1linear Complete

Systems of Linear Eqns Matrix Operations Linear Systems in Matrix Form Special Matrices Partitioned Matrices Nonsingular Ma
Chapter 1: Linear Equations and Matrices
Sarah Samson Juan, Tiong Wei King, Shapi-ee Abdul Rahman,

Terrin Lim, Sze San Nah, Nuha Loling Othman
Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology

Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 1 / 49

1 Systems of Linear Eqns
2 Matrix Operations
3 Linear Systems in Matrix Form
4 Special Matrices
5 Partitioned Matrices
6 Nonsingular Matrices
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 2 / 49

Linear Equations
The equation
a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn = b, (1)
is called a linear equation, where x1 , x2 , . . . , xn are unknowns,
a1 , a2 , . . . , an are real or complex constants and b is real or complex
quantity.
A solution to (1) is a sequence of n numbers which satisfy (1) when
x1 = s1 , x2 = s2 , . . . , xn = sn are substituted in (1).
Example
x1 = 2, x2 = 3, x3 = −4 is a solution to the linear equation
6x1 − 3x2 + 4x3 = −13.
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 3 / 49

Linear Equations
A system of linear equations is a set of m linear equations each in n

unknowns.
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ··· + a1n xn = b1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + ··· + a2n xn = b2
.. .. .. .. (2)
. . . = .
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + ··· + amn xn = bm
A solution is a sequence of n numbers s1 , s2 , . . . , sn which satisfy

each of the equations in the system.
If b1 = b2 = . . . = bm = 0, then (2) is called a homogeneous
system.
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 4 / 49

Linear Equations
Example
The system
4x1 − x2 + 3x3 = −1
3x1 + x2 + 9x3 = −4
has the solution x1 = 1, x2 = 2, x3 = −1 since these values satisfy both

equations.
However, x1 = 1, x2 = 8, x3 = 1 is not a solution since these values satisfy

only the first equation in the system.
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 5 / 49

Linear Equations
Theorem
Any system of linear equations has either
unique solution
no solution
an infinite number of solutions.
A system of linear equations is said to be consistent if it has one or more
solution and inconsistent if it has no solution.
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 6 / 49

Geometrical Interpretation In 2D
Figure: Unique solution, many solution and no solution
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 7 / 49

Example
Consider the following linear system.
2x1 + x2 = 3
2x1 − x2 = 0
x1 − 2x2 = 4
Determine whether it has a unique solution, no solution or infinitely many

solutions.
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 8 / 49

Solution:
∴ The system has no solution.
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 9 / 49

Example
2x1 + x2 = 3
2x1 − x2 = 5
x1 − 2x2 = 4

solutions.
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 10 / 49

Solution:
∴ The system has a unique solution.
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 11 / 49

Example
2x1 + x2 = 3
4x1 + 2x2 = 6
6x1 + 3x2 = 9

solutions.
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 12 / 49

Solution:
∴ The system has infinitely many solutions.
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 13 / 49

Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 14 / 49

Solving a System of Linear Equations
Two linear systems are called equivalent if they have the same
solution sets.
Example
x −y =1 and x −y =1
x +y =3 y =1
are equivalent since they both have the unique solution x = 2, y = 1.
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 15 / 49

Matrices
An m × n matrix A is a rectangular array of mn real or complex

numbers arranged in m horizontal rows and n vertical columns:
 
a11 a12 · · · · · · · · · a1n
 a21 a22 · · · · · · · · · a2n 
 
 . .. .. 
 .. . ··· ··· ··· . 
 
 .. .. .. 
 . . · · · · · · aij . 
 .. .. .. 
 
 . . ··· ··· ··· . 
am1 am2 · · · · · · · · · amn
The ith row of A is

ai1 ai2 ··· ain
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 16 / 49

Matrices
The jth column of A is
 
a1j

 a2j 

 .. 
 . 
amj
If m = n, then A is a square matrix of order n and a11 , a22 , . . . , ann
form the main diagonal of A.
Example
Let 
1 1 0
1 2 3 1+i i
A= , B = −1  0 1 , C=
 .
−1 0 1 2 − 3i −3
3 −1 2
A is 2 × 3 matrix, B is 3 × 3 matrix, C is 2 × 2 matrix
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 17 / 49
Matrix Addition
Definition
If A = [aij ] and B = [bij ] are both m × n matrices, then the sum A + B is
an m × n matrix C = [cij ] defined by cij = aij + bij .
Example
Find A + B if given

1 −2 3 0 2 1
A= and B = .
2 −1 4 1 3 −4
Solution

1+0 −2 + 2 3+1 1 0 4
A+B = =
2+1 −1 + 3 4 + (−4) 3 2 0
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 18 / 49

Matrix Addition
Example
Using the same matrices A and B from the previous example,

2 1 3
i. Find A + B + C when C = .
4 0 1
ii. If D = −C , find D + C .
Solution
i.

1+0 −2 + 2 3+1 2 1 3
(A + B) + C = +
2+1 −1 + 3 4 + (−4) 4 0 1

3 1 7
=
7 2 1

−3 + 3 −1 + 1 −7 + 7 0 0 0
ii. D +C = =
−7 + 7 −2 + 2 −1 + 1 0 0 0
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 19 / 49
Properties of Matrix Addition
Let A, B and C be m × n matrices.

1. A+B =B +A
2. A + (B + C ) = (A + B) + C
3. There is a unique m × n matrix O (zero matrix) such that
A+O =A
for any m × n matrix A.

4. For each m × n matrix A, there is a unique m × n matrix D such that
A + D = O.
We shall write D as −A and is called the negative of A.
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 20 / 49

Scalar Multiplication
Definition
If A = [aij ] is an m × n matrix and r is a real number, then the scalar
multiple of A by r , rA, is the m × n matrix C = [cij ] defined by cij = raij .
Example

4 −2 −3
Compute −2 .
7 −3 2
Solution

4 −2 −3 (−2)(4) (−2)(−2) (−2)(−3)
−2 =
7 −3 2 (−2)(7) (−2)(−3) (−2)(2)

−8 4 6
=
−14 6 −4
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 21 / 49
Scalar Multiplication
Example

4 −2 −3 4 −2 −3
Find −2 +3 .
7 −3 2 7 −3 2
Solution

−8 4 6 (3)(4) (3)(−2) (3)(−3)
+
−14 6 −4 (3)(7) (3)(−3) (3)(2)

−8 4 6 12 −6 −9
= +
−14 6 −4 21 −9 6

4 −2 −3
=
7 −3 2
or

4 −2 −3 4 −2 −3 4 −2 −3
(−2 + 3) = (1) =
7 −3 2 7 −3 2 7 −3 2
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 22 / 49
Properties of Scalar Multiplication
If r and s are real numbers and A and B are matrices of the appropriate
sizes, then
1. r (sA) = (rs)A
2. (r + s)A = rA + sA
3. r (A + B) = rA + rB
4. A(rB) = r (AB) = (rA)B
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 23 / 49

Matrix Subtraction
A − B = A + (−1)B, also known as the difference between A and B.
Example
Find A − B if given

2 3 −5 2 −1 3
A= and B = .
4 2 1 3 5 −2
Solution

2−2 3+1 −5 − 3
A−B =
4−3 2−5 1+2

0 4 −8
=
1 −3 3
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 24 / 49

Matrix Transpose
Definition
If A = [aij ] is an m × n matrix, the the transpose of A, AT = [aijT ], is the
n × m matrix defined by aijT = aji . Thus the transpose of A is obtained
from A by interchanging the rows and columns of A.
Example
Let

2 3 −5
A= .
4 2 1
Then
 
2 4
AT =  3 2 .
−5 1
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 25 / 49

Matrix Transpose
Example
 
3 1
T
Find B when B = 0  2 . Then, use A from the previous example to
1 6
T
show that (A + B) and AT + B T are equal.
Solution

3 0 1
B= AT + B T
1 2 6  
T 2+3 4+1
2+3 3 + 0 (−5) + 1
(A + B)T = =  3+0 2+2 
4+1 2+2 1+6 (−5) + 1 1 + 6
 
T 5 5 
5 5

5 3 −4
= = 3 4  =  3 4 
5 4 7
−4 7 −4 7
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 26 / 49
Properties of Transpose
If r is a scalar and A and B are matrices of the appropriate sizes, then

1. (AT )T = A
2. (A + B)T = AT + B T
3. (AB)T = B T AT
4. (rA)T = rAT
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 27 / 49

Matrix Multiplication
Definition
If A = [aij ] is an m × p matrix and B = [bij ] is a p × n matrices, then the
product, AB is an m × n matrix C = [cij ] defined by
cij = ai1 b1j + ai2 b2j + · · · + aip bpj

Xp
= aik bkj
k=1
Remark: cij = (rowi (A))T colj (B)
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 28 / 49

Example
Let
 
−2 5
1 2 −1
A= and B =  4 −3  .
3 1 4
2 1
Find AB.
Solution

(1)(−2) + (2)(4) + (−1)(2) (1)(5) + (2)(−3) + (−1)(1)
AB =
(3)(−2) + (1)(4) + (4)(2) (3)(5) + (1)(−3) + (4)(1)

4 −2
=
6 16
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 29 / 49

Example
Let
   
1 −2 3 1 4
A= 4 2 1  and B =  3 −1  .
0 1 −2 −2 2
Compute the (3,2) entry of AB.
Solution
If AB = C , then the (3,2) entry of AB is c32 , i.e.
   
0 4
(row3 (A))T col2 (B) =  1   −1  = −5.
−2 2
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 30 / 49

If A is an m × p matrix and B is a p × n matrix, then AB is an m × n

matrix. What about BA? Four different situations may occur.
1. If m 6= n, then BA is not defined.
2. If m = n, then BA is defined. Thus, BA is p × p while AB is m × m.
6 p.
Hence, AB and BA are of different sizes if m =
3. If AB and BA are both of the same size, they may be equal.
4. If AB and BA are both of the same size, they may be unequal.
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 31 / 49

Example
Let A be 2 × 3 and let B be 3 × 2. Then AB is 2 × 2 and BA is 3 × 3.
Example
Let

1 2 2 1
A= and B = .
−1 3 0 1
Then

2 3 1 7
AB = and BA = .
−2 2 −1 3
Thus, AB 6= BA.
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 32 / 49

Properties of Matrix Multiplication
If A, B and C are matrices of the appropriate sizes, then

1. A(BC ) = (AB)C
2. (A + B)C = AC + BC
3. C (A + B) = CA + CB
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 33 / 49

Example
 
−1 −4
−3 1 4 1 2 −1
Let A = ,B=  0 −5  and C = .
5 −2 0 1 2 −1
−2 −6
1
Find (AB)C and ( AB)T .
2
Solution

3+0−8 12 − 5 − 24 1 2 −1
(AB)C =
−5 + 0 + 0 −20 + 10 + 0 1 2 −1

−5 −17 1 2 −1
=
−5 −10 1 2 −1

−22 −44 22
= .
−15 −30 15
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 34 / 49
Solution

1 1 −22 −44 22
AB =
2 2 −15 −30 15

−11 −22 11
= .
−7.5 −15 7.5
Therefore,
 
−11 −7.5
1 T
( AB) = −22
 −15  .
2
11 7.5
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 35 / 49

Linear Combination
If A1 , A2 , . . . , Ak are m × n matrices and c1 , c2 , . . . , ck are real numbers,

then the linear combination of A1 , A2 , . . . , Ak and c1 , c2 , . . . , ck is given
by
Xk
ci Ai = c1 A1 + c2 A2 + · · · + ck Ak .
i=1
Example
Examples of linear combinations of matrices are:
   
0 −3 5 5 2 5
3
3 2 3 4 +  6 3 7 ,
2
1 −2 −3 1 −2 −3

2 1 2 − 3 5 0 + 4 −2 5 .
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 36 / 49

Linear Systems and Matrices

The system of linear equations
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ··· + a1n xn = b1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + ··· + a2n xn = b2
.. .. .. .. (3)
. . . = .
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + ··· + amn xn = bm
can be written in matrix form as
Ax = b
by introducing the following matrices:
     
a11 a12 · · · a1n x1 b1
 a21 a22 · · · a2n   x2   b2 
A= . ..  , x= , b= .
     
. .. .. ..
 . . .   .   . 
am1 am2 · · · amn xn bm
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 37 / 49
The matrix A is called the coefficient matrix of the linear system (3).
The augmented matrix of the linear system (3) is obtained by
joining column b to A.
 
a11 a12 · · · a1n b1
 a21 a22 · · · a2n b2 
 
 .. .. .. .. 
 . . . . 
am1 am2 · · · amn bm
and is written as [A|b].
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 38 / 49


Example
Write the following linear system in the form of Ax = b and find the
augmented matrix.
−2x + z = 5
2x + 3y − 4z = 7 .
3x + 2y + 2z = 3
Solution      
−2 0 1 x 5
By letting A =  2 3 −4  , x =  y  , b =  7  , we can
3 2 2 z 3
write the linear system in matrix form as Ax = b. The augmented matrix is
 
−2 0 1 5
 2 3 −4 7 
3 2 2 3
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 39 / 49
Special Types of Matrices

An n × n matrix A = [aij ] is called a diagonal matrix if aij = 0 for
i 6= j.
A scalar matrix is a diagonal matrix whose diagonal elements are
equal.
The identity matrix is the scalar matrix, In = [dij ], where dii = 1 and
dij = 0 for i 6= j.
Example
Let
     
1 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 0
A= 0 2 0 , B= 0 2 0 , I3 =  0 1 0 
0 0 3 0 0 2 0 0 1
A, B, I3 are diagonal matrices; B, I3 are scalar matrices, and I3 is an identity

matrix.
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 40 / 49
Power of a Matrix
Suppose that A is a square matrix. Then
Ap = A
| · A {z
· · · · · A}
p factors
If A is n × n, then
A0 = In .
For nonnegative integers p and q,
Ap Aq = Ap+q ,
(Ap )q = Apq .
(AB)p 6= Ap B p unless AB = BA.
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 41 / 49

Power of a Matrix
Example

1 2
Given A = . Compute A2 and A3 .
3 4
Solution
1 2 1 2 10 7
A2 = AA = = .
3 4 3 4 22 15

3 2 7 10 1 2 37 54
A = (A )A = = .
15 22 3 4 81 118
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 42 / 49

Triangular Matrix
An n × n matrix A = [aij ] is called upper triangular if aij = 0 for

i > j. E.g.
 
1 5 8
A= 0  2 −4 
0 0 3
An n × n matrix A = [aij ] is called lower triangular if aij = 0 for

i < j. E.g.
 
1 0 0
A =  5 2 0 .
−1 4 3
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 43 / 49

Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrices
A matrix A with real entries is called symmetric if AT = A.

Example
 
1 2 3
A= 2 4 5 .
3 5 6
A matrix A with real entries is called skew symmetric if AT = −A.

Example
 
0 2 3
B =  −2 0 −4  .
−3 4 0
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 44 / 49

Example
Determine if the matrix below is symmetric or skew symmetric.
 √ 
3 2 5
i. A =  2 1.5 −1 
3 −1 1
 
0 1 5
ii. B =  −1 0 4 .
−5 −4 0
Solution
i. Not symmetric because AT 6= A.
ii. Skew symmetric because B T = −B.
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 45 / 49

Submatrix Matrices
If we cross out some rows or columns of an m × n matrix A = [aij ].

then we obtain a submatrix of A.
Example
Let
 
1 2 3 4
A = −2
 4 −3 5 .
3 0 5 −3
If we cross out the second row and third column, we get the submatrix

1 2 4
.
3 0 −3
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 46 / 49

Partitioned Matrices
A matrix can be partitioned into submatrices by drawing horizontal

lines and vertical lines between columns called blocks of A.
Example
 
a11 a12 a13 a14 a15
 a21 a22 a23 a24 a25  A11 A12
A =  = .
 a31 a32 a33 a34 a35  A21 A22
a41 a42 a43 a44 a45
 
a11 a12 a13 a14 a15 " #
 a21 a22 a23 a24 a25  A
d11 A
d12 A
d13
B = 
 a31
= .
a32 a33 a34 a35  A21
d A22
d A23
d
a41 a42 a43 a44 a45
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 47 / 49

Nonsingular Matrices
An n × n matrix A is called nonsingular, or invertible, if there exists

an n × n matrix B such that AB = BA = In ; such a B is called an
inverse of A. Otherwise, A is called singular, or noninvertible.
Remark: To verify that B is an inverse of A, we need verify only that
AB = In .
Example
Let
3

2 3 −1 2
A= and B = .
2 2 1 −1
Since AB = I2 , we conclude that B is an inverse of A.
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 48 / 49

Nonsingular Matrices
Theorems
The inverse of a matrix, if it exists, is unique.
If A and B are both nonsingular n × n matrices, then AB is
nonsingular and (AB)−1 = B −1 A−1 .
If A1 , A2 , . . . , Ar are n × n nonsingular matrices, then A1 A2 · · · Ar is
−1 −1
nonsingular and (A1 A2 · · · Ar )−1 = A−1 r Ar −1 · · · A1 .
If A is a nonsingular matrix, then A−1 is nonsingular and
(A−1 )−1 = A.
If A is a nonsingular matrix, then AT is nonsingular and
(A−1 )T = (AT )−1 .
Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 49 / 49

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Systems of Linear Eqns Matrix Operations Linear Systems in Matrix Form Special Matrices Partitioned Matrices Nonsingular Ma

Chapter 1: Linear Equations and Matrices

Sarah Samson Juan, Tiong Wei King, Shapi-ee Abdul Rahman,

Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology

Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 1 / 49

1 Systems of Linear Eqns

3 Linear Systems in Matrix Form

Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 2 / 49

6x1 − 3x2 + 4x3 = −13.

Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 3 / 49

A system of linear equations is a set of m linear equations each in n

A solution is a sequence of n numbers s1 , s2 , . . . , sn which satisfy

Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 4 / 49

has the solution x1 = 1, x2 = 2, x3 = −1 since these values satisfy both

However, x1 = 1, x2 = 8, x3 = 1 is not a solution since these values satisfy

Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 5 / 49

Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 6 / 49

Figure: Unique solution, many solution and no solution

Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 7 / 49

Determine whether it has a unique solution, no solution or infinitely many

Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 8 / 49

∴ The system has no solution.

Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 9 / 49

Determine whether it has a unique solution, no solution or infinitely many

Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 10 / 49

∴ The system has a unique solution.

Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 11 / 49

Determine whether it has a unique solution, no solution or infinitely many

Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 12 / 49

∴ The system has infinitely many solutions.

Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 13 / 49

Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 14 / 49

Solving a System of Linear Equations

are equivalent since they both have the unique solution x = 2, y = 1.

Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 15 / 49

An m × n matrix A is a rectangular array of mn real or complex

The ith row of A is

Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 16 / 49

Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 18 / 49

Properties of Matrix Addition

Let A, B and C be m × n matrices.

for any m × n matrix A.

We shall write D as −A and is called the negative of A.

Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 20 / 49

Properties of Scalar Multiplication

Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 23 / 49

A − B = A + (−1)B, also known as the difference between A and B.

Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 24 / 49

Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 25 / 49

If r is a scalar and A and B are matrices of the appropriate sizes, then

Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 27 / 49

cij = ai1 b1j + ai2 b2j + · · · + aip bpj

Remark: cij = (rowi (A))T  colj (B)

Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 28 / 49

Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 29 / 49

Compute the (3,2) entry of AB.

Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 30 / 49

If A is an m × p matrix and B is a p × n matrix, then AB is an m × n

Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 31 / 49

Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 32 / 49

Properties of Matrix Multiplication

If A, B and C are matrices of the appropriate sizes, then

Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 33 / 49

Sem 2 2018/2019 (UNIMAS) Chap 1 35 / 49

Remark: cij = (rowi (A))T colj (B)