Basic signals and systems

Signals and systems

 signal is a set of data or information Eg. Telephone voice, monthly sales of
corporation
 signals are a functions of the independent variable time and space.

 Signals are processed by systems

 System is an entity that processes a set of information(generally inputs) and

yields another signals (generally outputs)

 Systems may be made up of physical components (electrical, mechanical, e.t.c)

Classification of signals ex00basicsignalclassification.m

 continuous time and discrete time signal -
- based on the nature of signal along the time axis .
- signal is defined for a range in time or instants of time
Eg: telephone signal vs. monthly sales of company

 Analog and digital signals

- based on the nature of signal along the amplitude
- Amplitude is taking infinite possible values or finite possible
values
  Periodic and aperiodic signals
Periodicity condition is x(t) = x(t+m) for all t ,
where m is the the smallest value that satisfies the
periodicity condition
and it is called the fundamental period.
Properties
- Periodic signal must start at t = -∞ and continue for ever
- Periodic signal x(t) can be generated by periodic extension of
any segment x(t) of duration m (the fundamental period)
- Area under x(t) [periodic signal] over any interval of duration
m is the same. i.e for any real numbers a and b
𝑎+𝑚 𝑏+𝑚
∫𝑎 𝑥 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫𝑏 𝑥 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
  Causal and non causal signals
- A signal that does not start before t=0 is a causal signal i.e.
x(t) = 0 for t < 0
- A signal that exists before t=0 is a non-causal signal i.e. x(t) ≠ 0
for t < 0
- Everlasting signal is always non-causal, but non-causal signal is
not necessarily everlasting

 Energy and Power signals

o A signal with finite energy is the energy signal
o A signal with finite power is the power signal
 Power is the time average of energy
 A signal cannot be both an energy signal and power signal
 A ramp signal is neither energy nor power signal

 Deterministic and random signals

- Deterministic signals :A physical description is known
completely either in mathematical form or a graphical form.
The nature and amplitude of such signal at any time can be
predicted.
o Examples are x(t) = bt and x(t) = a sinωt
- random signals: amplitude cannot be predicted precisely but
known only in terms of probabilistic description.
o A typical example of random signals is thermal noise
generated in electric circuit.
 Even and Odd parts of the signal:
 A real function xe(t) is said to be an even function of t if
xe(t) = xe(-t) i.e symmetrical about vertical axis at t= 0
 A real function xo(t) is said to be an odd function of t if
xo(t) = -xo(-t) i.e anti -symmetrical about vertical axis at t= 0

o Some properties:
 Even function Χ odd function = odd function
 Odd function Χ odd function = Even function
 Even function Χ Even function = Even function
𝑎 𝑎
 Area ∫−𝑎 𝑥𝑒 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 2 ∫0 𝑥𝑒 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 and
𝑎
∫−𝑎 𝑥0 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 =0

Given any arbitrary signal x(t), odd and even parts can be found as
1
 Even part of the signal xe(t) = 2[x(t)+x(-t)]
1
 Odd part of the signal xo(t) = 2[x(t)-x(-t)]

MATLAB code: ex01signalevenodd.m

 What is the signal size of these signals ?

Size of a signal: -----------> It indicates the largeness or strength of the

signal
Eg: human size -----> volume ; not the height only
∞ ∞
 Signal energy: Ex = ∫−∞ 𝑥 2 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 OR Ex = ∫−∞|𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡

o Signal size is the area under square of the signal x(t), i.e. x2(t)
o Signal energy should be finite and non zero for it to be a
meaningful measure of signal size
o Necessary condition is that amplitude of signal x(t) ----> 0 as
|𝑡| ---> ∞
Examples ???
x(t) = 2 : -1 ≤ t ≤ 0
2 e-t/2 : t≥0
 Energy of the signal is 8.0018 units

 Signal power:
o If the amplitude of the signal x(t) is not ----> 0 as |𝑡| ---> ∞, signal
energy is infinite.
o A more meaningful measure of signal size in such a case would be
Time average of the energy
𝑇 𝑇
1 2( 1
o Px = lim 𝑇 ∫ 𝑥 𝑡)𝑑𝑡
2
𝑇 OR Px = lim 𝑇 ∫ |𝑥 (𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡
2
𝑇
𝑇→∞ − 𝑇→∞ −
2 2
where T is the period of the periodic signal.
o Signal power should be finite for it to be a meaningful measure of
signal size.

Power of the signal is 0.3333 units

 √𝑃𝑥 = RMS Value of the signal, generally applicable for periodic signal.

Note: Generally mean of an entity averaged over a large time interval

approaching infinity, exists if the entity either is periodic or has a statistical
regularity. If such a condition is not satisfied, the average may not exists.
 Power is the time average of energy
 A signal cannot be both an energy signal and power signal
 A ramp signal is neither energy nor power signal

A causal signal but periodic is also referred as power signal.

 Matlabcode : ex01signalenergypower.m

Example : determine the power and RMS value of

X(t) = C cos (ωot +θ) and
X(t) = C1 cos (ωot +θ1) + C2 cos (ωot +θ2) with ω1 ≠ ω2
........................................

𝐶1 2 𝐶2 2 2
𝑛=1 𝐶𝑛
1
Px = + OR Px = ∑∞
2 2 2
 signal operation:
 Amplitude operation : 2 x(t) OR 2 + x(t) e.t.c.

 Time operation
o Time shifting :
 delay -----> right shift
 Advance ------> left shift
o Time scaling :
 Compression -----> fast up ,
what happens to x(t) at some instant t also happens to
φ(t) = x(at) at the instant t/a , where a > 0

 Expansion -----> slow down ,

what happens to x(t) at some instant t also happens to
φ(t) = x(t/a) at the instant at, where a > 0

o Time reversal :
What happens to x(t) at some instant t also happens to φ(t) = x(-t)
at the instant –t.
o Arbitrary operation : x(-2t-3)

= x(-2(t-[3/2]))
---------------------→
Arrange the each operations in multiplication form and then the
sequence of operations are
Reversal
Compress by 2
Advance by 3/2

MATLAB code: ex01signal1operation.m

 Basic signals models - CONTINUOUS TIME
 Unit step functions u(t)
1 𝑡≥0 1 𝑡≥𝜏
o u(t) = { delayed u(t-τ) = {
0 𝑡<0 0 𝑡<𝜏

o If we have any arbitrary everlasting signal to start at t = 0, we

need to multiply the signal by u(t), to get the causal signal.
Eg. e-at is an everlasting signal but e-atu(t) is a causal signal.
o A pulse with nonzero value from 1s to 2s can be expressed in
terms of step functions as
u(t-1) – u(t-2)

OR u(t-1) *u(2-t)
o It is useful in specifying a function with different mathematical
description over different intervals.
x(t) = t for 0 ≤ t ≤ 1 and
e-t for 1 ≤ t ≤ 4
can be written in single mathematical expression as
x(t) = t { u(t) – u(t-1) } + e-t {u(t-1) – u(t-4) }

Example :

MATLAB code: ex00basicsignalmodels1.m

 Unit Impulse functions δ(t) :
 It is defined as
∞
i) ∫−∞ 𝛿 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 1 i.e area under the impulse curve is one
ii) δ(t) = 0 for t ≠ 0 i.e. as t -----> 0, the value and shape
of the impulse curve is not defined.
Example

 Impulse function does not define an unique function

 Delayed impulse is δ(t-τ) , i.e delay by τ units
 Multiplication of a function by an impulse :
Let x(t) be an arbitrary continuous time signal. Then,
x(t) δ(t) = x(0) δ(t) is an impulse of strength x(0) at t= 0
x(t) δ(t-T) = x(T) δ(t-T) is an impulse of strength x(T) at t= T
 Sampling property of the unit impulse function
∞ ∞
∫−∞ 𝑥(𝑡)𝛿 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = x(0)∫−∞ 𝛿 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 since δ(t) = 0 for t≠ 0
∞
= x(0) since ∫−∞ 𝛿 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 1
 Impulse function can be defined in terms of its effect on a test
function x(t).
 It is not a true function in ordinary sense
 Its range is undefined
 In the generalised sense ( considering the unit step function),
𝑑𝑢 𝑡
= δ(t) OR ∫−∞ 𝛿 (τ)𝑑τ= u(t)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑢
u(t) is discontinuous and hence does not exist in ordinary
𝑑𝑡
sense.
 The exponential functions
o x(t) = eλt where λ is complex in general given by λ = ε +jω
o eλt =e (ε +jω)t = e ε t ejωt = e ε t (cos ωt+jsin ωt )
o eλt is the generalisation of the function ejωt where the frequency
variable jω is generalised as complex frequency variable λ.
o Function, eλt compasses Large class of functions : viz
1. λ = 0 i.e. A constant K = K e0t
2. λ = ε i.e. with ω= 0 A monotonic exponential e ε t
 ε is +ve or –ve real values

3. λ = jω i.e. with ε = 0 A Sinusoid cos ωt

4. λ = ε +jω A exponentially varying sinusoid
e ε t (cos ωt )
 Matlab : ex00basicsignalmodels2.m

 Other commonly used standard signals :

 A unit rectangular signal
 A unit triangular signal
 Sinc function
 Signum function
 Half triangle
1
0 |𝑥| >
2
1 1
A unit rectangular signal rect (x) = |𝑥| =
2 2
1
|𝑥| <
{1 2

𝑥
τ the denominator of the argument rect ( 𝜏 ), indicates the width of
the pulse.

MATLAB command is “rectpuls”

1
0 |𝑥| ≥
2
A unit triangular signal Δ(x) = { 1
1 − 2|𝑥| |𝑥| < 2

𝑥
τ the denominator of the argument Δ (𝜏 ), indicates the
width of the pulse.

MATLAB command is “tripuls”

 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
Sinc function sinc(x) = .
𝑥
 It is also known as the filtering or interpolating function.

 Sinc(x) is an even function of x.

 Sinc(x) = 0 when sin x = 0 except at x= 0, where it appears
to be indeterminate. This means that the sinc x = 0 for
x = ±π, ±2π, ±3π ......
 Using L’Hopital’s Rule we find sinc(0) = 1.
 Sinc(x) is the product of an oscillating signal sin x (of period
1
2π) and a monotonically decreasing function . Therefore
𝑥
sinc(x) exhibits damped oscillations of period 2π, with
1
amplitude decreasing continuously as .
𝑥

The argument 3ω/7 = π when ω = 7π/3.

Therefore the first zero of this function occur at ω = 7π/3

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑥
MATLAB command “sinc” with sinc(x) gives
𝜋𝑥
 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 > 0
Signum function: sgn (t) = {
−1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0

Signum function is odd or antisymmetric function.

MATLAB command is “sign”

Half triangle:
 Systems
 Systems are used to process signals
 They represents the input – output (signal) relationship
 Systems are governed by the laws of interconnection.

Classification of systems
 Linear and Nonlinear systems
o Superposition and Homogeneity property holds good
Eg: y = 5 x OR y = 5 x2
 Time invariant and time varying systems
o Systems whose parameters do not change with time
o i.e physical phenomenon (parameters) will not change over
time.

If the input is delayed by T s, the output is also delayed by T s, but

output pattern remains same.
Illustration / Evaluation : Let, y(t) = S[x(t)] ;

y(t,T) = y(t) |x(t) = x(t-T) be the output calculated by the

delayed input

y’(t) = y(t) |t = t-T be the output delayed by T units.

Examples : 1. Let y(t) = e-t x(t) Case 1 : y(t,T) = e-t x(t-T)
Case 2 : y’(t) = e-t-T x(t-T)
Here y(t,T) ≠ y’(t) hence Time-variant

2. Let y(t) = ex(t) Case 1 : y(t,T) = ex(t-T)

Case 2 : y’(t) = ex(t-T)
Here y(t,T) = y’(t) hence Time-invariant
 Instantaneous and dynamic systems (memory less/memory)
o System output at any instant t depends only on the excitation
at that instant, not the past value / future value of excitationis
called the Static systems AND / OR
o Otherwise it is dynamic / memory systems
o A system whose response at any instant t is completely
determined by the input signals over a past T seconds
[interval from t-T to t] is finite memory system.
Example: y(t) = 10 x(t) is a static system
y(t) = 10 dx(t) /dt is the dynamic system. OR
1 𝑡
v(t) = 𝐶 ∫−∞ 𝑖 (𝜏)𝑑𝜏 is the dynamic system / element
 Causal and non causal systems
o Causal - - -> physical or non anticipative
System output at any instant to depends only on the value of
the input x(t) for t < to i.e conversely, present o/p of the
system does not depend on future value of input.
o Non causal ----> anticipative
System output at any instant to depends on the future value
of the input x(t) i.e for t > to. i.e conversely, the response
starts before the input is applied to the system.
o Prophetic system.
o Generally non temporal systems. i.e. system does not
depends on time. Eg. optics, charge etc.
o Noncausal systems are not realisable systems.

Example: y(t) = 10 x(2t) is a Non causal system

Put t = -2 y(-2) = 10 x(-4) -----→ input before the o/p
Put t = 0 y(0) = 10 x(0) -----→ o/p at same instant as i/p
Put t = 2 y(2) = 10 x(4) -----→ o/p before the input
which gives Non-causal property

 Continuous time and discrete time systems

System whose inputs and outputs are continuous time signals
are continuous time system.
System whose inputs and outputs are discrete time signals are
discrete time system.
 Analog and digital systems
System whose inputs and outputs are analog in nature of
amplitude are analog systems.
System whose inputs and outputs are digital in nature of
amplitude are digital systems.
 Invertible and non-invertible systems
o A system S performs certain operation(s) on input signal(s). If
we can obtain the same input(s) back from the corresponding
output, by some operation, the system S is said to be
invertible
o For an invertible system, it is essential that every input have a
unique output.
o System that achieves the inverse operation is the inverse
system for S.
o If S is ideal integrator, then ideal differentiator is the inverse
system.
o Also,

 For lossless coding, the input to the encoder must be exactly

recoverable from the output. It means that the encoder must
be invertible.
o It is something related to the concept of identity system
o Otherwise it is Non-invertible systems.
Eg. Rectifiers where y(t) = |x(t)|
 Stable and unstable systems -can be internal / external
o If the signal x(t) is bounded, then its magnitude is always a finite
value. Mathematically |x(t)| ≤ Mx < ∞, where M is a positive real
finite number.
 Ex: sinusoidal signal , OR Exponential decay signal
o Any signal which does not satisfy |x(t)| ≤ Mx < ∞ is called
unbounded signal. --------→ BIBO stability (External)
o For this to happen, output of the system is also bounded i.e.
|y(t)| ≤ My < ∞ for all values of t.
o Other class of stability is the internal which mainly refers
whether the behaviour is stable.
 Single input single output system (SISO), MIMO
System models: (input-output description)
 It is basically a mathematical expression OR rule that satisfies
and approximates the dynamic behaviour of the system.
ORDER of a SYSTEM : the order of a continuous time system
corresponds to the total number of dynamic elements or highest
derivative of the output signal which may appear in the input-output
differential equation.
Note: Most basic characterisation of system is a linear, time invariant
(LTI) system .
The reason for this are
1. Powerful analysis techniques are exists for such systems
only.
2. Many real world systems can be closely approximated as
LTI systems.
3. Analysis techniques for LTI systems can be generalised to
any extent and it suggest approaches for the analysis of no-
linear systems.
 Differential equation
𝑑 𝑛 𝑦 (𝑡 ) 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
𝑛
+ 𝑎 1 𝑛−1
+ … . . +𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑦(𝑡) =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑚 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑚−1 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
𝑏0 + 𝑏1 + ⋯ . . +𝑏𝑚−1 + 𝑏𝑚 𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚−1 𝑑𝑡

OR Q(D) y(t) = P(D) x(t)

Where, P(D) and Q(D) are respective operator polynomials for input
and output.

 Transfer function model

𝑦(𝑡) b0 Dm +b1Dsm−1 + b2Dm−2 +⋯+bm−1 D+bm
=
𝑥(𝑡) Dn +a1 Dn−1 + a2 Dn−2 +⋯+an−1 D+an
𝑦(𝑡) 𝑃(𝐷)
𝐺 (𝐷 ) = =
𝑥(𝑡) 𝑄(𝐷)

 Frequency response model

𝑃(𝑗𝜔)
𝐺 (𝑗𝜔) =
𝑄(𝑗𝜔)

 State space model

𝑥̇ = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑢, 𝑡) ----------> State equation
𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑢, 𝑡) -----------> Output equation

Where, x State variables ; u Input signal ;

f and g are functions

 Basic signal plotting and signal operation

MATLAB code:

 Plotting using inline functions :

{ >> prompt is used in every following MATLAB Statements}
Many simple functions are most conveniently represented by using
MATLAB

inline objects.
Ex: Consider a continuous time function: f(t) = e -tcos(2πt) can be
expressed as,
>>f= inline('exp(-t).*cos(2*pi*t)','t')
Once defined, f(t) can be evaluated simply by passing the input values
of interest.
Ex: >> t= 0;
>> f(t) ans = 1
f(t) can be plotted over the interval -2 ≤ t ≤ 2 as
>> t= [-2:.01:2];
>> f(t) ans = …… 100 values of f(t) …….
>> plot(t,f(t)); will plot the above function.
>> u=inline('t>=0','t') will create a unit step
function.
>> p=inline('(t>=0)&(t<1)','t') will create a unit pulse of
duration 1 sec
>> f=inline('exp(-t).*cos(2*pi*t).*(t>=-2)&(t<1)','t')
will create a function f(t) valid for interval -2 to 1secs.
>> p=inline('t.*((t>=0)&(t<1))+exp(-
t).*((t>=1)&(t<2))','t')
will create a single function made out of two different
functions valid for two different intervals.
signal operation
 Amplitude operation
 Time operation
o Time shifting
o Time scaling
o Time reversal
Ex:

>>plot(t,p(-t)) will plot the above defined functions after

reversing

>>plot(t,p(t-5)) will plot the above function time shifted right

(delay) by 5 sec.
>>plot(t,p(2t) will plot the above function compressed in
time by a factor 2
Even and Odd parts of the signal:
 𝟏
Even part of the signal xe(t) = 𝟐[x(t)+x(-t)]

𝟏
Odd part of the signal xo(t) = 𝟐[x(t)-x(-t)]

MATLAB code: ex01signalenergypower.m