Quick Revision in P1, P2, P3

Contents
Contents i
1 Quadratics 1
2 Functions 2
3 Coordinate Geometry 3
4 Circular Measure 4
5 Trigonometry 1 5
6 Vectors 1 7
7 Series 8
8 Differentiation 1 9
9 Integration 1 10
10 Algebra 11
11 Logarithms and exponential functions 13
12 Trigonometry 2 14
13 Differentiation 2 15
14 Integration 2 16
15 Numerical Solution of equations 17
16 Vectors 2 18
17 Differential Equations 22
18 Complex Numbers 23
i
C HAPTER 1
Quadratics
Notes and Important Formulas

Completion to the square and shape of quadratic curve
Vertex form of the quadratic curve y = ax2 + bx + c is given by
2
2 b b
y = a(x + h) + k, h = , k = c − a .
2a 2a
If a > 0, minimum point (−h, k). If a < 0, maximum point (−h, k).
m+n
In case y = (x − m)(x − n), then y = (x − h)2 + k where h = and
2
k = (h − m)(h − n).
Quadratic Formula, Types of roots and Quadratic inequalities

The roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are given by the quadratic
formula:
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= .
2a
b2 − 4ac is called the discriminant of the quadratic equation.
The discriminant helps us to determine the nature of the roots.
Discriminant Type of Roots Geometrical Interpretation

2
b − 4ac > 0 Real and Distinct Curve meets the x-axis at two different points
b2 − 4ac = 0 Real and Equal x-axis is a tangent to curve
(coincident) or the curve touches the x-axis
b2 − 4ac < 0 Not Real Curve does not cross the x-axis
(complex) or curve is either above or below the x-axis
b2 − 4ac ≥ 0 Real −
If a < b, (x − a)(x − b) > 0 ⇒ x < a or x > b and (x − a)(x − b) < 0 ⇒ a < x < b.
1 c dkrbabajee@gmail.com
C HAPTER 2
Functions

Geometrical Interpretation
Vertical Line Test: If the graph of y = f (x) intersects at only one point with every
vertical line drawn, then f (x) is a function.
Horizontal Line Test: If the graph of y = f (x) intersects at only one point with every
horizontal line drawn, then f (x) is one-one.
Composite functions
g ◦ f (x) = g(f (x)) and f ◦ g(x) = f (g(x)).
Furthermore, f 2 (x) = f (f (x)).
Inverse function
g(x) is called the inverse of a function f (x) if f (g(x)) = x. Then g(x) = f −1 (x).
Step 1: We let y = f (x).
Step 2: We make x subject of formula in the equation y = f (x) so that x = f −1 (y).
Step 3: We replace each y by x to get an expression for f −1 (x).
Step 4: Domain of f −1 = Range of f .
Step 5: Range of f −1 = Domain of f .
The graph of y = f −1 (x) is obtained by reflecting the graph of y = f (x) in the line
y = x. Any point (a, b) on the graph of y = f (x) becomes (b, a) (interchange) on the
graph of y = f −1 (x). That is, if b = f (a) then a = f −1 (b).
C HAPTER 3
Coordinate Geometry

Distance’s formula, midpoint, gradient, Equation
Given A(x1 , y1) and B(x2 , y2 ),
p
Distance AB = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2

x1 + x2 y1 + y2
Midpoint of AB = ,
2 2
y2 − y1
Gradient of AB, m =
x2 − x1
y − y1
Equation of AB : =m
x − x1
y − y1 +y
2
2
1
Perpendicular bisector of AB : x1 +x2 = −
x− 2 m
Parallel and perperpendicular Lines and Angle between two

lines
Consider the two lines L1 : y = m1 x + c1 and L2 : y = m2 x + c2 .
Parallel Perpendicular Angle
m1 − m2
m1 = m2 m1 × m2 = −1 tan−1
1 + m1 m2
1. The equation of a line parallel to the line y = mx + c and passing through the
y − y1
point (x1 , y1) is given by = m.
x − x1
2. The equation of a line perpendicular to the line y = mx + c and passing through
y − y1 1
the point (x1 , y1) is given by =− .
x − x1 m
C HAPTER 4
Circular Measure

Conversion between degrees and radians
Let θc be the angle in radians and α0 be the angle converted in degrees. Then
α0
θc = × π.
1800
Arc and Sector

b = θ in radians,
For a sector AOB of radius r and angle at centre, AOB
Length of arc, AB, s = rθ

1 1
Area of Sector AOB, A = rs = r 2 θ
2 2
Perimeter of sector AOB, P = 2r + rθ
1
Area of segment = Area of Sector AOB − Area of Triangle AOB = r 2 (θ − sin θ)
p 2
Perimeter of segment = Chord AB + Arc AB = 2r 2 (1 − cos θ) + rθ
Problems involving length of arc and area of sector.

1. Area of shaded region = area of large figure - area of small figure.
2. Perimeter of shaded region = total length of the boundaries of the shaded

region.
C HAPTER 5
Trigonometry 1
Notes and Important formulas

Trigonometric ratios of special angles
θ sin θ cos θ tan θ
degrees radians
00 0 0 1 0
√
0 π 1 3 1
30 √
6 2 2 3
π 1 1
450 √ √ 1
4 2 2
√
0 π 3 1 √
60 3
3 2 2
π
900 1 0 ∞
2
1800 π 0 −1 0
3π
2700 −1 0 −∞
2
3600 2π 0 1 0
CHAPTER 5. TRIGONOMETRY 1
Signs of Trigonometric Ratios and Quadrants

Quadrant θ Sign
degrees radians sin θ cos θ tan θ
1st α, −(3600 − α) α, −(2π − α) + + +
2nd 1800 − α, −(1800 + α) π − α, −(π + α) + − −
3rd 1800 + α, −(1800 − α) π + α, −(π − α) − − +
4th 3600 − α, −α 2π − α, −α − + −
Principal values of Inverse of Trigonometric Ratios

y≥0 y<0
π π
0 ≤ sin−1 y ≤ − ≤ sin−1 y < 0
2 2
π π
0 ≤ cos−1 y ≤ < cos−1 y ≤ π
2 2
π π
0 ≤ tan−1 y < − < tan−1 y < 0
2 2
Some useful trigonometric identities are:
sin2 θ = 1 − cos2 θ, cos2 θ = 1 − sin2 θ
Use of Identities in Solving Trigonometrical Equations

sin x
1. a sin x + b cos x = 0. Use tan x = and solve for tan x.
cos x
2. a sin2 x+b cos x+c = 0, use sin2 x = 1−cos2 x to obtain a quadratic in cos x. Reject
values of cos x > 1.
3. a cos2 x+ b sin x+ c = 0, use cos2 x = 1 −sin2 x to obtain a quadratic in sin x. Reject
values of sin x > 1.
4. a sin2 x + b sin x cos x + c cos2 x = 0, factorise and reduce to the form
sin x
(A sin x + B cos x)(C sin x + D cos x) = 0 and use tan x = to solve for each
cos x
factor.
C HAPTER 6
Vectors 1

Parallel Vectors, Dot product, Perpendicular Vectors
   
x1 x2
Given two vectors a =  y1  and b =  y2 ,
z1 z2
Parallel    DotProduct Perpendicular

x1 x2
a = kb  y1  ·  y2  = x1 x2 + y1 y2 + z1 z2 a·b= 0
z1 z2
Magnitude of a vector and unit vector

 
x
The magnitude or length of a vector p =  y  = xi + yj + zk is given by
z
p
|p| = x + y + z .
2 2 2
p
A unit vector pb in the direction of the vector p is given by p
b= .
|p|
The unit vector has magnitude 1.
|q|
A vector q of length |q| in the direction of p is given by q = p.
|p|
Angle between two vectors

a·b
The angle between two vectors a and b is given by cos θ = .
|a| |b|
Case 1: If a · b > 0, θ is acute.
Case 2: If a · b < 0, θ is obtuse.
Case 3: If a · b = 0, θ = 900 (a and b are perpendicular).
C HAPTER 7
Series

Binomial expansion

n n n n−1 1 n n n−2 2
(a + b) = a + a b + a b + an−3 b3 + . . . + bn ,
1 2 3

n n!
where n is a positive integer and =
r r!(n − r)!
The (r + 1)th term in the expansion (a + b)n is given by

n
Tr+1 = an−r br .
r
Arithmetic series
n n
Tn = a + (n − 1)d, Sn = (a + Tn ) = (2a + (n − 1)d)
2 2
Geometric series
a(1 − r n ) a
Tn = ar n−1 , Sn = (r 6= 1), S∞ = (|r| < 1)
1−r 1−r
C HAPTER 8
Differentiation 1

Differentiation
f (x) f ′ (x)
xn nxn−1
√ 1
x √
2 x
c(ax + b)n nac(ax + b)n−1
(u(x))n nu′ (x) u(x)n−1

p u′ (x)
u(x) p
2 u(x)
Tangent, Normal, Stationary points, Increasing and Decreasing

functions
Tangent Normal Stationary Increasing Decreasing
at point (a, b) at point (a, b) points function function
dy 1 dy dy dy
mT = mN = − =0 >0 <0
dx x=a mT dx dx dx
Nature of Stationary Points

Minimum point (a, b) Maximum point (a, b) Point of inflexion (a, b)
dy d2 y dy d2 y dy d2 y
= 0 and 2 >0 = 0 and 2 <0 = 0 and 2 =0
dx dx x=a dx dx x=a dx dx x=a
Rate of change and Connected Variables

dy dy dx
If y is a function of x, then by chain rule = × .
dt dx dt
C HAPTER 9
Integration 1

Integration
Z
f (x) f (x) dx
a ax + c
axn+1
axn +c
n+1
p(ax + b)n+1
p(ax + b)n +c
a(n + 1)
Area and volume

Curve Lines Area Notes
Z b
y = f (x) x−axis, x = a, x = b f (x) dx Vertical elements
a
Z d
y = f (x) y−axis, y = c, y = d f −1 (y) dy Horizontal elements
c
Z b
y = f (x), y = g(x) Solve f (x) = g(x) f (x) − g(x) dx y = f (x) is above y = g(x)
a
Curve Lines Rotation Volume

Z b Z b
2
y = f (x) x−axis, x = a, x = b x−axis π y dx = π f (x)2 dx
a a
Z d Z d
y = f (x) y−axis, y = c, y = d y−axis π x2 dy = π (f −1 (y))2 dy
c c
Z b
y = f (x), y = g(x) Solve f (x) = g(x) x−axis π (f (x))2 − (g(x))2 dx
a
y = f (x) is above y = g(x)
C HAPTER 10
Algebra

Modulus Function
(x if x≥0
Definition |x| =
−x if x<0
Equation |a| = |b| ⇔ a2 = b2
Inequalities If |x| < a, then −a < x < a and if |x| > a, then x < −a or x > a
If |x − b| < a, then −a + b < x < a + b.
Polynomials
Remainder Theorem: When a polynomial f (x) is divided by x − a, then
the remainder = f (a).
Factor Theorem: When a polynomial f (x) is exactly divisible by x − a (or vanished at
x = a), then the remainder = f (a) = 0.
Division of polynomials: Dividend = Quotient × Divisor + Remainder.
Partial Fractions
Proper fractions:
px + q A B
2 linear terms +
(ax + b)(cx + d) (ax + b) (cx + d)
px2 + qx + r A B C
3 linear terms + +
(ax + b)(cx + d)(ex + f ) (ax + b) (cx + d) (ex + f )
px2 + qx + r A B C
1 linear term + + +
(ax + b)(cx + d)2 (ax + b) (cx + d) (cx + d)2
1 repeated linear term
CHAPTER 10. ALGEBRA
px2 + qx + r A Bx + C
1 linear term + +
(ax + b)(cx + dx + e)
2 (ax + b) (cx + dx + e)
2
2
1 quadratic term cx + dx + e (not factorizable)
Improper fractions:
px + q B
1 linear term A+
(ax + b) (ax + b)
px2 + qx + r B C
2 linear terms A+ +
(ax + b)(cx + d) (ax + b) (cx + d)
px3 + qx2 + rx + s B C D
3 linear terms A+ + +
(ax + b)(cx + d)(ex + f ) (ax + b) (cx + d) (ex + f )
px3 + qx2 + rx + s B C D
1 linear term + A+ + +
(ax + b)(cx + d)2 (ax + b) (cx + d) (cx + d)2
1 repeated linear term (p 6= 0)
px3 + qx2 + rx + s B Cx + D
1 linear term + A+ +
(ax + b)(cx2 + dx + e) (ax + b) (cx2 + dx + e)
1 quadratic term cx2 + dx + e (not factorizable)
(p 6= 0)
Binomial Expansion of (a + b)n , n is a negative integer or a

rational
n 2 3 !
b b n(n − 1) b n(n − 1)(n − 2) b
(a+b)n = an 1 + = an 1 + n + + + ...
a a 2! a 3! a
The binomial expansion of (1 + ax)n is given by
n(n − 1) n(n − 1)(n − 2)

(1 + ax)n = 1 + nax + (ax)2 + (ax)3 + ...
2! 3!
1
The expansion is valid if |ax| < 1 ⇒ |x| < .
|a|
If n = −1, we have a simplified expansion
(1 + ax)−1 = 1 − ax + a2 x2 − a3 x3 + ...
If n = −2, we have a simplified expansion
(1 + ax)−2 = 1 − 2ax + 3a2 x2 − 4a3 x3 + ...
C HAPTER 11
Logarithms and exponential

functions

Indices and Logarithms
x
a = }b ⇔ loga b = x , loga b is defined for a > 0, a 6= 1 and b > 0
| {z | {z }
Index Form Logarithm Form
Law of indices Law of logarithms

a0 = 1 loga 1 = 0
a1 = a loga a = 1
ax × ay = ax+y loga (x × y) = loga x + loga y

x
ax ÷ ay = ax−y loga = loga x − loga y
y
1
a−x =
ax
(ax )y = axy = (ay )x loga xp = p loga x
(a × b)x = ax × bx
a xax
=
b bx
x = y ⇐⇒ ax = ay x = y ⇐⇒ loga x = logb y
a = b ⇐⇒ ax = bx
Two special logarithms are lg (base 10: log10 ) and ln (Natural Logarithms: loge ).
Original Form Linear form Original Form Linear form

y = a xk lg y = k lg x + lg a ax = by y = (logb a)x
y = abx lg y = (lg b)x + lg a y = a ebx ln y = bx + ln a
C HAPTER 12
Trigonometry 2

Secant, cosecant and cotangent functions
The secant, cosecant and cotangent functions are defined by
1 1 1 cos x
sec x = , cosec x = and cot x = = .
cos x sin x tan x sin x
Trigonometric identities:
sec x = 1 + tan2 x, cosec2 x = 1 + cot2 x
2
Compound angles, Double and Triple Angles

Compound angles:
sin (A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B,
cos (A ± B) = cos A cos B ∓ sin A sin B,
tan A ± tan B
tan (A ± B) =
1 ∓ tan A tan B
Double and Triple angles:
sin (2x) = 2 sin x cos x,
cos (2x) = cos2 x − sin2 x = 2 cos2 x − 1 = 1 − 2 sin2 x,
2 tan x
tan (2x) = ,
1 − tan2 x
sin (3x) = 3 sin x − 4 sin3 x,
cos (3x) = 4 cos3 x − 3 cos x
Expression Greatest value θ (00 ≤ θ ≤ 3600 ) Least value θ (00 ≤ θ ≤ 3600 )
R sin (θ + α) R 900 − α −R 2700 − α
R sin (θ − α) R 900 + α −R 2700 + α
R cos (θ + α) R 3600 − α −R 1800 − α
R cos (θ − α) R α −R 1800 + α
C HAPTER 13
Differentiation 2

Derivatives, Product and Quotient Rules
f (x) f ′ (x)
eax+b aeax+b
a
ln (ax + b)
ax + b
sin (ax + b) a cos (ax + b)
cos (ax + b) −a sin (ax + b)
tan (ax + b) a sec2 (ax + b)
dv du
uv u +v
dx dx
du dv
u v −u
dx dx
v v 2
Implicit Differentiation
d dy d n d n dy dy
If y is a function of x, then (y) = , (y ) = (y ) × = ny n−1 .
dx dx dx dy dx dx
d n m dy
Also, (x y ) = nxn−1 y m + my m−1 .
dx dx
Parametric Equations
dy dy dx
If x = f (t) and y = g(t) then = ÷ .
dt dx dt
C HAPTER 14
Integration 2

Integration of exponential and trigonometric functions
Z
f (x) f (x) dx
eax+b
eax+b +c
a
1 ln |ax + b|
+c
ax + b a
cos (ax + b)
sin (ax + b) − +c
a
sin (ax + b)
cos (ax + b) +c
a
tan (ax + b)
sec2 (ax + b) +c
a
Integration using exact derivatives and by parts

Z
f ′ (x)
dx = ln |f (x)| + c.
f (x)
Z Z Z b h ib Z b
dv du
u dx = uv − v dx, u dv = uv − v du
dx dx a a a
Trapezium Rule
Let n be number of intervals and m be number of points.
Z b
1 n o b−a
f (x) dx ≈ h f (x0 ) + 2 f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + ... + f (xn−1 ) + f (xn ) , where h = ,
a 2 n
Z b
1 n o b−a
f (x) dx ≈ h f (x0 ) + 2 f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + ... + f (xm−2 ) + f (xm−1 ) , where h = .
a 2 m−1
C HAPTER 15
Numerical Solution of equations

Number of roots of an equation
The equation f (x) = 0 can be written as g(x) = h(x). The number of points of
intersection of the graphs of y = g(x) and y = h(x) gives the number of roots of the
equation.
Location of the root

The Intermediate Value Theorem says that if a continuous function f (x) in the
interval a ≤ x ≤ b has opposite signs at the ends, that is f (a)f (b) < 0, then the
root α of the equation f (x) = 0 lies between a and b
Fixed Point Method

The Fixed Point Method is an iterative method given by xn+1 = g(xn ), n = 1, 2, 3, ...
with x1 as the starting point. The method produces the successive approximations
x1 , x2 = g(x1 ), x3 = g(x2 ), x4 = g(x3 ), x5 = g(x4 ) , x6 = g(x5 ), x7 = g(x6 ) and so on.
To use the Fixed Point Method, we must
Step 1: rearrange the equation f (x) = 0 in the form x = g(x).
Step 2: use a starting point x1 which is either given or chosen as the midvalue of the
interval in which the root lies.
Step 3: use the iterative method for a suitable number of iterations so that we reach
the required degree of accuracy.
When the Fixed Point Method converges to the root α, then α = g(α).
To find the equation satisfied by α, let xn+1 = xn = x in the iterative method
xn+1 = g(xn ). In case α is exact, solve for x.
C HAPTER 16
Vectors 2

Line
Vector equation of a line
r = a + λ b is the vector equation of a line that is parallel to a vector b (also called
the direction vector) and which passes through a point A with position vector a.
Parallel lines
Two lines L1 and L2 with their respective vector equation r1 = a1 + λb1 and
r2 = a2 + µb2 are said to be parallel if b1 = kb2 , where k is a scalar.
Intersection of two lines

Two lines intersect at a point otherwise they are skew.
Express r1 as position vector in λ and r2 as position vector in µ.
Equate r1 = r2 to obtain 3 equations with 2 unknowns.
Solve the first 2 equations to get a value for λ and for µ.
Verify that the value of λ and of µ satisfy the third equation.
If yes, the two lines intersect else they are skew lines.
Angle between two lines

Step 1: Obtain the direction vector b1 from the line L1 with vector equation
r1 = a1 + λb1 .
Obtain the direction vector b2 from the line L2 with vector equation
r2 = a2 + λb2 .
CHAPTER 16. VECTORS 2
Step 2: The angle θ between two lines L1 and L2 is the angle between b1 and b2 and it
b1 · b2
is given by cos θ = .
|b1 | |b2 |
Perpendicular distance of a line from a point

Suppose we want to find the perpendicular distance of a line with vector equation
−−→
r = a + λb, from a point P with position vector OP.
Step 1: Let Q be the foot of the perpendicular from P. Since Q lies on the line, we find
−→ −→ −→
P Q = OQ − OP in terms of λ.
−→ −→
Step 2: P Q is perpendicular to the direction vector b. We use P Q · b = 0 to obtain an
equation in λ.
−→
Step 3: By solving the equation we obtain a value of λ and we find the distance |P Q|.
Plane
Finding a vector v perpendicular to both vectors v1 and v2 (cross product)
i j k
a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
v = v1 × v2 = a1 a2 a3 =i −j +k
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
b1 b2 b3
Equation of a plane
The cartesian equation of a plane is given by ax + by + cz = d.
n = ai 
+ bj +
ck is called the normal vector of the plane.
x
If r =  y  and A is a point with position vector a on the plane, then the equation
z
of the plane is given by r · n = a · n.
Line and plane

Consider a line with vector equation r = a + λb and a plane ax + by + cz = d. The
normal to the plane is n.
Case 1: If r · n = d, then the line lie in the plane.
Case 2: If r · n = c 6= d, where c is a constant independent of λ, then the line is parallel

to the plane.
Case 3: If r · n = d is an equation involving λ, the line intersects with the plane at the
point whose position vector can be obtained by solving for λ.
In cases 1 and 2, the normal to the plane is perpendicular to the direction vector of
the line.
Finding the equation of a plane

Case 1: Given a point with position vector
  a and the normal vector n
x
The equation of the plane is given by  y  · n = a · n.
z
Case 2: Given three points A , B and C
−→ −−→
Step 1: Find two direction vectors, e.g. AB and BC.
−→ −−→
Step 2: Obtain the normal vector (e.g use cross product to get n = AB × BC).
 
x
−→
Step 3: The equation of the plane is given by  y  · n = OA · n.
z
Case 3: Given a line with vector equation r = a + λb and a point P with position
vector p
Step 1: Obtain the two direction vectors b and p − a.
Step 2: Obtain the normal vector (e.g use cross product to get n = b × (p − a)).
 
x
Step 3: The equation of the plane is given by  y  · n = a · n.
z
Case 4: Given two lines with vector equations, r1 = a1 + λb1 and r2 = a2 + µb2
Step 1: Obtain the two direction vectors b1 and b2 .
Step 2: Obtain the normal vector (e.g use cross product to get n = b1 × b2 ).
 
x
Step 3: The equation of the plane is given by  y  · n = a1 · n.
z
Angle between two planes

Step 1: Obtain the normal vector n1 from the plane Π1 .
Obtain the normal vector n2 from the plane Π2 .
Step 2: The angle θ between two planes Π1 and Π2 is the angle between n1 and n2 and
n1 · n2
it is given by cos θ = .
|n1 | |n2 |
In case we need to find the acute angle we use |n1 · n2 |.
Angle between a plane and a line

Step 1: Obtain the normal vector n from the equation of plane Π .
Obtain the direction vector b from the vector equation of the line r.
n·b
Step 2: Find the angle between n and b using cos θ = .
|n| |b|
Step 3: The angle between the plane and the line is
(i) 900 − θ if θ is acute,

(ii) θ − 900 if θ is obtuse.
Finding the perpendicular distance of a point from a plane

Suppose we want to find the perpendicular distance of a plane with equation
ax + by + cz = d from a point P(x1 , y1, z1 ).
Step 1: Let Q be the foot of the perpendicular from P.

−→ −→
Since P Q is parallel to the normal, n to the plane, we have P Q = k n,
where k is a constant.
−→ −→ −→
Step 2: We obtain OQ = OP + kn and OQ · n = d as an equation in k.
Step 3: By solving the equation we obtain a value of k and we find the distance
−→
|P Q| = |k| |n|.
General Formula
−→ |ax1 + by1 + cz1 − d|
|P Q| = √ .
a2 + b2 + c2
Intersection of 2 planes
Two planes Π1 : a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1 and Π2 : a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d2 intersect in a line
with vector equation r = a + λb.
Step 1: Obtain the normal vector n1 from the plane Π1 .

Obtain the normal vector n2 from the plane Π2
Step 2: Find the direction vector b (e.g. b = n1 × n2 ).
Step 3: Obtain the point with poosition vector a on both planes by setting x = 0 in both
equations of the planes and obtain the values of y and z.
C HAPTER 17
Differential Equations

General Solutions of differential equation
The method of separation of variables consists of
Step 1: separating all expressions involving y on the left and all expressions involving
x on the right,
Step 2: integrate w.r.t. y on the left and integrate w.r.t. x on the right (use only a
constant of integration)
Step 3: express y in terms of x
Particular Solutions
Particular solutions are obtained by finding the constant of integration using the
initial or boundary conditions.
Formulation of Differential Equation

(i) The radius, r is increasing at a constant rate.
dr
= k (Rate is a constant)
dt
(ii) The length of a metal, x increases at a rate proportional to its length.
dx dx
∝x⇒ = kx (Rate is positive)
dt dt
(iii) The number N of bacteria increases at a rate which is inversely proportional to
its value.
dN 1 dN k
∝ ⇒ = (Rate is positive)
dt N dt N
(iv) The rate of cooling of an object is proportional to the difference between the
temperature of a body, θ and temperature of its surrounding, θs .
dθ dθ
∝ (θ − θs ) ⇒ = k(θ − θs ) (Rate is negative since θ − θs < 0)
dt dt
C HAPTER 18
Complex Numbers

Operations involving complex numbers
Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 be two complex numbers where x1 , x2 , y1 , y2 ∈ R.
z1 + z2 = (x1 + x2 ) + (y1 + y2 )i, z1 − z2 = (x1 − x2 ) + (y1 − y2 )i

z1 × z2 = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + i(x1 y2 + x2 y1 )
z1 (x1 + iy1 )(x2 − iy2 ) (x1 x2 + y1 y2 ) + i(x2 y1 − x1 y2 )
= =
z2 (x2 + iy1 )(x2 − iy2 ) x22 + y22
Quadratic Equations
Quadratic equation of the form az 2 + bz + c =√0 having real coefficients have roots
−b ± k i 2
which can occur in conjugate forms: z = , b − 4ac = −k, k > 0
2a
2
If z = a + bi is a solution of a quadratic equation x + px + q = 0, then z = a − bi is a
solution of the quadratic equation which is given by x2 − 2ax + (a2 + b2 ) = 0.
Modulus, Argument
p
The modulus of a complex number z = x + iy is given by |z| = r = x2 + y 2 .
The argument θ = arg(z) of a complex number z = x + iy can be calculated based on
the position of (x, y):
Coordinates Quadrant Sign of θ θ

y
st −1
x > 0, y > 0 1 +ve tan
x
y
x < 0, y > 0 2nd +ve tan−1 +π
x
y
x < 0, y < 0 3rd -ve tan−1 −π
x

−1 y
x > 0, y < 0 4th -ve tan
x
CHAPTER 18. COMPLEX NUMBERS
Polar and Exponential form

z = x + iy = r cos θ + i(r sin θ) = r eiθ .
Geometrical Interpretation
Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 be two complex numbers where x1 , x2 , y1 , y2 are
real. Let P(x1 , y1) represents z1 , Q(x2 , y2 ) represents z2 and O(0, 0) represents the
origin.
Addition
Let also R represents z1 + z2 , then OPQR is a parallelogram.
Multiplication
We have |z1 z2 | = |z1 | × |z2 | and arg(z1 z2 ) = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 ).
In general, |z n | = |z|n and arg(z n ) = n arg(z).
Division

z1 |z1 | z1
= and arg = arg(z1 ) − arg(z2 ).
z2 |z2 | z2

b = arg
The last property tells us that P OQ z1
= |arg(z1 ) − arg(z2 )|.
z2
b = 2π − |arg(z1) − arg(z2 )|
In case |arg(z1 ) − arg(z2 )| is reflex, obtuse P OQ
Conjugate
Let z = x + iy = r cos θ + i(r sin θ), where r is the magnitude of z and θ is the argument
of z respectively. Then z = x − iy, |z| = r and arg(z) = −θ. If P represents z,
Q represents z and O is the origin, then Q is the reflection of P in the real axis and
OPQ is an isosceles triangle with P OQ b = 2θ.
Equilateral Triangles
√
1 3
Let P represents any complex number z and u = + i.
2 2
z
Let Q represents the complex number q = zu and R the complex number r = .
u
Then △ OPQ and △ OPR are equilateral.
25
Loci
Let z = x + iy be a variable complex number and a = p + qi and b = s + ti be two fixed
complex numbers. In an Argand diagram, z is represented by the point P(x, y) and
a and b by the points A(p, q) and B(s, t) respectively.
Circle
The equation of a circle with centre (p, q) and radius r is given by (x−p)2 +(y−q)2 = r 2 .
Consider the equation |z − a| = r, then |z − a|2 = r 2 which gives
|(x − p) + i(y − q)|2 = r 2 ⇒ (x − p)2 + (y − q)2 = r 2 .
1. |z − a| = r is the equation of a circle centre a and radius r.
2. |z − a| < r is the region inside a circle centre a and radius r.
3. |z − a| > r is the region outside a circle centre a and radius r.
Perpendicular Bisector
The equation |z − a| = |z − b| is the perpendicular bisector of A and B.
Half lines
Consider the equation arg(z − a) = θ. Then
y−q
tan θ = ⇒ y = tan θx − p tan θ + q
x−p
is the equation of a straight line with gradient tan θ. Since −π < θ ≤ π,

arg(z − a) = θ is the half-line starting from A and making an angle θ with the
horizontal Real axis.
Greatest and least value of |z| and arg(z) in a circle

Consider the circle |z − a| = r with centre A representing a and radius r.
The least value of |z| is given by |a| − r and the greatest value is given by |a| + r.

−1 r
The greatest value of arg(z) is given by arg(a) + sin .
|a|

−1 r
The least value of arg(z) is given by arg(a) − sin .
|a|

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Contents

11 Logarithms and exponential functions 13

15 Numerical Solution of equations 17

Notes and Important Formulas

Quadratic Formula, Types of roots and Quadratic inequalities

Discriminant Type of Roots Geometrical Interpretation

Notes and Important Formulas

Step 1: We let y = f (x).

Step 2: We make x subject of formula in the equation y = f (x) so that x = f −1 (y).

Step 3: We replace each y by x to get an expression for f −1 (x).

Step 4: Domain of f −1 = Range of f .

Step 5: Range of f −1 = Domain of f .

Notes and Important Formulas

Parallel and perperpendicular Lines and Angle between two

Parallel Perpendicular Angle

Notes and Important Formulas

Arc and Sector

Length of arc, AB, s = rθ

Problems involving length of arc and area of sector.

2. Perimeter of shaded region = total length of the boundaries of the shaded

Notes and Important formulas

Signs of Trigonometric Ratios and Quadrants

degrees radians sin θ cos θ tan θ

1st α, −(3600 − α) α, −(2π − α) + + +

2nd 1800 − α, −(1800 + α) π − α, −(π + α) + − −

3rd 1800 + α, −(1800 − α) π + α, −(π − α) − − +

Principal values of Inverse of Trigonometric Ratios

sin2 θ = 1 − cos2 θ, cos2 θ = 1 − sin2 θ

Use of Identities in Solving Trigonometrical Equations

Notes and Important Formulas

Parallel    DotProduct Perpendicular

Magnitude of a vector and unit vector

Angle between two vectors

Case 1: If a · b > 0, θ is acute.

Case 2: If a · b < 0, θ is obtuse.

Case 3: If a · b = 0, θ = 900 (a and b are perpendicular).

Notes and Important Formulas

Notes and Important Formulas

(u(x))n nu′ (x) u(x)n−1

Tangent, Normal, Stationary points, Increasing and Decreasing

Nature of Stationary Points

Rate of change and Connected Variables

Notes and Important Formulas

Area and volume

Curve Lines Rotation Volume

Notes and Important Formulas

Equation |a| = |b| ⇔ a2 = b2

If |x − b| < a, then −a + b < x < a + b.

Binomial Expansion of (a + b)n , n is a negative integer or a

n(n − 1) n(n − 1)(n − 2)

If n = −2, we have a simplified expansion

(1 + ax)−2 = 1 − 2ax + 3a2 x2 − 4a3 x3 + ...

Logarithms and exponential

Notes and Important Formulas

Law of indices Law of logarithms

ax × ay = ax+y loga (x × y) = loga x + loga y

Original Form Linear form Original Form Linear form

Notes and Important Formulas

Compound angles, Double and Triple Angles

Notes and Important Formulas

cos (ax + b) −a sin (ax + b)

tan (ax + b) a sec2 (ax + b)

Notes and Important Formulas