♦

CHAPTER 1
(x, y,,
/ R(x + dx, y + dy, z + dz)

Vector Anal~si5
The valentine vector soys, "I was only a scalar until you came along
and gave me direction."·
- discordianquotes.com
T

1.1 Vectors and Vector Algebra

1.2 Scalar and Vector Fields
1.3 Partial Derivative
1.4 Gradient
1.5 Divergence
1.6 Curl
1.7 Important C_pnclusions on the basis of Gradient, Divergence and Curl
1.8 Vector Integration
1.9 Gauss's Law and Gauss's . Divergence Theorem
1.10 Stoke's Law and Stoke's Curl Theorem
1.11 Poisson and Laplace Equations
. (1)
 2 . ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

The study of the theory of electromagnetic fields needs the knowledge and the usage of
certain mathematical concepts as tools for better understanding of the subject. Elements of
differential and integral calculus are essential for defining the basic concepts of the theory.
Some other mathematical background such as vector algebra, calculus and aspects of
numerical analysis also help very significantly in achieving clarity of understanding-thereby
making possible a simple foritlal development of the subject. In the present study, the
emphasis is on the understanding of physical aspects of the theory rather than the lengthy
mathematical manipulations. In such an approach, the concepts of vectors play a central role_
in the _study of electromagnetic fields.
The present introduction to vectors and vector methods will be utilized to emphasize the
physics of, and its application to, practical systems and situations.

1.1 VECTORS AND VECTOR ALGEBRA

There are two classes of physical quantities, each with its characteristic properties and an
appropriate algebra.

Scalar Quantities
These have magnitude only and do not involve direction. To specify a scalar quantity
completely, it is necessary to know :
(i) a unit of same kind, and
(ii) a number stating how many times the unit is contained in the quantity, i.e., a scalar
can be specified by a single number.
Examples of scalar quantities are : mass, volume, density, temperature, electric potential,
charge and so forth, ·
These are indicated by non-bold face letter, for instance, S.

Vector Quantities
These have both magnitude and · direction. For the complete specifications of a vector
quantity, it is necessary to know :
(i) a unit of same kind,
(ii) a number giving the magnitude of the quantity in terms of this unit, and
(iii) a statement of direction.
Examples of vector quantities are : Velocity, acceleration, force, ·-stress, displacement, electric
force, migrt~c filduction and ·so -on. These_are 'indicated by bold face type, ,for-instant, V. ,
The product f()f a vector and a scalar is ,aefined ·a s a vector whose magnitude is equal to
numerical product of •the magnitad e of ·0riginal vector and ·magnitude of.the scalar, and whose
direction coincides with that of ithe original vector or is opposite to it, depending on whether the
' scalar is positive or negative. Thus a vector multiplication with -1 is equivalent to ·reversing its
direction i.e.,
Vx(- 1)=-V ... (1.1)
 VECTOR ANALYSIS 3
There are two classes of quantities represented by vectors:
(1) Force, displacement, velocity and the like in which vector is drawn in .the direction
of the quantity concerned. That is, linear action in a particular direction. Such
vectors are called polar vectors.
(ii) Angular velocity, angular acceleration and the like in which rotary action of some
kind takes place about an axis (the positive direction of vector is obtained by the
rule of the right handed screw). These are called axial vectors. Note that the vectors
cannot represent the finite rotations of a body about a fixed axis.
There is little difference in the mathematical treatment of these two classes of vectors.
1.1.1 A.d dition and Subtraction of Vectors
The vector addition follows the parallelogram law,
i.e.,
V=A+B · ...(1.2)

where IVl= ✓A 2 +B2 -2ABcos0

Vector addition is commutative i.e., A
V=A+B=B+A ... (1.3) Fig. 1.1 Vector addition.
Vector addition is also associative, i.e.,
(A+B)+C= A+(B+Q=(A+Q+B and so on.
Vector subtraction is obtained by reversing the sign of the vector that is being subtracted.

1.1.2 Multiplication of Vectors

There are two types of vector multiplication
(a) The ·s ~alar ProdQ.c t-ofVectors. ·
The scalar product of the vectors A and Bis defined as
AB= AB cos 0 ... (1.4)
where 0 is the angle between the vectors A and Bas shown in
Fig. 1.2. Thus A. B (also called dot product) is a scalar and is
the numerical product of the magnitude of Band the compo-
nent of Ain the direction of B, or is the product of the magni- Pig. 1.2 Scalar product of the
tude of A and the component of B in the direction of A vectors A and B.

A common physical example in mechanics is that of work done by a force A in moving an

object through a distance B along a ·straight line. Thus
Work done = magnitude of the x the component of the force in the
displacement direction of the displacement
Note that: A. B= B.A ...(1.5)
That is, the dot, or scalar multiplication obeys the commutative law.
(A+B):C=A.··C + B . C ...(1.6)
 4 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

That is, the dot product obeys the distributive law.

(A. B)C:;t: A(B. q ... (1.7)
That is, the dot product does not obey the associative law.
Also, applying the dot product to the unit vectors of the Cartesian coordinate systems, we get
/\/\ • /\/\ /'/'
i. j = j . j = K. K =1 ... (1.8)
I\ I\ I\ I' I' I\
and i.j =j . K =K.i =0 ... (1.9)
A . B in terms of the components of A and B in the Cartesian coordinate system.
A.B=(iAx· +jAY +kA2 ).(iBX +jBy +kBZ )=AB
XX
+AB
yy +AB
ZZ
... (1.10)

(b) The Vector Product of Vectors

The vector product, or cross product of A and B is a vector C i.e.,
C=AxB ... (1.11)
such that the vector C is normal to the plane defined by A and B as shown in Fig. 1.3.
The magnitude of C is defined as
IC/= C = AB sin 0 ... (1.12)
Thus C is equal to the area of the parallelo- gram formed by A C
and B. It also follows from the definition that
Ax B = -Bx A ... (1.13)
Thus, the :vector product does not obey the commutative law.
Also (AxB)xC-::f:Ax(BxC) ... (1.14)
Therefore, the vector product does not obey the associative Fig. 1.3 Vector product oHhe
law as well. vectors A and B.
But the vector product obeys the distributive law, i.e.,
(A+ B)x C= Ax C+ Bx C · ... (1.15)
Applying vector multiplication to the unit vectors of the rectangular Cartesian coordinate
system, we get
/\I\ /\I\ /'I'
ixj =jxj =KXK =0 ...(1.16)

and lXj=K;
" " " JXK=t;
t:- " t:- KXl=j
" " " ...'(117)
.
I\ I\ I' I' I\ I\ " ' I' I\
or j xi =- K ; KXJ =- l and i X K = - j
·' - Using these unit vectors; the cross product of the vectors A and B can be expressed as
Ax B = (i Ax + f Ay +k Az ) x (i Bx -:-/ By + k B2 )

'> '>
l ]
= Ax Ay ... (1.18)
Bx By
 VECTOR ANALYSIS 5

1.2 SCALAR AND VECTOR FIELDS

Many physical quantities have different values at different points in space. For example, the
temperature in a room is different at different points : high near a table, low near an open window
and so on. The electric field around a point charge is large near the charge and decreases as we go
away from the charge. Similarly, the gravitational force acting on satellite depends on its distance
from the earth. The velocity of flow of water in a stream is large in narrow channels and small over
flat areas and where the stream is wide. In all these examples, there is a particular region of space
which is of interest for the problem at hand ; at every point of the region some physical quantity
has a value. The term field is used to mean·bo th the region and the value of the physical quantity in
the region (for example, electric field, gravitational field). If the physical quantity is a scalar (for
example, temperature), we speak a scalar field. If the quantity is a vector (for .example, electric
field, force or velocity), we speak of a vector field.
A simple example of a scalar field is the gravitational potential energy near the earth; its
value is V = mgh ~t ev~ry point of height ~ above some arbitrary reference level [which we take as
the (x, y) plane]. Suppose that on a hill (Fig. 1.4) we
mark a series of curves each corresponding to some z
value of h (curves of constant .elevation, often called
contour lines or level lines). Any curve or surface
on which a potential is constant is ~alled an
equipotential. Thus these level l~es are ~--y
equipotentials of the gravitational field since along
any one curve the value of the gravitational potential
X
energy mgh is constant. The horizontal planes which
intersect the hill in these curves are equipotential Fig. 1.4 Contour lines.
surfaces (or level surfaces) of the gravitational field.
As another example, let us ask for equipotential surfaces in the field of an electric point
charge q. The potential is V = 9 x 10 9 !l (in S.I. unit) at a point which is at a distance r from the ~harge.
. . r . .
The potential Vis constant if r is constant,; i.e., the equipotentials of the electric field are spheres
with centres at the charge. Similarly, we could imagine drawing a set of surfaces (probably very
irregular) in a room so that at ~very point of a single surface the temperature would be cons~ant.
These surfaces would be like equipotentials, they are called isothermal when the constcl!lt quantity
is the temperature.

1.3 PARTIAL DERIVATIVE

Let a physical quantity ~is a position function of the coordinates (x, y, z) of the point of observation,
where x, y and z indepen dent variables, then
cl> = cj,(x,y,z) ...(1.19)
keeping y and z constant, -let us change the value of x by an infinitesimal amount/:!;, x and the value
of ~ changes by an: amount of /:!;,cl>, then for constant y and z the rate 8£ change cl> with respect to ~,
 6 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

( ~) is known as partial derivative of cj, with respect to x. Usually it is expressed as ( acj,) or

ax y z
acj) I

simply ax • Obviously, llx is considered infinitely small i.e., /lx ➔ O; we have

_ocj, = lim cj,(x+llx,y,z)-cj,(x,y,z)

...(1.20)
ax LU ➔ O /lx

Similarly, if one keeps x and z constant and the value of y is changed by an infinitesimal
amount liy, then
8<1> = lim cj,(x,y+liy,z)-cj,(x,y,z)
...(1.21)
8y 6y ➔ O - liy
and if one keeps x and y constant, and the value of z is changed by an infinitesimal amount /iz, then
acj, = lim cj,(x,y,z+liz)-cj,(x,y,z)
...(1.22)
az 6? ➔ 0 /1z

Now, assumed that all the three independent variables x, y and z are simultaneously
changed by an infinitesimal amount ox, oy and oz respectively ana the value of cj,is changed by an
amount 64,. When ox ➔ 0, oy ➔ 0 and oz ➔ 0 i.e., all the three vanish simultaneously ocj, ➔ 0 i.e., ocj,
will also vanish. Obviously, in this state, the total change in the value of cj)i.e., ocj,is known as total
derivative. Thus

One can write the total derivative for the limiting change as

d♦=(:)ax+( :)ay~(:)dz ...(1.23)

The partial derivatives acj,, acj) and act, are called first partial derivatives or partial derivative of
ax ay az
first order. By differentiating these derivatives once more, one can obtain the second fartial
derivatives (or partial derivatives of the second order) e.g.,
82
ax
: ,
82
cl> ,
ayax axay ay
82
cl> ,
82
t ,aza : etc.

2 82
· 1y -a cj, _1s
Obv1ous . 1 d envative
· the partia . . . of -Bcj, w1'th respect to x, - - • the parti'a1d enva
cl> 1s . tive of -a
acj,
2 fu fu ~ X
- 2 82c1>
with respect to yetc. If all the derivatives concerned are continuous, then ~ = aya i.e., then the
ax8y X

order of differentiation is immaterial. By differentiating the second partial derivatives again with
respect to x , y and z respectively, one obtains the third partial derivatives and so on.
_If A is vector depending on more than one scalar variables such as Cartesian coordinates
x y z of a point in space then aA, aA and aA are partial derivatives of A with respect to x (when Y
'' ' ax ay az .
and z remain constant), y (when x and z remain constant) and z (when x and y remain constant)
 7
VECTOR ANALYSIS

11 . ments dx dy and dz , then the .

respectively, if now x, y and z change s!multaneously by sma mere . '
total change or total derivative of A will be
oA oA oA
riA = - dx + - dy + - dz
ox oy oz

o a a A
=(-dx+-dy+-dz
ox oy oz
J
"' a j"' -+k
=( i-+ a "' -a'1-( t~ dx+ J~ dy+k"' dz) A ...(1.24)
ax ay oz)
a~ aA.
where f, f and k are unit vectors in the direction of x-, y- an<l z-axes respectively. ·aa"'
x i + 8y J+ oz k IS
defined as the vector differential operator, written as V and read as 'del'.

'Thus
a~
V=-t+-J +-k
a 1:- a"' ... (1.25)
ax .DY oz
Further if r is the position vector of the point (x, y,z) with respect to origin
"' "'
r=ix+jy+kz "' ... (1.26)

So, that dr = "'i dx + j"' dy + k"' dz ... (1.27)

Equation (1.24) can be expressed as
dA=(V .dr)A ... (1.28)
Here V is a vector quantity possessing all the properties of an ordinary vector. Since it is an
'operator', its magnitude has no physical significance.
The differential operator V . V =V 2 is defined as
2 a2 a2 a2
V =ox-2 +oy-2 +dz-2 (129)
••••

2
V is a scalar and is known as 'Laplacian operator'.

1.4 GRADIENT AND ITS PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE-

If cj>(x, y, z) be a scalar function of position in space (i.e., of coordinates of x, y and z) then its partial
derivatives along the three orthogonal axes are ocj> , ocj> and 8cl> .
ax oy oz
The gradient of the scalar function cj> is defined by
1 8cj> 1 j)J. "' j)J.
grad cl>= z - + J -"' + k - "'
ox oy oz ... (1.30)
"o "o (V =Nabla or del)
"'0 j-+k-
where V (del)= i-+
ox 8y oz
~ operator is a vector operator and when it operates with a scalar, it converts the scalar
into vector.
 8 ENGINEERING PHYS1cs·.:.. II --

Consider two level surfaces S and S very close together having constant value of cp and
1 2
(cp+ def>) respectively as shown in Fig. 1.5. If dn repre~ents the displacem ent along the normal from
the point P (on surface S1) to the surface 52 , we may write ~ , + dt
I\
dn = dr cos 9 = n •dr
I\

_. _. _.,n
I\ Q
where n is the normal unit vector to surface S at P. The
1 (x,~
R(x + dx, y + dy, z + dz)
rate of increase of cpat Pin the dfrection of~ is greatest and

is equal to ocf> .
on
Therefore, fig. 1.5 Gradient of q>.
ocj>
dcj>= -dn =8cj> "
- n •dr ... (1.31)
on on

But Vcj,•dr =(i ocj> + j ocj> +k ocj>)·(i dx+ j dy+k ~z) = ocj> dx+ ocp_dy+ acj> dz =def>
ox oy oz ox oy . oz
Hence, ocl> "
def>= on n •dr =V cf>· dr.

Therefore, Vcj> = ( !!)~ ... (1.32)

dcj>
- = Vcj>.n" ...(1.33)
dn
I\ .
where n is a unit vector along PQ the direction of displacement.

Thus ddcf> is the directiona l derivative of cj> . The rate of change is maximum if~ is along V cj> i.e.,
n
I\
the angle between Vcf> and n is zero. . ..
Hence gradient of a scalar field cl> defines a vector field the magnitude of which is equal to the
maximum rate of ~hange of cf>- and the direction of which is the same as the direction of displacement along
which the rate of change is maximum.

Geometrical Interpretation
The value of def> =0, when we move in a direction perpendic ular to the direction V cj> i.e.,
. dn
when ~e-·angle between~ in the direction of displacem ent and V cj>is 90° as shown in Fig. 1.6. In
such ,,a/ case because def>= 0, cf>= a constant. This de-fines a
thr~ dimension al surface and V cf> a vector normal to the
surface. v,
90°
f'ig. 1.6 Geometrical interpretation n"
of gradient. t = a constant
 VECTOR ANALYSIS 9

A unit vector normal to the surface ~(x, y, z) is given by

v~ ...(1.34)
IV~ I

In other words, the gradient of a scalar fu~ction at any point is directed normally to the surface in
the scalar field over which the value of scalar function is constant.

Example 1.1 If ~(x,y,z) =3(x 2y-y 2 x); calculate gradient at the point (1, - 2, -1).
Solution. We know that,

grad ~ = ( 1~- a + J~ -a + k"-a) ~

ax ay az
Here ~(x,y,z)=3x 2y-3y 2x

grad ~(x,y,z)=V (3x 2y-3y 2x) =(i ~+ J~+k~.1(3x 2y-3y 2x)

· ax ay az)
i 2 2
J 2
= ~(3x y-3y x)+ ~(3x y-3y x)+k~(3x y-3y x)
2 2 2
ax ay az
=(6xy-3y 2 )i +(3~ 2 -6yx)]+O(k)

At points (1,-2,-1),
grad~= [6x lx (-2)-3(-2) 2] i+[3x(1)2-6(-2)(1)] i
I\ I\ I\ I\

=(-12-12) i+(3+12)j =-24 i+15 j

Example 1.2 Prove that V ( - 1 ) =--n2 r, .J 2 +y 2 +z2 .

where r =x
r" r"+

Solution.

n
= -2(x2 +y2 +z2) _11-1
2
n
2x] ·~.z+ [ -2(x2 +y2 +z2) .:..n
2
-1 ] "
zy j
[

2 2 2 1
+[- g(x +y +z f~- 2z]k

= - n(x 2 +y 2 +z)
2 n+2 " " "
2 (xi+yj+ z k)

n
=-- r
rn+2
 ]0 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

1.5 DIVERGENCE AND ITS PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE

If A(x, y,z)is a vector field, the scalar product of the vector operatorV and Ais a scalar and is called
the divergence of A i.e., [Scalar Product]
In Cartesian coordinate components,

V-A=(i j_+
OX
Jj_+k~)•(i
ay OZ A + JA +k A
y X Z
)

aA oAY aA
= - - x +--+-z
ay ay az
Hence V · Ais a scalar function. The vector fielcl is called solenoidal if its divergence vanishes
i.e., V. A =0.
If the vector function A spreads out (diverges) from a point, then it has a positive divergence
at that point and acts as a source of the field A. On the other hand, V. Ais negative if the point acts as
a sink of the field A
Let A be the value of a vector field at the mid point P(x,y,z) of a small rectangular
parallelopip ed with sides dx,dy and dz. The axial components of the vector A are Ax, AY and Az.
We may think of A as the velocity of a fluid. [Fig. 1.7]
On the face ABCD at the y
middle, the value of the x-componen t
of the vector A is B

1 aAx
A ---dx /
X 2 OX P(x, y, z)

As the face is infinitesima lly

H
small, this · value can be taken as
uniform over the face ABCD. J..--- ------ -----x
Similarly, for the face EFGH, the
x-componen t is z

1 aAx
A +--- dX Fig. ,1.7 Divergence of A.
X 2 OX

But the flux through a face is defined as the product of the area of the face and the normal
component of the vector upon it.
Flux entering the face ABCD =(A _ _!_ aAX dx)dydz
X 2 ax
/

and flux leaving the face EFGH =(A

X
+.!.2 aAX
ax dx)dydz
.
Hence the excess of flux leaving the parallelopiped over that entering it in the x-direction is

A +1-aA
- x dx ) dydz- ( A ___
1 aAx dx dydz=-dx
aAX dydz J
( X 2 ax X 2 ax ax
 VECTOR ANALYSIS 11
[In the Hydromechanical case, this represents the net volume of the fluid passing per second
oA
in the x-direction. Similarly, contribution parallel to y and z directions are ; dx dy dz and
0
~ dxdydz)
Hence the net flux diverging from the element,

=(a~+
ax oy a~
0
~ +
oz
)dxdydz

=(V ·A)dxdydz =(div A)dxdydz ...(1.36)

Thus V · A (or div~ at a point gives the amount of flux diverging per unit volume from that
point.

Physical Meaning of Divergence

The divergence of a vector is the limiting value of the net outward flow of some physical
quantity like a fluid or electric flux through the surface area of a unit volume as the volume tends
to approac h zero.
Exampl e 1.3 If A=y 2 i+(2xy+ z 2 )]+2yzf , then calculate divergence of Aat point (1, 2, 3).

Solution. We know that,

. aAx a~ a~
div A= V - A = - + - + -
ax oy az
Here, A= Ax f + ~ J+ ~ k=y 2 i +(2xy+z 2 )]+2yz£

•.• A.r -y2

- , ~ =2xy+z 2 , ~ =2yz
Henre, div A=~(y 2 )+~(2x y+z 2 )+~(2yz )
Bx ay Bz
=0+2x+ 2y or div A=2x+2 y
At point (1, 2, 3); divA=2 x1+2x2 =6
Exampl e 1.4 A given vector r =x "i+y j+zk,
" " show that

"
Solution. ~ =.!_ =<x l+y J+zk)(x~ +y 2 +z 2 r 32
'
lr21 r3

v_.!_ =(~ax 1+~oy J+~k)

r3 OZ
.<x 1+y J+zk><x 2 2
+y +z
2
r 312

= ~[x(x2 +y2 +z2r3~2]+~[y( x2 +y2 +z2r3/2 ]+~[z(x 2 +y2 +z2r3/2 ]

~ ay az
12 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

Now ~(x(x 2 +y2 +z2r3/ 2]=x[- ~<x2 +y2 +z2r5/ 22x]+( x2 +y2 +z2r3/ 2
ax 2

-3x 2 1
=3x2 (x2 +y2 +z2r5/ 2 +(x2 +y2 +z2r3/ 2 =--+ --
,s ,3

Similarly,

and

Examp le 1.5 Find tire constant 'a' for which tire vector A=(x+ 3y)i +(2y+3 z)]+(x+ az)k is
solenoidal.
[GGSIPU, May 2014 (2 marks)]
Solution. Let A= i Ax+ JAY +k Az =(x+3y) i+(2y+ 3z)j+(x +az)~
⇒ ~ =(x+3y } ~ =(2y+3 ~)and ~ =(x+az )
For solenoi dal V . A= 0

(i~
ax + J~
ay + k~)
0%
. (i Ax + J--y
A + kAz ) = 0

⇒
aAx a~ a~
-+-+-=0
ax ay az
⇒
a aa az)=
-(x+3 y)+-(2 y+3z) +-(x+ 0
ax ay az
⇒ 1+2+a=0 or a=-3

1. 6 CURL AND ITS PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE

If A(x, y, z)is a vector field, the cross produc t of the operato r V and vector Ais a vector. It is denote
d
by V x A and known as curl A.
We can obtain,
[Vector Produc t)
I\ 1 I\
i J k
a a a NOTE
VxA= =Rotat ion A
ax ay oz If curl A=O then A is known
Ax~ ~ as irrotational vector.
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • t •••••••••••
••••••••••

= 1(aAay oAy
2 _
oz
)+ J(aAxoz _a~ax )+k(a-ax\, _aAx]
ay ... (1.37)
 VECTOR ANALYSIS 13
Line Integral of a Vector Field A oA, 6.r oA, ,,
y A +--+-uy
Around Rectangle (Fig. 1.8) ,T QX 2 01j
R_ _ _ _ _ _ S

Let the x and y components-of A at the

point P be ~ and ~ respectively. 6y +- A + oAy ~
y oy 2
6.r
The average value of the x-component p Q
of A over the path PQ can be taken as
o'----------x
oA, 6.r
A + aAX 8x· A+-
X
· -
QX 2
X ax 2
and over the path RS as Fig. 1.8 Curl of A.
aAX 8x aA
A +-- -+--X 8y
X ax 2 ay
Therefore,

IA·dl+ 1A-di =(Ax+ aAXax ax)8x-(A;:

p R 2
+ aAX ax+ aA~ 8yJ8x
ax 2 8y
. aA
=- a:
8x8y ...(1.38)

because the direction of the path RS is towards the negative direction of x.

Similarly,
9 P aA
j A-dl+J A-dl=+-Y 8x8y ... (1.39)
S R ax
Adding Equations (1.20) and (1.21), we get the line integral

f A-di=( BAY - aAX J◊x8y

PQRS Bx t 8y

aA - _x_
But _Y_ J
aA is the z-component of curl A or (V x A) and the infinitesimal area Bx 8y may
( ax ay
I\

be regarded as the magnitude of the vector area dSz k. Thus,

f A -di= (curl A) z 8Sz =(cur1A)8Sz k

PQRS

This equation is correct for any infinitesimal area of magnitude 8Sz at P, having boundary C, i.e.,

f A-di= (curl A) 8Sz k

C

Now, if we consider any infinitesimal pl~e area 8S = 8S.r i+ 8SY J+ 8Sz k at P oriented in
any direction with a boundary C, then evidently
f A-di=:= curl A 8S ... (1.40)
C
 14 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

The maxim um value of ·f A •dl =I curlAl6S ...(1.41)

C
The magn itude of curl A at a point may be define d as the maxim um
value of the integr al_of
(f
A along a bound ary C. A-di) per unit area; this bound ary C is that
of an infinitesimal plane area
(65) at the point under consideration.

Physical Meaning of Curl

The curl of the vector field A or curl A is defined as the vector, the magnitude
of whose component in
the direction of the unit vector ~ is given by the line integral of the vector A for
the closed path per unit area
enclosed by it when the area becomes vanishingly small.
.
Exam ple1.6 Given a vector A= "2
i (x -y 2)+ j(x+y )+k(x
"2 2
-z } calculate curl Aat x = 1 , y
I\
.
=3and z =1
2
Solution. We know that,

1 k
I\
i
curl A=V xA= -
a a a
ox ay oz
Ax Ay Az

or curlA=i(~fuA -~A
& )+7(&
~A Z y X
-~A
fu Z )+k(_fu
E_Ay -~A
cy )X

Here A= i(x 2 -y 2 )+ J(x+y )+k(x 2 -z 2 )

Ax= x 2 -y 2 ; . ~ =x+y and~ =x 2 -z 2

I\ I\ I\
i j k
curl A=V xA= a ·a a
ax cy oz
. (x2 -y2) (x+y) (x2 -z2)

= ,;[ a 2 -z 2)--(x
t -(x a +y)·] + J1[-(x
a 2 -y 2)--(
o x 2 -z 2 )]
cy oz oz ox
"[a a 2 2]
+k -(x+ y)-- (x -y )
' ox cy
I\ I\
= i;[0-0 ]+ j[0-2 x]+k -(1+2y ) I\

I\ I\
cur.IA= -2x j+(1+ 2y)k
1 .
At point x = , y =3 and z = 1
2

rurlA =-'2x ½ j-+:~(1+2'xS)k ⇒ cur1:A. =-J+ 7k

 VECTOR ANALYSIS 15
Example 1.z What do you understand by irrotational vector (field) ? Show that the motion is irrotational if
the body is moving with a velocity v=(2xi+2yf) mis.
Solution. Irrotational vector. A vector whose curl vanishes (=0) is called an irrotational vector.
If A is an iI'l'('tational vector, then curl A =V x A=0. Velocity of the bodyv =(2xi+2y])m/s, then

t J k
curl v =Vxv=
a a a
- - - =0
ax ay az
2x 2y 0
As curl v = 0, the motion is irrotational.

Example 1.8 " " +3zK.

If A=2xi+2yj {'
Find curl A [GGSIPU, Feb. 2014 (2 marks)]
J k
Solution. V x A= -
a a a
ax ay az
2x 2y 2z

=i [!,
v~
(3z)-~ (2 y)]- j [~ (3z)-~ (2x)] + k [~ (2 y)-~ (2x)]
az ax az ax oy
=0

1.6.1 Relation betwee·n Curl and Rotation

Curl of a vector quantity is a vector directed along the perpendicular to the plane of
maximum rotation.
Consider the slTeam line flow of water in a canal. The velocity (vector) of flow of water is
maximum at top and minimum (zero) at the bottom and there exists a velocity gradient.
li we fit a toothed wheel with its plane in whi<:!1 it can rotate along the direction of flow as
shown in Fig. l.9(a), the wheel will begin to rotate about the axis passing through its centre and
perpendicular to the direction of flow. The rotation of wheel will be in the clockwise direction
because the velocity of flow of water at top is greater than that at the bottom of the wheel.
If we fit the wheel with its plane perpendicular
Top
to the direction of flow as shown in Fig. 1.9(b), the
wheel will rotate. The rotation of the wheel in
position (a) is maximum and in-position ·(b) is zero or
minimum. -If the wheel is fitted dn any intermediate
position, theirotation will be in between the,maximum ·
and minimum values.
The rotation of maximum value is called curl.
When the rotation is clockwise ·a·s in ·the above case Bottom
curl is directed info the plane ,offtlhe paper according
to right'ltcind'7Screw mle. fig. 1 ·;9 'Clariffoation for rotation ·and curl
 16 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

IMPORTANT CONCLUSIONS ON THE BASIS OF GRADlENT,

DIVERGENCE AND CURL
> The gradient of scalar field ~, i.e., V ~ is a vector.
> The divergence of a vector field A, i.e., V. A is a scalar.
> The curl of a vector Beld A, i.e., V x A is a vector.
> The divergence of the gradient of a scalar field ~ may be given as

div(grad ~)=V . (V ~)=V 2~=(£_ +£_+

ax 2 ay 2
82

8z 2
J~
wher~ V 2 is known as the Laplace's operator.
> The curl of the gradient of a scalar field is zero, i.e., curl (grad~)= \7 x (V ~) =0
It is because the cross-pr oduct of two similar vectors (V) is zero.
> The divergen ce of curl of a vector field is zero, i.e., div (curl A)= V. (V x A) =0
It is because the vectorV x Ais perpendi cular to V and therefore the dot product ofV
with a vector perpend icular to it will be zero.
> The curl of the curl of a vector field is defined
curl (curl A)= V x (V x A)= V (V . A)-V 2 A= grad (div A)-V 2 A
> Solenoid al vector point function. When the divergence of a vector point function A
is zero, i.e.,
div A=V .A=0
then it is said to be solenoidal vector point functions. Thus the vector point function will
be solenoidal over a region, if the flux across ~y closed surface in that region is zero.
> Irrotational vector point function. If the curl of a vector pqint function is zero, it is
said to be irrotatio nal i.e., when
curl A = V x A = 0 , then A is irrotational.

1.8 VECTOR INTEGRATION

The integral, which we generall y come across in vector algebra are the line integral, the surface
integral and the volume integral.

1.8.1 Line Integral

Let PQ be any curve drawn in a vector field and di is ari
Q
element of length along this curve at any point B as shown in 'Fig.
1.10. Let A represen ts the vector at Bin the direction making an angle
0 with di. In general if A yaries in magnitu de and direction from
point to -point along the curve PQ, the integral.

fA.di =f
p p
Acos0dl ...(1.42)
p

is defined the line integral of A along PQ Fig. 1.10 Line integral.

 VECTOR ANALYSIS 17
In terms of Cartesian coordinate components

1 1
p
A.di=
p
(Axdx+ ,\dy+ ~dz) ... (1.43)

[where A=i Ax+ J-\ +k Az; i J

di= dx+ dy+kdz]
Therefore, the integration of a vector along a line or curve is known as its line integra
l.
Thus if a particle is moving under the influence of a force F along the curve PBQ
then F •di 1
p
will be equal to the total workdone by the force on the particle for its entire
path from P to Q,
l' f F = Fx i"+ FY j"+ Fz k" and di = "i dx + j" dy + K" dz

then 1F.dl= 1<Fxdx+Fydy+F dz)

p p
2

Examp le 1.9 If a force F =2x 2 y "i+3xy j" displaces a particle in the x-y plane from (0, 0) to (1, 4) along
the
curve y =4x 2, find the workdone.
Solution. Work, W =f F. dr
C

!'
In x-y plane, r = x i + y J!' ⇒ dr = dx i" + dy j"

W f
= (2x 2 ydx+3 xydy)
C

2
Given y=4x ⇒ dy=Bxdx
1
W= J{2x .(4x 2 2
)dx+(3 x.4x 2 )8xdx}
0

=104 J1x 4
dx =104 - [X5]1 =104- =20.8 uruts
.
0 5 0 5

1.8.2 Surface Integral

Consider any element of infinitesimal area dS (Fig. 1.11]
upon a surface S in vector field whose value is Aat the middl e
point of the element, then

ff A.dS= ff Acos0dS ... (1.44)

s s
is define d as the surface integral or total flux of vector A
throug h the whole surface.
Fig. 1.11 Surface integral.
18 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

In Cartesian coordinate components

JJAdS = JJ(AxdSx + AydSY + AzdSz) ... (1.45)

s s /\ /\ (' /\ /\ ('
[where A= i Ax+ j AY +K Az; dS = i dSx + j dSY +KdSz]

The integration of a vector over the surface of the body is known as its surface integral.

1.8.3 Volume Integral

If we consider a closed surface in space enclosing a volume V.
Then,

JJJA dV = JJf(Ax i + AY j + Az k )dx dy dz ... (1.46)

V xyz
[where A= Ax i" + Ay j" + Az k" and dV =dxdydz]

= i JJJAx dxdydz+ j Jf JAY dxdydz+k JJJAz dxdydz

xyz xyz xyz

The integration of a vector over a dosed surface in space enclosing a volume Vis said to be
volume integral.

1.9 '
GAUSS'S LAW, GAUSS'S DIVERGENCE THEOREM OR
GAUSS TRANSFORMATION FORMULA
The important Gauss-divergence theorem (Gauss's law) is oftenly used to transform a volume
integral into surface integral. It states that, the volume integral of t~e divergence of vector field A taken
over any volume V bounded by a closed surface Sis equal to the surface integraZ-of A taken over the surface S.
Mathematically it can be expressed as,

ff fdiv AdV =ff A.dS ... (1.47)

V S
Proof
To prove the theorem, consider a closed surface S of arbitrary shape in a vector field A
(Fig. 1.12). Suppose the surface Sencloses a volume V. Let ABCDEFGHbe a sinall cubical volume
element of volume dV within the surface S. Since the amount of flux diverging per unit volume per
s V
!•
F C

D
Et<--+--- +- ---------

dS
>----+--B~-------- -

Fig. 1.12 Illustration for Gauss's Theorem.

 VECTOR ANALYSIS 19
second is represented by div A, therefore the flux diverges from the volume element dV is div A dV.
Hence the total flux diverging through the entire volume V enclosed by the whose surface S is
obtained by taking volume integral as

JJJdiv AdV ... (1.48)

V
Now, suppose dS be any surface element upon the surface S. If ~ be a unit vector along the
outward drawn normal upon dS and 9 be the angle between Aat dS and~, then the component of A
I\ I\
along n =Acos0=A.n

Therefore, the flux of A through the surface element dS.

I\
=(A·n )dS=A·dS
where dS is.the area vector along~

Hence, the total flux through the entire surface Sis obtained by taking surface integral over
the surface S as
ff A· dS ...(1.49)
. s
This total flux through the entire surface S must be equal to the total flux diverging from the
volume V enclosed by the surface S.
Therefore, Eqs. (1.48) and (1.49) are equal.

ff f(iivAdV= ff A-dS
V S

Hence, Gauss theorem is proved.

Example 1.20 Use ·Gauss divergence theorem to evaluate ff A• dS, where A= x 2

i+ y 3 J+z3 kand Sis the
s
surface of sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 =a2 .
Solution. From Gauss divergence theorem,

,' ff A· dS =ff fdiv AdV ·

S V

=ff fv -AdV =ff f (i ~+

V Bx
J~+k~)·(x
ay 8z
3
i+y 3 J+z 3 k) dV

= f JJ(3x 2 2
+3y +3z )dV =3
2
JJJ(x·2 +y 2 +z 2 )dV
N

=3a
2
JJJdV =3a 2
x Volume of sphere

= 3a 2 X .! 1ta 3 = 41ta 5
3
20 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

1.10 STOKE'S LAW, STOKE'S CURL THEOREM OR

STOKE'S TRANSFORMATION FORMULA.
Stoke's theorem is one of the important theorems which relates a line integral to a surface integral
over any surface of which the line integral path is a boundary. Stoke's theorem may be stated as, the
surface integral of the curl of a vector field A taken over any surface Sis equal to the line integral ofA around
a closed curve forming the periphery of the surface.
Mathematically it can be expressed as

f f(curl A) dS =f A· di or JJ(V x A) dS =f A· di ... (1.50)

s s
Proof
To prove the Stoke's theorem, let us consider a closed curve in x-y plane in a vector field A as
shown in Fig. 1.13. The line integral of A around the closed curve C forming the periphery of the
surface traced counter clockwisE. is
fA-dl ... (1.51)
C
I\
n
•

Fig. 1.13 Illustration for Stoke's Theorem

Let us divide the whole surface area S inside the curve C into large number of equal
I\
infinitesimal rectangular elements by a network of lines. Consider one such element of area dS. If n
is a unit vector along the outward drawn normal upon dS, then the vector area of the element
I\
n -dS =dS ... (1.52)
According to the definition of curl of a (non-conservative field for which v7 x A* 0) vector
field, the curl of vector field A at any point in the field is the maximum line integral (it is in the
direction normal to the surface) of'the vector per unit area along the boundary of an infinitesimal
area around that point. Thus, the line integral of vector A along the boundary of infinitesimal
rectangular element of area dS is
curl A · dS ... (1.53)
 VECTOR ANALYSIS 21
Therefore, the total line integral of A around the closed curve Cforming the per_iphery of
the
surface S is obtaine d by summin g up the line integrals of A around the bounda nes
of all the
elements, that is
JJ
curlA.dS ... (1.54) ,
s
Since the side of every rectangular elemen t inside the curve are commo n for two continu
ous
elements and the line integrals along the commo n sides of the continu ous elemen ts
mutual ly
cancel each other because they transve rsed in opposite directions (as clear from
Fig. 1.10),
therefore, only the sides of elements that lie on the periphe ry of the surface contrib ute
the line
integral. Hence, the surface integral JJ
curl A. dS represents the line integral of the vector A along
the bounda ry C of the surface S and is equal to f A• dl, that is

JJcurlA.dS =f A·dl = JJv x A.dS

s s
Hence, Stoke's theorem is proved .
Examp le 1.11 Show that each of the following three equations
- f
V = Vcp, V x V and V. dr = 0 implies the other.
Soluti.on. From vector identical, w.e know that
curl grad cl>= 0 or V x Vcp= 0 ...(i)
Given V x V = 0; in view of Eq. (i), it follows
V=Vcp
From Stoke's theorem f V. dr = _f curl V. dS
C S

f
As curl V =V x V =0, it follows V.dr = 0.
C

f
Conversely, if V.dr =0, it follows curlV =0 ⇒ V x V =0
C

Thus the pr~positi.on is v_erified .

1~11 POISSON AND LAPLACE EQUATIONS

tllJ Poisson's Equatio n

We know that. the intensity of electric field at any point is the negativ e gradien t of electric
potenti al V at that p,.oint
E =- grad V =-VV ... (1.55)
Also from the Gauss's law,
divE=-1:_ ... (1.56)
Eo
22 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

On substitutin g the value of E from Eq. (1.55) in Eq. (1.56), we obtain,

div(-grad V) =_E__ or div(gradV) = __£_

to to

or V -(VV) = _ _£_ or ... (1.57)

to
This is Poisson's equation. In Cartesian coordinates, we get

... (1.58)

In spherical polar coordinates it takes the form

_!_~(r2 av)+ 1 a (sine av)+ 2 1 2 cPv =-2- ... (1.59)

r2 ar 8r r 2 sin0a0 a0 r sin 0 a~ 2 to

and in cylindrical polar coordinates, it may be expressed as

... (1.60)

1.11.2 Laplace's Equation

In a charge free region Poisson's equation changes to Laplace's equation. Since in a charge
free region volume charge density is zero, the Laplace's equation is given by

V 2 V=O :--(1.61)
Equation (1.61) represents as

(1) In Cartesian coordinates

a2
-+
v a2
-+
v a
-=
2
v0
... (1.62)
ax oy az 2
2 2

(ii) In spherical .polar coordinates

2
. !~(r2 av)+ 1 ~(sine av)+ 1 a v ,;.,o ... (1.63)
r 8r 8r r 2 sin 0 ae 80 r 2 sin 2 0 a~2

(iii) In cylindrical polar coordinates

1 a( av) 1 a2 v a2 v
; ar r ar + r2 ae2 + az2 = 0 ... (1.64)
 VECTOR ANALYSIS
23

1.1 Vector addition Then

V=A+B= B+A JJA· dS =JJ(AxdSx + AiSY + ,\dSz)
1.2 Scalar product of vectors s s
AB= ABcos0 1.8 Volume integral
AB=B.A
JJJAdV =JJJ(Ax i + Ay j + A)) dV
(A+ B).C = AC+ CC V xyz
(AB)C * A(B.C)
= JJJ(Ax i+ AY j+ Azk)dxdyd z
1.3 Vector product of vectors xyz
AxB = ABsin0n 1.9 Gradient of scalar function
AxB =-B.A (a) Vcj> = gradcj> = "a"' j _! + "a"'
i _'I'+ "o"' k _!
(AxB)xC* Ax(BxC)
ax ay az
(A+B)xC =AxC+B xC
1.4 Partial Derivatives
(b) V~ = ( !!}~
1.10 Divergence of a vector function
(a) First order partial derivatives
V•A=div A
8cj> 8cj> 8cj>
ax, oy, az =(i ! +j ~+k ! )·( i Ax + JAY+ k,\)
(b) Second order partial derivatives
aAx ·- 0 oA A,,
a2c1> a2c1> a2cj> a2cj> a2cj> =-+-+-z
' ox oy oz
ax 2 , oyax ' axoy ' oy2 az2 etc.
Net flux diverging from the element
1.5 'del' (differential) operator = (div A) dx dy dz.
": a ": a "a
v'= 1-+ 7-+k- 1.11 Curl of a vector field
ax oy az
1.6 Line integral "i "j k"
o a a
1 1p
A·dl= Acos0 di
p
(a)VxA= - - -
ox oy az
Ax Ay ,\
A= "i Ax+ "j ~ + kAz
If "
0
di= idx + jdy+ kdz
_ l":
- (oAz A,,] ":
_ x _aA
- - - +] (aA _ z)
oy oz ax oz
Then
+k (aA,, _aAxJ
r
p
A·dl= 1<Axdx + ~dy+ ,\dz)
p
ax oy

(b) fA·dl= curl A-dS

1.7 Surface integral
1.12 Gauss's theorem
JJA·dS= JJAcos0dS
s s ff. _vf div AdV =ffs A. dS
If
24 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

1.13 Laplacian operator 1.15 Poisson's equation

2
V =-+-
a2 a2 a2 irV irV irV p
2 +-
2
ox2 oy oz -+-+-=
2 --
ox2 ol oz Eo
1.14 Stoke's theorem 1.16 Laplace's Equation

JJ (curlA)dS =f A· di irV2 + irV + irV = O

ox oy2 az 2
or fJ(VxA)dS=fA·dl
s

Problem1.1 A vector field Ais represented by the function A=i (2x 2y-x 4)+j (yz 2 )-k (xy 2 ), then
aA a 2 A a2 A
obtains the values of- , - 2 and - - .
. ax ax ayaz

Solution. We have, A= i(2x 2y-x 4)+ jyz 2 -kxy 2

aA a -:- 2 4 -:- 2 ,.. 2
ax = ax [ 1 (2x y- x ) +; yz -k xy ]
A 3 A A 2
= i.(4xy-4x )+ jO-ky
,'
a2 A aA ,.. 3 ,.. 2 ,.. 2 ,..
Now, ax 2 = ax [i(4xy-4x )-ky ]=i(4y-12x )-k
2
and -
2
a =A -
a(a a[a
- - =-
ayaz az ay
-{i(2x
az ay
AJ
-:- · 2y-x 4)-;yz
-:- 2,..
-kxy 2]
}

a-:- 2 -:-2./' -:-

= az[i(2x )+Jz -,c(2xy)]=2;z.

Problem 1.2 Find the gradients of the following functions at the point (2,-3,-4}
(a) f(x,y,z)=x 2 +y 3 +z 4 (b) f(x,y,z)=x 2y 3z 4

Solution. We know that grad~=(i ~+ j ~+k

ax ay
~J~
az
(a) :. grad f (x, y, z) = grad (x 2 + y 3 + z 4)

=·i ~(x2 +y3 +z4)+ j ~(x2 +y3 +z4)+k~(x2 +y3 +z4)

ax ay az
A 2 A 3 A
=2x i+3y j+4z k
At the point, (2,-3,-4i we have
A 2"' 3./' A A A
grad/ =2 (2) i+3(-3) j+4(-4) ,c =4 i+27 j+256k
 VECTOR ANALYSIS
25

(b) Here f (x,y,z) = x 2y 3z 4

grad(x2y3z4)= i ~(x2y3z4)+ j ~(x2y3z4)+k~(x2y3z4 )
ax oy az
3
= 2xy 3z 4 i+x 2(3y 2)z 4 J+x 2y 3(4z )k
At the point (2,-3,-4} we have
3
grad(x 2y 3z 4) =2 (2)(-3) 2 (-4) 4 i+(2) 2 3(-3)2(-4) 4 j+(2)2(-3) 4(-4)3 k

grad(x 2y 3z 4) =-27648 i+27648 j+27648k.

Problem 1.3 Find the workdone in moving a particle in a force field
F =(2xy+z 3 ) i+x 2 ]+3xz 2 k from point (1,-2,1) to (3,1,4}
Solution. We know that, the workdone, dW =F.dr
Here F =(2xy+z 3 ) i +x 2 j+3xz 2 k
I\ I\ I\

and r =xi +y j+3k

dr =dx i + dy j + dz K
I\ I\ "

Hence dW =F.dr =[(2xy+z 3) i +x 2 j+3xz 2 k]•(dx i+dy j+dzt)

or dW =(2xy+z 3 )dx+x 2 dy+3xz 2 dz
Since, the particle moves from point (1,-2,1) to (3,1,4) the total workdone
J J
W = dW = F. dr .
(3, 1, 4)
or W= · J [(2xy+z 3 )dx+x 2 dy+3xz 3 dz]
(1,-2, 1)

(3, 1,4)
= J 2
[(2xydx+x 2 dy) + (z 3 dx+3xz dz)]
(1,-2, 1)

(3,1,4) 314
2 3 2 3
= J
(1,-2,1)
{[d(x y)]+[d(xz )]} = [x y+xz ]( ' ' )
(1,-2, 1)

= [3 2 (1)-t2(-2)]+[(3)(4) 3 -(1)(1)3) =[9+2)+.[192 -1] =11+ 191 = 202

Problem 1.4 Show that force F = yz i + xz j + xy ~ is conservative.

Solution. We know that,
I\ I\ I\

i j k
· a -a' -a
VxF= -
ax oy az
!I(J
Fx FY Fz
26 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

or

Here F = yzi +xz j +xyk

Fx = yz FY =XZ and Fz =xy

V x F = i[~(x y)-~ (xz)] + i[~(y z)-~( xy)]+ k [~(xz )-~(y

oy az az ax z)]
ax oy
"
= (x-x) "i+(y- y) j+(z- z)k" =0.

Probl em 1.5 The electric field due to a point charge is expressed as E = !L;
. Show that the divergence of
r2
electric field due to that point charge is zero.

Solution. V · E =V {:t r) = V e;r)= V (,: r)

=(i ~+ j ~+k ~)-q( ix+ j y+k z ) [-: r =ix+ j y+kz, :.I rl =.J(x 2 +y 2 +z 2)]
ax oy az (x2 + y2 + z2 )312

=q(! {(x 2+/+z2)3'2} ]+q[~((x2 +/+z2)312)]+q[! {(x2 +/+z2)3/2}]

-q 1 1
-----+---
5x 2
--
- [ (x2 +y2 + z2)3/2 (x2 + y2 + z2 )512 (x2 + y2 + z2 )312

. 5y 2 1· 2
------+----- :-- sz ]
(x2 +y2 +z2)5/2 (x2 +y2 +z2)3/2 (x2 + y2 + z2 )512
=0.
Probl em 1.6 Show that curl gradq,=0, where q,is any scalar function.
Solution.
(
"a) x (1:a4> + J1:a4>
V x Vq, = 1:r -a + J1: -a + K- - +K"aq,)
-1-
ax oy az ax ay az
I: I:
1 J k
=
a a. a
ax ay az
a4> a4> a4>
ax ay az
 VECTOR ANALYSIS 27
:', ·.c :0 ,n C e tUO I .Q U e· S t i O ~ S . . , . . . .. . .· . . .

1.1 What do you mean by scalar and vector quantities ?

Ans. Scalar Quantities. The quantities, which have m~gnitude but no direction are termed as scalar
quantities or simply scalars.
Examples : mass, time, temperature, work, pressure.
Vector Quantities. The quantities, which have magnitude as well as direction are termed as vector
quantities or simply vectors.
Examples : velocity, acceleration, torque, impulse.
1.2 What is scalar field ? Give examples to understand the concept of scalar field.
Ans. Scalar field. If a scalar physical quantity is assigned to each point in space then we have a scalar field
in that region of space. The scalar field in three dimensions can be represented by a scalar point function
~(x,y,z~ ·
The concept of a scalar field can easily be understood with the help of the following examples :
(i) Consider a solid block of material, whose faces are maintained at different temperatures.
Now the temperature of the body will vary from point to point, i.e., temperature will be a
function of position coordinates (x, y, z) in rectangular system. Hence, temperature is scalar
field.
(ii) The density at any point inside a body occupying given region is a scalar field.
1.3 What is vector field ? Give examples to understand the concept of vector field.
\
Ans. When a vector physical quantity is expressed from point to point in the region of space by a
continuous vector function A(x,y,z) then the region is a vector field.
The concept of vector field can easily be understood with the help of the following examples :
(1) Consider a body which is rotating about an axis. The velocity of the body is different at
different points i.e., the velocity is a function of position of the point. Hence velocity is a
vector field.
(ii) Consider the heat flow through a material whose faces are maintained at different tempera-
tures. It will be flow of heat from hotter part of the block to the colder part. The heat will be
flowing in different directions in different parts of the block. Thus, heat flow is a vector field.
1.4 What do you understand by gradient of a scalar field ? What is its significance ?
Ans. Gradient. The gradient is a differential operator by means of which we can associate a vector field
with"a scalar field.
Significance ofgradient. The gradient of a scalar field Sis a vector whose magnitude at any point is equal
to the maximum rate of increase of Sat least point and whose direction is along the normal to the level surface
at that point. This gives the physical significance of the gradient of scalar field.
1.5 Define the divergenc~ of a vector and give its significance. [GGSIPU, Feb. 2014(2 marks)]
Or
Explain the term divergence. Give the physical significance in context of field vectors.
[GGSIPU, Feb. 2013 (2 marks)]
• J1 : I Or
Define divergence of a vector. Explain its physical significance. [GGSIPU, June 2013 (2.5 marks)]
 28 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

Ans. Divergence. The divergence of a vector field at any point is define

d as the amou nt of flux per unit
volum e diverg ing from that point.
Physical significance of divergence : The physical significance of diverg
ence of a vecto r field is that at a
point it gives the amou nt of flux per unit volmp e diverging
from that point.
1.6 Define curl of a vector field.
Ans. (1) The rate of change of a vector field is also called curl,
which mean s circular rotation.
(ii) The curl of a vector field is defined as the maxim um line integr
al of the vecto r per unit area.
1.7 What do you mean by (i) solenoidal and (ii) irrotational ?
Ans. (i) Solenoidal. A vector whose divergence is zero is called
solenoidal.
(i1) Irrotational. A vecto r whose curl is zero is called irrota
tional.
1.8 What is lamellar field ?
Ans. Lamellar field. A vector field which can be expressed as the gradie
nt of a scalar field is know n as a
lamel lar (or lamin ar) vector field.
Electric field is an exam ple of a lamellar field, since
E=-V V
where V is the electrical potential, which is a scalar function.
The word lamellar (or laminar) mean s that the field can be divide
d into lamin as or layers over which the
value of the scalar function, whose gradie nt gives the vector
field E remains consta nt.
1.9 "The gradient of a scalar quantity is a vector". Explain.
Ans. The gradie nt of a scalar field point in the direction of maxim
um chang e of the scalar functi on and
the magn itude of the gradie nt of a scalar field gives the slope
(i.e., rate of change) along this maxim um
direction. Therefore, this is a vector quant ity.
+ +
Mathematically, if is a scalar field, then gradie nt of is

v+ =(i~ 0++ j0++ ka+

ox+ j~+
uy k~)+
az
= iox uy oz
so from expression, it is clear that it is vector quantity.

EXERCISES
' I

THEORET,CAL QUESTIC,NS
( I

1.1 What do you mean by scalar and vecto r fields ? Give at least
one e)j:ample of each.
1.2 Define diverg ence and curl of a physi cal quant ity.
[GGSIPU, Feb. 2010 (2 marks)]
1.3 Explain clearly what do you mean by diverg ence and curl of
a vecto r field F.
1.4 What do you mean by gradie nt of scalar field ? Find an expre
ssion for the gradi ent of scalar field in
terms of opera tor V.
 VECTOR ANALYSIS 29
1.5 Give physical significance of grad +. Express grad , in cartesian coordinates. Hence define V
operator.
1.6 Give physical significance of divergence of a vector field. Express divergence of a vector in
term of
del operator.
1.7 What do you mean by d!vergence of a vector function ? Obtain an expression for divergen
ce of a
vector in cartesian coordinates.
1.8 Discuss in brief line integral, surface integral and volume integral.
1.9 Define curl of vector field. Give the physical significance of the curl of a vector field. Derive
an
expression for it. Prove that curl A = V x A.
1.10 What do you mean by curl of a vector functio'1 ? Obtain an expression for the curl of a
vector
function in cartesian coordinates.
1.11 State and prove Gauss law or Gauss divergence theorem. What is its importance ?
1.U State and prove Stoke's curl theorem. What is its importance?
1.13 What is main role of Laplacian in electrodynamics ?
1.14 Explain curl, divergence and gradient of a vector. Give the physical interpretation of divergen
ce.
State and prove Gauss's theorem.

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS

1.1 If ♦ = Sxy- 3y2z 3, find \7 cl> at the point (-1, 2, -1~

Hint. V♦ =(i ~+
ox J ~+k~J
oy oz(sxy-3 y2z
3
)

I\ I\ I\

at (-1, 2, -1) ; \7 cl> = 10 i + 7 j - 36k

1.2 i
If A= 3xyz 2 + 2xy3 j -x 2 yzk, find \7. A at a point (1, -1, 1)

"a "a "

Hint. ( ax oy oza) "'-.3"j-xyzk
\7.A= i-+j -+k- .(3xyz2"i+~y 2 "
)

at (1, -1, 1), \7. A= 4.

1.3 Find the gradient, divergence and curl of I r I, where r is the position vector.

Hint. "
r=ix+j " " lrl=-vI 1 .:i. 2
y+kz; (x +y +z)

Then grad I r I ⇒ \7.1 rl=\7(x 2 +y2+z 2 )112 =·;

div r ⇒ \7.lrl= (i~+j ~+k~ )-(ix+ jy+kz )=3

ox oy oz
curl r = \7 x r = 0.
30 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

1.4 Obtain the values of the ~llowing :

(i) curl grad 4> (ii) grad div A (iii) div curl A

Hint.
(i) 0
. ~ ~[aAx + aAy + aAz) + r: ~(aAx + aAy + aAz) + k[aAx + aAy + aAz)
ax ax 8y 8z }8y ax 8y az
(II) I ax 8y OZ
(iii) 0.

1.5 Prove that v2 ( ~) = 0

Hint. k
r = ix+ j y+ z, then Ir I= .J (x 2 + y2 + z2 )

I\ I\ I\
1.6 Electric field associated with a charge body is given by E = 4 i + j + 7k and the surface is given by
S =Bi+ 3j. Calculate the electric flux coming out the surface.
I\ A I\ I\ I\

Hint. 4> = E. S = ( 4 i + j + 7k). (8 i + 3 j) = 35.

1.7 Find the work done in moving a particle al?ng the curve y = x 2 by a force F = (2xy) i-(y3) j from
(0, 0) to (2, 4).

Hint. J
W = F. dr = JIi dx + JF dy 2

Here Ii = (2xy), F2 =(y3)

Then W = f (2xydx+y3dy)
Now : . dy=2xdx

W= f (2x.x dx-x .2xdx)

2 6

2
= J(2x -2x )dx = -56
3 7

0
I\ I\

1.8 Evaluate the line integral of function F = i (6x) + j (4y) between (0, 0) and (2, 2) in x-y plane.

N
Hint. JF.dl = J(Fxdx + Fydy+ Fzdz); x-y plane mean z = 0
M
2 2
= J6x dx + J4ydy = 20
C 0
1.9 Prove that Hcurl F. dS =0 for any closed surface.
Hint. Hcurl F. dS = HJ V. (curl F) dV
= HJ div curl F dV = 0
 VECTOR ANALYSIS 31
1.10 Using Stoke's theorem, prove that
f r.dl = 0, where r is position vector.
C

Hint. fA. di= JJ curl A. dS, here curl r = 0

Hence J r.dl=O

TUTORIAL 1

1.1 A potenti al field is represe nted by the equatio n cl>= 4yz 2 + 3xyz - z 2 + z. Calcula
te the potenti al at the
potenti al at the point (1,-1,- 2~
[Ans. - 36 V]
1.2 Show that functio n cl>= x 2 -y2 satisfies the Laplace's equation.
1.3 The temper ature of a body at any point changes according to the relation T 2 2
= 4x -+ 3y2 - 2z • Show
that the grad Tat the point (1,2,3} is equal to -8 i-12 J-12k.

1.4 If a= ax i" + J}y "j+ yzk,

" show that V(a. r} = 2a
1.5 A vector functio n has the following compo nents Ex =6xy, =3x 2 -
EY 3y2 and~ =0 , show that div
E=O.
1.6 Calcula te div A, when A = i .:.T + j Y.. + k~ where r2 = x 2 + y2 + z2 • [Ans. div A= 2,-11
T T

1.7 Evalua te JF.dr, where F = xyi+ (x 2 + y2}j and Cisthe arc of the curve, y = x 2
-4from (2,0}to (4, 12~
[Ans. 732]
1.8 i
Prove that A- §1jz2 + 3x 2z2 j + h 2y2 kis solenoidal.

. 2 ~ .:i. ~ 2"
1.9 Consid er a vector field A = x i + y J+ z k.
(r) Is the field solenoi dal ? ; (ii} Is the field irrotational ?
1.10 Find the curl of the vector field
HX =x 2 - z2 •
I
Hy = 2 · Hz = 2xz
I
[Ans. -4zJ1

1.11 Show that the curl of a uniform electric field is zero.

1.U Prove that

(a} V x (A+ B} = V x A+ V x B
(b} Vx(cj>A}=cj>(VxA)+(Vcj>}xA
(c} div (grad cl>i x grad cl>2) =0

1.13 If F = y i + (x 2 + y2} j +(yz + zx)k. Calculate :

(a} div F, and (b} curl F. [Ans. (a} x + 3y, (b} "i z - "j z + k(2x
" -1}]
32 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

2 II II ,,2 II

1.14 Verify Stoke's theorem for F = (2x - y) i - yz j- y zk, where Sis the upper half surface of the sph
x 2 + y2 + z2 = 1and C is its boundary.
[Ans. The Stoke's theorem jF.dr= fJ(VxF)dSis verifie,
s
1.15 Using Gauss-divergence theorem, evaluate ff F· dS where F = 4xz i-y2 J+ yz kand Sis the surfa
s
of the cube bounded by x = 0, x = ], y = 0, y = ], z = 0, z = 1 . [Ans. 1.

1.16 Prove that

(1) grad r = n, whe".'e rt is a unit vector.
( u,
·;-i
gra d(l); = - ,r3 , h ...
w ere r 1s a position vector.

1.17 If r is the position vector of a point then show that (i) div r =3 and (ii) div ( ,~) =0.