DNA vs.

RNA THREE MAIN TYPES OF RNA

1. Messenger RNA (mRNA) - Carries copies of instructions for the

DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID assembly of amino acids into proteins from DNA to the rest of the cell
(serve as “messenger”)
 Portions of DNA are called genes.
 DNA is tightly wound into chromosomes and located in the nucleus
2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – Makes up the major part of ribosomes,
of cells.
which is where proteins are made.
 DNA cannot leave the nucleus.
 DNA is DOUBLE STRANDED
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA) - Transfers amino acids to ribosomes during
DNA STRUCTURE protein synthesis

The building blocks of DNA are called Nucleotides. PROTEINS

One nucleotide is made of 3 important things:
 Proteins are made up of a chain of amino acids.
1. 5-Carbon Sugar Deoxyribose  Proteins are enzymes, which catalyze and regulate chemical
2. Phosphate reactions.
3. Nitrogen base
2 STEPS TO MAKE A PROTEIN
There are 4 nitrogen bases in DNA: A : T C : G
 Transcription
RIBONUCLEIC ACID
DNA → RNA
 RNA is SINGLE STRANDED and does not have to stay in the nucleus!
 Translation
 RNA is not found in chromosomes because it does not carry the
genetic code. RNA → Protein (Chain of amino acids)
 However it can read the DNA code and take the information out of
the nucleus. Practice:
 RNA’s main job is to build proteins DNA strand: TTA ACG GGT CTA
RNA STRUCTURE Matching DNA strand:
1. 6-Carbon Sugar - Ribose AAT TGC CCA GAT
2. Phosphate
3. Nitrogen base mRNA: UUA ACG GGU CUA

There are 4 nitrogen bases in DNA: A : U C : G

DISCOVERY OF DNA
1869: Johannes Miescher found DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) in nuclei,
though its function was unknown
Early 1900s: Griffith transferred hereditary material from dead cells to live
cells
 Mice injected with live R cells lived
 Mice injected with live S cells died
 Mike injected with killed S cells lived
 Mice injected with killed S cells and live R cells died; live S cells were
found in their blood
AVERY AND MCCARTY FIND THE TRANSFORMING PRINCIPLE
1940: Avery and McCarty separated deadly S cells (from Griffith’s
experiments) into lipid, protein, and nucleic acid components
 When lipids, proteins, and RNA were destroyed, the remaining
substance, DNA, still transformed R cells to S cells
Conclusion: DNA is the “transforming principle”
CONFIRMATION OF DNA’S FUNCTION
1950s: Hershey and Chase experimented with bacteriophages (viruses that
infect bacteria)
 Protein parts of viruses, labeled with 35S, stayed outside the
bacteria
 DNA of viruses, labeled with 32P, entered the bacteria
Conclusion: DNA, not protein, is the material that stores hereditary
information
DNA STRUCTURE
1. Nucleotide
 A nucleic acid monomer consisting of a five-carbon sugar (deoxyribose),
three phosphate groups, and one of four nitrogen-containing bases
2. DNA consists of four nucleotide building blocks
Two pyrimidines: thymine and cytosine
Two purines: adenine and guanine
CHARGAFF’S RULES
The amounts of thymine and adenine in DNA are the same, and the
amounts of cytosine and guanine are the same
A:T C:G
The proportion of adenine and guanine differs among species
FRANKLIN, WATSON, AND CRICK
Rosalind Franklin’s research in x-ray crystallography revealed the
dimensions and shape of the DNA molecule: an alpha helix
This was the final piece of information James Watson and Francis Crick
needed to build their model of DNA
WATSON AND CRICK’S DNA MODEL
A DNA molecule consists of two nucleotide chains (strands), running in
opposite directions and coiled into a double helix
Base pairs form on the inside of the helix, held together by hydrogen bonds
(A-T and G-C)
ROSALIND FRANKLIN, X-RAYS, AND CANCER
In science, as in other professions, public recognition does not always
include everyone who contributed to a discovery
Rosalind Franklin was first to discover the molecular structure of DNA, but
did not share in the Nobel prize which was given to Watson, Crick, and
Wilkins
Franklin died of cancer at age 37, probably caused by extensive exposure to
x-rays during her work
EUKARYOTIC CHROMOSOMES
1. Chromosome
 A structure that consists of DNA and associated proteins
 Carries part or all of a cell’s genetic information
CHROMOSOME ORGANIZATION
 During most of the cell’s life, each chromosome consists of one DNA
strand
 When the cell prepares to divide, it duplicates all of its chromosomes, so
that both offspring receive a full set
 Each duplicated chromosome
 Has two DNA strands (sister chromatids) attached to one another at
the centromere
 Consists of two long filaments bunched into a characteristic X shape
CHROMOSOME STRUCTURE
 Each filament consists of a coil of DNA wrapped around “spools” of
proteins called histones
 Each DNA-histone spools is a nucleosome, the smallest unit of
chromosomal organization in eukaryotes
 The DNA molecule consists of two strands twisted into a double helix
CHROMOSOME NUMBER
 The total number of chromosomes in a eukaryotic cell (chromosome
number) is characteristic of the species
 Human body cells have:
 Forty-six chromosomes
 Two of each type of chromosome – so their chromosome number is
diploid (2n)
 A karyotype shows how many chromosomes are in an individual cell,
and reveals major structural abnormalities
AUTOSOMES AND SEX CHROMOSOMES
 In a diploid organism, one chromosome in a pair is inherited from the
mother and one from the father
 All except one pair of chromosomes are autosomes – chromosomes
with the same length, shape, and centromere location
 Pairs of sex chromosomes differ between females and males –
human females have two X chromosomes (XX); human males have
one X and one Y chromosome (XY)
DNA REPLICATION
 DNA replication is the energy-intensive process by which a cell copies its
DNA
 A cell copies its DNA before it reproduces
 Each of the two DNA strands in the double helix is replicated
 DNA replication requires many enzymes, including DNA polymerase,
and other molecules
REPLICATION OF THE DNA SEQUENCE
 A cell’s genetic information consists of the order of nucleotide bases
(the DNA sequence) of its chromosomes
 Descendant cells must get an exact copy of that information
 Each chromosome is copied entirely – the two chromosomes that result
are duplicates of the parent molecule

ENZYMES OF DNA REPLICATION

 DNA helicase breaks hydrogen bonds between DNA strands

 Topoisomerase untwists the double helix
 DNA polymerase joins free nucleotides into a new strand of DNA
 DNA ligase joins DNA segments on the discontinuous strand

PRIMERS FOR DNA POLYMERASE

 Several types of DNA polymerases exist

 Each requires a primer to initiate DNA synthesis
 A primer is a short, single strand of DNA or RNA that is
complementary to a targeted DNA sequence

SEMICONSERVATIVE DNA REPLICATION

 Each strand of a DNA double helix is a template for synthesis of a

complementary strand of DNA
 One template builds DNA continuously; the other builds DNA
discontinuously, in segments
 Each new DNA molecule consist of one old strand and one new strand
(semiconservative replication)
MENDELIAN GENETICS (COMPLETE DOMINANCE) CODOMINANCE

 Only two possible Phenotypes: dominant or recessive  Both traits are dominant, and show up in the phenoptype together.

Tall Plant x Short Plant = Tall Plant

R R

W RW RW

W RW RW
TT tt Tt

 describes inheritance patterns based on Complete Dominance or BLOOD TYPE

Recessiveness
 displays both co-dominance and complete dominance
INCOMPLETE INHERITANCE  Red blood cells can either have a carbohydrate on their surface or not

 The hybrid (heterozygous) offspring displays a third phenotype The presence of a carbohydrate (I) is dominant to the absence of a
carbohydrate (i)
 Neither trait is completely dominant, as a result there appears to be a
blending phenotype  There are two types of carbs
Red Flower x White Flower = Pink Flower that may exist on the surface
of red blood cells called A (IA)
and B (IB)
 Cell surface carbs A and B are
codominant, which means
R R they could also show up at the
same time on an RBC

R RR RR BLOOD TYPE INHERITANCE RULES

W RW RW
 1. .A person with IA allele will have A carbohydrates
2. A person with IB allele will have B carbohydrates
3. A person with the recessive i allele will have no carbohydrates
4. A person with both IA and IB alleles will have both A and B
carbohydrates on their cells

MULTIPLE ALLELES

 When more than 2 varieties exist in a trait

Example:

 ABO blood types

 Coat color of animals SEX-LINKED INHERITANCE

 Genes for some traits are found on the sex chromosomes

 Most of these traits are recessive and the normal gene is dominant

Heterozygous Females (XXc) - carriers

Homozygouz Females (XcXc) - have the trait

Males with the gene (XcY) - have the trait

SEX-LIMITED TRAITS

 A trait that affects a structure or function of the body that is present in

only one of the sexes
 May be X-linked or autosomal
 inherited by both male and female but only expressed in one sex
POLYGENIC TRAITS
Example: Beards, breasts, antlers, milk production, feathers on bird
 Require more than one gene (allele) to determine trait
 Skin tone is determined by 4 to 6 genes ( 6 different chromosomes may
be involved)
SEX-INFLUENCED TRAITS

 An allele is dominant in one sex but recessive in the other sex

 May be X-linked or autosomal
 Due to hormonal interactions
 Men have testosterone
 Women have estrogen

Example:

1. Baldness | Hairlip and Gout

 Dominant in Males
 Recessive in Females

2. Spina Bifida
 Dominant in Females
 Recessive in Males

PLEIOTROPY

 one gene is involved in many different phenotypes or traits

Example:

 Marfan Syndrome
 Sickle cell disease
 Schizophrenia
 Autism
 Phenylketonuria

EPISTASIS

 two or more gene influence a trait

 one gene product suppresses the effect of another

Example: Coat color of dogs