Applied Mathematics I (Math 231B)

CHAPTER ONE
VECTORS AND VECTOR SPACES
1.1. Scalar and vectors in
Definitions:
a) A scalar is a physical quantity that is described by its magnitude only.
For example, temperature, length, and speed are scalars because they are
completely described by a number that tells "how much"-say a temperature of 20°C,
a length of 5 cm, or a speed of 10 m/s
b) A vector is a physical quantity that is described using both magnitude and its
direction. For instance, velocity, displacement, and force are some examples of
vectors.

Vectors in
A vector in the plane can be described as ⃗ ( ) (row vector) , where

or ⃗ . / (column vector), .

Similarly, a vector in the space can be described as a triple of numbers ( )

where .
EQUAL (OR EQUIVALENT) VECTORS
Definition: Two vectors ⃗ in ⁄ are said to be equal (or equivalent)
if they have the same magnitude and direction, and is denoted by ⃗ .
That is, if ⃗ ( ) ( ) ⃗ .

Note that : Two types of vectors occur in applications: bound vectors and free vectors.
A bound vector is one whose physical effect depends on the location of the initial point as
well as the magnitude and direction.
Free vector is one whose physical effect depends on the magnitude and direction
alone. For example, in Figure shown below two 10-lb upward forces applied to a block.
Although the forces have the same magnitude and direction, the differences in their points
of application (the initial points of the vectors) cause differences in the behavior of the
block. Thus, these forces need to be treated as bound vectors. In contrast, velocity and
displacement are generally treated as free vectors.

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Definitions:

1. A located vector is a vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ defined as an arrow whose initial point is at point A
and whose terminal point is at B.

b2 B(b1,b2)

a2
A(a1,a2)

a1 b1 X

(b1 , b2 )  (a1  (b1  a1 )), (a 2  (b 2 a 2 ))

 (a1 , a 2 )  (b1  a1 ,b 2 a 2 )
( )
 (a1 , a 2 )  [(b1 ,b 2 )  (a1 , a 2 )]
B  A  ( B  A)
( )

2. Position vector is a vector whose initial point is at the origin.

Definition (Parallel / collinear Vectors)
Definition Two non – zero vectors ⃗ of the same dimension are said to be parallel or,
alternatively, collinear if at least one of the vectors is a scalar multiple of the other. If one of
the vectors is a positive scalar multiple of the other, then the vectors are said to have the

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same direction, and if one of them is a negative scalar multiple of the other, then the vectors
are said to have opposite directions.
REMARK : 1. The vector 0 is parallel to every vector v in the same dimension , since it can be
expressed as the scalar multiple 0 = 0v.
2. The zero vectors has no natural direction ,so we will agree that it can be assigned any
direction that is convenient for the problem at hand.
In other words, the two vectors ⃗ are said to be parallel, denoted by ⃗ if there
exists a scalar c such that⃗⃗⃗ .
Definition: For any ⃗ ( ) we define ⃗ as ⃗ ( ).

1.2. Vector addition and Scalar multiplication

Definition: For any two vectors ⃗ ( ) ( ) in , we define their sum to
be
⃗ ( ).
Geometrically, if we represent the two vectors ⃗ by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ respectively, then

⃗ is represented by⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , as shown in the diagram below:

C
U+V
V

A
B
U
AB  BC  AC
a) The Triangular Law

D
C

V U+V = V+U
V

A B
U

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b) The Parallelogram Law

Addition of vectors on the coordinate plane
Let ( ) ⃗⃗ ( ) then → → ( ).

Vector Subtraction The negative of a vector v, denoted by -v, is the vector that has the
same length as v but is oppositely directed (Figure 1.1.9a ), and the difference of v from w,
denoted by w - v, is taken to be the sum
w - v = w+ (-v)

Example: Provided that U =(-1,0,1) and V= (2,-1,5 ) ,find each of the following vectors
a) U + V b) 2U c) V -2U
Solution: a) U+V= (-1,0,1) + (2,-1,5 ) = (1,-1,6)
b) 2U = 2 (-1,0,1) = (-2 , 0 , 2)

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c) V -2U = (2,-1,5 )-2(-1,0,1)= (4 ,-1 ,3)

Properties of Vector addition & Scalar Multiplication

Let ⃗ and ⃗⃗ be vectors in and are scalars. Then:
a) ⃗
b) ⃗ ⃗
c) ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ( ) .
d) There exists such that ⃗ ⃗⃗ for every .
e) ⃗ ( ⃗⃗ ) (⃗ ) ⃗⃗
f) ( ⃗) ( )⃗
g) ( )⃗ ⃗ ⃗
h) ⃗ ⃗
Remark: The properties described above also hold true for vectors in where
( ) replaces the zero vector in .
SUMS OF THREE OR MORE VECTORS

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Definition 1.1.8 A vector w in Rn is said to be a linear combination.. of the vectors

V1, V2, … , Vk in Rn if w can be expressed in the form
W = c1 v1 + c2v2 + . . . + ckvK
The scalars c1, c2, ... , ck are called the coefficients in the linear combination. In the case
where k = 1, Formula (14) becomes w = c1 v1, so to say that w is a linear combination of v1
is the same as saying that w is a scalar multiple of v1•

Example : Provided that X= (-1 , -2 , -2 ) , U = (0 ,1 ,4) , V = (-1 , 1 ,2) and W = (3 ,1 ,2) in

R3
find scalars a , b and c such that X = a U + b V + c W

SOLUTION
(-1 , -2 , -2 ) = a (0, 1 ,4) + b ( -1 ,1 ,2 ) + c (3 , 1 ,2 )
= (-b +3c , a +b +c , 4a +2b +2c )

you can equate corresponding components so that they form the system of three linear
equations as shown below.
-b +3c = -1
a +b +c = - 2
,4a +2b +2c = -2
Answer a =1 ,b= - 2 and c = -1
Try using vector addition and scalar multiplication to check this result.

1.3. Dot (Scalar) product, Magnitude of a vector, Angle between two Vectors, Orthogonal
Projection, Direction angles and direction cosines.
1.3.1. Dot (Scalar) Product
Definition: Let ( ) be a vector in . Then the magnitude (norm) of denoted
by ‖ ‖ is defined by:

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‖ ‖ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

‖ ‖ √
Similarly, for a vector ( ) its norm is given by

‖ ‖ √
Examples: a) If ( ) then find ‖ ‖.
b) If ‖ ⃗ ‖ such that ⃗ ( ).
Remarks: (i) ‖ ‖
(ii) ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖.
Theorem: If then‖ ‖ | | ‖ ‖.
Proof: suppose that then
‖ ‖ √( ) ( ) ( )

√ ,( ) ( ) ( ) -
= | |‖ ‖
Definition (Unit Vector)
Any vector ⃗ satisfying ‖ ⃗ ‖ is called a unit vector.

Examples: The vectors ( ) ( ) . / ( ) are examples of unit vectors.

√ √

N.B: 1. All unit vectors in are of the form ( o n ) .

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2. For any non-zero vector , the unit vector ̂ corresponding to in the

direction of can be obtained as:
⃗
̂ ‖⃗ ‖

3. For two points ( ) ( ) on the plane we

calculate the distance ( ) between the two points, as :
( ) ‖⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ √( ) ( ) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is the vector with initial

point P and terminal point Q, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ( ).

4. Distance between two vectors can be viewed as the length of U -V where
( ) ( )

1.3.2. The Dot Product (or Scalar Product)

Definition: Suppose that ⃗ ( ) ( ) are vectors in and that , -
represents the angle between them. We define the dot product of ⃗ ⃗ denoted by ⃗
by:
⃗
Or alternatively, we write
‖⃗ ‖ ‖ ‖ o ⃗
⃗ {
⃗
Thus ‖ ⃗ ‖ ‖ ‖ o for non – zero vector ⃗ .
Similarly, if ⃗ ( ) ( ) are vectors in we define ⃗ as bellow:

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Remark: The dot product of two vectors is a scalar quantity, and its value is maximum
when and minimum if radians.
Example: If⃗⃗⃗ 〈 〉, then find:
a) ⃗ b) ⃗ ⃗ c) ( ⃗ )

Properties of the dot product

If ⃗ ⃗⃗ are vectors in the same dimension, and then:
1. ⃗ ⃗ ‖⃗ ‖ 4. ⃗
2. ⃗ ⃗ 5. ( ⃗ ) (⃗ ) ( ⃗ )
3. ⃗ ( ⃗⃗ ) ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ 6. ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ .
1.3.3. Angle between two vectors
If is the angle between two non – zero vectors ⃗ then, the angle between the two
vectors can be obtained by:
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
o ⇒ .‖ ⃗ ‖ ‖ ⃗ ‖ / , -
‖⃗ ‖ ‖⃗ ‖

Example: Find the angle between the vectors ⃗ 〈 〉 ( )

Solution: Let be the angle between the two vectors:
⃗ ⃗
Then o ‖ ⃗ ‖ ‖⃗ ‖
⇒ . /
√ √

Definition: Two non – zero ⃗ are said to be orthogonal (perpendicular) iff ⃗

i.e, if .

Example: Find the value (s) of x such that the vectors ( )

( ) are orthogonal.
Definition: If P and Q are points in 2 or 3 spaces, the distance between P and Q, denoted by
‖ ‖ is given by ‖ ‖ √( )( )

Theorem: Given two vectors ⃗ in space, ‖ ⃗ ‖ ‖⃗ ‖ iff ⃗ are orthogonal

vectors.
Proof : (⤏) Given ‖ ⃗ ‖ ‖⃗ ‖
WTS ⃗ are orthogonal

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‖⃗ ‖ ( ) ( )
=‖ ‖ ‖ ‖
‖⃗ ‖ ( ) ( )
=‖ ‖ ‖ ‖
By hypothesis ‖ ⃗ ‖ ‖⃗ ‖
‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ = ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖

Hence , ⃗ are orthogonal

Proof :(⤌) Given ⃗ are orthogonal
WTS : ‖ ⃗ ‖ ‖⃗ ‖
‖⃗ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖
And
‖⃗ ‖ =‖ ‖ ‖ ‖
Since ⃗ are orthogonal ⃗
Therefore, ‖ ⃗ ‖ ‖⃗ ‖

Pythagoras Theorem:
If A and B are orthogonal vectors, then ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖
Proof: ‖ ‖ ( ) ( )
‖ ‖ ‖ ‖
‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ .
Note: If A is perpendicular to B, then it is also perpendicular to any scalar multiple of B.

1.3.4. Orthogonal Projection

Definition: Suppose S is the foot of the perpendicular from R to the line containing ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ then
the vector with representation ⃗⃗⃗⃗ is called the vector projection of B on to A, and is
denoted by project .

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R R

B
B
A A
Q
Q
S P P S
Proj AB
projAB

⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
( ).A=0
(B- t A).A =0
B.A –t A.A =0

‖ ‖

⃗⃗⃗⃗
‖ ‖

The scalar projection of B onto A (also called the component of B a long A) is defined to be
the length of project , which is equal to ‖ ‖ and is denoted by comp .

Thus: .‖ ‖ / ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖

‖ ‖ ‖‖ ‖
‖ ‖‖ ‖
‖‖ ‖ ‖ ‖

Example: Let ( ) and ( )

Then find (i) , ( )- , (ii) j , ( )- (iii)

1.3.5. Directional angles and cosines

Let be a vector positioned at the origin in making an angle of
with the positive axes respectively. Then the angles are
called the directional angles of A, and the quantities
o o are called the directional cosines of A, which can be computed as
follows:

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o ‖ ‖‖ ‖ ‖ ‖
, o ‖ ‖‖ ‖ ‖ ‖
and o ‖ ‖‖ ‖ ‖ ‖

From this relation we can deduce a unit vector

‖ ‖( )

‖ ‖
( ) is a unit vector.

o , - , , - , o , -
‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖

A = a1 i + a2 j +a3k

Remark: . (Verify!)
( ) ( ) ( ) ‖ ‖
Solution .‖ ‖/ .‖ ‖/ .‖ ‖/ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖

Exercise: Let ( ). Then find the directional cosines of A.

1.4. The Cross (or Vector) Product and Triple Products

Given two nonzero vectors ( ) and ( )
, it is very useful to be able to find a nonzero vector C that is perpendicular to both A
and B . If ( ) is such a vector, then A.C = 0 and B.C = 0
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
To eliminate c3 multiply (1) by b3 and multiply (2) by a3 , and subtract
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )

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Equation (3) has the form pc1 + qc2 =0 .Where the solution for c1 = q and c2 = -p
So the solution of equation (3) is
( ) and ( )
Substituting equations (1) and (2) we get

That means a vector perpendicular to both A and B is

( ) ( )
The resulting vector is called the cross product of A and B denoted by A x B

Definition: Suppose that ( ) and

( ) be two vectors in . Then the cross product of
the two vectors is defined as:
( ) ( ) ( )

Or ( )

Example: Let

Then find a) b)
Remarks: For two non – zero vectors A & B,
1. is a vector which is orthogonal to both A and B.
2. is not defined for .
3.
( )
( )

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A XB

-A XB = B XA

Properties of Cross Product

Let A, B and C be vectors in and be any scalar. Then:
(1) 〈 〉
(2)
(3) ( ) ( )
(4) ( ) ( ) ( )
(5) ( )
(6) ( ) ( )
(7) If A and B are parallel, then
(8) ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ( )
(9) ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖‖ ‖ n , -.
(10) ̂ ‖ ‖‖ ‖ n ̂ is the unit vector in the direction of
, - is the angle between A and B.

Example: If ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ⁄ for two vectors A and B then find ‖ ‖.

‖ ‖
Note: The angle between A and B can be obtained by n ‖ ‖‖ ‖
for two non – zero

vectors A and B.
Definition (Scalar Triple Product)
Let A, B and C is vectors in . Their scalar triple product is given by ( ) which is a
scalar.
Applications of cross Product:

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(i)Area: The area of a parallelogram whose adjacent sides coincides with the vectors A
and B is given by ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖‖ ‖| n |

d
b
B
h
O

A a

So, ( )
‖ ‖‖ ‖| n |
N.B: The area of the triangle formed by A and B as its adjacent sides is given by
‖ ‖.

ii.Volume
The volume V of a parallelepiped with the three vectors A, B and C in as three of its
adjacent edges is given by:

| ( )| | ( )|

BXC

( ) | ( )|
‖ ‖ ‖ ( )‖
‖ ‖ ‖ ‖

Hence, V= | ( )|

Examples:
1. Find the area of a triangle whose vertices are ( ) ( )

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( ).
Solution: The vectors on the sides of the triangle
are⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ( ) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ( ) .
So, ( ) ‖⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ √

2. Find the volume of the parallelepiped with edges

⃗ ⃗⃗ .
Solution: V=| ⃗ ( ⃗⃗ )|
N.B: Three vectors are coplanar iff ( ) .
1.5. Lines and Planes in
Definition: A vector 〈 〉 is said to be parallel to a line is parallel to ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ for
any two distinct points .
A line is determined by a given point ( ) on and a parallel vector
(directional vector) 〈 〉 .
Equations of a line in space:
Let ( ) be a given point on a line and ( ) be any arbitrary point on . If
⃗ 〈 〉 is the parallel vector to then
(1) The parametric equation of is given by
, , where t is called the parameter.
(2) The symmetric form of equation of is given by:

(3) The vector equation of is written as ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ .

Remarks:

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1. The above equations of the line can be derived using vector algebra as follows:

Z
p
P0

r0 r
Y

From vector addition, we have ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ .

Since ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ there exists such that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

 〈 〉 〈 〉
 .
2. If one of (say for instance ), the symmetric equation of is given
as:

Equation of a plane:
A plane in space is determined by a point ( ) in the plane and a vector ⃗ that is
orthogonal to the plane. This orthogonal vector ⃗ is called a normal vector.
Suppose that ( ) be any arbitrary point in the plane, and let be the position
vectors of ( ) and ( ) Then we have
⃗ ( ) (Since ⃗ perpendicular to any vector in the plane).
 ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ,which is called the vector equation of the plane.
If we let ⃗ 〈 〉 we get
〈 〉 〈 〉
 ( ) ( ) ( ) (point - normal form of equation of a plane)
⟺ ( )
(general or standard form of the equation of a plane).
Examples:

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1. Find the equations of a line that contains the point ( ) and parallel to
.
Solution: let 〈 ) ( )
Then the parametric form of the equation of the line is:

and its symmetric form is given as:

.

2. Find the equation of the plane through the points ( )

( ) ( ).
Solution: The vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 〈 〉 ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 〈 〉
are parallel to the plane, and hence, their cross product ⃗ ⃗ 〈 〉 is
normal to the plane. Thus, the equation of the plane is given by: ( ) ( )
( )

OR:
The equation of the plane can be obtained by computing:

( )

Distance in Space
a) Distance from a point to a line
The distance D from a point (not on ) to a line in space is given by:

‖⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖
‖⃗ ‖ , where is the directional vector of and is any point on .
Proof:

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Z
P1 L
D

V
P0
Y
X

n ‖⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ n
‖⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖
‖ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖
But since ‖ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ | n | ‖ ‖ we have: .
‖⃗ ‖

b) Distance from a point to a plane

The perpendicular distance D of a point ( ) in space to the plane with the
equation is given by:
| | | ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
√ ‖⃗ ‖
where o is the foot of ⃗ within the plane.

Proof: Consider the diagram below:

P(x0,y0,z0)

O(x1,y1,z1)

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ ‖ |⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ |

‖ ⃗ ‖ ‖ ⃗‖
‖ ⃗‖ ‖ ⃗‖
| |
 √
( )

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P1(x1,y1,z1)

P0(x0,y0,z0)

B.
OP1  D  CompB 


where

a( x1  x0 )  b( y1  y 0 )  c( z1  z 0 )
B  P0 P1  ( x1  x0 , y1  y 0 , z1  z 0 ) 
a2  b2  c2

| |
NB: If ( ) w/c is the distance of the plane from the origin.
√

Examples:
1. Find the distance of the point ( ) from the line with symmetric equations:

.
2. How far is the point ( ) from the plane with equation
Solutions:
1. Here, the directional (parallel) vector of is: 〈 〉
( ) be taken.
Then ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 〈 〉.
‖ ⃗‖ ‖( ) ( ) ( ) ‖ √
Thus, ‖⃗ ‖ √
units.
√

2. Here ( ) ( ) ⃗ 〈 〉 .
| |
Thus , ‖ ⃗‖

| | √
units.
√

OR: Take ⃗ 〈 〉 . / . Then

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| ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | |( ). /| √
‖⃗ ‖
.
√

Distance between two parallel planes

Given two parallel planes . Then we can have normal vectors with coefficients
to be the same such that:
.

Then the distance between is the same as the distance from any arbitrary point
( ) has been taken from to the plane .
| |
⇒ √
. But
| |
Thus, √

Example: Find the distance between the planes

Solution: We first rewrite the equations so that they have the same ⃗ 〈 〉.
That is:
⁄ ⁄
| |
Thus, √

| ⁄ |
⁄
√

1.6. Vector Spaces and Subspaces

Definition a Field

Let F be a subset of complex numbers. Then F is said to be a field under the usual
add t on’ ’ and alar mult pl at on ‘ ’ usually denoted by (F,+,.) if it satisfies the
following conditions:

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

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Examples:

i. The field of real numbers ( ),

ii. the field of complex numbers ( ),
iii. The field of rational numbers ( ).

Definition of a vector space

A non-empty set of objects V is said to be a vector space (or a linear space) over a field F if
it satisfies the following axioms:

1.
2.
3.
4. ( ) ( )
5.
6. ( )
7. ( ) ( )
8. ( )
9. ( )
10.

Note:1. The elements of V are called vectors and the elements of F are called scalars.

2. It is important to realize that a vector space consists of four entities: a set of vectors, a
set of scalars, and two operations. When you refer to a vector space be sure all four
entities are clearly stated or understood. Unless stated otherwise, assume that the set of
scalars is the set of real numbers.
Examples:

1. is a vector space over itself.

The set of all ordered pairs of real numbers with the standard operations is a vector
space.

n
2.R with the Standard Operations Is a Vector Space

The set of all ordered n - tuples of real numbers with the standard operations is a vector
space.

3. The Vector Space of All Polynomials of Degree 2 or Less

4. The Vector Space of All 2 x 3 Matrices

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5. *( ) + is a vector space over the field of real numbers, .

6. The set defined by *( ) + is not a vector space over because if we

take √ ( ) , then we can see that is not in .

Subspaces

Definition: Let V be a given vector space over a field F. Then a non-empty subset W of V is
said to be a subspace of V if W itself is a vector space over F under the operations of V.

Theorem: Suppose that V is a vector space over a field F.A non-empty subset W of V is a
subspace of V if it satisfies the following conditions:

i. ⇒
ii. ⇒
iii.

Examples

1. V and * + are the trivial subspaces of any vector space V.

2. For the vector space *( ) + over .Then the set
*( ) + is a subspace of V. (verify!)
Solution
i) Let ( ) and ( )
then ( )
ii) Let ( ) and * ) +
iii) (0,0,0)W
Therefore W is the subspace of V

3. The set of all lines passing through the origin, * + is a

subspace of the vector space
Solution
i) Let * + and *
the * ( ) ( ) +
ii)Let * + and * ( ) +
iii) * ( ) ( ) + this implies that line L passes through the
origin.
Therefore L is the subspace of V

Exercise: 1.Is the set * + a subspace of ? Justify.

2. Which of the following is the subspace of ?

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a) *( )

b) *( )

7. Linear Dependence and Independence

Definition:

Let be elements of an arbitrary vector space V, and be

scalars. An expression of the form is called linear combinations
of the vectors .

Examples:

1) For the set of vectors in

*( )( )( )+ Let ( ) ( ) ( )

V1 is a linear combinations of v2 and v3 because

V1= c1 (0,1, 2) +c2 (1,0,5)

(1, 3, 1) = c1 (0, 1, 2) +c2 (1,0,5)

C1 =1 and 2c1 -5c2 =1

C2 =3 V1 =3 V2 + V3

This implies that S is linearly independent .

Exercise:

1) Write the vector W = (1,1,1) as a linear combination of vectors in the set S.

S = { (1,2,3),(0,1,2), (-1,0,1)}.

2) If possible, write the vector W = (1,-2, 2) as a linear combinations of vectors in

the set S ={ (1,2,3),(0,1,2), (-1,0,1)}.

Definition:

Let are vectors in a vector space V over .Then vectors are called:

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1. linearly dependent if there exist scalars not all zero such that

2. Linearly independent if implies

Linear dependence in the vector space V ¼ R3 can be described geometrically as follows:

(a) Any two vectors u and v in R3 are linearly dependent if and only if they lie on the same
line through the origin O, as shown in Fig. 4-3(a).
(b) Any three vectors u, v, w in R3 are linearly dependent if and only if they lie on the same
plane through the origin O, as shown in Fig. 4-3(b)Later, we will be able to show that any
four or more vectors in R3 are automatically linearly dependent.

The following remarks follow directly from the above definition.

Remark 1: Suppose 0 is one of the vectors v1; v2; . . . ; vm, say v1 = 0. Then the vectors must
be linearly dependent, because we have the following linear combination where the
coefficient of v1 0:
1v1 , 0v2 , …, 0vm = 1 . 0+ 0+_ _ +0 = 0
Remark 2: Suppose v is a nonzero vector. Then v, by itself, is linearly independent, because
kv = 0; v 0 implies k = 0
Remark 3: Suppose two of the vectors v1; v2; . . . ; vm are equal or one is a scalar multiple
of the other, say v1 ¼ kv2. Then the vectors must be linearly dependent, because we have
the following linear combination where the coefficient of v1 6¼ 0:v1 _ kv2 þ 0v3 þ_ _ _þ0vm
¼0
Remark 4: Two vectors v1 and v2 are linearly dependent if and only if one of them is a
multiple of the other.
Remark 5: If the set fv1; . . . ; vmg is linearly independent, then any rearrangement of the
vectors fvi1 ; vi2 ; . . . ; vimg is also linearly independent.
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 Applied Mathematics I (Math 231B)

Remark 6: If a set S of vectors is linearly independent, then any subset of S is linearly

independent. Alternatively, if S contains a linearly dependent subset, then S is linearly
dependent.
Examples:

1. Determine whether the following set of vectors in the vector space are
linearly dependent or independent.
a. *( )( )( )+
b. *( )( )( )+.
c. {(1,2,3),(0,1,2),(-2,0,1)}

2. Let V be the vector space of all real valued functions of the variable t. Then which of
the following set of functions are LD/LI? Justify!
a. * + b) * +

3. Determine whether the following set of vectors in the vector space are

linearly dependent or independent

a) {(1, 2), (2,4)}

b) {(1, 0), (0,1),(-2,5)}

4 . Determine whether the following set of vectors in P2 are linearly dependent or

independent .

S = {1+ x -2x2 , 2+5x –x2 , x+x2 }

1.8. Basis of a vector space.

Definitions:

Let V be any vector space over a field F, and let the set { } be a set of vectors
in V.Then:

i) S is said to spans (or generates) V if each element of V is a linear combinations of

elements of S.
ii) S is called a basis for V if S is a linearly independent set and it spans V.

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 Applied Mathematics I (Math 231B)

iii) The dimension of V is said to be n (dim V=n) if V has basis consisting of n-

elements.

Examples:

1. Show that the set *( )( )( )+ form a basis of the vector

space .
Solution
I) we need to show that S is linearly independent
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Hence S is linearly independent

ii) we need to show that S spans
Let (x, y ,z)  then ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Therefore , S Spans

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