PHY 121: Lecture 1: Vectors

Vernie C. Convicto
Department of Physics
College of Natural Sciences and Mathematics
Mindanao State University
9700 Marawi City

July 19, 2021

Abstract
PHY 121 (Differential Equation in Mathematical Physics) Course Description:
This is a course on ordinary differential equations with some introduction to most
important differential equations of mathematical physics (e.g. Laplace’s equation)
covering various methods of solution in closed form and in series including an intro-
duction to orthogonal functions and Fourier series.

1 Vector Calculus
1.1 Vectors
Definition:
ˆ Scalar – quantities that have algebraic magnitude only
ˆ Vector – quantities with magnitude and direction
ˆ Vector fields – vectors defined over a region
Key items:
1. Geometric and algebraic decriptions of vectors;
2. Linear combinations of vectors; and

Table 1: Vector Operations and Properties

Vector Operation Definition

Addition A+B=R
Commutative A+B=B+A
Associative (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
Subtraction A – B = A + (–1)B
Multiplication kA

1
 3. Dot product of two vectors and its use in determining the angle between their
directions and the decomposition of a vector into contributions in the coordi-
nate directions.

1.2 Basic Properties

Different vector operations are shown in Table 1. Vector addition is shown in Figure
1.

Figure 1: Addition of two vectors.

– Geometric properties: describing vectors as quantities that do not depend on

any coordinate system.
– Algebraic Method: Component method

Consider A vector: Components: Ax , Ay , Az and Magnitude: A = (A2x +

A2y + A2z )1/2

Note: The components Ax , ... are useful for computing the result when vectors
are added or multiplied by scalars.

From the geometry in Cartesian coordinates, it is obvious that if R=kA +

k’B, then R will have components as Rx = kAx + k 0 Ax , Ry = kAy + k 0 Ay , and
Rz = kAz + k 0 Az .

1.3 Unit vectors

Definition: Unit vectors are vectors of unit length in the directions of the coordi-
nate axes.
Let eˆx be a unit vector in the x direction;
Ax eˆx – a vector of signed magnitude Ax ;
A = Ax eˆx + Ay eˆy + Az eˆz

Definition: Radius vector r = xeˆx + y eˆy + z eˆz .

The unit vectors are said to span the space in which our vectors reside, or to
form a basis for the space. Either of these statements means that any vector in
the space can be constructed as a linear combination of the basis vectors. Since a
vector A has specific values of Ax , Ay , Az , this linear combination will be unique.

2
 Figure 3: Projection of A on the x
and y axes.

Figure 2: Cartesian components and direc-

tion cosines of A.

Definition: Direction cosines. Letting α, β, γ be the angles it makes with the

Cartesian coordinate axes (x, y, z), the components of A are given by.
Ax = A cos α, Ay = A cos β, Az = A cos γ. The quantities cos α, cos β, cos γ are
known as the direction cosines of A.
Condition: cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1

1.4 Dot (Scalar) Product

Recall: A = Ax eˆx + Ay eˆy + Az eˆz where Ax eˆx is its projection in the x direction.

It is useful to define a quantity kown as the dot product with the property that
produces the coefficients, e.g. Ax , in projections onto the coordinate axes according
to
A · ex = Ax = A cos α, A · ey = Ay = A cos β, A · ez = Az = A cos γ

Now, consider vectors A and B:

ˆ Distributive: A · (B + C) = A · B + A · C,

ˆ Associative: A · (kB) = (kA) · B = kA · B

ˆ Thus the dot product A · B:

= A · (Bx eˆx + By eˆy + Bz eˆz

= Bx A · eˆx + By A · eˆy + Bz · Aeˆz

= B x Ax + B y Ay + B z Az
P P
This leads to the general formula: A · B = i Bi Ai = i Bi Ai = B · A. Note
that the dot product is commutative!

ˆ Important Property of the dot product: A · A = A2x + A2y + ... = |A|2

3
 ˆ Consider C = A + B, so that
|C|2 = C · C = (A + B) · (A + B) = A · A + B · B + 2A · B

which can be rearranged to A · B = 12 [|C|2 − |A|2 − |B|2 ].

The geometry of the vector sum C = A + B is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Vector sum, C = A + B.

Recall: Law of cosines: C2 = A2 + B2 − 2|A||B| cos θ

Hence, A · B = |A||B| cos θ.

Definition: Schwarz inequality: |A · B|  |A||B|

1.5 Orthogonality
Recall: A · B = |A||B| cos θ. This becomes zero when cosθ = 0 at θ = ±π/2 (i.e.,
at θ = ±900 ).

A and B are orthogonal if and only if A · B = 0.

By
Note that A and B are perpendicular if the slope of B, Bx = −A
Ay .
x

In general, eˆx · eˆy = eˆx · eˆz = eˆy · eˆz = 0; eˆx · eˆx = eˆy · eˆy = eˆz · eˆz = 1.

Definition: Kronecker delta: eˆi · eˆj = δij

1.6 Review of Basic Properties

1. A vector A can be represented by a single-column matrix a whose elements
are components of A, as in A =⇒
 
A1
a = A2 
A3
The rows (i.e., individual elements Ai ) of a are the coefficients of the individual
members of the basis used to represent A, so that the element Ai is associated
with basis unit vectors eˆi .

4
2. The vector operations of addition and multiplication by a scalar correspond
exactly to the operations of the same names applied to the single-column ma-
trices representing the vectors, as illustrated here: G = A − 2B + 3C =⇒
         
G1 A1 B1 C1 A1 − 2B1 + 3C1
G2  = A2  − 2 B2  + 3 C2  = A2 − 2B2 + 3C2 
G3 A3 B3 C3 A3 − 2B3 + 3C3
or g = a − 2b + 3c. It is therefore appropriate to call these single-column
matrices column vectors.
3. The transpose of the matrix representing a vector A is a single-row matrix,
called a row vector:
a T = A1 A2 A3

4. The dot product A · B can be evaluated as aT b, or alternatively, because a

and b are real, as a† b. Moreover, aT b = bT a.
 
B1
A · B = aT b = A1 A2 A3 B2  = A1 B1 + A2 B2 + A3 B3


B3