Review

Food and Nutrition Bulletin

2018, Vol. 39(1) 149-170
ª The Author(s) 2017
How Functional Is Moringa Reprints and permission:
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oleifera? A Review of Its Nutritive, DOI: 10.1177/0379572117749814
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Medicinal, and Socioeconomic

Potential

Oluwadara Oluwaseun Alegbeleye1

Abstract
Moringa oleifera is an important tropical food plant that seems to have great nutritional, therapeutic,
industrial, agricultural, and socioeconomic value. Dietary consumption of its parts and preparations is
encouraged by several organizations, health food enthusiasts, and other specialists as a strategy of
personal health preservation and self-medication in the treatment of various diseases. Studies extoling
its ability to mitigate various degenerative ailments now exist in both the scientific and the popular
literature. At face value, and considering the volume of reports available, much of this enthusiasm
seems to be indeed justified. However, it is imperative to distinguish rigorous scientific evidence from
anecdote. To achieve this, relevant experimental and review articles were sought and read critically to
identify recent patterns and trends on this subject matter. Studies on the medicinal and functional
properties of M. oleifera are available from various parts of the world, especially developing regions.
Attempts have been made to parse the contemporary scientific data available supporting the claims
regarding the phytochemical, nutritive, medicinal, environmental, agricultural, and socioeconomic
capabilities of this plant. Studies reviewed provide compelling, albeit preliminary experimental evi-
dence of therapeutic potential of the plant. It is important that M. oleifera products and preparations be
properly chemically characterized and standardized before being administered.

Keywords
Global South, Moringa oleifera, functional food, bioactive compounds, nutraceuticals

Introduction drumstick tree, horseradish tree, marango, and

Moringa oleifera Lamarack is a fast growing,
perennial angiosperm tree that may grow as high
as 7 to 15 m and reach a diameter of 20 to 40 cm
at chest height.1,2 It belongs to the Moringaceae
family and is generally regarded as a vegetable, a
medicinal plant, and a source of cooking oil in the
developing world. It is indigenous to the sub-
Himalayan tracts of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh,
and Afghanistan where it is known by various
regional names such as benzolive, kelor,
malunggay. Recently, it has garnered medical and
socioeconomic attention in the tropics and
1
Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Engineering,
University of Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil
Corresponding Author:
Oluwadara Oluwaseun Alegbeleye, Department of Food
Science, University of Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil.
Email: seunalegbeleye@gmail.com
150
Figure 1. Moringa oleifera tree growing on a stack of granite stones.
subtropics such as in Western, Eastern, and
Southern Africa; tropical Asia; Latin America; the
Caribbean; and the Pacific Islands where it is now
being widely cultivated and has naturalized. It is
an easily cultivated tree, famous for its low
demand for soil nutrients and water thereby capa-
ble of withstanding destitute soils and drought
(illustrated in Figure 1). It tolerates a wide range
of rainfall, with minimum annual rainfall require-
ments estimated at 250 mm and maximum at over
3000 mm.3 It is an important food plant highly
nutritious and generally esteemed as a functional
food with all parts established to be edible.4-6 A
wide variety of nutritional, prophylactic, and ther-
apeutic virtues have been attributed to its roots,
bark, leaves, flowers, sap, fruits, and seeds.
There is some documented evidence that M.
oleifera possesses medicinal attributes, includ-
ing hypotensive, hypoglycemic, anticancer,
radioprotective, thyroid hormone regulatory,
antiobesity, antipyretic, antiepileptic, and
diuretic attributes among others.7-11
Numerous traditional and scientific studies
have been conducted on the attributes of M. olei-
fera, the output of which have been the subject of
many extensive reviews.1,2,4,6-8 Many experts
have proposed the use of M. oleifera as a com-
plementary medical option or for use in relief and
prevention of disease symptoms. However, in
Food and Nutrition Bulletin 39(1)
spite of these studies, reviews, recommendations,
and widespread claims, Western (conventional)
medicine has been spectacularly hesitant in
exploring its nutritional and medicinal potential.
This lukewarm attitude is curious, as other
“superfoods” such as garlic and green tea have
enjoyed better reception. However, the recent
“healthy eating” trend where many consumers are
inclined to consume wholesome foods, are skep-
tical of synthetic medications, as well as the
advancement of “green” medicine and so on, has
placed a spotlight on M. oleifera among other
“healthy” options. This enthusiasm has generated
significant international hype and commercial
boom, and it is therefore necessary to assess the
strength of evidence and determine whether firm
conclusions regarding the safety and efficacy of
M. oleifera can be inferred from the available
studies.
This review is a timely assessment of the
research progress achieved regarding the poten-
tial of this versatile plant. Here, the exceptional
bioactive, free radical, and heavy metal scaven-
ging potentials of M. oleifera are discussed. The
nutritional properties, its potential use in food
processing, medicinal attributes, as well as over-
all socioeconomic relevance are considered. The
possibilities of harnessing its value to combat
malnutrition, improve health and well-being,
Alegbeleye
detoxify domestic and industrial wastewaters,
develop the food industry for local and interna-
tional markets, and create jobs in urban and rural
centers are explored.
Procedures for Literature Search
and Analysis
Peer-reviewed medical and nutrition science arti-
cles were sought and reviewed for this article.
Electronic databases (PubMed, Scopus, Web of
Science, and Google Scholar) were explored. The
search was conducted using M. oleifera, drum-
stick, horseradish, malunggay, kelor, nebeday,
benzolive, and saijhan within the title of the arti-
cle. Articles on other Moringa varieties other than
oleifera as well as articles in which the word
“drumstick” pertained to other topics such as
medical condition or transcription were not
included. Original research and review articles
as well as nonpeer-reviewed articles including
newspaper articles, technical reports, conference
proceedings, and so on, were critically read.
Peer-reviewed articles presenting data/informa-
tion on the therapeutic, nutritional, agricultural,
biodiesel, and socioeconomic potential of M.
oleifera were analyzed for inclusion in this
review. The non-peer-reviewed sources were
analyzed to achieve in-depth understanding of
the subject matter.
Phytochemistry of Moringa oleifera
Moringa oleifera is rich in bioactive phytochem-
icals that confer many of the health benefits on
it.4,12 Moringa has abundant deposits of com-
pounds containing simple sugar, rhamnose as
well as a somewhat distinctive group of com-
pounds called glucosinolates and isothiocya-
nates. 4 These compounds are believed to
possess hypotensive, chemopreventive, and anti-
bacterial activity because compounds such as 4-
(4’-O-acetyl-a-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy)benzyl
isothiocyanate, 4-(a-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy)
benzyl isothiocyanate, niazimicin,13 pterygosper-
min,14 benzyl isothiocyanate,15 and 4-(a-L-rham-
nopyranosyloxy)benzyl glucosinolate4 have been
identified in studies from which hypotensive,
anticancer, and antibacterial activities of M.
151
oleifera were inferred. Flavonoids and phenolics
are other structural classes of phytochemicals that
have been identified from M. oleifera. Flavonoids
and phenolic acids are collectively referred to as
phenolic compounds.1 Quercetin and kaempferol,
in their 3-O-glycoside forms, are the predominant
flavonols in M. oleifera leaves.1 Quercetin, a
potent antioxidant, exhibiting multiple therapeu-
tic properties is found in high concentrations in
M. oleifera leaves.3 It is usually found occurring
as quercetin-3-O-b-d-glucoside also known as
isoquercitrin or isotrifolin and has been shown
to have antidyslipidemic, hypotensive, and anti-
diabetic effects in the obese Zucker rat.16 It has
also been found to reduce hyperlipidemia and
atherosclerosis in High-carbohydrate-diet (HCD)
or high-fat diet (HFD) rabbits.1 Another very
important chemical compound that has been iden-
tified in Moringa is chlorogenic acid, which has
been shown to aid in glucose metabolism in rats.
Studies in rats have demonstrated its ability to
inhibit glucose-6-phosphate translocase in rat
liver, thereby reducing hepatic gluconeogenesis
and glycogenolysis.17,18
The stem bark has been reported to contain
alkaloids, moringine and moringinine,3 which
have been associated with improved glucose
tolerance,19 as well as vanillin, b-sitostenone,
4-hydroxymellin, and octacosanoic acid. Niazi-
minin, which is believed to possess hypotensive
properties, has been extracted and described
from the M. oleifera leaves. The leaves also con-
tain phytosterols such as b-sitosterol, which
have the potential to reduce intestinal uptake
of dietary cholesterol. 20,21 It contains other
well-known phytochemicals including carote-
noids (b-carotene), flavonoids, and pro-vitamin
A.1,4 Some of the structures of common bioac-
tive compounds isolated from M. oleifera are
shown in Figure 2.
Nutritional Properties of Moringa oleifera
Moringa oleifera serves as an extremely valuable
food source. Its use in human nutrition as well as
in development of balanced diets in animal nutri-
tion has been justified by a few studies.22-25 It is
reportedly an excellent indigenous source of
highly digestible protein, calcium, iron,
152 Food and Nutrition Bulletin 39(1)

Figure 2. Structures of some bioactive compounds occurring in Moringa oleifera.1,4,17,18

Alegbeleye
potassium, vitamins, trace metal ions, essential
amino acids, antioxidants, and carotenoids suit-
able for combating malnutrition in many devel-
oping nations of the world where malnourishment
is a major concern.26-33 It contains arginine and
histidine—2 amino acids that are especially
relevant for infant nutrition. 7 A study by
Valdez-Solana et al34 evaluated the chemical
composition and nutritional values of dried
M. oleifera leaf powder obtained in Mexico. The
proximate analysis showed that M. oleifera leaves
are a good source of fiber, proteins, lipids, carbo-
hydrates, calcium, potassium, and magnesium.
Phenolics (gallic acid as well as chlorogenic acid)
and flavonols (rutin, luteolin, quercetin, apigenin,
and kaempferol), which are potent natural antiox-
idants, were also isolated. In addition, the high
ash content isolated from the dried M. oleifera
leaves indicate that the leaves are a good source
of inorganic minerals. A similar study by
Sánchez-Machado et al,35 which assessed the
biochemical properties of M. oleifera obtained
from the North-Western Mexico state of Sonora,
reported an abundant deposit of protein, ash,
lipids, fatty acids, amino acids, and dietary
fibers from the leaves, immature pods, and flow-
ers of M. oleifera. Moyo et al32 determined the
nutritional value of Moringa leaves using prox-
imate and Van Soest methods. The dried leaves
had crude protein levels as high as 30.3% and 19
amino acids. In addition, they had calcium,
phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, sodium,
sulfur, zinc, copper, manganese, iron, and sele-
nium. Seventeen fatty acids were detected
including a-linolenic, heneicosanoic, ␥-linole-
nic, palmitic, and capric acid among others.
Vitamins, b-carotene, fibers, tannins, and poly-
phenols were also identified.
Another important factor that makes M. olei-
fera nutritionally relevant is that it is drought
resistant, fast growing, easy to cultivate and man-
age, and is capable of adapting in virtually all
tropical and subtropical climates.3 Furthermore,
Moringa leaves production peaks at the end of dry
season when fruits and vegetables are typically in
short supply and may only be found in irrigated
agroecosystems. Moringa oleifera thus serves as
an alternative source of good nutrition at this time
of year, being a tremendous source of vitamins,
153
minerals, and antioxidants as well as offering a
balanced supply of amino acids.
The leaves are rich in a wide repertoire of
vitamins and minerals. According to the Trees for
Life Organization, ounce for ounce, Moringa
leaves contain more vitamin A than carrots, more
calcium than milk, more iron than spinach, more
vitamin C than oranges, and more potassium than
bananas. Furthermore, the protein quality of Mor-
inga leaves rivals that of milk and eggs. The
leaves and other parts of the tree contain high
amounts of crude protein and amino acids, thus
serving as an outstanding source of plant protein
for vegans and vegetarians.36-38 Moringa oleifera
also serves as an important source of essential
fatty acids, which are required for optimal cellu-
lar health. Nongovernmental organizations, Trees
for Life, Church World Service and Educational
Concerns for Hunger Organization, have enthu-
siastically advocated Moringa as “Natural nutri-
tion for the Tropics.” Alternative Action for
African Development and Church World Service
assessed the capability of Moringa leaf powder to
prevent or cure malnutrition in pregnant and nur-
sing mothers and their children in Southwestern
Senegal in 1997/1998. Malnutrition was a serious
challenge in this area, at the time, with more than
600 malnourished infants receiving medical treat-
ment yearly. During the assessment, doctors,
nurses, and midwives were trained to prepare and
use Moringa leaf powder to treat malnutrition.
Women in the rural settlements were also trained
to prepare and use Moringa to fortify foods.
Weight increase and improved overall health
were observed at the end of the assessment. Preg-
nant women fully recovered from anemia and
delivered babies with higher birth weights.39 An
increase in lactation was also observed, verifying
claims that M. oleifera is a galactagogue as in the
Philippines where it has been dubbed “Mother’s
best friend” due to its ability to improve lactating
mothers’ milk production.3,38,40,41 Its lactogenic
properties have been recognized,42,43 and increased
serum prolactin levels have been observed in asso-
ciation with intake of Moringa preparations/supple-
ments. 42 In Philippines, for example, the
consumption of M. oleifera is widespread, but
expecting and lactating mothers have reported
improved milk production and increased appetites.
154
Depending on the guidelines designed by the
World Health Organization (based on weight-for-
length Z score), a child can be classified as nor-
mal, mildly, or moderately malnourished. In
severe cases of malnutrition, physiological
anomalies such as infections, impaired liver, and
intestinal function as well as electrolyte imbal-
ances are likely to have set in. Due to these phy-
siological abnormalities, Moringa oleifera is not
a recommended regimen in this case. A severely
malnourished child cannot tolerate iron or normal
amounts of dietary proteins, fats, and sodium.
The child needs to recover from this emergency
state by intensive hospital care, where infections
are treated and new ones are prevented, electro-
lyte balance is restored, and intensive 24-hour
feeding regimen is instituted.39 Therefore, until
the child’s condition is stable and appetite
returns, the diet should be rich in carbohydrates;
contain potassium, magnesium, and other essen-
tial minerals; but should be low in protein, fat,
and sodium; and completely lacking in iron sup-
plements. Moringa leaves, which are high in iron
and protein content, are thus not suitable for use
at this stage (the initial treatment of the severely
malnourished).
According to the report by Fuglie, mild or
moderate malnutrition, which is not at the termi-
nal stage and is less critical, can be treated using
M. oleifera. The physiological abnormalities are
much less severe, and a balanced diet containing
all essential nutrients in the right proportions is
required for full recovery.39 In Senegal and other
parts of West Africa, adding Moringa on a daily
basis to a child’s meal has demonstrated tremen-
dous ability to bring about rapid recovery from
moderate malnutrition. More importantly, suc-
cessfully treating malnutrition is good, but pre-
venting it is even better. Due to Moringa’s rich
nutrient profile, it can serve as an excellent
resource to prevent malnourishment.
Moringa oleifera as a Food Additive
There is mounting evidence that incorporating M.
oleifera into food and food products improves the
physicochemical and organoleptic characteristics
and also extends the shelf life of food. Various
parts of the Moringa tree have exhibited
Food and Nutrition Bulletin 39(1)
antimicrobial activity.3,44-46 Food-borne diseases
are rife in many parts of the world, particularly
the developing world. The toll in terms of
finances, human health, and suffering is enor-
mous. There is some research evidence that M.
oleifera may play a relevant role in the prevention
of food-borne diseases. Moringa seed and leaf
extracts have exhibited antimicrobial properties
that inhibit bacterial growth.32,47,48 A study by
Bukar et al49 illustrated that M. oleifera ethanol
leaves extract exhibited broad-spectrum activity
against food-borne pathogens: Escherichia coli,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aur-
eus, and Enterobacter aerogenes. The same study
demonstrated that M. oleifera seed chloroform
extract showed antimicrobial activity against E
coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Mucor, and Rhizo-
pus species. The study illustrated that M. oleifera
is capable of inhibiting the growth of certain
food-borne pathogens as well as some spoilage
microorganisms in food under laboratory experi-
mental conditions. Another study by Walter
et al50 demonstrated the ability of M. oleifera to
inhibit the growth of E coli, Sa typhi, and Vibrio
cholerae. Isothiocyanates from M. oleifera exhib-
ited antibiotic activity against Helicobacter
pylori.4 This pathogen is prominent in poor,
medically underserved regions of the world; is a
major cause of gastritis, gastric, and duodenal
ulcers; and is a major risk factor for gastric can-
cer. Further research is desirable to explore the
potential of this activity on the treatment of
human H pylori infection.4
Antibiofilm potential of M. oleifera has been
documented, and this is an important research
prospect.51 A recent study by Lee et al52 demon-
strated the ability of M. oleifera liquid extracts to
inhibit biofilm formation by a pathogen S aureus.
Biofilm formation by pathogens plays crucial
roles in their persistence and antibiotic resistance.
Biofilms are microbial colonies that form when
single microorganisms attach and aggregate on a
hydrated surface and undergo a “lifestyle switch,”
giving up life as a single cell to live on a surface
in an adhesive cell matrix with other microorgan-
isms.53 They are usually resistant to antimicrobial
agents, and studies have revealed that cells within
a particular biofilm are usually of diverse com-
munity properties.53
Alegbeleye
Moringa oleifera extends the shelf life of lipid-
containing foods due to the presence of various
types of antioxidant compounds such as ascorbic
acid, flavonoids, phenolics, and carotenoids.54
Certain preparations may be used to preserve meat
and other food products from oxidative deteriora-
tion.55,56 Oxidative stress in farm animals and
lipid–protein oxidation in meat and meat products
may be prevented by incorporating Moringa into
animal nutrition and using Moringa extracts to
fortify meat products.56 A study by Moyo et al57
demonstrated the antioxidative potential of M.
oleifera. The study investigated the antioxidative
effects of M. oleifera supplement on the activities
of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT),
lipid peroxidation (LPO), and glutathione (GSH)
in goats. Both acetone and aqueous M. oleifera leaf
extracts were determined to have potent antioxi-
dant activities, increasing the antioxidant activity
of GSH, SOD, and catalase in the goats studied.
The study attributed the antioxidative potential to
the presence of polyphenolic compounds in the M.
oleifera leaves. Nadeem et al58 showed that M.
oleifera oil improved the oxidative stability of but-
ter oil. It improved the oxidative stability, conferred
higher resistance toward shoot up of peroxide value
at elevated temperature, anisidine value, and for-
mation of oxidation products. The oil was also
observed to improve the nutritional value of the
butter oil by increasing the concentration of oleic
acid.
There is some research evidence suggesting
that M. oleifera could be used to boost the orga-
noleptic qualities of food and food products such
as pastries and meat among others. Research by
Dachana et al59 has demonstrated the effects of
dried Moringa leaves on the rheological, micro-
structural, nutritional, and the overall quality
characteristics of cookies. It was observed that
the addition of dried Moringa leaves increased
fairnograph water absorption and decreased
dough stability, amylograph pasting temperature
as well as peak viscosity. It also increased dough
hardness, decreased cohesiveness, and spread
ratio of the cookies. Furthermore, protein, iron,
calcium, b-carotene as well as dietary fiber con-
tents of the cookies increased by the end of the
experiments. Scholars such as Hazra et al 60
treated cooked ground buffalo meat with aqueous
155
solution of crude extract of M. oleifera leaves.
This significantly improved meat pH and water
holding capacity and lowered cooking loss and
thiobarbituric acid value. It also improved the
quality of the meat by enhancing the tenderness,
juiciness, and preventing discoloration as well as
off-flavor formation. Microbial load in terms of
total plate count was found to be decreased signif-
icantly in treated samples, also demonstrating the
antimicrobial activity of M. oleifera. In a fairly
recent study, Manaois et al61 incorporated fresh and
powdered M. oleifera into rice crackers to serve as a
dietary supplement. Not only did M. oleifera sig-
nificantly improve the b-carotene, vitamin C, and
calcium content, the Moringa-rice crackers devel-
oped were shelf stable for up to 3 weeks.
Medicinal Use
A number of curative, pharmacological, and pro-
phylactic properties have been ascribed to various
parts of this highly esteemed tree.62 Claims abound
about the disease prevention and treatment bene-
fits derived from both the dietary and the topical
administration of M. oleifera. According to Ayur-
vedic traditional medicine practitioners, M. olei-
fera can prevent and cure about 300 diseases.63
It is capable of acting as cardiac and circulatory
stimulants and possess antitumor, antipyretic, anti-
epileptic, anti-inflammatory, antiulcer, antispas-
modic, diuretic, antihypertensive, hypoglycemic,
cholesterol lowering, antioxidant, antibacterial,
antifungal, antidiabetic, anti-asthmatic as well as
hepatoprotective virtues.6,10,62,64 It has been and
continues to be used by folk medicine practitioners
to prevent, mitigate, or treat many ailments and
diseases. It is also used as alternative medicine in
home remedy preparations in many parts of the
world for treatment and management of allergies,
inflammation, and diseases.65,66 In many parts of
the developing world, it is widely consumed for
self-medication by patients affected by diabetes,
hypertension, and HIV/AIDS.38,67-70 In spite of
these widespread claims, however, data obtained
from human studies are limited, and many of the
available studies are inconclusive with standardi-
zation being a major issue. Some medicinal bene-
fits of M. oleifera tree preparations are shown in
Table 1.
156 Food and Nutrition Bulletin 39(1)

Table 1. Medicinal and Biological Properties of Moringa oleifera Plant Extracts/Preparations.

Moringa Plant Part/Extract

or Preparation63 Phytochemical/Biological/Medicinal Activity References
1,6,63,68,71-74
Fresh leaves Rich source of vitamins A, B1, B2, and B3 (Thiamine, Riboflavin, Niacin)
and b-carotene.
Serves as a purgative, used to treat piles, fevers, sore throat, bronchitis,
eye and ear infections, scurvy, and catarrh. Also serves as antiulcer,
anti-inflammatory, diuretic and is used for wound treatment. Leaf
extracts (and preparations) exhibit antioxidant, antitumor,
antimicrobial, antidiabetic and antidyslipidemic activities (aqueous,
hydroalcohol or alcohol). Leaf extracts exhibit a wide range of
biological activities including tissue protective (liver, kidneys, heart,
testes, and lungs) activities, analgesic, antiulcer, antihypertensive,
radioprotective as well as immunomodulatory actions
63
Dried leaves Contains thiamine, riboflavin, niacin as well as vitamins C and E
(ascorbic acid and tocopherol). Also contains b carotene and lutein,
polyphenols, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, o-coumaric acid, ellagic
acid, ferulic acid, gallic acid, flavonoids, epicatechin, genistein,
isorhamnetin, kaempferol, myricetin, quercetin, saponins, phytates
rutin, 4-hydroxybenzyl, 4-a-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy)-benzyl, 4-O-
(a-L-acetylrhamnopyranosyloxy)-benzyl
3,75,76
Seed Contains alkaloids, reducing sugars, saponins, proteins, flavonoids, and
phenolic compounds.
Has hepatoprotective, antipyretic, antimicrobial, and antihypertensive
potential
66,77,78
Stem bark Used to treat ulcers and used as a pain killer to relieve tooth ache. It
contains antioxidants and phenolic compounds. Also exhibits
antitubercular and antimicrobial activity
66,72
Root Used as a laxative, possesses antimicrobial, antispasmodic, anti-
inflammatory, antilithic, vesicant, and hepatoprotective activities
79,80
Gum Serves as an astringent and rubefacient. Contains L-arabinose, D-
galactose, D-glucuronic acid, L-rhamnose, D-mannose, D-xylose, and
leucoanthocyanin
76,81,82
Flower Hepatoprotective, antibacterial, and fungicidal activities, anti-
inflammatory, stimulant, aphrodisiac
63
Methanolic flower extract Tannins, saponin, flavonoids, mycertin, terpenoids, reducing sugars,
alkaloids, anthraquinones
55,83,84
Aqueous extract of foliage Hypolipidemic and antiatherosclerotic, oxidative DNA damage
protective activity, downregulation of nuclear factor kB, immunity
against Herpes Simplex virus Type 1 (HSV-1)
85,86
Ethanol extract of foliage Upregulation of TNF-a, antihyperglycemic, and hypolipidemic activity
84
Methanol extract of foliage Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antinociceptive
54,87
Aqueous leaves extract Anticancer activity, flavonoids, steroids, terpenoids, and scavenging of
radicals
88
Ethanol extract of leaves Hypoglycemic activity
89
Seed methanolic extracts Bioinsecticidal property
15,90
Seed oil Contains vitamin A, b-carotene, and precursor of vitamin A

Antihyperglycemic and Antidyslipidemic

hyperglycemia and dyslipidemia, primarily in peo-
Properties of Moringa oleifera ple with type 2 diabetes.67,91 Research evidence
Some preliminary trials have attempted to demon- points to its ability to regulate blood sugar levels
strate M. oleifera’s potential in the treatment of using laboratory animals, particularly rats.71,92-95
Alegbeleye
Ndong et al92 demonstrated that M. oleifera
leaf powder decreased blood glucose levels by
23% compared to controls after administering 2
g of leaf powder per kilogram to rats. Another
study by Jaiswal et al71 showed that M. oleifera
leaf aqueous extracts decreased blood glucose
levels in a dose-dependent manner using doses
of 100 to 300 mg/kg. Investigation by Tende
et al88 assessed the effects of ethanol extracts of
M. oleifera leaves on the blood glucose levels of
streptozotocin (STE)-induced diabetic rats. The
study administered the extract at doses of 250 and
500 mg/kg intraperitoneally. A significant reduc-
tion in blood glucose levels was observed in
fasted STE-induced diabetic rats but not in con-
trol, normotensive animals. This effect was attrib-
uted to the terpenoid content of the extract,
although there is no direct evidence to support
this contention. A study by Gupta et al93 demon-
strated that M. oleifera is capable of preventing
STE-induced diabetes. The study showed that the
progression of diabetes was significantly reduced
after M. oleifera was administered to STE-
induced diabetic albino rats. Moringa oleifera
induced a significant reduction in serum glucose
and nitric oxide, with a concomitant increase in
serum insulin and protein levels. It increased anti-
oxidant levels in pancreatic tissue, accompanied
by reduction in levels of thiobarbituric acid-
reactive substances. The treatment also signifi-
cantly reversed the histoarchitectural damage to
the islet cells. Experimentation by Yassa and
Tohamy94 assessed the antidiabetic and antioxi-
dative potential of M. oleifera aqueous leaf
extracts in STE-induced diabetic rats. Moringa
oleifera treatment significantly reduced fasting
blood plasma glucose (380%-145%), increased
reduced glutathione (22%-73%), and decreased
malondialdehyde (385%-186%) in contrast to
control levels. Reversal of damage of islet cells
was also observed subsequent to M. oleifera leaf
extract administration. The antihyperglycemic
effects of the aqueous leaf extract could be attrib-
uted in part to the presence of an intestinal
sucrose inhibitor,96 although this action does not
effectively explain the effect of the leaf extract in
response to glucose tolerance test. Ghasi et al97
examined the antidyslipidemic effects of M. olei-
fera leaves on rats fed an HFD. Wistar rats were
157
fed an HFD containing 16% (w/w) fat, with or
without an aqueous extract of M. oleifera leaves
at a daily dose of 1 g/kg/bw for 30 days. In
untreated animals, the diet induced a 30%
increase in plasma total cholesterol. In treated
rats, the increase was reduced to 14%.
There are a few documented human studies
demonstrating sugar regulatory properties of M.
oleifera. William et al91 examined how the addi-
tion of M. oleifera to a standardized meal taken
after an overnight fast affected the 1- and 2-hour
postprandial glucose (PPG) levels, relative to the
standard meal alone or a 75 g oral glucose load in
patients with untreated type 2 diabetes. It was a
controlled study, and M. oleifera was compared
to bitter gourd (Momordica charantia) and curry
leaves (Murraya koenigii). Compared to the glu-
cose load, standard meals with or without herbal
supplements induced a significantly lower rise in
PPG as derived from area under the curve (AUC)
values. However, when the fortified meals were
compared to standard meals, only the M. olei-
fera–fortified meal elicited a lower response
(21%; P < .01). Plasma insulin AUC values did
not differ significantly between the 2 meals, sug-
gesting that the hypoglycemic effect of M. olei-
fera leaf supplementation was not due to
increased insulin secretion.
Kumari et al98 evaluated the hypoglycemic
effect of M. oleifera leaf dietary consumption in
patients with type 2 diabetes aged 30 to 60 years
over a 40-day period. Forty-six patients were
involved in this experiment: 32 men and 14
women. These patients were not receiving treat-
ment for hyperglycemia. There was a control
group of 9 patients: 4 men and 5 women. The
experimental group was fed a dose of 8 g of M.
oleifera leaf powder daily. Fasting plasma glu-
cose (FPG) and PPG at the end of the experiments
were compared to baseline levels. Final values
did not differ significantly from baseline in the
control group. They were, however, significantly
reduced in the experimental group (FPG: 28%, P
< .01; PPG: 26%, P < .05). Kushwaha et al99
documented a study that assessed 30 postmeno-
pausal women who were supplemented daily with
7 g of M. oleifera leaf powder for 3 months. A
control group also consisted of 30 postmenopau-
sal women. Results showed a significant
158
reduction in fasting blood glucose levels (13.5%)
as well as an increase in hemoglobin (17.5%). An
increase in serum glutathione peroxidase
(18.0%), superoxide dismutase (10.4%), and
ascorbic acid (44.4%), with a concomitant
decrease in malondialdehyde (16.3%; LPO) mar-
kers of antioxidant properties was also observed.
The study did not report any adverse effects.
Hepatoprotective Properties of
Moringa oleifera
Certain studies have explored the efficacy of M.
oleifera in the treatment of liver diseases.100-102 A
study conducted by Hamza et al76 indicated that
Moringa possesses anti-inflammatory properties
against carbon tetrachloride-induced liver dam-
age and fibrosis. This finding was confirmed by
the decrease in globulin levels in serum and the
myeloperoxidase activity in liver. Sreelatha and
Padma101 used M. oleifera leaves extract in an in
vitro system involving rat liver slices. This was
observed to weaken the toxicity of carbon tetra-
chloride evidenced by a decrease in LPO and
increase in the antioxidant enzymes: glutathione
peroxidase, glutathione reductase, catalase, SOD,
and glutathione S-transferase (GST). Another
study by Das et al102 showed that aqueous extract
of M. oleifera leaves prevented liver damage in
mice fed with a high-fat diet. This was demon-
strated by reductions in tissue histopathology and
serum activities of marker enzymes: aspartate
amino transferase (AST), alanine aminotransfer-
ase (ALT), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) as
well as reduced LPO and increases in reduced
glutathione. There is some experimental evidence
that M. oleifera may protect against hepatotoxic
effects of certain drugs. Pari and Kumar 103
showed that ethanol extracts of M. oleifera leaves
protected rats against the hepatotoxicity of anti-
tubercular drugs such as isoniazid, rifampicin,
and pyrazinamide. The extract decreased drug-
induced levels of AST, ALT, and ALP as well
as bilirubin and inhibited drug-induced LPO in
the liver. Various studies have demonstrated that
M. oleifera leaf extracts have the capacity to pre-
vent liver toxicity induced by acetaminophen
(Paracetamol).104-106 Fakurazi et al104 showed
that aqueous ethanol extracts of M. oleifera
Food and Nutrition Bulletin 39(1)
(200 and 800 mg/kg) prevented acetaminophen-
induced liver damage evidenced by reduction in
AST, ALT, and ALP as well as increase in hepa-
tic glutathione. Sharifudin et al107 also described
the capability of hydroethanol extracts of M. olei-
fera leaves and flowers at doses of 200 and 400
mg/kg administered intraperitoneally to inhibit
acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity.
Al-Said et al108 evaluated the antioxidant, anti-
oxidative stress, and hepatoprotective activity of
Ben oil (Moringa seed oil, known as Ben oil is a
sweet, nonsticky oil, which is rich in oleic acid,
tocopherols as well as sterols and resists rancid-
ity)109 against carbon tetrachloride-induced LPO
and hepatic damage in rats. Elevated serum enzy-
matic (Glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase [GOT],
Glutamic-pyruvic-transaminase [GPT], ALP, and
Gamma-glutamyl-transpeptidase [GGT]) and
bilirubin levels normalized after 21 days of orally
administering the oil. This indicates that Ben oil is
capable of preserving the structural integrity of the
hepatocellular membrane and inhibits liver cell
damage induced by CCl4. This deduction was con-
firmed by histopathological studies. Also, a signif-
icant depletion in the level of malondialdehyde
and an improvement in non-protein sulfhydryl
(NP-SH) and total protein (TP) contents in the
liver tissue were observed.
The Use of Moringa oleifera in
Cancer Therapy
Use of M. oleifera in treatment of various cancers
is being explored.87,110-112 Experimental evi-
dence indicates that M. oleifera can protect bio-
logical cells from the oxidative DNA damage
associated with cancer and degenerative
diseases. 63,113 Furthermore, the presence of
bioactive compounds, 4-(4’-O-acetyl-alpha-L-
rhamnopyranosyloxy), benzyl isothiocyanate,
b-sitosterol-3-O-b-d-glucopyranoside, and niazi-
micin which have been shown to be potent
inhibitors of phorbol ester in lymphoblastoid
cells, has made it highly relevant in cancer
therapy.62,114 Also, its potential to induce apop-
tosis suggests that it could effectively hinder
tumor progression. 115 Guevara et al 114 used
bioactive compounds (Isothiocyanate rhamno-
side, niazimicin, and sitosterol glucoside)
Alegbeleye
obtained from the ethanol extract of M. oleifera
seeds. The antitumor potential of the isolated
compounds was assessed using an in vitro assay
that examined their inhibitory effects on Epstein-
Barr virus early antigen (EBV-EA) activation in
Raji cells induced by the tumor promoter 12-O-
tetradecanoyl-phorbol-13-acetate (TPA). All the
isolates tested showed satisfactory inhibitory
effects on the induction of EBV-EA activation
without significant cytotoxicity on Raji cells. The
bioactive compounds exhibited potent inhibitory
activity in which about 50%, 80 to 90%, and
100% inhibition of activation were observed at
100, 500, and 1000-fold mol ratio to 32 pmol of
TPA, respectively, and preserved the high viability
of Raji cells even at the highest concentration of
1000 mol ratio/TPA. Other compounds that have
been associated with antitumor activity and have
been identified in Moringa are b-sitosterol-3-O-b-
D-glucopyranoside and benzyl iosthiocyanate.4
Sreelatha et al112 determined the antiprolifera-
tive and apoptopic effects of M. oleifera aqueous
leaf extracts using human tumor KB cell line as a
model system. Qualitative analysis of the leaf
extracts showed the presence of phenolic com-
pounds such as quercetin and kaempferol, flavo-
noids, and trace amounts of alkaloids. The
percentage of cell viability was evaluated using
MTT assay. The study demonstrated the antipro-
liferative effect of M. oleifera by showing its
ability to induce loss of cell viability, morphology
change, internucleosomal DNA fragmentation,
and reactive oxygen species generation in KB
cells. Tiloke et al116 demonstrated the antiproli-
ferative activity of M. oleifera leaves extract
against cancer alveolar epithelial cells. A similar
study by Jung87 showed that aqueous extracts of
M. oleifera leaves exhibited significant antineo-
plastic activity against a lung cancer cell line as
well as several other types of cancer cells. The
extract induced apoptosis, inhibited tumor cell
growth, and lowered the internal levels of reac-
tive oxygen species in human cancer cells. Mor-
inga oleifera roots have exhibited unique
estrogenic, antiestrogenic, progestational, and
antiprogestational activities.117 Its effectiveness
in treating ovarian cancer became apparent after
the publication of recent studies demonstrating
that benzyl isothiocyanate and phenethyl
159
isothiocyanate induce apoptosis in ovarian cancer
cells in vitro.117
Taha et al118 demonstrated the ability of Mor-
inga leaves to ameliorate and protect rats’ bladder
from cyclophosphamide (CP)-induced toxicity.
Cyclophosphamide is an alkylating antineoplastic
agent that is commonly used to treat solid tumors
and B-cell malignant disease and has been asso-
ciated with urinary bladder damage by induced
oxidative stress. Another study by Jaiswal
et al71 reported a significant increase in the activ-
ity of oxidative free radical scavenging enzymes
(SOD, CAT, and GST) when the aqueous extract
of M. oleifera leaves was administered to normal
and diabetic rats using in vivo and in vitro assays.
A concomitant decrease in LPO was also
observed, demonstrating the antioxidant activity
of Moringa. The study concluded that regular
dietary intake of M. oleifera leaves may protect
normal as well as diabetic people against oxida-
tive damage.
Moringa oleifera may be capable of ameliorat-
ing heavy metal toxicity.119 Gupta et al120 investi-
gated the therapeutic efficacy of oral
administration of M. oleifera seed powder on
arsenic poisoning in rats. The study showed that
treatment of postarsenic exposure using the seed
powder of M. oleifera significantly protected the
rats against the general toxic effects of arsenic and
exhibited antioxidative potential in vitro and in
vivo against hydroxyl radicals generated by Fen-
ton reaction. It brought about a moderate but sig-
nificant depletion in arsenic from blood and tissues
of the animals. The study also documents that the
seed powder exhibited chelating properties against
arsenic toxicity. Sasikala et al121 described the
ability of M. oleifera leaf extracts to prevent catar-
actogenesis induced by selenite poisoning in rat
pups (Sprague-Dawley strain) weighing 10 to 12
g by the eighth day of the experiment. Sodium
selenite (4 mg/g) was administered subcutaneously
to the rats on the 10th day to induce cataract. Some
rats received an additional 2.5 mg/g of the extracts
from the 8th day through the 15th day. By the 16th
day, cataracts were visualized. Moringa oleifera
extract significantly prevented morphological
changes and oxidative damage to the lens. It effec-
tively prevented cataractogenesis in the selenite-
infected rats by enhancing the activities of
160
antioxidant enzyme, reducing the intensity of LPO
and inhibiting free radical generation. Sadek122
reported that ethanol extract of M. oleifera leaves
protected against chromium-induced testicular
activity in rats. The extract was administered
orally on a daily basis (500 mg/kg) for 60 days
to rats that were spiked with 8 mg potassium chro-
mate intraperitoneally. The ethanol extract signif-
icantly ameliorated the testicular chromium effects
on sperm parameters, local immunity, inflamma-
tory markers, and antioxidant enzyme activities. A
recent study by Oliveira et al123 demonstrated the
ability of Moringa oleifera husks to biosorb heavy
metals in chicken feeds in Brazil.
Other Medicinal Attributes
Certain studies have explored the antiulcer poten-
tials of M. oleifera. According to Chattopadhyay
et al,119 M. oleifera possesses valuable antiulcer,
antisecretory, and cytoprotective activity. Their
study used an ethanolic root bark extract of M.
oleifera to determine its potential in antiulcer
drug formation. Moringa oleifera significantly
reduced the free acidity, total acidity, the ulcer
index as well as increased the pH of the gastric
content in albino Wistar rats.
It has been suggested that some preparations/
extracts may prevent cardiovascular diseases.
Nandave et al124 demonstrated the cardioprotec-
tive effects of lyophilized hydroalcoholic extracts
of M. oleifera. The study used Wistar albino male
rats in the isoproterenol-induced model of myo-
cardial infarction. Chronic M. oleifera treatment
resulted in significant favorable modulation of
the biochemical enzymes (SOD, CAT, glu-
tathione peroxidase, lactate dehydrogenase, and
creatine kinase-MB) and significantly prevented
the rise in LPO in myocardial tissue. The study
attributed the significant cardioprotective effect
to M. oleifera’s antioxidant, antiperoxidative, and
myocardial preservative properties. There are
claims asserting that Moringa leaf juice can effec-
tively stabilize blood pressure. Substances such
as nitrile, mustard oil glycosides, and thiocarba-
mate glycosides, which have been associated with
stabilizing blood pressure, have been isolated
from Moringa leaves.125,126
Food and Nutrition Bulletin 39(1)
Socioeconomic Relevance of Moringa
oleifera
In addition to its nutritional and medicinal attri-
butes, M. oleifera possesses many other intriguing
qualities, thereby serving aesthetic, agricultural,
and industrial purposes. It is an ornamental plant
and is therefore used to beautify yards and home
fronts, sometimes serving as a fence in many parts
of the developing world such as in Northern
Nigeria.127 Like many other trees, the trees serve
as windbreaks and reduce soil erosion. It is used in
lumber production as well as for light construction
work in many parts of the developing world. The
coarse fiber is often used for the production of
ropes or mats. It is also used for contaminant floc-
culation as well as water purification.4,63,128-132
Moringa oleifera has great potential to purify
domestic water sources as well as to be used in
agricultural, industrial, and municipal wastewater
treatment. A study by Ferreira et al133 demon-
strated the natural biocoagulant properties of M.
oleifera for water. The study showed that M. olei-
fera reduced turbidity, suspended solids and bac-
teria, and may be used on a commercial scale for
wastewater treatment. Other studies134-140 have
shown that M. oleifera is an effective, nontoxic,
environmentally friendly, low cost, sustainable
means of purifying water, aesthetically and
microbiologically. It may, therefore, serve as a
substitute for synthetic (usually imported) purifi-
cation agents (which may not be as biodegradable
and environmentally friendly as M. oleifera), thus
reducing expenditure by developing countries
and encouraging local trade. It, therefore, has
economic, public health, and environmental sus-
tainability relevance in this regard.
Its potential to detoxify industrial wastewaters
has received some attention in recent time. It
seems possible to use certain M. oleifera treat-
ments to remove organics from wastewaters. For
example, its pods have been demonstrated to be
suitable sorbents for the removal of organics such
as benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and cumene.
Since its pods, seeds, and leaves are cheap, indi-
genous, and readily available, this offers a cost-
effective alternative for wastewater treatment.141
Its relevant use in agriculture has been docu-
mented and is currently being explored in many
Alegbeleye
parts of the developing world.48 Due to its coa-
gulation, flocculation, and sedimentation proper-
ties, it has impressive capacity to detoxify
agricultural wastes. In intensive animal produc-
tion systems such as aquaculture, Moringa has
great potential to replace chemicals and antibio-
tics for waste treatment and disease prevention
and control, since it is an abundant source of
antioxidants, antimicrobials, and coagulating
substances.
Crude, ethanol, and aqueous extracts of M.
oleifera have been demonstrated to reduce micro-
bial levels in fish and shrimp farming.3,142,143
Moringa oleifera seed extracts have exhibited
antimicrobial activity against human pathogens
such as S aureus, E coli, and V cholerae isolated
from Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and shrimp
(Litopenaeus vannamei). Furthermore, ethanol
extracts of pods, seeds, and leaves as well as
chloroform extracts from flowers have exhibited
antibiotic potential against microorganisms such
as Vibrio spp., Hortaea wernecki, and Candida
spp. recovered from prawns (Macrobrachium
amazonicum).144
The antimicrobial potential of M. oleifera
against aquaculture relevant microbes is worth
exploring further because of its economic poten-
tial, as many of them are potentially zoonotic,
opportunistic pathogens that typically trigger eco-
nomic losses in aquaculture as well as pose public
health threats.145 Moreover, besides the inhibi-
tory effects of M. oleifera on different agricul-
tural/human relevant microbes, it has also been
reported that crude extracts of M. oleifera leaves
and seeds also inhibit microbial protease activity,
which causes muscular degradation in seafood
such as fish and shrimp during storage. It is there-
fore possible to use these extracts/preparations to
control seafood proteolysis and deterioration dur-
ing low temperature storage.48
In animal husbandry, the leaves and twigs
serve as fodder/forage for livestock, and local
farmers usually introduce these into drought-
ridden agricultural areas to augment fodder sup-
ply.4 Its use as a natural plant growth enhancer
has been described.63 The leaves are rich in zeatin
(a plant hormone belonging to the cytokinin
group), and the leaf extracts have been used to
stimulate plant growth, thereby increasing crop
161
yield. Research has shown its successful use with
wheat, rice, and maize.63,146 Its leaf and seed
extracts exhibit biopesticide activity and seem
to have the capacity to control the larvae, pupa,
and adults of Anopheles stephensi and Trogo-
derma granarium.63,89 The extracts may also
reduce the incidence of fungal species on ground-
nut seeds.146
In many rural areas, it is used as a fuel source,
for example, firewood for cooking and charcoal
production. One contemporary application of
Moringa (seeds) is as biomass for biofuel produc-
tion. With the current urgency to develop alterna-
tive (cleaner) sources of energy generation,
biodiesel has gained a lot of attention among
other viable options. Biodiesel is a renewable and
ecofriendly alternative to conventional nonre-
newable fossil fuel sources. Biodiesels are usu-
ally manufactured by chemically reacting lipids
of vegetable oil and animal fat.84 Cottonseed,
palm, peanut, rapeseed, soybean, and sunflower
are common examples of sources of vegetable
oils that have been successfully used in biodiesel
production. However, the use of these is limited
by global food insecurity, price, and availabil-
ity.84 Therefore, over the last several years, less
conventional oils such as Jatropha, Moringa, Pon-
gamia, and Tobacco have been the subject of
research in this regard.84 It has been established
that fatty acid methyl esters of M. oleifera seed oil
satisfy all the main criteria of biodiesel standards
of Germany, other parts of Europe, and the
United States.84,147 Moringa seeds have suffi-
ciently high oil content (about 40%) as well as
high-quality fatty acid composition (oleic acid >
70%).63 In addition, the oil wields significant
resistance against oxidative degradation, thus
making it a good candidate for biodiesel produc-
tion after transesterification.63 Another benefit of
utilizing M. oleifera for biofuel production is that
it does not directly compete with available farm-
land and food crops, being a second-generation
fuel production process and can be cultivated
under suboptimal conditions. It is therefore an
acceptable substitute to fossil fuels, even com-
pared with biodiesel derived from other plant
varieties.63,148
Some reports suggest the leaves are a useful
domestic cleaning agent.4,7,149 It is also used in
162
the production of cosmetics and health-care prod-
ucts such as body and hair moisturizers, perfume,
conditioners, lotions, ointments, and so on.63 Ben
oil is commonly used in the preparation of some
salads and as a lubricant.
In many parts of the developed world,
Moringa-based nutritional supplements, teas, her-
bal infusions, condiments such as curry, bev-
erages, food products, and baby formula are
being marketed. Although the efficacy of M. olei-
fera is widely known in the developing world,
there are not many industrial applications of its
parts yet, particularly in Africa. In other parts of
the world—the United States, China and Eur-
ope—the number of industrial, pharmaceutical,
medical, and food-processing patents and trade-
marks are growing. It will be impressive to see
this sort of advancements in developing countries
as well. It is in fact important that the developing
world participate in this Moringa commercial
boom. The plant is indigenous to this region and
can serve numerous health, nutritional, and eco-
nomic purposes.
Due to mainstream beliefs regarding its nutri-
tive and medicinal efficacy, demand for Moringa
plant parts and products has increased in recent
times. There are now more Moringa plantations
and processing (although more commonly, small
scale) outfits that are employing labor and
enabling people financially. These economic ben-
efits are not restricted to rural areas. In Nigeria,
for instance, many urban dwellers grow Moringa
in their yards and sell the pods, seeds, and leaves
to interested consumers.127,150 So many others
ingeniously process the leaves, for example, by
drying or grounding and then distribute and sell.
Some incorporate these preparations into locally
produced cosmetic products. It thus serves as a
source of income and employment opportunities
for both rural and urban dwellers.
Final Remarks
Based on the facts gleaned from the reviewed
studies, M. oleifera apparently has great potential
to improve nutrition among poor households and
boost overall well-being of humans in the devel-
oping world and beyond. It appears to be a very
important plant with enormous potentials yet to
Food and Nutrition Bulletin 39(1)
be fully explored in food science. However, it is
rapidly receiving some international attention.
For example, the Food and Agricultural Organi-
zation of the United Nations recognized Moringa
as the September 2014 traditional crop of the
month. Its remarkable relevance in combating
malnutrition has been abundantly highlighted in
the literature.
A balanced varied diet rich in meat, root,
grains, fruits, and vegetables is necessary for opti-
mum nutrition and well-being. However, a signif-
icant proportion of the world’s population cannot
afford such variety consistently. Some vital food
sources are seasonally unavailable, and during
this lean period, many people including infants
consume meals that are deficient in vital nutri-
ents. In addition to this, however, malnutrition
is due to numerous other factors such as, perva-
sive illiteracy, poverty, famine, disease patho-
gens, and suboptimal drinking water. Numerous
approaches have been proposed and explored to
combat malnutrition. Many of these focus on rec-
tifying micronutrient deficiencies alone, and
many of them have not effectively eradicated
malnutrition because these approaches and pro-
grams did not address other related problems.
However, compared to programs that rely on
imported products and foreign donor support and
subsidies, Moringa is advantageous because it is a
local resource. Its use is, therefore, bound to be
cost effective and sustainable.
The antimicrobial virtues of M. oleifera can
play relevant roles in minimizing the incidence
of water- and food-borne diseases such as dysen-
tery, diarrhea, and cholera, especially in rural
communities. Some of the studies reviewed also
indicate its potential as raw material for indus-
tries, its use in food preservation, and so on. Due
to the myriad biochemical attributes of this plant,
it can serve as a pivotal part in designing sustain-
able community development approaches.
Conclusions
Overall, M. oleifera is a valuable food crop whose
nutritive, healing, and socioeconomic potentials
are apparent. Numerous studies have described its
ability to regulate physiological processes as well
as prevent and cure diseases. Its ability to heal a
Alegbeleye
myriad of chronic afflictions is becoming more
evident. A plethora of traditional medicine refer-
ences attest to its curative potential and scientific
validation of these claims is rapidly developing to
substantiate some of the assertions. Scientists,
researchers, and conventional medicine are begin-
ning to acknowledge the relevance of the tree.
However, many of the available claims have
not been validated by placebo-controlled, rando-
mized clinical trials and have not been published
in high visibility journals. Many of the studies
reviewed in this summary, particularly those on
the medicinal benefits of the tree, require further
validation to corroborate their findings. Further
scientific research and more rigorous clinical
studies are required. There are so many shortfalls
and gaps in the available science, for instance,
many of the available studies have been con-
ducted using rats, and in as much as we can extra-
polate from these, more human studies are highly
desirable. Also, standardization is a serious issue,
as it seems that different extracts from different
parts of the tree exert unique therapeutic effects.
It is difficult to ascertain what parts offer the best
benefits and the effects that extraction methods
have on the potency of preparations. Further-
more, dosage is still a major challenge in this field
of research. It is very important to standardize
research before adopting parts or preparations of
M. oleifera as a supplement or curative measure.
There is very limited research regarding the
potential pharmaceutical side effects, allergies,
contraindications, and drug interactions with pre-
scribed medicines. Other problems include incon-
sistent methodologies as well as insufficient rigor
and detail in experiments. Finally, balanced evi-
dence from complementary and alternative med-
icine is required in order to offer M. oleifera use
the credibility it seemingly deserves.
Acknowledgments
The author gratefully acknowledges the financial sup-
port of Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cien-
tifico e Tecnológico (CNPq).
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest
with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publi-
cation of this article.
163
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following finan-
cial support for the research and/or authorship of this
article: Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cien-
tifico e Tecnológico (CNPq) (award grant number
148279/2017 -1).
ORCID iD
Oluwadara Oluwaseun Alegbeleye http://orcid.org/
0000-0002-2708-1301
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