INTRODUCTION:

A pressure vessel is a container designed to hold gases

or liquids at a pressure substantially different from the
ambient pressure.
Pressure vessels are also defined as “Containers for the
containment of pressure, either internal or external. This
pressure may be obtained from an external source, or by
the application of heat from a direct or indirect source, or
any combination thereof.”
Pressure vessels can be dangerous, and fatal accidents
have occurred in the history of their development and
operation. Consequently, pressure vessel design,
manufacture, and operation are regulated by engineering
authorities backed by legislation. For these reasons, the
definition of a pressure vessel varies from country to
country.
Design involves parameters such as maximum safe
operating pressure and temperature, safety factor,
corrosion allowance and minimum design temperature (for
brittle fracture).Construction is tested using nondestructive
testing, such as ultrasonic testing, radiography, and
pressure tests. Hydrostatic tests use water, but pneumatic
tests use air or another gas. Hydrostatic testing is
preferred, because it is a safer method, as much less
energy is released if a fracture occurs during the test
(water does not rapidly increase its volume when rapid
depressurization occurs, unlike gases like air, which fail
explosively).We however had designed the pressure
vessel by theoretical aspects rather than going practical.
However the practical aspects can be studied further on
as they are out of the scope of our present curriculum.
In most countries, vessels over a certain size and
pressure must be built to a formal code. In the United
States that code is the ASME boiler and pressure vessel
code (BPVC). These vessels also require an authorized
inspector to sign off on every new vessel constructed and
each vessel has a nameplate with pertinent information
about the vessel, such as maximum allowable working
pressure, maximum temperature, minimum design metal
temperature, what company manufactured it, the date, its
registration number (through the National Board),
and ASME's official stamp for pressure vessels (U-stamp).
The nameplate makes the vessel traceable and officially
an ASME Code vessel.

USES OF PRESSURE VESSELS:

Pressure vessels are used in a variety of applications in

both industry and the private sector. They appear in these
sectors as industrial compressed air receivers and
domestic hot water storage tanks. Other examples of
pressure vessels are diving cylinders, recompression
chambers, distillation towers, pressure reactors,
autoclaves, and many other vessels in mining operations,
nuclear reactor vessels, submarine and space ship
habitats, pneumatic reservoirs, hydraulic reservoirs under
pressure, rail vehicle airbrake reservoirs, road vehicle
airbrake reservoirs, and storage vessels for liquefied
gases such as ammonia, chlorine, and LPG (propane,
butane).
A unique application of a pressure vessel is the passenger
cabin of an airliner: the outer skin carries both the aircraft
maneuvering loads and the cabin pressurization loads.

The pressure vessels are also used to store liquid vapors

and gases under pressure. Some of the Major uses of
pressure vessels are as follows.

 Pressure vessels are used in steam boilers

 Pressure vessels are also used in storage of chemical
in chemical plants
 Use in storage of petroleum products (petrol, diesel
etc.)
 It is also used in engine cylinders.

The other application and utilization of pressure vessels

are definitely in high demand. Although a lot of people are
unaware of what pressure vessels are and what they are
being used for, their application is definitely essential to
our daily existence. Where there is an unending need for
natural gas, petroleum products, cooling, and heat, there
will always be a requirement for pressure vessels. These
containers are necessary to keep a lot of industries
running. At the same time, pressure vessels are used in
pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, hospitals, food processing,
breweries, water treatment, and innumerable other
applications that help improve the way we live. Actually,
any type of piping, component, or tank that has been
made to hold pressure that is pegged at 15 psi or more
should be subject the guidelines for boilers and pressure
vessels.

CLASSIFICATION OF PRESSURE VESSELS:

1: According to use:
According to use the vessels are classified as:
 Storage Vessels
 Process Vessels
The first classes are only used for storing fluids under
pressure, and in accordance with the service are known
as storage tanks.
Process pressure vessels have multiple and varied uses,
among them we can mention heat exchangers, reactors,
fractionating towers, distillation towers, etc.
2: According to shape and orientation of construction:
By Orientation the vessels can be classified as
1) Horizontal Pressure Vessels
2) Vertical Pressure Vessels
The Horizontal pressure vessels are further classified into:
1) Cylindrical Pressure Vessels
2) Spherical Pressure Vessels.
Pressure vessels can theoretically be almost any shape,
but shapes made of sections of spheres, cylinders, and
cones are usually employed. A common design is a
cylinder with end caps called heads. Head shapes are
frequently either hemispherical or dished (torispherical).
More complicated shapes have historically been much
harder to analyze for safe operation and are usually far
more difficult to construct.
Theoretically, a spherical pressure vessel has
approximately twice the strength of a cylindrical pressure
vessel with the same wall thickness, and is the ideal
shape to hold internal pressure. However, a spherical
shape is difficult to manufacture, and therefore more
expensive, so most pressure vessels are cylindrical with
2:1 semi-elliptical heads or end caps on each end. Smaller
pressure vessels are assembled from a pipe and two
covers. For cylindrical vessels with a diameter up to 600
mm (NPS of 24 in), it is possible to use seamless pipe for
the shell, thus avoiding many inspection and testing
issues, mainly the nondestructive examination of
radiography for the long seam if required. A disadvantage
of these vessels is that greater diameters are more
expensive.

HORIZONTAL PRESSURE VESSELS:

Industrial horizontal pressure vessels are generally

structures having complex geometry comprising of various
geometrical discontinuities and are commonly required to
work under high loading conditions such as external
forces, thermal loads, internal pressure etc. The designing
and manufacturing of such products are done by the
guidelines and codes as per the international standards.
Common pressure vessel codes used for designing are
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel code section VIII,
European committee for Standardization and British
Standards Institution (unfired fusion Welded Pressure
vessels). Horizontally kept cylindrical pressure vessels are
generally supported on twin saddle supports. In some
cases vessel and saddle support contact is of loose-fitting
type. In this case there is a narrow gap or space between
the saddle support and vessel, due to which it becomes
very difficult for maintenance at that part which causes
corrosion. The metal temperature of the pressure vessel is
usually different to the ambient conditions during its
installation. The differential displacement between the
supports due to the temperature change should be
considered in design. In a large number of cases the
design of support requires adequacy to operate in a
severe thermal environment during normal operation as
well as to sustain some thermal transients. Usually
saddles are welded to the outer periphery of the pressure
vessel. In a horizontal pressure vessel with saddle support
a high localized stress at the interface of the vessel and
saddle is generated.
 Fig. Saddle dimensions

VERTICAL PRESSURE VESSEL:

Tall vertical pressure vessel may or may not be designed

to be self-supporting. The design of self-supporting vertical
vessel is a relatively recent concept in equipment design.
High structures were formerly stabilized by the use of guy
wires. The self-supporting type of tower is widely used
today since it has been found uneconomical to allocate
valuable space for the wires of guyed tower. Furthermore
the esthetic appearance of clean looking plant has been
recognized as having commercial value. Self-supporting
columns 200 or more feet high that possess
attractiveness, safety, utility, and economy of construction
are in use today. The conditions under which the vertical
vessel operate are often severe, and since the contents
are quite often inflammable, structural failures is a serious
matter. Simple membrane stress relationships are
insufficient to predict the stresses induced by the action of
wind and seismic forces.

Vertical shells supported on lugs require

consideration of two important factors:
1. The additional stress of the support forces when
combined with the working stress of the shell must not
increase the stress in the shell above the allowable limit.
2. The support should not restrain the stressed shell so it
becomes too rigid to flex under normal changes in working
pressure or loads,
The following types of stresses are developed in the
shell supported on lugs:
1. The internal or external pressure on the shell, along
with its weight, causes tangential and longitudinal stresses
in the shell.
2. Eccentricity of this type of support results in a radial
force on the shell which causes bending stresses in the
ring of the shell (from the bending moment) as well as
axial tensile stresses (from the tensile force), both of
which act tangentially

CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL:

Many pressure vessels are made of steel. To manufacture

a cylindrical or spherical pressure vessel, rolled and
possibly forged parts would have to be welded together.
Some mechanical properties of steel, achieved by rolling
or forging, could be adversely affected by welding, unless
special precautions are taken. In addition to adequate
mechanical strength, current standards dictate the use of
steel with a high impact resistance, especially for vessels
used in low temperatures. In applications where carbon
steel would suffer corrosion, special corrosion resistant
material should also be used.
Some pressure vessels are made of composite materials,
such as filament wound composite using carbon fiber held
in place with a polymer. Due to the very high tensile
strength of carbon fiber these vessels can be very light,
but are much more difficult to manufacture. The composite
material may be wound around a metal liner, forming a
composite overwrapped pressure vessel.
Other very common materials include polymers such as
PET in carbonated beverage containers and copper in
plumbing.
Pressure vessels may be lined with various metals,
ceramics, or polymers to prevent leaking and protect the
structure of the vessel from the contained medium. This
liner may also carry a significant portion of the pressure
load.
Pressure Vessels may also be constructed from concrete
(PCV) or other materials which are weak in tension.
Cabling, wrapped around the vessel or within the wall or
the vessel itself, provides the necessary tension to resist
the internal pressure. A "leak-proof steel thin membrane"
lines the internal wall of the vessel. Such vessels can be
assembled from modular pieces and so have "no inherent
size limitations". There is also a high order of redundancy
thanks to the large number of individual cables resisting
the internal pressure.
The very small vessels used to make liquid butane fueled
cigarette lighters are subjected to about 2 bar pressure,
depending on ambient temperature. These vessels are
often oval (1 x 2 cm ... 1.3 x 2.5 cm) in cross section but
sometimes circular. The oval versions generally include
one or two internal tension struts which appear to be
baffles but which also provide additional cylinder strength.
While choosing the construction material according to cost
efficiency as well as strength of the material we have
choosen three materials for construction. And then after
theoretical look up we came to the conclusion to select
one according to the optimum cost. The materials are:
 1) Carbon Manganese Steel
2) Low alloy Steel.
3) Carbon Steel.
And we came to the conclusion that Carbon Manganese
Steel is optimum material for the use of this operation.

SPHERICAL PRESSURE VESSEL:

Shell Structures: When pressure vessels have walls that

are thin in comparison to their radii and length. In the case
of thin walled pressure vessels of spherical shape the ratio
of radius r to wall thickness t is greater than 10. A sphere
is the theoretical ideal shape for a vessel that resists
internal pressure. To determine the stresses in an
spherical vessel let us cut through the sphere on a vertical
diameter plane and isolate half of the shell and its fluid
contents as a single free body. Acting on this free body
are the tensile stress σ in the wall of the vessel and the
fluid pressure p.
The pressure that acts horizontally against the plane
circular area is uniform and gives a resultant pressure
force of: P = πrp2 Where p is the gage or internal pressure
(above the pressure acting in the outside of the vessel)
The stress is uniform around the circumference and it is
uniformly distributed across the thickness t (because the
wall is thin). The resultant horizontal force is:
Horizontal Force=σ(2πrm )t
Equilibrium of forces in the horizontal direction:

As is evident from the symmetry of a spherical shell that

we will obtain the same equation regardless of the
direction of the cut through the center. The wall of a
pressurized spherical vessel is subjected to uniform
tensile stresses σ in all directions. Stresses that act
tangentially to the curved surface of a shell are known as
membrane stresses.

COMPONENT OF PRESSURE VESSEL:

a) SHELL:

o It is the primary component that contains the

pressure.
o Pressure vessel shells in the form of
different plates are welded together to form
a structure that has a common rotational
axis.
o Horizontal drums have cylindrical shells
and are constructed in a wide range of diameter
and length.
o The shell sections of a tall tower may be
constructed of different materials, thickness and
diameters due to process and phase change of
process fluid.
o Shell of a spherical pressure vessel is spherical
as well.

b) HEAD:
 o All the pressure vessels must be closed at the
ends by heads (or another shell section).
o Heads are typically curved rather than
flat.
o The reason is that curved configurations
are stronger and allow the heads to be
thinner, lighter and less expensive than
flat heads.
o Heads can also be used inside a vessel and are
known as intermediate heads.
o These intermediate heads are separate sections
of the pressure vessels to permit different design
conditions.

There are several types of heads are generally used

in pressure vessels. They are

11. Sphere and hemispherical end

(Fig-1)
12. 2:1 Ellipsoidal head (Fig-2)
13. Conical head (Fig-3)
14. Torispherical head (Fig-4)

c) NOZZLE:
  A nozzle is a cylindrical component that
penetrates into the shell or head of pressure
vessel.
 They are used for the following applications.
1. Sphere and hemispherical end (Fig-1)
2. 2:1 Ellipsoidal head (Fig-2)
3. Conical head (Fig-3)
4. Torispherical head (Fig-4)

d) SUPPORT:

 Support is used to bear all the load of

pressure vessel, earthquake and wind
loads.
 It is considered to be the non-
pressurized part of the vessel.
 There are different types of supports
which are used depending upon the size
and orientation of the pressure vessel.
 They are
1. Saddle support
2. Skirt support
3. Leg support
4. Lug support
1) SADDLE SUPPORT:

 Horizontal drums are typically supported

at two locations by saddle support.
 It spreads over a large area of the shell
to prevent an excessive local stress in
the shell at support point.
 One saddle support is anchored
whereas the other is free to permit
unstrained longitudinal thermal
expansion of the drum.

2) SKIRT SUPPORT:

 Tall vertical cylindrical pressure vessels

are typically supported by skirts.
 A support skirt is a cylindrical shell
section that is welded either to the lower
portion of the vessel shell or to the
bottom head (for cylindrical vessels).
 The skirt is normally long enough to
provide enough flexibility so that radial
thermal expansion of the shell does not
cause high thermal stresses at its
junction with the skirt.

3) LEG SUPPORT:
  Small vertical drums are typically
supported on legs that are welded to the
lower portion of the shell.
 The max. ratio of support leg length to
drum diameter is typically 2 : 1
 Reinforcing pads are welded to the shell
first to provide additional local
reinforcement and load distribution.
 The number of legs depends on the
drum size and loads to be carried.
 Support legs are also used for Spherical
pressurized storage vessels.
 Cross bracing between the legs is used
to absorb wind or earth quake loads.

4) LUG SUPPORT:

 Vertical pressure vessels may also be

supported by lugs.
 The use of lugs is typically limited to
pressure vessels of small and medium
diameter (1 to 10 ft)
 Also moderate height to diameter ratios
in the range of 2:1 to 5:1
 The lugs are typically bolted to
horizontal structural members in order to
provide stability against overturning
loads.
SAFETY FEATURES:

 Leak before burst:

Leak before burst describes a pressure vessel designed

such that a crack in the vessel will grow through the wall,
allowing the contained fluid to escape and reducing the
pressure, prior to growing so large as to cause fracture at
the operating pressure.

Many pressure vessel standards, including the ASME

Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code [7] and the AIAA metallic
pressure vessel standard, either require pressure vessel
designs to be leak before burst, or require pressure
vessels to meet more stringent requirements for fatigue
and fracture if they are not shown to be leak before
burst.[8]

 Safety valves:

Example of a valve used for gas cylinders.

As the pressure vessel is designed to a pressure, there is

typically a safety valve or relief valve to ensure that this
pressure is not exceeded in operation
Q. 1000 kg of Propane gas are to be stored
at 150 kgf/cm2 at 300C in a suitable pressure
vessel. Design and draw the above vessel,
Submit a neat scale drawing of the shell.
Consider the gas follows real gas laws.

Our group has to design a pressure vessel for

the propane gas.

Steps for the calculation of compressibility factor:

1) First of all we have calculated Z by using the pitzer’s
method. We got the value of Z=0.6478
2) Then we calculated the value of Z by Wan Der Vaal’s
equation. It came out to be Z=0.6895
3) Then we calculated it by using SRK method Z=0.6160
4) So to get the final compressibility factor (Z) value we
made the average of the three Z values which we got
from the above equations.
Hence,
Zavg = 0.6511

5) Then we calculated the value of volume which the

given amount of propane gas will be having using the
ideal gas equation.
Selection of construction material:

For calculating thickness of the shell, we have used the

formula:
t = (P*Di)/(2*f*j-P)

We used three test material as the construction material:

1) Carbon Steel
2) Carbon Manganese Steel
3) Low alloy Steel.
Of which the thickness of Carbon Steel came out to be
t=63.6.But the optimum thickness is below 60 so this one
is excluded from further calculations.
After the cost calculation of the remaining two we came
out on the conclusion that Carbon Manganese Steel is
optimum material for the usage.

Calculation of thickness of head of the selected

material and stress calculation:

The thickness of head of the selected material for vessel is

calculated by the following formula:
t’H = [Pi*D] / [2*f*J-(0.2*Pi)]
As Propane is a saturated steam,
The value of J= 0.85 (Refer Perry’s Chemical handbook)
The thickness came out to be t= 63.6 mm.
Head thickness calculation is followed by the stress
calculation:
Ft = P*(Di+t) / (2*ts)
The stress value came out to be Ft =369.2 MPa.
Followed by the calculation of the stress in longitudinal
and axial directiuon.
Which consists of:
1) Due to internal Pressure
2) Due to weight of the vessel and the content (Propane
Gas).
3) Due to wind or Piping.
The total axial stress came out to be 473.757 Mpa
And thus after calculating the stress due to site piping:
Fs= 0.03797 Mpa.
The resultant pressure acting on the vessel:
Fr= 431.049 Mpa.
Now as Fr < Ft and Fa < F
Design conditions are satisfied.
Gasket Calculation:

The material for gasket is chosen to be metal reinforced

asbestos composites as the design pressure is too high.
Gasket Factor (m)= 2.5 ….(for the above taken material)
The diameter at location of gasket load reaction is
calculated accordingly.

Bolt Material:

5% Galvanised Manganese Steel is used due to high

pressure condition from above calculation Wm2 > Wm1,
Where Wm1 and Wm2 are the stresses under atmospheric
condition and under operating conditions respectively.
After few calculations like:
1) Maximum mean Diameter calculation.
2) Minimum bolt area
3) Outer diameter of the shell
4) Mean gasket diameter
The No. of bolts calculated for sealing the vessel so that it
can remain intact is= 92 and the minimum bolt area came
out to be= 53.37 cm2.
Followed by the verification of the bolt area:
Am= 58.85 cm2 (Per bolt)
This is much more than the minimum bolt area so, we
considered another bolt:
Whose Am = 53.626 cm2.
Which is nearly equal to the min. bolt diameter, so this can
be considered.
Actual Bolt area came out to be (Ab) =196.20 cm2.
Hence as, Ab > Am So it’s satisfying the condition.
So the final result was:
No of Bolts = 92
Bolt diameter= 85.67 mm ~ 85 mm

Calculation of flange thickness:

The formula for the calculation of flange thickness:

tf = a* √(p/kf) + c

therefore using above formula and putting the value of

corrosive allowance (c) =49.17 mm
the value of tf = 540.87 mm.
Design of saddle support:

For horizontal vessel we use saddle support placed at two

positions which behaves as a beam.
Distance from the tangent line:
A= 0.45*R
A= 0.4826
Also,
A < 0.2*L
Now, total induced angle ϴ = 1200
H= Head of vessel =D/6 = 0.357m
Hence Q= 13881.97 N
Bending Moment at the support:
M1 = 1407.39 Nm
M2 = 81911.76 Nm
At topmost x section:
F1 = 7417.7 Pa
And at midspan
F3 = 431716.4 Pa
And Fp= 369.2MPa (from previous calculations).
Hence as, (F1 + Fp) and (F3 + Fp) < permissible stress
Therefore,The conditions are satisfied. So the design is
correct.

Design of skirt support:

The maximum compressive stress in skirt wall is obtained

from:
σ2(comp.) = σzwm + σzw

hence for calculation of σzwm=(4*M*W) / (𝜋*d2*t)

We have to calculate the period of minimum vibration:
Tmin= 0.000432 s.
Hence as, Tmin < 0.55
K2 =1
And period of maximum vibration Tmax= 0.00985
Hence Tmax < 0.55
K2=1
So, σzwm =0.00146 MN/m2
Hence,
σ2(comp.) = 0.04082 / t
For the carbon alloy steel the t = 2 mm.
Design of skirt bearing plate:

Maximum compressive stress between bearing plate and

foundries can be found out by the formula:
σc = Wmax/A + Mw/Z
The value of σc = 5.5 MN/m2
Also we have l=7.5 mm
Required width of bearing plate is very small. A 100 mm
width is selected.
Followed by the calculation of bearing plate thickness from
bending moment.
tbs = 12mm
Our result matched in both the ways performed.
After this the value of maximum stress between bearing
plate and concrete foundation is calculated.
Followed by the stability factor calculation.
J= 29.18
As the value of j is greater than 1.5, the vessel is steady at
its own weight.
Therefore vessel need not to be anchored.
Conclusion:

 We learnt to design a pressure vessel by theoretical

aspects and using a material of optimum cost.
 Both Vertical and Horizontal vessels are been
designed.
 The vessel is successfully designed so that it with
stand all the mechanical stresses acting on it.
 The vessel is analyzed under various conditions of
operation. All forces are carried according to ASME
codebook.
 The vessel also with stand the internal pressure of
fluid at working conditions. The various forces
analyzed are pressure exerted by gas on the shell,
weight of the fluid, wind force, seismic force.
 The stresses in above-mentioned conditions are
found out and thickness of various parts is selected
such that the stresses produced in each member are
within the maximum allowable range. All the selected
have been successfully verified and hence the design
of vessel is safe.