulty/adults.html.
Peters, O. 1998. Learning and Teaching in Distance Education. London: Kogan
Page.
Sloan Consortium. 2003. Sizing the Opportunity: The Quality and Extent of
Online Education in the United States, 2002 and 2003. USA: Sloan Con-
sortium.
Taylor, J., “Technology, Pedagogy and Globalisation”, Proceedings of the
4th International Workshop for Distance Education, October 8-10, 1996,
Seoul, Korea, 1996, pp. 75-82.
UP Open University
UP Open University
Module 8
Distance Education System — 3
Student Support Subsystem
S tudent support is a very important and

crucial aspect of the distance education
system. Course development and design,
Objectives
teaching and learning acts, organization After you have read and studied this
and management—all these subsystems are module, you should be able to:
interrelated and work towards supporting
distance learners to be effective and suc- 1. Enumerate the basic requirements
cessful learners even though they are sepa- of a student support system; and
rated from the teacher, their peers and the 2. Explain why a student support
institution. Foremost among the concerns system is a crucial aspect of an
of the organizing distance education insti- effective (or successful) distance
tution should be addressing the interests education system.
and needs of distance learners. From the
very beginning of planning the system, the
basic question to be asked is: How will the development and design of
each component subsystem support distance education learners and help
them to learn?
Components of student support

What are some of the basic requirements of a student support system?
Let’s list some of the basic requirements here. Note that some of these
items overlap with our discussion of the other subsystems of distance edu-
cation.
1. Academic support
l Course materials designed to help students study as independent

learners, and to cultivate an interactive communicative approach
l Teachers and tutors who are genuinely interested in helping stu-
dents succeed as independent learners by encouraging interactive
communication, marking assignments promptly with comments
aimed to guide the students on their progress as learners, and
making themselves accessible to student consultations through the
various means of communication
l Library, whether brick-and-mortar or click-and-mortar
l Counseling services, though not strictly academic, deal with is-
sues that affect students’ academic performance. When there is
no designated counselor in a distance education institution, the
teacher/tutor may serve as counselor as well.
2. Administrative Support
l Orientation activities (or online information) for distance learners

so that they are fully aware of the characteristics of distance edu-
cation and their role as students in a distance education setting
l Learning centers (or testing centers) to serve students who live a
long distance away from the distance education institution
l An administrative machinery that will facilitate various processes
that students have to undergo, such as registration, payment of
fees, make-up work, contacting a tutor or a teacher, etc.
l Systems for course materials production and distribution
3. Technical Support
l An efficient communication system (from ordinary correspondence

to more sophisticated computer, audio-/telecommunications fa-
cilities) to be set up by the distance learning institution; at the same
time the institution should assess the capability of students to make
use of these facilities for interactive communication
l Management information systems
One way of visualizing different aspects of student support is to present it

as a diagram (Figure 1). Note, however that this figure is not prescriptive.
Different institutions require different systems relating in different ways.
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Figure 8.1 An Integrated Learning System.

From Westergaard, MLS. February 2007. Managing Multimedia in Learning Management Systems.
Paper presented at the 3rd National Distance
Education Conference, Manila.
Training for student support personnel

Personnel engaged in student support should undergo training on the
characteristics of the distance education adult learner, the independent
learner, and the autonomous leaner. A learner may be an adult, but not
really an independent learner. This may be particularly true in a culture
wherein the learners finished their earlier schooling in conventional or
traditional learning institutions with the teacher controlling or managing
the classroom situation. Student support is said to be truly successful when
the student is weaned away from dependence on the teacher/tutor/coun-
selor and develops into an independent learner.
1. Writers, editors, instructional designers, media specialists, and who-

ever else will be involved in producing learning materials in print and
other media
2. Teachers and tutors. The teacher may or may not have been part of
the team that prepared the learning materials. However, he/she pre-
pares the study guide for a particular term, schedules the reading and
written assignments (like papers to be submitted), assigns exercises to
be found in the learning materials (and other additional exercises)
which the students will submit, prepares the examination questions,
marks/assesses the work of the students and is responsible for grad-
ing the students. The teacher continues to encourage two-way com-
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munication. He/she may initiate the dialogue, or if the students ini-

tiate it, the teacher is always ready to respond. In addition to one-in-
one dialogue, the teacher/tutor makes substantial comments on writ-
ten assignments, on other work activities, and on exams, as a means
to communicate with the learners. The feedback students get within a
few days after they submit their work helps them gauge their progress
in the course. Encouraging remarks, noting work well done, and criti-
cal appraisal to point out where the learner can do better, are ways to
motivate the learners to continue with their studies and not drop out
of the course.
3. Administrative staff (particularly the personnel in the registrar’s of-
fice), librarians, those in charge of delivery services, and all other staff
whose work will have an effect on the well-being of the distance learn-
ers.
4. Technical support staff. Remember that many adult learners are just
beginning to learn computer skills. Responses should be timely,
empathetic and never condescending.
5. Counselors. Guidance and counseling service providers should be
available to students to help them address a variety of problems, fore-
most of which are personal, family-related, or work-life balance re-
lated problems that may adversely affect their academic performance
or their relationship with others in the university setting. Learners
will of course confer with the teacher/tutor regarding academic prob-
lems, but the learners may refer other non-academic but course-re-
lated problems, such as family or job responsibilities that hold back
the learners from moving ahead in the course according to the pace in
the study guide or the pace the learners set for themselves. Students
should feel that they are welcome to consult or confer with the coun-
selor on such matters. The response of the counselor may help moti-
vate students to exert more effort to do better and finish the course.
Basic orientation of distance learners

The distance education institution must be adept at explaining distance
education to new distance learners. Here are some of the most frequently
asked questions of new students:
1. What is distance education and how does it differ from conventional

or traditional education?
2. What important decisions or choices must prospective learners have
to make before they decide to study via distance education?
3. What goals do the learners hope to accomplish in taking up a course
in the distance mode?
4. What study habits are desirable or imperative for a distance learner to
cultivate?
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5. What reading habits should a learner cultivate in studying the mod-

ules? What is meant by comprehension and deep thinking? Open-
minded approach to learning? Ability to study new ideas? Asking
questions that lead to a perception of patterns of thought, trends, link-
ages to other related areas of study?
6. What are the academic rules that the learner enrolled in a distance
education course should know?
7. How should distance learners schedule their regular daily activities to
allow inclusion of study time and other study-related activities (such
as research , writing of papers, etc.)?
8. Why is it important to keep communication lines open with the dis-
tance teacher/tutor/counselor, and with fellow students taking the
course?
9. Why is it necessary to keep communication lines open with the dis-
tance teaching institution? (How can the students follow up adminis-
trative problems like registration, cost of registration, finding out their
status in a course, receiving learning materials, sending assignments)?
10. What is online teaching, face-to-face sessions, online interaction with
teachers, tutors, and the other students?
11. What media and technology are used in distance teaching and how
should learners handle the technology involved?
12. Who is an adult learner? An independent learner? An autonomous
learner?
13. From whom should learners seek help if they have any kind of prob-
lem related to their studies?
Activity 8-1
What other questions do you think should be discussed in a dis-
tance education orientation meeting? Why is an orientation cru-
cial to the success of a distance learner?
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Development of students into independent

learners
Adult learners may develop into independent learners in the course of
their studies in the distance education mode. If the student support sys-
tem is effective, then learners will improve in their study habits for dis-
tance learning and take more control of their studies. They will have learned
how to schedule and prioritize their various activities – job, family, stud-
ies, etc., how to apply themselves to learning activities such as reading
and understanding the modules, doing the other work required in the
course, preparing for examinations, engaging in interactive communica-
tion with the teacher/tutor and fellow learners. They become problem-
solvers not only in their learning activities for distance education, but also
in their more holistic approach to all other responsibilities. As distance
learners move towards becoming independent learners, they may feel
empowered to assume some roles as autonomous learners.
Activity 8-2
Drawing from your experience as a distance learner, suggest vari-
ous ways by which to strengthen student support services.
References
Daniel, J. 1988. The worlds of open learning, in N. Paine (ed) Open Learning
in Transition. Cambridge, UK. National Extension College.
Peters, O. 1998. Learning and Teaching in Distance Education. London: Kogan
Page.
Westergaard, MLS. February 2007. Managing Multimedia in Learning Man-
agement Systems. Paper presented at the 3rd National Distance Educa-
tion Conference, Manila.
UP Open University
Module 9
Organization and
Management Subsystem
W e have discussed the various sub

systems of a distance education sys-
tem. These subsystems are interlinked and
Objectives
will be developed almost simultaneously, After you have read and studied this
depending on the distance education module, you should be able to:
institution’s strengths, challenges and con-
text. As the organization and management 1. Discuss the role of the organiza-
subsystem is being set up, course develop- tion and management subsystem
ment and design, teaching and learning in distance education;
acts, and student support services are also 2. Discuss the steps in the process of
being studied, planned and developed. organizing a distance education
system; andeducation system;
The organization and management sub- and
system coordinates the establishment of all 3. Discuss the coordinating activities
the other subsystems, and determines in the management functions of a
which aspects of a system should receive distance education subsystem.
priority attention.
Goal Setting
The essential starting point is to answer the question of why you need to
establish a distance education institution in the first place. Is it because of
the following?
l Normative need – “This is the standard now, and we should follow/

comply/stay abreast of current trends.”
l Felt need – “We (the management team) feel that this is what we need
to do.”
l Expressed need – “Our stakeholders are asking for this.”
l Comparative need – “Some institutions already have this but we don’t
have it yet, so we should start now.”
l Anticipated or future need – “(Trends show that) this is where we
should be headed in the near future.”
Bates (2000) identifies three important pressures that higher education

education institutions face:
l The need to do more with less – expansion in number of students

without accompanying increase in funding, with increase in class size
(low instructor-student ratio) being the most visible result.
l Changing learning needs – new demands of rapidly changing indus-

tries, and the extinction of the notion of lifelong employment in one
trade or company, demand new skills and constant retooling.
l Impact of new technologies on learning – there is now greater empha-

sis on creativity, problem solving, analysis, and evaluation (as opposed
to recalling facts, copying correct procedures), highlighting the neces-
sity of communicating and working in teams where “learning is as
much a social as an individual activity”.
There should be a group of organizers or a planning committee that is

knowledgeable about distance education and how it operates. This com-
mittee defines the vision-mission and the goals and objectives of a dis-
tance education institution. Incorporated into the vision-mission and goals
and objectives are the aspirations and needs of the communities and the
people the institution will serve. The committee will have to consider the
socio-economic-educational-cultural milieu of the country in which the
distance education institution will be established.
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Bates (2000) lists the following as the six most frequent reasons given for
using technology in higher education. From here we can extrapolate their
implications in distance education:
1. To improve the quality of learning

2. To provide students with the everyday information technology skills
they will need in their work and life
3. To widen access to education and training
4. To respond to the “technological imperative”—Bates describes this as
the push to use technology because of overeagerness or blind belief
that it is automatically good, or the fear that the institution will be
considered out of date and lose its credibility. Whatever the motiva-
tion, this can still be the starting point for significant educational in-
novation given the use of appropriate instructional design and legiti-
mate pedagogical objectives.
5. To reduce the costs of education
6. To improve the cost-effectiveness of education
Activity 9-1
Examine the vision-mission, and the goals and objectives of your
institution. How does distance education fit in? How would your
revise it to ensure that distance education is a core endeavor?
Programs and Courses to be Offered

A distance education institution may start initially as a program, offering
a course of study that will attract the first batch of distance learners. A
decision must be made which initial program to offer and what are the
first courses to be developed. A survey can be conducted to assess which
program answers a need and therefore would be attractive to prospective
enrollees. Decisions will have to be tempered by the availability of per-
sonnel and financing.
If the initiative to offer a distance education program or even just single

courses comes from within a traditional university, it is to be expected
that some opposition to the idea of distance education will be registered.
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A number of faculty members who have spent a large part of their teach-
ing career in front of a class, will find it difficult to accept that students
can learn as well even if they are separated from the teacher and the
educational institution in time and place. The pedagogic practices of a
conventional teaching institution may clash with the kinds of require-
ments of a distance education institution.
A group not connected with an educational institution would also expe-

rience difficulty in starting a distance education program. They do not
have the faculty support needed to write the learning materials for the
students. Where then will they go for the content expertise? They will
probably scour various schools and universities to find subject matter spe-
cialists who can help in writing the course materials for a program of
study.
Orientation to the Distance Education

Mode of Study
Since distance education is not yet well understood in many places, the
planning committee may have to conduct a series of seminars to orient
teachers and prospective students and other stakeholders to distance edu-
cation.
Information about distance education should be disseminated to the insti-

tutions publics, but particularly to its prospective students. At this point,
face-to-face orientation programs for interested parties may be conducted.
Students should have a clear idea of what they’re in for.
Policy planners, teachers/tutors/counselors, learning center staff, writ-

ers, instructional designers, editors, telecommunications experts, and ad-
ministrative staff need to undergo familiarization with, and orientation
to, the distance education system.
UP Open University
Activity 9-2
1. Now that you are a distance education learner, what do you
envision to be an ideal orientation programme to orient you to
the distance education system?
2. As a distance education manager, think of a group of people

for whom you would organize an orientation to distance edu-
cation? Make an outline of what you would tell them in a 20
minute presentation.
Assessment of the Financial Capability of the

Organizing Institution and the Resources
Needed
Setting up the requirements of the different subsystems of a distance edu-
cation program will have to take place simultaneously, although starting
out, some subsystems would be easier to develop than others. Priorities
will have to be determined so that financial resources can be allocated
where most needed. Focus must be kept on the goals and objectives of
the program so that these are not lost or obscured as various activities
begin to take place. Should course development be pushed ahead of all
the activities? How about student recruitment? The setting up of learning
centers or branch campuses? The training of all staff who will be actively
involved with the students? If priorities are determined, then limited fi-
nancial resources can be directed to developing those priorities.
It is also important to consider the sources and sustainability of funding.

If the seed fund is a one-time grant, how does the institution ensure that
more resources will become available? If future development depends on
the number of paying students, how will marketing be done? How much
will students pay?
UP Open University
Bates (2000) explains that in classroom teaching, cost increases as the

number of students increases – mainly due to the need for more class-
rooms and teachers. But in distance education, original materials such as
interactive CD-ROMs have a “higher starting cost than classroom teach-
ing, but after production the only additional costs are those of making
and distributing compact discs.” They did a cost-benefit analysis in their
institution (University of British Columbia) and found that “a standard
Web-based course, with a mix of pre-prepared Web materials, online dis-
cussion forums, and print in the form of required texts, becomes increas-
ingly more cost-effective than face-to-face teaching as the numbers per
class increase beyond forty per year over a four-year period.” The as-
sumption here is that interaction between students and teachers remains
high, and the instructor-student ratio is not sacrificed in order to lower
cost substantially.
Coordinating the Activities of the Subsystems

The efficiency of the subsystems will be tested by how well they work
together to fulfill the vision-mission and the goals and objectives of the
distance education institution. Here are a few questions that the institu-
tion will have to answer:
1. Are the courses well planned?

2. Will the learning materials be ready in time for the start of the term?
3. Have the materials been produced in the necessary volume?
4. Has a distribution system been set up and is it efficient?
5. Is there a communication system between the institution and the stu-
dents, between the students and the teacher/tutor/counselor, and
among the students?
6. Are there learning centers easily accessible to the students so that
they do not have to travel to the main distance learning institution to
transact their business with the institution?
7. How will the institution answer inquiries?
8. What procedures facilitate registration (including payment)?
9. What are the follow-up steps for students with enrollment problems?
10. Is there help available for students who need financial assistance?
11. How well does the administrative staff, which takes care of student
concerns, understand distance education and the problems distance
education students are likely to encounter?
12. Is there a mechanism set up to monitor and assess the effectiveness of
the learning modules?
13. Does the institution have the capability to assess the completion/
drop-out rate in courses, the turn-around time for marking assign-
ments/tests?
UP Open University
14. Have the information technology experts put in place the technologi-
cal and media requirements of the courses and are these accessible to
students, teachers and tutors and the administrative staff?
15. Does the technology help in effective communication, particularly
between teachers/tutors and students?
As in running any system, the chief function of managing the system is

smooth coordination of all the subsystems. A failure, e.g., in completion of
the learning materials in time throws a course into disarray, adversely
affecting the students and the teachers/tutors. Inefficiency in recording
of grades jeopardizes the academic standing of students. Ill-functioning
of a computer program for a discussion forum puts a kink into the inter-
active communication process between tutor and students and between
students.
An important function of management is provision of budgetary require-

ments for each of the subsystems. When the funds are not forthcoming, or
short of the target, management has to make quick adjustments to keep
the system running smoothly.
Keeping a Pulse on the Subsystems

Good management keeps a pulse on each of the subsystems to ensure that
the functions of each subsystem are carried out in synchronization with
the other subsystems. While each subsystem supervises its own activities,
the overall management monitors what is going on in each subsystem
and prods where necessary to bring up its activities to the level where the
whole system will work well together.
Team work is a vital aspect of distance education, perhaps more so than

in the traditional or conventional educational system. There is continuous
interdependence among the subsystems moving in the ultimate direction
of empowering the students to be adult, independent and lifelong learners.
Other Concerns of Organization and

Management
Aside from the matters we have already discussed, Holmberg (1995, 134)
reminds us of a few more:
1. Library services – Consider not just the number and quality of titles
but also how these will be made available to students at a distance.
UP Open University
2. Multimedia equipment and facilities – Consider the extent to which

the institution will use a variety educational technologies. Think of
the infrastructure and personnel required for specific endeavors such
as developing an interactive CD, or videoconferencing between three
reomote sites.
3. Laboratory work – Consider developing prototypes for experimental
kits
4. Dispatch of course materials – Look into the distribution system by
mail or online
5. Administering course tutorials, face-to-face sessions
6. Administering exams
7. Conducting graduation exercises, awarding of degrees, certificates
In the university setting, one of the most important offices to examine is

the Office of the Registrar. It should be finely tuned to the needs of dis-
tance education learners because it facilitates enrollment, recording of
grades, notification of students about their status, follow-up on comple-
tion (in coordination with with the teacher/tutor).
Another important aspect of a distance education institution is to set up

research programs which, initially, will look into the effectiveness of each
of the subsystems, and study to what extent the institution is able to real-
ize its vision-mission and its goals and objectives, and to suggest areas to
be improved or reorganized. Even the vision-mission may have to be re-
vised if the institution fails to serve the specific groups that it has a man-
date to serve.
The Future of the Teaching Staff in a

Distance Education Institution
Cause for concern of the organization and management subsystem of a
distance education institution is the hiring, training and retention of its
teaching staff, its faculty and tutors and its content specialists involved in
course development.
What kind of teachers will the institution hire? What should be their
entry-level competencies? What kinds of faculty development programs
will the institution set up for them? What would be the criteria for evalu-
ating their competence and their value to the institution?
Remember that applying the same hiring and retention criteria as those
used in conventional or traditional universities may not be fair to the teach-
ing staff of open universities. The teaching and learning acts in distance
education are different from those in the traditional university. However,
UP Open University
even though we say that distance education teachers should be evaluated

differently, we must still contend with the important issue of the estab-
lishment of “parity of esteem” among distance education teachers and
their counterparts in conventional institutions. While distance education
teachers are “different”, this should not translate into the idea that they
are “less competent.” Since the teaching staff does not have an “eyeball-
to-eyeball” relationship with their students, there is the notion that they
are somehow second rate in status compared to the faculty of traditional
universities. Of course this is far from the truth, but the bias persists none-
theless.
The bottom line is that the teaching staff can never be complacent in at-
tending to the learning needs of their students. They need to work very
hard to guide their students effectively so that they become independent
learners who will be brave enough to exercise their autonomy in the areas
where they may do so, both in the educational process and in their own
lives.
Activity 9-3
After reading about the different subsystems in modules 6 to 9,
outline the strengths and weaknesses of each one in your own
organization.
Which subsystem do you think is least developed? What steps

should be taken to strengthen, reorient or revise this subsystem?
Why?
References
Bates, A.W. 2000. Managing technological change: strategies for College and
University leaders. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
UP Open University
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Foundations of Distance

Ma. Cristina D. Padolina

University of the Philippines

Copyright © 2007 Ma. Cristina D. Padolina, Paz Eulalia Saplala,

Published in the Philippines by the UP Open University

First printing, 2007

Layout by Cecilia Geronimo-Santiago

Printed in the Philippines

Module 1 What is Distance Education?

Module 2 The Development of Distance Education and Related Concepts, 13

Module 3 Distance Education Models, 31

Module 4 Theories of Distance Education – 1, 37

Unit III A Systems View of Distance Education

Module 6 Distance Education System — 1 Course Design and Development

Module 7 Teaching and Learning Subsystem, 91

Module 8 Distance Education System — 3 Student Support System, 105

Distance education students

Post in the course website the following information about your-

Profile of some UPOU students

As a UPOU student she attended tutorials in UP Diliman and did some of

Farida Jane M. Tiongson

Ms. Tiongson wrote in her application:

“I am a paraplegic (spinal cord injury) due to a vehicular accident. Life

“I intend to attain higher education through distance education because

“The completion of a master’s degree will allow me to advance, to seek

“Learning is a continuous process. I believe that it is one of the essentials in

In support of her application for admission to the UP Open University,

“A chance encounter through the Internet sparked my hope: UP, my alma

“Innovation and professional development are two missions for me… it is

After I finish my master’s, I plan to go back to the Philippines to continue

In Mr. Oribiana’s job as a Supply Sales Operations Assistant of Pilipinas

He wrote, “The course Diploma leading to Master in Environment and

“…I am also keen on taking up the Upland Resources Management be-

Searching through the Internet for alternatives both in development pro-

In his application for admission, he expressed interest in the “perspec-

In his application for admission, he said:

“It is said that man should not stop learning.

“In my case, I am interested in the courses being offered by the UP Open

“Another thing, being a Law graduate, a law practitioner, and currently

Lara Serena R. Ortaleza

Ms. Ortaleza started an undergraduate degree with another university

As a UPOU student, she makes time to attend the occasional face-to-face

Having read the profiles of some students of the U. P. Open Uni-

1. Characteristics of distance education students. List the char-

l The average age of students is 37

Many distance education programs target adults. At the UP Open Uni-

The circumstances of students who take distance education courses may

Defining elements of distance education

M. G. Moore and G. Kearsley 1996. Distance Education: A Systems

“Distance education is planned learning that normally occurs in a differ-

J. R. Verduin, Jr and T. A. Clark, 1991. Distance Education: The Foun-

A short definition of distance education might be “any formal approach

Distance Education at a Glance, University of Idaho Engineering Out-

B. Holmberg, 2003. Distance Education in Essence: An overview of

… I have repeatedly described distance education as covering various

C. Yates and J. Bradley (eds.) 2000. Basic Education at A Distance.

Distance education is an educational process in which for the majority of

Elements of distance education

1. The quasi-permanent separation of teacher and learner throughout

2. The influence of an educational organization both in planning and

3. The use of technical media, print, audio, video, or computer, to unite

4. The provision of two-way communication so that many benefit from

5. The quasi-permanent separation of the learning group so that people

The second criterion about the presence of an organization responsible