Assignment 1 (Chap 1 and 2) - Marwan Alaa 100063027

CIVE 751 Non-linear FE Analysis of Civil Engineering Structures
Civil Infrastructure and Environmental Engineering
Marwan Alaa Naeem – 100063027
Chapter 1: Preliminaries
and
Chapter 2: Non-linear Finite Element Analysis
1
Agenda
• Chapter 1: Preliminaries
– Section 1.2: A Review of Concepts from Linear Algebra
– Section 1.3: Vectors and Tensors
– Section 1.4: Stress and Strain Tensors
– Section 1.5: Elasticity
• Chapter 2: Non-linear Finite Element Analysis

– Section 2.1: Equilibrium and Virtual Work
– Section 2.2: Spatial Discretisation by Finite Elements
– Section 2.4: Incremental-iterative Analysis
– Section 2.5: Load versus Displacement Control
2
Agenda

3
1.2 A Review of Concepts from Linear Algebra
• Scalar: physical quantity with a value, irrespective of a direction.
– For example: speed, length, area, and mass.
– Denoted by italic symbols. For example: v.
• Vector: physical quantity with both a value and direction.

– For example: force, velocity, acceleration, and weight.
– Denoted by a roman, bold-faced, lower-case symbol. For example: v
– Vector v may have n scalar entries, so that:
v=
(1.13)
• Scalar entries can be written in a row (transpose of vector v):
v = (v1, … , vn)
4
• Addition of vectors:
w=u+v (1.14)
– Where wi = ui + vi for i = 1, … , n.
• Multiplication of a vector by a scalar (λ) is:

w = λu (1.15)
– Where wi = λui.
• Inner/scalar product between two vectors (u and v):

uTv = (1.16)
– Commutativity: uTv = vTv
5
• Euclidian or L2-norm:
2 = (1.17)
• The cross product (vector product) of two vectors a and b, forms vector c:
𝐜=𝐚 x 𝐛 (1.18)
– Where c is orthogonal to a and b. Hence, b x a = -a x b, and:
( )
𝑎 2𝑏3 − 𝑎3 𝑏2
c = 𝑎 3 𝑏 1− 𝑎1 𝑏3 (1.19)
𝑎1 𝑏 2− 𝑎2 𝑏1
• Let the scalar-valued function f be a function of the components ai of the

vector a. So, the gradient b is the differentiation of f with respect to a.
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝒃= (1.20) 𝒃 𝒊=
𝜕𝐚 or in component form:
𝜕𝒂 𝒊 (1.21)
6
• The multiplication of matrix A and vector b results in vector c:
c = Ab (1.22)
– Where ci = . (1.23)
• The addition of matrices is cij = aij + bij .
• The multiplication of matrix by a scalar (λ) is cij = λaij.
• The product of a (m x k) matrix A and a (k x n) matrix B results in a (m x

n) matrix C:
C = AB
(1.24)
– Where cij = .
• If (k = 1) in both matrices, the result of multiplying A by B is m x n matrix:

C = abT (1.25)
7
• Note that:
(AB)T = BTAT (1.26)
• At certain conditions, the inverse B = A-1 can be defined as:

AB = I (1.27)
– Where I is the unit matrix (all entries are zeroes except for diagonal entries).
• The inversion of matrices is required to solve large systems of linear

equations.
– as a result of finite element discretization.
– Such systems have the form:
a11x1 + a12x2 + . . . + a1nxn = b1

a21x1 + a22x2 + . . . + a2nxn = b2
(1.28)
…+…+…=…
an1x1 + an2x2 + . . . + annxn = bn
8
• When coefficients ann are assembled in matrix A and components bn in

vector b, Eq 1.28 can be re-written as:
Ax = b (1.29)
x =A -1
b (1.30)
• and unknowns x can be obtained through:
• Also, matrix A can be decomposed (1.31)

as:
A = LDU
[ ] [ ]
1 0 0 1 𝑢12 𝑢1𝑛
L– =Where:
𝑙 21 1 0 U = 0 1 𝑢2𝑛 D =diag[ d11, …,𝑑𝑛𝑛¿
𝑙 𝑛1 𝑙 𝑛2 1 0 0 1
(1.32) (1.33) (1.34)

9
• LDU is based on Gauss elimination. Matrices L and U can also be linked
as:
x = (LDU)-1b = U-1(LD)-1b = U-1D-1L-1b
– Therefore, x can be solved as:
c = L-1b
d = D-1c (1.35)
x = U-1d
• Note that L-1b and U-1d involve multiplication, but D-1c consists of divisions.
• Since D-1 = diag[d11-1 , … , dnn-1].
• Determinant of matrix is:

detA = (1.36)
– Where Aij is an (n – 1) x (n – 1) matrix.

10
• Singularity of a matrix is also closely related to its determinant:
Det(AB) = detA . detB

detA = detL . detD . detU
detL = detU = 1
detA = (1.37)
• Sherman-Morrison formula:
– Let A be a non-singular n x n matrix, and let u and v be two vectors with n
entireties. Then:
(A + uvT)-1 = A-1 - (1.38)
11
• Gauss’ divergence theorem, where volume integral can be transformed
into a surface integral:
(1.39)
∫¿ 𝐯 d 𝑉 =∫ 𝐧
T
𝐯 d 𝑆
V S
– Where n is the outward normal to the bounding surface, and div is:
divv (1.40)
• The Einstein summation convention can replace the summation in Eq 1.24

to be:
cij = aie + bej (1.41)
– Where summation is with respect to repeated index e.
– Called ‘dummy’ index.
12
• Re-writing Gauss’ theorem in index notation:
𝜕 𝑣𝑖
∫ 𝜕 𝑥𝑖
d 𝑉 =∫ 𝑛 𝑖 𝑣 𝑖 d 𝑆
V S
– With an important quantity (Kronecker delta):
{ 𝛿 𝑖𝑗=1 if 𝑖= 𝑗
𝛿 𝑖𝑗=0 if 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗
(1.42)
• Recently, index notation has been replaced by direct tensor notation, so

Eq 1.24 is denoted as:
C=A.B (1.43)
– Where the single dot represents single contraction.
13
• Similarly, double contraction is:
C=A:B (1.44)
– Or using index notation: c = aiebei.
• The gradient is denoted as , as following:

b=f (1.45)
– Which is equal to the gradient vector in Eq 1.20. So, Gauss’ theorem can be:
∫ ∇. 𝐯 d 𝑉 =∫ 𝐧 . 𝐯 d 𝑆
V S
• The dyadic product of vectors a and b is:

(1.46)
C=a b
14
• With components cij = aibj. The divergence operator of a second-order

tensor A is:
a = .A (1.47)
– Such that:
aj = (1.48)
– And its trace:

c = tr(A) (1.49)
– Through c = aii.
15
Agenda

16
1.3 Vectors and Tensors
• Since a vector has a magnitude and a direction. It is important to the
change of its component if represented in different coordinate system.
𝑦 y
𝑛2
𝑛2
𝑥
𝑛1
𝑛1 x
A vector in original x,y-coordinate system and rotated coordinate system
• Components of vector in coordinate system can be obtained in the x,y-

coordinate system by the transformation:
= Rn (1.50)
17
• The transformation matrix R is:
R= (1.51)
– That has a special structure:

R-1 = RT (1.52)
• A matrix that satisfies requirement 1.52 are called orthogonal.
• Which det(R) = 1.
• Tensors are physical quantities that relate vectors.

– For example: stress tensor related the force on a plane and the normal vector
of that plane.
• All tensors are matrices but NOT vice versa.
18
• Suppose that the second-order tensor C relates the vectors, or first-order
tensors, t and n:
t = Cn (1.53)
• In the frame, the second-order tensor related

= (1.54)
• Substituting Eq 1.50 and identical relation into Eq 1.54:

=RCRT (1.55)
• Using Eq 1.51, the identity can for two dimensions is:

= c11 cos2 + (c12 + c21) cos sin + c22 sin2
11
22 = c11 sin - (c12 + c21) cos sin + c22 cos (1.56)

2 2
12 = -c11 cos sin + c12cos - c21 sin + c22 cos sin

2 2
21 = -c11 cos sin - c12cos + c21 cos + c22 cos sin

2 2
19
• For symmetric second-order tensors, c21 = c12, and also 21 = 12.

2c12
Principal directions of a second-order tensor
2
c11 – c22
• The external values 11 and 22 are of interest relatively to the value of .
– Since 11 and 22 are functions of inclination angle and obtained through:

= 0 or = 0 (1.57)
– Therefore, the diagonal tensor components attain extremal values for:

tan 2 (1.58)
• Re-writing Eq 1.56:
= ½ (c11 + c22) + ½ (c11 - c22) cos 2+ c12 sin 2 (1.59)
11 20
• From the figure before and Eq 1.58, we infer that:
sin 2
(1.60)
cos 2
• The closed-form expression for the principles values:
{
1 1
𝑐 11 = ( c 11 + c 22 ) − √(𝑐 11− 𝑐 22) − 4 𝑐 212
2
2 2
(1.61)
1 1
𝑐 22 = ( c 11 + c 22 ) + √(𝑐 11 −𝑐 22)2 − 4 𝑐 2 12
2 2
• For symmetric second-order tensors, the off-diagonal components are
zero for this angle: = o, so:
+ c12 cos 2 (1.62)
21
• Let C be a symmetric second-order tensor, e be a vector.
– The product Ce will be parallel with e.
– But, for each tensor there is a coordinate system where the resulting vector is
parallel to the original vector:
Ce = λe (1.63)
– With λ the scalar-valued eigenvalue. Eq 1.63 can be:

(C – λI)e = 0 (1.64)
– With I = diag[1, … , 1] the unit matrix. A non-trivial solution (e ≠ 0) then exists

if and only if the determinant of C − λI vanishes:
Det[C – λI] = 0 (1.65)

• A direct relationship can be established between the product of all
eigenvalues and the determinant of a matrix:
22
• A direct relationship can be established between the product of all
eigenvalues and the determinant of a matrix:
detC = (1.66)
– Know as Vieta’s rule.
– Valid for symmetric and non-symmetric matrices.
• Inverting Eq 1.55:
C=RT R (1.67)
– In the principal axes:
= (1.68)
– And = λ1 and = λ2 the principal values or eigenvalues of C.
23
• Applying Eq 1.51 in Eq 1.67 yields:
= λ1 + λ2
or
= λ1 () + λ2 (sin , - cos )
• Identifying = (cos , sin ) and = (sin , -cos ) as eigenvalues, so C can be

through spectral decomposition:
= (1.69)
• Where a generalization to n dimensions. The eigenprojections:

Ei = (1.70)
• The spectral decomposition of a symmetric, second-order tensor can be:

= Ei (1.71)
24
Agenda

25
1.4 Stress and Strain Tensors
• Study the response of a body to forces exerted on it.
Force acting on an imaginary cut in a solid body (source: Non-

linear Finite Element Analysis Of Solids And Structures)
• At a small area (ΔS) with acting force (Δf) on. The stress vector t is:
∆f 𝑑f
𝑡= lim = (1.72)
∆ 𝑆→ 0 ∆ 𝑆 𝑑𝑆
– t is decomposed in a component that acts along the normal to that plane and
in two mutually orthogonal vectors denoted as σxx.
– The other component lying in the same plane σxy and σxz, in which the second
subscript refers the direction of the stress component. 26
• In 3D, nine stress component exist:
Stress tensor, σ is a 2nd order tensor

(1.73)
• Stress tensor σ is related to the stress vector t acting on a plane with

normal n. In matrix-vector notation, the relation ship is:
(1.74)
• Let the normal vector be parallel to x-axis (𝑛T=[1,0,0]), 𝑦 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

(𝑛T=[0,1,0]), 𝑧−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑛T=[0,0,1]), the analogue of Eq 1.74 can be written
as:
– Index notation: (1.75)
– Direct tensor notation:
27
• For a nonpolar or Boltzmann continuum, shear stress is:
=
= (1.76)
=
• There are six independent stress components and the matrix

representation of the symmetric stress tensor σ can be written as:
[ ]
𝜎 𝑥𝑥 𝜎 𝑥𝑦 𝜎 𝑧𝑥
∑= 𝜎 𝑥𝑦 𝜎 𝑦𝑦 𝜎 𝑦𝑧 (1.77)
𝜎 𝑧𝑥 𝜎 𝑦𝑧 𝜎 𝑧𝑧
• There are only six independent stress components makes it also feasible to
write the stress tensor in a vector form (Voigt notation):
),,,,, (1.78)
28
• In geotechnics, for example, normal stress (, , ) is decomposed into a deviatoric
and hydrostatic stresses.
– The deviatoric changes in the shape.
– The hydrostatic changes the volume.

1
𝑝= (𝜎 𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎 𝑦𝑦 + 𝜎 𝑧𝑧 ) (1.79)
3
• The deviatoric stress tensor is:
– In matrix representation: (1.80)
– In Voigt’s notation: (1.81)
– Where:
,,,,,)
(1.82)
29
• The principle values, λ of a second-order tensor are computed based on:
det( λI) = 0 (1.83)
• Or in component form: =0
(1.84)
• With identities:
(1.85)
+2
• Eq 1.84 can be:

(1.86)
30
• , are invariants of the stress tensor (have the same value irrespective of the
(1.86)
reference frame).
• Computing the invariants by solving the cubic equation, values of

deviatoric stress tensor are obtained:
λ 3 − 𝐽 2 λ − 𝐽 3=0 (1.87)
– Where:
(1.88)
+2
(1.89)
• It can be said that (Fung 1965):
(1.90)
31
• Consider an elementary cube (in x,y-plane), as shown:
Deformation of elementary cube’s face (source: Non- linear

Finite Element Analysis Of Solids And Structures)
• In the limiting case that Δx→0 and Δy→0, the strains in the x – and y-
directions become:
(1.91)
32
• The distortion of the elementary square in the x,y-plane is given by:
𝐶 𝐵
∆𝑢 ∆ 𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝛾 𝑥𝑦 = lim + = + (1.92)
∆ 𝑥→0,Δ 𝑦→0 ∆ 𝑦 ∆ 𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑥
• Rotation is given by:
( )( )
𝐵 𝑐
1 ∆𝑣 ∆𝑢 1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝑤 𝑥𝑦 = lim − = − (1.93)
∆ 𝑥→0,Δ 𝑦→0 2 ∆ 𝑥 ∆ 𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥 𝑑 𝑦
• Using the following:
− Tensorial shear strain: =
− Normal strain:
− Shear strain: and and
33
• The strain components are:
(1.94)
– Where w is the displacement in z-direction.
[ ]
• The strain tensor is: 𝜀 𝑥𝑥 𝜀 𝑦𝑥 𝜀 𝑧𝑥
𝜀 = 𝜀 𝑥𝑦 𝜀 𝑦𝑦 𝜀 𝑧𝑦 (1.95)
𝜀 𝑥𝑧 𝜀 𝑦𝑧 𝜀 𝑧𝑧
– Note that strain tensor is symmetric.
– So, it can be in Voigt notation:
,,,,,) (1.96)
34
• The rate of internal energy in Voigt notation, direct tensor, and index
notation, respectively:
˙ ˙𝑇
𝑊 𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝜖 𝜎 =𝜖˙ : 𝜎= 𝜖˙𝑖𝑗 𝜎 𝑗𝑖 (1.97)
• The volumetric strain is:

+ + (1.98)
• The deviatoric strain tensor is:

I (1.99)
– In Voigt’s notation:
i (1.100)
– Where eT is:
,,,,,) (1.101)
35
• For 2D cases:
𝜎 =𝑇 𝜎 𝜎 (1.102)
– Where:
[ ]
cos 2 𝜙 sin 2 𝜙 2 sin 𝜙 cos 𝜙 (1.103)
𝑇 𝜎= sin 2 𝜙 cos 2 𝜙 − 2sin 𝜙 cos 𝜙
−sin 𝜙 cos 𝜙 sin 𝜙 cos 𝜙 cos 2 𝜙 − sin2 𝜙
– Where , , for plane stress conditions and by substituting (- ) in the latter equation,
then therefore:
(1.104)
36
• For the strain transformation:
𝝐 =𝑇 𝜖 𝝐 (1.105)
– Where:
[ ]
cos 2 𝜙 sin 2 𝜙 sin 𝜙 cos 𝜙 (1.106)
𝑇 𝜀= sin 2 𝜙 cos 2 𝜙 −sin 𝜙 cos 𝜙
−2 sin 𝜙 cos 𝜙 2 sin 𝜙 cos 𝜙 cos 2 𝜙 −sin 2 𝜙
– Where , ,
– For stress transformation:
𝑇
𝜖 =𝑇 𝜖 𝜖 (1.107)
37
Agenda

38
1.5 Elasticity
• The constitutive equation relates the stress tensor σ to the strain tensor .
∈ = 𝐂e : σ (1.108)
• Or in the inverse form:
(1.109)
– Where De is the stiffness tensor.
• The compliance relation in Voigt’s notation:
(1.110)
– With E as Young’s modulus and v as Poisson's ratio.
39
1.5 Elasticity
• Eq 1.110 can be compacted as:
∈ = 𝐂e σ (1.111)
– Where Ce is the elastic compliance matrix.
• Eq 1.110 presents the strain tensor, as a function of the stress tensor, σ.

• To obtain inverse relation we rewrite the first three equations as:
(1.112)
• Adding the above equations and using Eq 1.79 and 1.98, we obtain:
(1.113)
40
1.5 Elasticity
• Where K is the bulk modulus that relates the volumetric strain and the
hydrostatic pressure:
𝐸
𝐾= (1.114)
3 (1 − 2 𝑣 )
• Substituting Eq 1.113 into 1.112 and inversion yields ‘the elastic stiffness
relation’:
(1.115)
– Where:
(1.116)
41
1.5 Elasticity
• The above stiffness relation is:
σ = D e ∈ (1.117)
• By plugging Eq 1.116 into 1.115:
[ ]
0 0 0
1− 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
0 0 0
𝑣 1− 𝑣 𝑣
0 0 0
e 𝐸 𝑣 𝑣 1 −𝑣
D = 1 −2 𝑣 0 0 (1.118)
(1+ 𝑣)(1 − 2 𝑣 ) 0 0 0
2 1− 2 𝑣 0
0 0 0
0 2 1 −2 𝑣
0 0 0
0 0 2
42
Agenda

43
2.1 Equilibrium and Virtual Work
• Let a body V with boundary S, is in the balance of momentum. Where the
stress vector t and gravity acceleration as vector g, the linear momentum
balance is:
∫ 𝐭 𝑑𝑆+∫ 𝜌 𝐠 𝑑𝑉 =∫ 𝜌 𝐮¨ 𝑑𝑉 (2.1)
𝑆 𝑉 𝑉
– Where is the density, and the dots represents differentiation with respect to
time.
– Using Eq 1.75, the above equation yields so:
∫ 𝐧 ⋅𝜎 𝑑𝑆+∫ 𝜌 𝐠 𝑑𝑉 =∫ 𝜌 𝐮¨ 𝑑𝑉 (2.2)
𝑆 𝑉 𝑉
– Where n is the outward unit vector at the boundary of the body.
44
• The divergence theorem is used to get:
∫ (∇⋅𝜎 ¿+𝜌𝐠−𝜌 𝐮)𝑑𝑉=0¿

¨ (2.3)
𝑉
• Recalling:
∇⋅ 𝜎 +𝜌 𝐠=𝜌 𝐮¨ (2.4)
• Introducing the operator matrix L:
[ ]
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
0 0 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
(2.5)
𝑇
𝐿 = 0 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
0 0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
0 0 0
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
45
• With Eq 2.5, Eq 2.4 can be compacted to:
𝑳𝑇 𝜎 +𝜌 𝐠=𝜌 𝒖¨ (2.6)
• Then, Eq 2.6 is to be transformed into a weak form. By multiplying the
equation by the virtual displacement field and integrate over V:
∫ 𝛿𝐮 (𝐋 𝜎+𝜌𝐠−𝜌 ¿𝒖)𝑑𝑉=0¿
𝑇 𝑇
¨ (2.7)
𝑉
• Applying the divergence theorem:
∫ ¿ ¿ (2.8)
𝑉
– With boundary conditions
– and initial conditions: 0 .
46
Agenda

47
2.2 Spatial Discretisation by Finite Elements
• In this section, a pure displacement-based formulation is adopted. In
which the displacements at nodes of elements are considered as the
fundamental unknowns.
• The continuous displacement field u elementwise as:
𝑢=∑𝑛𝑘=1 h𝑘 (𝜉 , 𝜂 , 𝜁 )𝑎 𝑘 (2.9)
– Where are “shape functions” or “interpolation functions” of an element that is

supported by n nodes.
– The interpolation functions are polynomials expressed in terms of .
48
• Consider vector in which all displacement degrees of freedom of the nodes
connected to this element are assembled as:
()
𝑎1
𝑎2
𝑎 𝑒 = ... (2.10)
...
𝑎𝑛
• In a 3 x 3n matrix H:
[ ]
h1 0 0 h2 0 0 ... ... h𝑛 0 0
𝐻= 0 h1 0 0 h2 0 ... ... 0 h𝑛 0 (2.11)
0 0 h1 0 0 h2 ... ... 0 0 h𝑛
• The interpolation of the continuous displacement field for all points within
an element can be written in a compact manner is:
𝐮=𝐇 𝑎𝑒 (2.12)
49
• Consider vector in which all displacement degrees of freedom of the nodes
connected to this element are assembled as:
()
𝑎1
𝑎2
𝑎 𝑒 = ... (2.10)
...
𝑎𝑛
• In a 3 x 3n matrix H:
[ ]
h1 0 0 h2 0 0 ... ... h𝑛 0 0
𝐻= 0 h1 0 0 h2 0 ... ... 0 h𝑛 0 (2.11)
0 0 h1 0 0 h2 ... ... 0 0 h𝑛
• The interpolation of the continuous displacement field for all points within
an element can be written in a compact manner is:
𝐮=𝐇𝐚 𝑒 (2.12)
50
• The displacements in the element related vector can be related to the
global displacements contained in vector a through an incidence or
location matrix :
𝑎𝑒=𝑍 𝑒 𝑎 (2.13)
• From the previous formulas, the weak form of the balance of momentum
can be reformulated as:
(2.14)
– The global nodal virtual displacements as found in which are independent of

the spatial coordinates and can be brought out of the integral.
51
• For any virtual displacement at the semi-discrete balance of momentum:
..
𝑀 𝑎= 𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑡 − 𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡
(2.15)
– With the mass matrix :
𝑇 𝑇
𝑴=¿𝑒=1¿𝑛 𝒁 ∫ 𝜌𝑯 𝑯 𝑑𝑉 𝒁 𝑒
𝑒 𝑒 𝑉𝑒
(2.16)
– And external force vector:

𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝐟 𝑒𝑥𝑡 =¿𝑒=1¿𝑛 𝐙 ∫ 𝜌𝐇 𝑔𝑑𝑉+¿𝑒=1¿𝑛 𝐙 ∫ 𝐇 𝑡𝑑𝑆
𝑒 𝑒 𝑉𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 𝑆𝑒
(2.17)
– And internal force vector:
𝐟 𝑖𝑛𝑡=¿𝑒=1¿𝑛𝑒 𝒁 𝑇𝑒 ∫ 𝑉 𝑩𝑇 𝜎𝑑𝑉
𝑒
(2.18)
– And:
𝐁=𝐋𝐇 (2.19)
52
• To facilitate that , a mapping from a cuboidal parent element in a
coordinate system onto the actual, arbitrary geometry on the element in
the x, y, z- coordinate system.
• If ] and if we have:
𝑥=𝑥( 𝜉 ) (2.20)
• Using standard transformation, the integration domain in x, y, z

coordinates can be converted into the simple cuboidal domain of the
parent element as:
𝑛𝑒 +1 +1 +1
𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡 =∑ 𝑍 𝑒 ∫ ∫ ∫ (𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐽 )𝐵 𝜎 𝑑𝜉 𝑑𝜂 𝑑𝜁
𝑇 𝑇
(2.21)
𝑒=1 −1 − 1 −1
53
• J is the Jacobian Matrix of the mapping 𝒙=𝒙(𝝃) as defined through:
𝜕 𝑥
𝐽 =
𝜕 𝜉 (2.22)
– In component form:
[ ]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝜉 𝜕𝜂 𝜕𝜁
(2.23)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝐉=
𝜕𝜉 𝜕𝜂 𝜕𝜁
– By interpolation:
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜉 𝜕𝜂 𝜕𝜁
(2.24)
– With the set being spatial coordinates of node k.
54
• We shall adhere the isoperimetric concept, then the Jacobian Matrix takes
the following form:
𝑛
𝜕 h𝑘
𝐽 =∑ 𝐱 𝑘𝑇
𝑘= 1 𝜕 𝜉 (2.25)
• Numerical Integration is applied to compute the integral of the equation:
(2.26)
– With the weight factor of integration point i, and ni the number of integration
points in element e.
55
Agenda

56
2.4 Incremental-iterative Analysis
• For quasi-static process equation:
𝐟 ext − 𝐟 ∫ ¿ =𝟎 ¿ (2.27)
• Decomposing the vector of unknown stress components at time t + ∆t:

𝜎 𝑡 + Δ 𝑡 =𝜎 𝑡 + Δ 𝜎 (2.28)
• Substituting in Eq 2.27 using Eq 2.18:

𝑡+Δ 𝑡 𝑛𝑒 T T 𝑡 𝑛𝑒 T T
𝐟 ext − ∑𝑒=1 𝐙𝑒 ∫ 𝑉 𝐁 𝜎 d 𝑉 − ∑𝑒=1 𝐙𝑒 ∫ 𝑉 𝐁 Δ 𝜎 d 𝑉 =𝟎
𝑒 𝑒
(2.29)
• Rearranging:
𝑛𝑒
∑ ❑ 𝐙𝑒 ∫❑𝐁 Δ 𝜎 d 𝑉 =𝐟 ext − 𝐟 ∫ ¿ ¿
T T 𝑡+ Δ 𝑡
𝑡 (2.30)
𝑒=1 𝑉
– Where the superscript t is attached to to underscore that the internal force is

evaluated at time t.
– Similarly, t + ∆t to .
57
• Newton Raphson Method aids in linearising the dependence of the stress
increment on the displacement and strain:
Δ 𝜎 =Δ 𝜎 ( Δ 𝜖 ( Δ 𝐮)) (2.31)
• The stress increment can be linearized as:

(2.32)
• Defining:
( )
𝑡
𝜕𝜎
D= (2.33)
𝜕𝜖
• The material tangential stiffness matrix:
𝛿𝜎 =𝐃 𝛿 𝝐 (2.34)
• The internal work:
𝛿 𝑊 int =∫ ❑ 𝛿 𝜖 T 𝜎 d 𝑉 (2.35)
𝑉
58
• The kinematic relation between the variation of the strain tensor and the
continuous displacement field is:
𝛿 𝝐 =𝐋 𝛿 𝐮 (2.36)
• For quasi-static loading conditions:

∫ ❑𝛿𝜖 T
𝜎 d𝑉 =∫ ❑𝜌𝛿𝐮 T
𝐠d 𝑉 +∫ 𝐭d𝑆
❑𝛿𝐮 T
(2.37)
𝑉 𝑉 𝑆
• Using Eq 2.36, the stress variation is:
δσ = DLδu (2.38)
• After inserting Eq 2.12:

(2.39)
– Or using Eq 2.13
(2.40)
59
• Inserting this result into Eq 2.30 and using Eq 2.19 to introduce B yields
the linearised equation for a finite load increment:
𝑛𝑒
∑ ❑𝐙𝑒 ∫ ❑𝐁 𝐃𝐁𝐙𝑒 Δ𝐚 𝑑𝑉 =𝐟 𝑒𝑥𝑡 − 𝐟 𝑖𝑛𝑡

T T 𝑡 +Δ 𝑡 𝑡
(2.41)
𝑒=1 𝑉𝑒
• Since incremental nodal displacements do not depend upon the spatial

coordinates, they can be brought outside the integral and one obtains the
following linearized set of N equations:
𝐊 Δ 𝐚 =𝐟 𝑡𝑒𝑥𝑡
+Δ 𝑡
− 𝐟 𝑡int (2.42)
• The tangential stiffness matrix, K upon small increment loading is:

(2.43)
60
• Eq 2.42 can be written as:
´ +𝐟 𝑡 − 𝐟 𝑡
𝐊 Δ𝐚=Δ 𝐟 ext 𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑡 (2.44)
– Where is the normalised external load vector.
• We can rewrite the load increment as with a scalar-valued incremental

load parameter, so:
𝐊 Δ 𝐚 = Δ 𝜆 𝐟´ ext +𝐟 𝑡𝑒𝑥𝑡 − 𝐟 𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑡 (2.45)
61
• This figure represents linearization which yields to drifting from true
solution (equilibrium state).
– Especially with large increments.
• In an incremental-iterative solution method a first estimate for the

displacement increment, is made through:
Δ 𝐚1 =𝐊 −
0
1
𝐫0 (2.46)
Purely incremental solution procedure (source: Non- linear

Finite Element Analysis Of Solids And Structures)
62
• With: 𝐫 0=𝐟 𝑡ext+ Δ𝑡 − 𝐟 int ,0 (2.47)
• The residual factor, or out-of-balance vector at the beginning of the load

increment.
• The subscript 1 of ∆a signifies that we deal with the estimate in the first
iteration for the incremental displacement vector.
• The subscript 0 of the internal force vector relates to the fact that this
vector is calculated using the stresses at the beginning of the loading step:
𝑛𝑒 T 𝑛𝑖 T
𝐟 ∫ , 0=∑𝑒=1 𝐙𝑒 ∑𝑖 =1 𝑤𝑖 ( de 𝑡 𝐉𝑖 ) 𝐁 𝑖 𝜎 𝑖 ,0 (2.48)
• From the incremental displacement vector a first estimate for the strain
increment 1 can be calculated, using the stress–strain law, the stress
increment can be computed:
𝟏 =  𝟎 +  𝟏 (2.49)
63
• The internal force vector that is computed based on the stresses is not in
equilibrium with the external loads .
– For this reason, a correction to the displacement increment is necessary.
• Donating this correction by da2:
with (2.50)
• the updated tangential stiffness matrix
• The displacement increment after the second iteration in the loading step
follows from:
Δ 𝐚2 = Δ 𝐚1 +d 𝐚 2 (2.51)
64
• In a similar fashion to the calculation of the strain and stress increment in the first
iteration the quantities and are now computed.
• From the latter quantity an improved approximation for the stress at the end of
the loading step, can be made. This process can be summarized as:
(2.52)
65
• Delta-incremental method is less robust, particularly when we have materially
non-linear models.
– In which different behavior in loading than in unloading is noticed”, e.g.
plasticity.
• The implicit assumption that the

tangential stiffness matrix is updated
after each iteration.
• As long as the stresses are determined in
a proper manner and the resulting
internal force vector is computed on the Modified Newton-Raphson iteration scheme (source: Non-
linear Finite Element Analysis Of Solids And Structures)
basis of these stresses and inserted on the

right-hand side of the equation of
66
Agenda

67
2.5 Load versus Displacement Control
• As an alternative approach, displacement increments can be prescribed
instead of load.
• Stress development within the system which in turn results in nodal forces
at the nodes where the displacement is prescribed.
• This approach is preferred because:
– The tangential stiffness matrix is better conditioned for displacement control
than for load control resulting in faster convergence of the iterative process.
– Under load control, the tangential stiffness matrix becomes singular at a limit
point in the load-deflection diagram, not only when a global failure occurs, but
also, we have a local maximum along this curve.
68
• Decomposing the incremental displacement vector, into a vector that
contains only free degrees of freedom (i.e.) which have to be calculated,
Similarly, the stiffness matrix can be partitioned as:
Δ 𝑎=
[ ]
Δ𝑎 𝑓
Δ𝑎𝑝
(2.53)
• In a similar manner, the stiffness matrix can be partitioned as:
𝐾=
[
𝐾 𝑓𝑓
𝐾 𝑝𝑓
𝐾 𝑓𝑝
𝐾 𝑝𝑝 ] (2.54)
• Using Eq 2.53 and 2.54, Eq 2.42 can be:
[ 𝐾 𝑓𝑓
𝐾 𝑝𝑓
𝐾 𝑓𝑝
𝐾 𝑝𝑝 ][ ]
Δ𝑎𝑓
Δ 𝑎𝑝
=− ¿ (2.55)
69
• For the first iteration this elimination process yields:
(2.53)
• In the subsequent iterations the formula for computing the unknown

degrees of freedom changes into:
(2.57)
Singularity of tangential stiffness matrix at limit point and divergence of iterative

procedure (source: Non- linear Finite Element Analysis Of Solids And Structures)
70

Assignment 1 (Chap 1 and 2) - Marwan Alaa 100063027

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Assignment 1 (Chap 1 and 2) - Marwan Alaa 100063027

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CIVE 751 Non-linear FE Analysis of Civil Engineering Structures

Civil Infrastructure and Environmental Engineering

Marwan Alaa Naeem – 100063027

Chapter 2: Non-linear Finite Element Analysis

– Section 1.3: Vectors and Tensors

– Section 1.4: Stress and Strain Tensors

– Section 1.5: Elasticity

• Chapter 2: Non-linear Finite Element Analysis

– Section 2.2: Spatial Discretisation by Finite Elements

– Section 2.4: Incremental-iterative Analysis

– Section 2.5: Load versus Displacement Control

– Section 1.3: Vectors and Tensors

– Section 1.4: Stress and Strain Tensors

– Section 1.5: Elasticity

• Chapter 2: Non-linear Finite Element Analysis

– Section 2.2: Spatial Discretisation by Finite Elements

– Section 2.4: Incremental-iterative Analysis

– Section 2.5: Load versus Displacement Control

– Denoted by italic symbols. For example: v.

• Vector: physical quantity with both a value and direction.

– Denoted by a roman, bold-faced, lower-case symbol. For example: v

– Vector v may have n scalar entries, so that:

• Scalar entries can be written in a row (transpose of vector v):

• Multiplication of a vector by a scalar (λ) is:

• Inner/scalar product between two vectors (u and v):

– Commutativity: uTv = vTv

– Where c is orthogonal to a and b. Hence, b x a = -a x b, and:

• Let the scalar-valued function f be a function of the components ai of the

• The addition of matrices is cij = aij + bij .

• The multiplication of matrix by a scalar (λ) is cij = λaij.

• The product of a (m x k) matrix A and a (k x n) matrix B results in a (m x

• If (k = 1) in both matrices, the result of multiplying A by B is m x n matrix:

• At certain conditions, the inverse B = A-1 can be defined as:

• The inversion of matrices is required to solve large systems of linear

– Such systems have the form:

a11x1 + a12x2 + . . . + a1nxn = b1

• When coefficients ann are assembled in matrix A and components bn in

• Also, matrix A can be decomposed (1.31)

(1.32) (1.33) (1.34)

– Therefore, x can be solved as:

• Since D-1 = diag[d11-1 , … , dnn-1].

• Determinant of matrix is:

– Where Aij is an (n – 1) x (n – 1) matrix.

Det(AB) = detA . detB

• The Einstein summation convention can replace the summation in Eq 1.24

– Where summation is with respect to repeated index e.

– Called ‘dummy’ index.

– With an important quantity (Kronecker delta):

• Recently, index notation has been replaced by direct tensor notation, so

– Where the single dot represents single contraction.

– Or using index notation: c = aiebei.

• The gradient is denoted as , as following:

• The dyadic product of vectors a and b is:

• With components cij = aibj. The divergence operator of a second-order

– And its trace:

– Section 1.3: Vectors and Tensors

– Section 1.4: Stress and Strain Tensors

– Section 1.5: Elasticity

• Chapter 2: Non-linear Finite Element Analysis

– Section 2.2: Spatial Discretisation by Finite Elements

– Section 2.4: Incremental-iterative Analysis

– Section 2.5: Load versus Displacement Control

• Components of vector in coordinate system can be obtained in the x,y-

– That has a special structure: