1.

CARBONATION STUDY IN CONCRETE

1.1 Introduction

Carbonation is a process by which carbon dioxide from air penetrates into the concrete
and reacts with calcium hydroxide to form calcium carbonates. The corrosion of steel
reinforcement is mainly caused by the carbonation of concrete. The basic mechanism
involved in this process is atmosphere reacts with hydrated cement and destroys its
property of alkalinity. The transport properties like porosity, permeability, diffusion and
capillarity show their effect on carbonation. They also affect the durability of concrete
since they control the influence of chlorides. Durability of concrete structures is very
much important when the structures are openly exposed to the aggressive environments.
Carbonation destructs the structure and reduces its service life. In fact the negative effects
of carbonation can be reduced to the maximum extent by using high strength concrete and
proper compaction making the concrete denser. Carbonation can also be reduced by low
water/cement ratio. Low water/cement ratio and high strength concrete are possible by
Self Compacting Concrete (SCC) where effect of carbonation is less comparatively. The
carbonation is found to have tremendous impact on some of the engineering properties of
concrete. Mostly its influence is predominant on compressive strength and hardness than
any other properties.

Figure 1: Carbonation in concrete

The carbonation of concrete incorporating ground granulated blast-furnace slag GGBS,
fly ash FA and silica fume SF is also reviewed. It is observed that a decreased water-to-
binder ratio and replacement level of GGBS, FA, or SF, or an increase in GGBS fineness
and curing age in water, led to better carbonation resistance. The influence of CO2
concentration, a1mbient relative humidity (RH) and CO2 buffer capacity is also included
in this paper.
This paper incorporates the effectiveness of surface coatings on the carbonation of treated
concretes under various conditions.

1.2 Carbonation Process

Carbonation takes place between atmospheric Carbon Dioxide (CO2) and the products of
cement hydration particularly Calcium Hydroxide (Ca(OH)2).

Figure 2 : Mechanism of Carbonation

The Hydration products (calcium silicate hydrate or CSH gel) and even the residual
unhydrated compounds such as Tricalcium silicate (C3S) and Dicalcium silicate (C2S)
react with CO2.
The various external and internal factors such as Ambient relative humidity,
Concentration of carbon dioxide, Surface protection, Grade of concrete, Permeability
of concrete, Depth of cover to reinforcement, Water-cement ratio, Time of exposure,
Orientation of building etc. affects the rate of carbonation.
1.3 Literature Review
1.3.1 Constituents Influence Carbonation
1.3.1.1 Effect of water/cement ratio

From various research studies it was identified that water/cement ratio has a profound
effect on carbonation irrespective of the mix design. Water/cement ratio was found to
be most authentic and reliable parameter that helps in predicting the resistance of
normally vibrated concrete to carbonation. It has been concluded by the earlier
research studies that the carbonation depth is directly related to water/cement ratio
and it is identified that depth of carbonation increases with increase in water/cement
ratio. It is also directly related to the age of the concrete. It has also been found that
depth of carbonation has been reduced greatly by reducing water/cement ratio. It is
observed at low values of water/cement ratio the depth of carbonation is low but there
seems a continuous increase in depth of carbonation at higher values of water/cement
ratios. Some of the researchers have concluded that carbonation decreases with
decrease in water/cement ratio in some tropical arid regions.

1.3.1.2 Effect of water/binder ratio:

It has been found that water/binder ratio has a significant effect on depth of
carbonation. Water/binder ratio plays a vital role in defining the relationship between
compressive strength and permeability of concrete. Water/binder ratio at lower levels
does not influence carbonation depth but higher ratios influence other properties.
Carbonation depth increases with increase in water/binder ratio. Hence it was found
that carbonation depth is directly proportional to water/binder ratio. Slump values also
had a tremendous impact on carbonation depth, increase in slump increases depth of
carbonation. Fly Ash (FA) has also had a greater effect on carbonation depth and
strength of concrete. High levels of water/binder ratio with fly ash have a substantial
effect on all the properties.

1.3.1.4 Effect of porosity:

Studies show that increase in porosity results in increasing depth of carbonation. It
means that when water content is increased porosity also increased which results in
increase of depth of carbonation. When water content is reduced porosity is also
reduced this results in reduction of depth of carbonation. Further it was observed that
carbonation depth is increased in the environment where CO2 presence is more.

1.3.1.5 Effect of cover:

The depth of carbonation is reduced primarily when the reinforcement is provided
with substantial cover as per design specifications. Protected surfaces resist the
diffusion of CO2 thereby reduce the effect of carbonation. The effect of carbonation is
more on the non-protective areas rather than protected areas. It was proved by the
earlier studies that plastering helps to the great extent in reducing carbonation affect.
Previous studies have shown that both amount of carbonation and depth of
carbonation are drastically reduced when proper plastering is provided. Application of
surface coating reduces carbonation levels to the maximum extent. It was suggested
by previous studies that the cover thickness up to 40mm would be very effective in
reducing the effect of carbonation. Double layer protective coatings were found very
effective in preventing the diffusion of CO2. Application of surface coatings is a
fundamental preventive and remedial measure to reduce the intensity of carbonation.
Earlier researchers have found and suggested that a minimum of 25mm cover
thickness is to be provided for effective prevention of carbonation. Replacement of
FA is also found to be effective in reducing the intensity of carbonation.

1.3.1.6 Effect of curing period:

Curing of concrete has an important contribution that influences many properties of
concrete. It shows direct impact on strength and service life of the concrete. Heat of
hydration is an exothermic reaction which takes place in concrete and liberates heat
energy. Due to this process cracks are developed in structures subsequently and
strength of the concrete is decreased. Proper curing is required to prevent this
unwanted effect on concrete. It is observed from the previous studies that the strength
of the concrete is increased with curing periods. Increase in curing period results in
reduction of permeability. Increase in curing period increases strength of concrete and
decreases depth of carbonation. The addition of mineral admixtures like GGBS and
SF reduces the permeability and in turn the depth of carbonation is decreased. Hence
it was concluded that curing period has direct impact on permeability, strength of
concrete and depth of carbonation.
1.3.1.7 Effect of grade of concrete:
Previous studies revealed the fact that the extent of carbonation is limited to surface
layers of concrete. Increase in depth of concrete is also very slow and it may not
exceed 20 mm in 50 years, whereas in porous concrete the depth of carbonation may
be increased to 100 mm in 50 years since dense concrete prevent the diffusion of CO2
effectively rather than porous concrete.

1.3.1.8 Effect of compressive strength:

The strength of concrete depends on various factors such as mix proportion of the
concrete, water/cement ratio, quantity of cement content, method and degree of
compaction, type of curing and period of curing. From the earlier studies it was
proved that the strength of concrete has direct influence on carbonation. Increase in
compressive strength reduces depth of carbonation. It is observed that SCC (self-
compacting concrete) offers very good resistance to porosity rather than normally
vibrated concrete (NVC). Depth of carbonation is also decreased in case of self-
compacting concrete. SCC made of GGBS and SF offers good resistance to the
carbonation effect. SCC is proved as the best concrete which reduces the depth of
carbonation to the maximum levels. Mineral admixtures like GGBS and SF reduce
porosity and increase strength of concrete and it leads to the reduction of carbonation
effect.

1.3.2 Evaluation of Depth of Carbonation

The phenolphthalein indicator method is a very popular method for measuring the
depth of carbonation of concrete which involves spraying of solution on the concrete
surface shows a change in colour depending on the pH factor.

Figure 3: Measurement of Carbonation Depth

The measurement was carried out immediately after the broken surface was exposed
and after applying phenolphthalein indicator, which lose their colour, are to be judged
as carbonated. Hand microscope is also a popular method which is being used to
measure the depth of carbonation. It is necessary to record the average depth and
maximum depth of penetration. The depth of carbonation is measured from the
surface of the sample.

Figure 4: Measurement of Carbonation Depth

Figure 5: pH Indicator Method

The carbonation depth of the specimens was monitored every two weeks in the first
two months, and thereafter once a month up to 12 months. After a certain exposure
period, the specimens were split and freshly broken surfaces were sprayed with a
standard solution of 1% phenolphthalein in 70% ethyl alcohol. In the noncarbonated
region with pH values above 9.2, the indicator turned purple-red; in the carbonated
portion with pH less than 9.2, the solution remained colourless. The distance between
the colour change boundary and the concrete surface was measured as the carbonation
depth. The depths at the corners of each sample and behind the coarse aggregate were
excluded.

1.3.3 Carbonation of Concrete Containing Mineral Admixtures

As it was observed from the previous studies strength of concrete reduces with
increased depth of carbonation. Many of the industrial by-products like GGBS, SF,
FA, Metakaolin etc are increasingly used in constructions as they contribute to the
improvement of various other properties. They improve strength of concrete and
results in reduction of carbonation depth, replacement of cement also facilitate some
benefits like reduction of shrinkage, expansion etc. Some of the studies revealed that
lower levels of replacement i.e. 0-30% replacements observed beneficial rafter than
higher replacements like beyond 60%. The compressive strength is improved by 30%
replacement of FA. It was identified from previous studies the depth of carbonation of
High Volume Fly Ash (HVFA) with 90 days curing period is nearly equal to plain
concrete. It is true that FA increases carbonation depth, but with HVFA with curing
period 90 days reduces the carbonates depth.

Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS)

The strength of the concrete and porosity chiefly depends on water/cement ratio and
supplementary cementitious materials like GGBS, Silica fume, etc used. More
particularly GGBS and Silica fume used as cement replacement materials in concrete.
GGBS and Silica fume form less porous and offer good binding strength in concrete.
The depth of carbonation depends on strength and porosity of the concrete.
Silica fume (SF)
Silica fume is very effective in reducing permeability of cement in paste form and in
concrete it also reduces porosity. It plays very significant role in the process of
development of high strength and high performance concrete. The concrete made of
SF will have very good bond strength and offers resistance to abrasion. The
compressive strength will also be improved with the addition SF. The increase in
compressive strength is also accompanied by increase in carbonation depth. When SF
reacts with calcium hydroxide the pH value of pore solution is reduced and it
indicates the initiation of carbonation process. The previous studies have revealed the
fact that beyond 10% replacement of silica fume will show its effect on carbonation
and is also responsible for corrosion.

Studies show that in the context of carbonation, there is debate over the incorporation
of mineral admixtures in concrete. The addition of mineral admixtures may have little
influence on the rate of carbonation. The lower water requirement of concrete
containing mineral admixtures except silica fume, coupled with pore refinement
through the formation of additional C-S-H may lead to a denser microstructure of the
cement matrix, thus reducing the rate of diffusion of CO2 . The pozzolanic reaction
consumes Ca~OH)2 from the cement paste and thereby reduces the amount of
Ca~OH)2 available per unit area to react with the available CO2 , which may result in
faster movement of the carbonation front. The uncertainties over the carbonation of
concrete containing mineral admixtures are investigated.

It is observed that a lower w/b in the range of 0.3–0.6 and a prolonged curing age in
water from one to 28 days, generally led to a slower rate of carbonation, possibly due
to pore structure densification, as indicated by a decrease in cumulative and
differential pore volumes. To improve the carbonation resistance of concrete,
sufficient water curing of at least seven days is necessary for plain OPC concrete,
whereas an extended curing age in water is required for GGBS, FA, and SF concrete.
The carbonation rate of low fineness GGBS and FA concrete increased with an
increase in OPC replacement level. In the case of SF, both replacement percentages 5
and 10% led to a lower carbonation rate compared to that of OPC. However, 5%
replacement showed a better performance than 10% replacement. Concrete containing
low fineness GGBS and FA exhibited higher rates of carbonation than plain OPC
concrete. The reduction in (CaOH)2 content seemed to have more influence over pore
refinement, and hence led to faster rates of carbonation. For concrete incorporating
GGBS of higher fineness and silica fume, the carbonation rates were lower than that
of plain OPC concrete. The pore modification, being more dominant than the change
in Ca~OH)2 content, appeared to control the carbonation rate. The ternary blended
concrete containing 35% OPC, 55% GGBS, and 10% SF showed a higher carbonation
rate than the plain OPC mixture and 10% SF concrete. Compared to 65% GGBS
concrete, the ternary blended concrete exhibited a lower rate of carbonation. The
Ca~OH)2 content of concrete decreased with an increased OPC replacement
percentage by GGBS 30–65%, FA 15–30%, or SF 5–10%, due to the pozzolanic
reaction. As compared to GGBS or FA concrete, the reduction in Ca~OH)2 was much
smaller for SF concrete due to its lower replacement levels. Hence, SF concrete
generally showed higher carbonation resistance, since pore refinement was likely to
dominate over the change in Ca~OH)2 content. The carbonation coefficient increased
with a decrease in compressive strength, as described by a linear relationship. The
good correlation between these parameters demonstrated that in addition to the
carbonation coefficient, compressive strength served as a good indicator for the
carbonation rate of concrete with and without mineral admixtures.

1.3.3 Influence of CO2 Concentration and Relative Humidity on Carbonation

Usually, accelerated tests are used to assess the carbonation resistance of concrete.
The CO2 concentrations used in such tests can vary widely from 0.03 to 100 % and
the relative humidity (RH) generally ranges from 50 to 65 %.The effect of CO2
concentration and ambient relative humidity (RH) on accelerated and natural
carbonation of 18 concrete mixtures produced with nine different cement types is
investigated. Increasing the CO2 concentration in accelerated tests can change both
the porosity and the resulting phases compared to natural carbonation. In general,
carbonation leads to a decrease of total porosity. The decrease of porosity increases
with increasing CO2 concentrations. In the case of cements blended with siliceous
additions the decrease in porosity is less pronounced with increasing degree of cement
clinker replacement and a significant coarsening of the pore size distribution may be
observed. During carbonation the portlandite is converted to CaCO3 releasing water
and the calcium–silicate–hydrate (C–S–H) is decalcified leading to a phase with a
lower Ca/Si-ratio. In a first step, C–S–H is gradually decalcified and in a second step,
calcium from the principal layers is consumed leading to the formation of amorphous
silica. With increasing CO2 concentrations the degree carbonation of the portlandite
increases and the decalcification of the C–S–H is more pronounced leading to
complete disappearance of C–S–H in case of 100 % CO2. Moreover, the amount of
the different CaCO3 polymorphs calcite, vaterite and aragonite seem to be influenced
as well by the CO2 concentration, although the results of different studies differ.
However, a CO2 concentration of 3 % results in similar reaction products as formed
in natural carbonation. As such, employing a CO2 concentration in this range seems
to be appropriate for accelerated tests.

In this study the influence of CO2 concentration, ambient RH and CO2 buffer
capacity on accelerated and natural carbonation of concrete produced with different
cement types are investigated. 18 concrete mixtures produced with nine different
cement types are investigated. The influence of CO2- concentration is studied at three
different CO2 levels (0.045, 1.0 and 4.0 %) and constant RH of 57 %. The influence
of RH is investigated at three different levels (57 %, 70 %, 80 %) and constant CO2-
concentrationof 4 %. Carbonation coefficients in sheltered and unsheltered conditions
are determined after an exposure of 2 years to link the accelerated test to natural
carbonation. Moreover, compressive strength and oxygen diffusion are measured.

Increasing the CO2 concentration from 0.045 to 1 and 4 % at 57 % RH does not alter
the relative carbonation resistance between the concrete mixtures. The increase of RH
from 57 to 70 and 80 %RH at 4 % CO2 shows a water-to-cement ratio and cement
specific effect that affects the relative carbonation resistance between the concrete
mixtures. The carbonation resistance at 4 % CO2 and 57 % RH allows assessing the
carbonation resistance of concrete in sheltered and with restrictions in unsheltered
outdoor exposure. The carbonation resistance below 70 % RH is mainly governed by
the CO2 buffer capacity. However, in the accelerated tests at 80 % RH and in the
unsheltered outdoor exposure capillary condensation is of increased importance.

1.3.3.1 Role of CO2 Concentration

The changes in the ranking of the concrete in regard to its carbonation resistance
going from 4 to 1 and 0.045 % CO2 are only minor. This indicates that CO2
concentrations up to 4 % are suitable for ranking the carbonation resistance of
concrete produced with different cement types and w/c. The CO2 concentration
influences the resulting porosity, phases formed and degree of carbonation. Even,
when the resulting microstructure and products formed due to carbonation at low CO2
concentrations of 0.03 and 3 % are very similar, it cannot be excluded that in increase
to 4 % changes this situation. Nevertheless, it is clear from the presented data that an
increase from 1 to 4 % CO2 has little effect on the ranking of the concrete mixtures.
Consequently, an acceleration of carbonation by an increase of CO2 concentration up
to a level of 4 % seems to be feasible.

1.3.3.2 Relative Humidity (RH) on Carbonation

The response of a concrete to carbonation at increased RH is both dependent on

cement type and w/c. The reason for this behaviour is likely caused by capillary
condensation. As total porosity and pore size decrease with decreasing w/c, the
percentage of pores filled with water due to capillary condensation, which slows
down carbonation, is higher for the concrete with low w/c. Additionally, the pore size
distribution at a given w/c is cement-specific. Mortar and concrete with siliceous
additions result in a higher amount of fine pores and with it a higher percentage of
pores filled with capillary condensed and adsorbed water at a given RH. Concrete
produced with slow hydrating siliceous additions dries faster than a pure OPC. The
drying affects hydration and results in a higher porosity and coarser pore structure
compared to concrete with longer curing. Moreover, the air permeability of cement
paste containing siliceous addition is increased more than the one of concrete
produced with OPC with a shortening of curing time. As a result, the short curing may
have had a stronger influence on the concrete with siliceous additions and high w/c
than on the other mixtures resulting in a relatively coarse pore system and less
pronounced effect of capillary condensation on carbonation at high RH. In any case,
the wide range of cement types and w/c used for the experimental matrix in
combination with the short curing makes it difficult to distinguish between the effects
of hydration, pore structure and capillary condensation on the carbonation at different
RH.
1.3.3.3 Relation of carbonation with CO2 buffer capacity
The carbonation coefficient of mortar and concrete produced with different cement
type is mainly governed by the CO2 buffer or binding capacity per volume of the
cement paste. The CaO present in the hydrates will be transferred into CaCO3 upon
carbonation. Because the degree of hydration in a concrete is usually not known, the
entire reactive CaO in a binder can be taken into account assuming complete
hydration. The buffer capacity per volume of cement paste can be taken into account
by the w/CaO reactive. As the term is a mass ratio between water and solid, it
additionally contains information about porosity and microstructure. As a mass ratio
the w/CaO reactive is independent of the cement paste volume per cubic meter of
concrete and independent of the total cement content per cubic meter of concrete. If
only the CaO that already has reacted and is part of hydrates is considered, the buffer
capacity is expressed as w/CaO reacted. This requires an assessment of the degree of
hydration. The degree of hydration depends on curing and likely, there is gradient in
the degree of hydration as a function of depth from the concrete surface as pointed out
in. Moreover, the degree of hydration can change during exposure, if the environment
provides sufficient moisture.

The buffer capacity governs carbonation resistance at low RH. The amount of pores
filled with water by capillary condensation at increase RH is w/c- and cement-
specific. As such, the influence of the buffer capacity as a chemical parameter
decreases and the influence of capillary condensation as a physical parameter
increases, resulting in a worsening of the correlation between carbonation coefficients
and w/CaO. The w/CaO reacted is confirmed to be a useful tool to predict the
carbonation resistance of concrete produced with different w/c and cement types.

1.3.4 Influence of Surface Coatings on Carbonation of Concrete

The deterioration of reinforced concrete structures resulting from reinforced corrosion

is due primarily to the penetration of substances such as carbon dioxide, chloride ions,
water, and oxygen into the concrete cover. Thus a significant consideration in
reaching any repair strategy is whether to coat the concrete surface to inhibit the
ingress of these penetrating substances. Broadly, the requirements of coatings are for
a low permeability to- carbon dioxide yet high permeability-to-water vapour to allow
"breathing" of the substrate, flexibility to accommodate movement and crack
bridging, and a long life to first repair. It is commonly accepted that chloride ions can
only be transported into concrete, or diffuse through concrete, in liquid-phase water.
A water-resisting coating will, therefore, generally hinder the ingress of chlorides but
may still allow the concrete to carbonate.

In choosing a coating, care should be taken concerning its durability as the

effectiveness of a coating will diminish once it is exposed to natural weathering.
Coating thickness will decrease due to surface erosion. The performance of surface
coatings for concrete as carbon dioxide barriers depends not only on the coatings, but
also on the condition of the concrete substrate. In evaluating the effectiveness of a
proposed coating, the mode of application, the coverage rate, and the surface texture
of the substrate are important and therefore must be similar to those under
consideration. The minimum required effectiveness of a coating depends on job
requirements, and in its specification, the influence of the coating on the moisture
condition of the substrate has to be taken into account.

1.3.5 Influence of mix parameters on rate of carbonation

Studies show that, the effect of water-cement ratio is to increase the depth of
carbonation for all the aggregate-cement ratios. Generally this effect increased
towards higher aggregate-cement ratios. Apart from experimental variation, the rate of
carbonation remained almost constant at different aggregate-cement ratios for all
water-cement ratios. The increase in the rate of carbonation due to the increase in
water-cement ratio can be related to increased porosity and carbon dioxide transport.
There was an increase in depth of carbonation due to an increase in aggregate-cement
ratio. However, the data obtained from the literature was for concretes for which the
water cement ratio increased when the aggregate-cement ratio increased. But it is
concluded that there is no significant effect due to an increase in aggregate-cement
ratio on the rate of carbonation. Both cement and water content together (i.e. W/C
effect) contributed to about 80% variation of the rate of carbonation. Other factors,
such as the amount of fine aggregate and coarse aggregate in the mix, have no
significant effect on the rate of carbonation. For each aggregate-cement ratio, the
cement content varied slightly when the water-cement ratio was changed. However,
the main effect that can be seen is that the main variation in rate of carbonation is due
to the change in water-cement ratio. For the whole range of cement content tested, the
rate of carbonation decreased marginally with an increase in cement content.
However, this cannot be considered as overly significant. Another trend which can be
obtained is that, for a given water-cement ratio, the increase in aggregate-cement ratio
resulted in a significant decrease in cement content and this, in turn, decreased the rate
of carbonation. However, there was kink in the trend for all water-cement ratios. The
reduction in rate of carbonation is considered to be due to the reduction in calcium
oxide with the decrease in cement content.

1.4 Conclusion
General conclusions are drawn from the extensive review of literature on carbonation
on concrete:
1. The influence of water/cement ratio is very much significant on the strength of the
concrete since the strength of the concrete depends on water/cement ratio. The depth
of carbonation depends on water/cement ratio higher water/cement ratio contributes to
higher carbonation depth.
2. Increase in curing period reduces the carbonation depth. The resistant power of the
concrete to carbonation is increased with sufficient and substantial curing periods.
3. To improve the resisting power of the plain concrete at least 7 days curing is
mandatory.
4. Addition of admixtures modifies the pore structure of the concrete and reduces the
porosity. If porosity increases carbonation depth also increases hence a linear
relationship exist between accelerated carbonation and porosity.
7. The application of surface coatings and provision of proper cover considerably
reduces the rate of carbonation. The service life of the concrete can be enhanced.
8. The compressive strength also depends on water/binder ratio and mineral
admixtures both higher and lower water/binder ratio affects the properties of concrete.
9. The use of SCC has been proved to be the best to improve the durability
characteristic of concrete in relation to the carbonation of concrete.
1.5 References
1. Ho, D. W. S., and R. K. Lewis. 1987, Cement and Concrete Research, 17(3), pp
489-504.
2. Al-Khaiat, Husain, and Nijad Fattuhi. 2002, Journal of materials in civil
engineering, 14(2), pp 97-107.
3. Dinakar, P., K. G. Babu, and Manu Santhanam. 2007, Cement and Concrete
Composites, 29(2), pp 136-145.
4. Fattuhi, N. I. 1986, Materials and Structures, 19(2), pp 131-136.
5. Shi, Hui-sheng, Bi-wan Xu, and Xiao-chen Zhou. 2009, Construction and
Building Materials, 23(5), pp 1980-1985.
6. Ramezanianpour, A. A., and V. M. Malhotra. 1995, Cement and concrete
composites, 17(2), pp 125-133.
7. Ho,D.W.S.,and Lewis,R. 1983, Aci Special Publ.,79, pp 33-46
8. A. Narender Reddy and Prof. Meena. T, 2017, International Journal of Civil
Engineering and Technology, 8(4), pp 2089-2097.
9. Gnanasoundarya S, Varun Teja K and Meena T, 2017, International Journal of
Civil Engineering and Technology, 8(5), pp 895-903.
10. Andreas Leemann, Fabrizio Moro, 2015, Carbonation of concrete: the role of CO2
concentration,relative humidity and CO2 buffer capacity, Springer
11. David W. S. Ho and Rex S. Harrison, 1990, ASCE Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering Vol. 2, Issue 1 (February 1990)
12. P. Sulapha; S. F. Wong; T. H. Wee; and S. Swaddiwudhipong, Journal of
Materials in Civil Engineering Vol. 15, Issue 2 (April 2003)
13. Aguiar, Jose B., and Cristela Júnior. 2013, Construction and Building and
Materials, 49, pp 478-483.
14. Jiang, Linhua, Baoyu Lin, and Yuebo Cai. 2000 Cement and Concrete Research,
30(5), pp 699-702.
15. Lo, T. Y., W. C. Tang, and Abid Nadeem. 2008, Construction and Building
Materials 22(8), pp 1648-1655.
16. Rao, N. Venkat, M. Rajasekhar, and G. Chinna Rao. &quot 2014, Am. J. Eng. Res,
3(03), pp 359-364.
17. Raphael, M., and R. Shalon. 1971., BRS, Haifa, Israel.
18. Fattuhi, N. I. 1987, Durability of building materials, 4(4), pp 309-321.
19. Alexander, K. M., and Wardlaw, J. (1959). "A possible mechanism for
carbonation shrinkage and crazing, based on the study of thin layers of hydrated
cement."
20. Australian J. of Appl. Sci., 10(4), 470-483.
21. Beckett, D. (1986). "Carbonation and its influence on the durability of reinforced
concrete buildings." Construction Repairs and Maintenance, 2(1), 14-16.
22. Browne, R. D., and Robery, P. C. (1987). "Practical experience in the testing of
surface coatings for reinforced concrete." Proc. Fourth Int. Conf. on Durability of
Building Material and Components, 325-333.
23. Abdel-Jawad, Y., and Hansen, W. 1989. ‘‘Pore structure of hydrated portland
cement measured by nitrogen sorption and mercury intrusion porosimetry.’’ Pore
structure and permeability of cementitious materials,Vol. 137, L. R. Roberts and J.
P. Skalny, eds., Materials Research Society, Pittsburgh, 105–118.
24. Chan, Y. N., Luo, X., and Sun, W. 2000. ‘‘Compressive strength and pore
structure of high performance concrete after exposure to high temperature up to
800°C.’’ Cem. Concr. Res., 303, 247–251.
25. Collins, F., and Sanjayan, J. G. 2000. ‘‘Effect of pore size distribution on drying
shrinkage of alkali-activated slag concrete.’’ Cem. Concr.Res., 308, 1401–1406.
26. Balayssac, J. P., Ch H. Détriché, and J. Grandet. 1995, Construction and Building
Materials 9(2), pp 91-95.
27. Younsi, A., et al. 2011, Cement and Concrete Composites 33(10), pp 993-1000.
28. Bai, J., S. Wild, and B. B. Sabir. 2002, Cement and Concrete Research 32(11), pp
1813-1821.
29. Kulakowski, Marlova P., Fernanda M. Pereira, and Denise CC Dal Molin. 2009,
Construction and Building Materials, 23(3), pp 1189-1195.
30. A. Narender Reddy and Prof. Meena. T, 2017, International Journal of Civil
Engineering and Technology,pp 2089-2097.
31. Gnanasoundarya S, Varun Teja K and Meena T, 2017, International Journal of
Civil Engineering and Technology, 8(5), pp 895-903.