Research

13. The authors of any research and statistics books suggest that sampling is virtually unavoidable
and that it is important to disclose and discuss possible sources of bias in the study report. Do you
agree? Explain your position.

* Bias is a form of systematic error that can affect scientific investigations and distort
the measurement process. A biased study loses validity in relation to the degree of
the bias. ... It is difficult or even impossible to completely eliminate bias.

14. Under what circumstances would a researcher choose a longitudinal study over a cross-sectional
study? Give a specific example of a question that could be addressed with a longitudinal study and
explain why that developmental design is preferred.

Yes, because longitudinal study is the ability to show the patterns of a variable over time. This is
one powerful way in which we come to learn about cause-and-effect relationships.

Example there is evidence to suggest that there is a link between violence and television, and you,
as a researcher, have been hired by a media company to determine whether their new
programming decreases violence in the next year. You collect a group of participants to study.
Because you want to reduce the amount of interference, you collect a large group of participants
from a pool of those who may watch the programming. If the program is meant for three- to
seven-year-olds, then you aren't going to collect teenagers.

15. A researcher is studying the effectiveness of two different resident adolescent drug treatment
programs. Program A is used at Summerhill adolescent facility. Program B is used a Winterdale
adolescent facility. Because random assignment to treatments’ is not possible in this situation, what
can the researcher do to minimize possible effects of sample bias?

Pre-trial bias

Flawed study design • Clearly define risk and outcome, preferably with objective or
validated methods. Standardize and blind data collection.
Selection bias • Select patients using rigorous criteria to avoid confounding
results. Patients should originate from the same general
population. Well designed, prospective studies help to avoid
selection bias as outcome is unknown at time of enrollment.
Channeling bias • Assign patients to study cohorts using rigorous criteria.

Bias during trial

Interviewer bias • Standardize interviewer's interaction with patient. Blind

interviewer to exposure status.
 Chronology bias • Prospective studies can eliminate chronology bias. Avoid
using historic controls (confounding by secular trends).
Recall bias • Use objective data sources whenever possible. When using
subjective data sources, corroborate with medical record.
Conduct prospective studies because outcome is unknown at
time of patient enrollment.
Transfer bias • Carefully design plan for lost-to-followup patients prior to
the study.
Exposure Misclassification • Clearly define exposure prior to study. Avoid using proxies
of exposure.
Outcome Misclassification • Use objective diagnostic studies or validated measures as
primary outcome.
Performance bias • Consider cluster stratification to minimize variability in
surgical technique.

Bias after trial

Citation bias • Register trial with an accepted clinical trials registry. Check
registries for similar unpublished or in-progress trials prior to
publication.
Confounding • Known confounders can be controlled with study design
(case control design or randomization) or during data analysis
(regression). Unknown confounders can only be controlled
with randomization.

16. A medical researcher is concerned about mistakenly concluding that a new medication is
effective when it really is not. What type of error is the researcher concerned about making (type I
or Type II)? Describe what the researcher might do to decrease the livelihood of making that type of
error. Discuss ramifications of your suggested approach for other types of error in the study.

17. After completing planned analyses, the researcher must interpret the results of statistical tests.
Note or point out several steps that are involved in such interpretation. 23. Throughout any research
methods textbooks, the author/s return to the importance of interpreting the findings of a research
project. Explain why this is an essential element in a high-quality research report.

19. A strong answer will center on the idea that when conducting qualitative research, the
researcher brings with him or her a set of assumptions, beliefs, and biases that can influence
data collection and interpretation. Recognizing and reflecting on those assumptions — and at the
same time remaining open-minded about how they affect the research — help the researcher
remain focused on the data themselves.

20. In addition to gathering and organizing data, the researcher must interpret those data if the
resulting report is going to be a historical research study rather than a historical narrative. It is in
the interpretation that the string of events takes on meaning. Students may also mention that
some material of interest will exist in something other than a written form. For example, the
researcher may want to review videotape, look at photographs, visit historical sites, and interview
relevant individuals.

21. Answers to this question will vary depending on the concept and discipline selected. Strong
responses should address a concept that clearly influenced the course of history. Primary
sources that provide evidence within conceptual or historical research are often letters,
newspaper articles, public broadcasts, and other types of artefacts used to disseminate new
ideas.

22. Qualitative researchers need to do their best to maintain "rigorous subjectivity" —

acknowledging their own biases and making efforts to reduce and/or balance them. Some
strategies for enhancing trustworthiness include:
• keeping detailed notes of procedures and decisions
• being careful to distinguish between observation and interpretation in notes and in analysis
• collecting different types of data (e.g., interview, observation) and comparing them during
analysis

23. It is essential high-quality research because it must be paper organized to avoid excessive
discussion of existing techniques and to describe the data sets. Be consistent, Be concise, Be
candid.

24. Mixed-methods research fully addresses a research problem and its sub problems by utilizing
both qualitative and quantitative data. Quantitative and qualitative data, especially when
analysed together, can compensate each other weaknesses and fill in gaps that otherwise might
remain open. Qualitative data often provide insights about cause-and-effect relationships and
form a hypothesis that will be tested with quantitative methodology. A researcher can make a
more convincing case for particular conclusions if both qualitative and quantitative data lead to
those conclusions. In addition, qualitative findings may reveal the meaning of quantitative data.