Contents

2 Nanofabrication .................................................................................................................................... 3
Q 2.1: Thin films (in nm thickness-range) are important nanostructures. How can Silicon dioxide
thin films (SiO2) be fabricated? Name several techniques and explain briefly. ................................. 3
Q 2.2: There is a difference between film formation due to conversion and deposition. Explain in
the context of Silicon dioxide films. .................................................................................................... 5
Q 2.3: The oxidation of Silicon wafers can be achieved by so-called dry or wet oxidation. Explain
the difference. In terms of electrical quality (defects, avalanche voltage), which process is
preferable? Find typical avalanche voltages (in the www) of a) two parallel plate electrodes in air
and b) of high-quality SiO2-films with thermally oxidized Si-wafers (hint: the unit should be V cm−1
). Compare and be astonished :-) ....................................................................................................... 6
Q 2.4: Sketch the conventional radiation furnace for the classical oxidation of silicon wafers! ........ 6
Q 2.5: Which 3 main parameters influence the thermal oxidation of Silicon? Can you give trends,
how they influence the growth rate of silicon dioxide on (into) Si? Growing 100 nm of SiO2 on a Si-
surface, how many nm of Silicon are approximately consumed? ...................................................... 8
My addition: ........................................................................................................................................ 9
Does surface orientation has an effect at this number? ..................................................................... 9
Q 2.6: Discuss the terms native oxide, reaction-limited oxide growth and diffusion-limited oxide
growth. .............................................................................................................................................. 10
Q 2.7: Discuss the degree of conformity of thin films for the deposition technologies a) sputtering,
b) ALD, c) evaporation and d) CVD. Give a cross-sectional sketch on how a trench in the substrate is
covered by the methods given above. .............................................................................................. 11
Q 2.8: You are asked to evaporate an insulating thin film. Which method, e-beam or thermal
evaporation is better suited? Why? .................................................................................................. 12
Q 2.9: Why do you think, high-vacuum conditions are needed when especially evaporating ignoble
metals? .............................................................................................................................................. 14
Q 2.10: Calculate the mean-free-path of atoms during evaporation in a vacuum chamber at a base
pressure of p = 1 × 10−6 mbar. Hint: The order of magnitude is sufficient. ..................................... 15
Q 2.11: Compare the boiling temperature of W, Pt, Ti and Al at p = 1 × 10−6 mbar. What material is
easiest to evaporate, which hardest? What are typical materials for the evaporation crucible? .... 16
Q 2.12: We discussed three zones of different morphologies of evaporated films. What zone is
normally aimed for? Why is there a trade-off between low substrate temperature and good
morphology of the film? .................................................................................................................... 17
Q 2.13: Why is Ar often used as working gas for sputtering processes? Which drawback could you
think of, when using Ar gas to deposit high-quality thin films? Which other working gases for
sputtering could you think of? .......................................................................................................... 18
Q 2.14: What is a typical operating pressure for Ar plasma in chamber? Do you think, high vacuum
conditions (p < 1 × 10−7 mbar) are still needed, when sputtering with an Ar plasma, as long as the
partial pressure of Ar is higher than the chamber’s base pressure? ................................................ 18
Q 2.15: What problems do occur, when sputtering oxide materials with a DC plasma source
(triode-sputtering)? Sketch an RF-magnetron source including vacuum chamber. What parameter
is added in the Thornton zone-model compared to the simpler model in evaporation? ................ 19
Q 2.16: Discuss the differences of kinetic energies of e.g. Cu atoms, when deposited either by
evaporation or sputtering. ................................................................................................................ 20
Q 2.17: Water vapor at the chamber walls is a common problem when pumping vacuum
chambers. What are typical countermeasures to significantly speed up pump-down times?......... 21
Q 2.18: What is the time to form a gaseous monolayer on a substrate, operating the evaporation
tool at a base pressure of p = 1 × 10−6 mbar? .................................................................................. 23
Q 2.19: What is the difference between additive and subtractive patterning. Name and sketch two
of them. ............................................................................................................................................. 23
2 Nanofabrication
Q 2.1: Thin films (in nm thickness-range) are important nanostructures. How can Silicon
dioxide thin films (SiO2) be fabricated? Name several techniques and explain briefly.

1.Thermal oxidation (Under Conversion): /// slides: 8-9-10

microfabrication, thermal oxidation is a way to produce a thin layer of oxide(usually silicon
dioxide) on the surface of a wafer. The technique forces an oxidizing agent to diffuse into the
wafer at high temperature and react with it. The rate of oxide growth is often predicted by
the Deal-Grove model.[1] Thermal oxidation may be applied to different materials, but most
commonly involves the oxidation of siliconsubstrates to produce silicon dioxide.

Ref: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_oxidation

Thermal oxidation is a technique that uses extremely high temperatures (usually between 700-1300
oC) to promote the growth rate of oxide layers. If grown correctly using a high purity low defect
Silicon substrate it can be an excellent dielectric thin film. The thermal oxidation of SiO2 consists of
exposing the silicon substrate to an oxidizing environment of O2 or H2O at elevated temperature and
producing oxide films whose thicknesses 11 range from 60 to 10000 Å. Oxidation of silicon is easily
possible, since silicon can form a stable oxide even at room temperature, as long as an oxidizing
environment is present. The elevated temperature serves primarily as an accelerator of the oxidation
process, resulting in thicker oxide layers.

Depending on which oxidant species is used (O2 or H2O), the thermal oxidation of SiO2 may either
be in the form of dry oxidation (wherein the oxidant is O2) or wet oxidation (wherein the oxidant is
H2O).

Ref: http://ethesis.nitrkl.ac.in/5019/1/411PH2100.pdf

2. Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD) (under deposition):// Slide:16

Physical vapor deposition (PVD) describes a variety of vacuum deposition methods which can
be used to produce thin films and coatings. PVD is characterized by a process in which the
material goes from a condensed phase to a vapor phase and then back to a thin film condensed
phase. The most common PVD processes are sputtering and evaporation. PVD is used in the
manufacture of items which require thin films for mechanical, optical, chemical or electronic
functions. Examples include semiconductor devices such as thin film solar
panels,[1] aluminized PET film for food packaging and balloons,[2] and titanium nitridecoated cutting
tools for metalworking. Ref: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_vapor_deposition

Condensed: yoğunlaşmış

Evaporation: buharlaştırma

Sputtering: püskürtme

3. Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) (under deposition) :

(CVD) is a process in which a solid layer is formed from gas molecules (precursors) via chemical
reactions (in the gas and/or on the substrate surface).
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is a deposition method used to produce high quality, high-
performance, solid materials, typically under vacuum. The process is often used in
the semiconductor industry to produce thin films.
In typical CVD, the wafer (substrate) is exposed to one or more volatile precursors,
which react and/or decompose on the substrate surface to produce the desired deposit.
Frequently, volatile by-products are also produced, which are removed by gas flow through the
reaction chamber.
Microfabrication processes widely use CVD to deposit materials in various forms,
including: monocrystalline, polycrystalline, amorphous, and epitaxial. These materials
include: silicon(dioxide, carbide, nitride, oxynitride), carbon
(fiber, nanofibers, nanotubes, diamond and graphene), fluorocarbons, filaments, tungsten, titaniu
m nitride and various high-k dielectrics.
Ref: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_vapor_deposition

4. Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD)

A basic schematic of the atomic layer deposition process. In Frame A, precursor 1 (in blue) is added to the
reaction chamber containing the material surface to be coated ALD. After precursor 1 has adsorbed on the
surface, any excess is removed from the reaction chamber. Precursor 2 (red) is added (Frame B) and
reacts with precursor 1 to create another layer on the surface (Frame C). Precursor 2 is then cleared from
the reaction chamber and this process is repeated until a desired thickness is achieved and the resulting
product resembles Frame D.

Atomic layer deposition (ALD) is a thin-film deposition technique based on the sequential use
of a gas phase chemical process. ALD is considered a subclass of chemical vapour deposition.
The majority of ALD reactions use two chemicals, typically called precursors. These precursors
react with the surface of a material one at a time in a sequential, self-limiting, manner. Through
the repeated exposure to separate precursors, a thin film is slowly deposited. ALD is a key
process in the fabrication of semiconductor devices, and part of the set of tools available for the
synthesis of nanomaterials.
Ref: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_layer_deposition

Others:

5. Pulsed Laser Deposition (PLD)

6. Plasma oxidation

7. Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapour Deposition (PECVD)

8. Wet anodization

Ref: http://ethesis.nitrkl.ac.in/5019/1/411PH2100.pdf

Q 2.2: There is a difference between film formation due to conversion and deposition.
Explain in the context of Silicon dioxide films.

Conversion: dönüştürme Deposition: gazdan katıya, katıdan gaza direk geçiş

Conversion is made by oxidation of the Silicon by using O2 of H2O, deposition made by changing the
state of the matter.

only thermal oxidation (it is under conversion) can provide the highest-quality oxides having the
lowest interface trap densities. Silicon dioxide is an excellent insulator and dielectric material.
Q 2.3: The oxidation of Silicon wafers can be achieved by so-called dry or wet oxidation.
Explain the difference. In terms of electrical quality (defects, avalanche voltage), which
process is preferable? Find typical avalanche voltages (in the www) of a) two parallel plate
electrodes in air and b) of high-quality SiO2-films with thermally oxidized Si-wafers (hint:
the unit should be V cm−1 ). Compare and be astonished :-)

Depending on which oxidant species is used (O2 or H2O), the thermal oxidation of SiO2 may either
be in the form of dry oxidation (wherein the oxidant is O2) or wet oxidation (wherein the oxidant is
H2O). Dry oxide is denser and of better electrical quality than wet oxide.

A dry oxidation produces a more uniform and denser thermal oxide with even higher dielectric
strength than compared to wet oxide. The major difference in the growth of wet and dry oxide is the
growth rate. Dry oxide grows at a much slower rate than wet oxide. For this reason dry oxides do not
exceed 1000 Å in thickness and are primarily used for thin gate and capacitor oxides where high
uniformity and high dielectric strength are needed.

Wet oxidation method is used to produce a thicker oxide 2,000-24,000Å, this thick oxide is usually
called "field oxide" and it is found in areas on the device where high dielectric strength is needed.

Avalanche voltage: An avalanche diode is a diode that is designed to break down and conduct at a
specified reverse bias voltage. This is somewhat similar, but not identical to Zener breakdown.
When avalanche occurs in a typical diode or other semiconductor, it generally causes catastrophic
failure.

Q 2.4: Sketch the conventional radiation furnace for the classical oxidation of silicon
wafers!

Radiation furnance: radyasyon fırını

Chapter 2: Slide:10
Q 2.5: Which 3 main parameters influence the thermal oxidation of Silicon? Can you give
trends, how they influence the growth rate of silicon dioxide on (into) Si? Growing 100 nm
of SiO2 on a Si-surface, how many nm of Silicon are approximately consumed?

Growth rate: the rate at which something, in particular an economy or business, grows ne
kadar hızlı olması.
Vapour: buharlaşma

Chapter 2// Slide:9

3 parameters: gas, temperature, surface orientation

Gas: wheter O2(dry) or H2O(wet) is used for oxidation of the silicon, the growth rate of the wet
oxidation is considerably higher than dry oxidation. It can be seen from the graphs above.

Temperature: “Thermal oxidation is a technique that uses extremely high temperatures (usually
between 700-1300 oC) to promote the growth rate of oxide layers.” So higher the temperature
better the growth rate. This conclusion also can be done by looking at the graphs above.

Surface orientation: Whether Si(111) or Si(100) is used. “Si(100) has a density of surface atoms of
6.78x1014/cm2 and Si(111) has a higher density of 7.83x1014/cm2 according to [1].”

Si(111) is denser than Si(100), as it can be seen from graph at the temperatures like 800°-1000°,
growth rate of the Si(111) is higher. As the temperature increase the growth rate of the both surfaces
become closer.

https://www.researchgate.net/post/Thermal_Conductivity_of_Si111_and_Si100

For 100 nm SiO2 consumed Si:

 𝒙𝒔𝒊
= 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓𝟓𝟓 ⇒ 𝒙𝒔𝒊 = 𝟒𝟓, 𝟓𝒏𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒏𝒎
http://web.pdx.edu/~davide/hw3.pdf
My addition:
Does surface orientation has an effect at this number?
Q 2.6: Discuss the terms native oxide, reaction-limited oxide growth and diffusion-limited
oxide growth.

Chapter 2//Slide:8

Native Oxide: Oxidation that happens at the room temperature, the thickness around 3nm.

Reaction and diffusion limited growth occurs at high temperatures.

At the early stages of oxidation, the oxide thickness is relatively small so that the timescale of
diffusion of oxidizing species through the oxide layer is much smaller than the timescale of the
oxidation reaction, i.e. oxidation is reaction-limited.

As the oxide layer becomes thicker, the timescale of diffusion through this layer exceeds the reaction
timescale at the Si-SiO2 interface, thus the reaction becomes diffusion-limited.
Ref: http://ww2.che.ufl.edu/unit-ops-lab/experiments/semiconductors/oxide-growth/Oxide-growth-
theory.pdf

Q 2.7: Discuss the degree of conformity of thin films for the deposition technologies a)
sputtering, b) ALD, c) evaporation and d) CVD. Give a cross-sectional sketch on how a
trench in the substrate is covered by the methods given above.

Degree of conformity: uygunluk derecesi

For this a conformal deposition is necessary: (conform = same layer thickness everywhere)

a)Sputtering: medium

The sputtering process produces a large angular distribution, resulting in acceptable edge coverage.

Slide:22

b)ALD: high degree of conformity: Chapter3//Slide:18

c) evaporation: low, does not used in mass production because edge coverage is too poor. It cannot
cover a trench.

Evaporation is not often used in mass-production because the edge coverage is too poor and the
wafer throughput is too low. Also the stoichiometric evaporation of material mixtures Al(Cu) is
difficult. But for research labs perfect , because a simple and reliable process. Lift-off processing
also works due to poor edge coverage.

Chapeter 2//Slide:17

d)CVD: high degree of conformity

Chapet 3/Slide:9

Q 2.8: You are asked to evaporate an insulating thin film. Which method, e-beam or
thermal evaporation is better suited? Why?
Ref: https://www.mrsec.harvard.edu/education/ap298r2004/Erli%20chenFabrication%20II%20-
%20Deposition-1.pdf
The deposition rate describes how much usable weld metal will be deposited in one hour of actual arc-ontime.

E-beam seems more efficient becuase it has higher deposition rate than thermal evaporation.
Q 2.9: Why do you think, high-vacuum conditions are needed when especially evaporating
ignoble metals?

The most important point, though, is that high-vacuum is a lower pressure than low-vacuum.
Ref: http://www.npl.co.uk/reference/faqs/what-do-high-vacuum-and-low-vacuum-mean-(faq-pressure)

Chapter 2//Slide:28
Atmospheric pressure is around 105 mbar
The vacuum evaporation treatment process consists of reducing the interior pressure of the
evaporation chamber below atmospheric pressure. This reduces the boiling point of the liquid to
be evaporated, thereby reducing or eliminating the need for heat in both the boiling and
condensation processes.
Ref: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_evaporation

Ref: https://www.mrsec.harvard.edu/education/ap298r2004/Erli%20chenFabrication%20II%20-
%20Deposition-1.pdf
So high vacuum means low pressure, low pressure chambers have higher deposition rate.
But I could not find why especiall for ignoble (passive) metals. I just found the information at
below for ignoble metals.
Ignoble materials: These metals are basically ignoble and they derive their corrosion resistance
from the presence of a thin oxide film on the surface, called the passive film, which acts as a
protective barrier between the metal and its environment. The passive film inhibits deeper
corrosion, and is usually an oxide or nitride with a thickness of nanometers [1]. Corrosion
protection of passive metals is limited to certain conditions, which are applied to many working
environments of electrical contacts.
Ref: https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4701/2/4/450/htm
Q 2.10: Calculate the mean-free-path of atoms during evaporation in a vacuum chamber at
a base pressure of p = 1 × 10−6 mbar. Hint: The order of magnitude is sufficient.

Formula for mean free path:

As the diameter of the molecule or the atoms increases mean free path of the atoms decreases.

Ref: https://www.pfeiffer-vacuum.com/en/know-how/introduction-to-vacuum-
technology/fundamentals/mean-free-path/
Q 2.11: Compare the boiling temperature of W, Pt, Ti and Al at p = 1 × 10−6 mbar. What
material is easiest to evaporate, which hardest? What are typical materials for the
evaporation crucible?

Pt: boiling: 3825 C

Al: boiling: 2467C

W: boiling: 5550C

Ti: boiling: 3290 C

Lower the boiling point, easiest to evaporate, because lower temperatures needed to evaporate.
From better to worst: Al, Ti, Pt, W

Ref: https://www.mrsec.harvard.edu/education/ap298r2004/Erli%20chenFabrication%20II%20-
%20Deposition-1.pdf

In a typical thermal evaporation process, the target material is heated by Joule effect to an appropriate
temperature at which there is an appreciable vapor pressure. For most materials that vaporize below a
temperature around 1,500 °C, evaporation can be achieved simply by putting the source material in contact
with a hot surface that is resistively heated by passing a current through it. Typical resistive heating elements
are carbon, molybdenum, tantalum, tungsten/wolfram, and BN/TiB2 composite ceramics [8]. The heated
surface may have one of many configurations—including basket, boat, crucible, and wire—for rapid heating
and to realize a uniform distribution of the vapor flux. Among the major advantages of thermal evaporation,
high deposition rates, relative simplicity, and low cost of the equipment must be mentioned. However, thermal
evaporation is not very suitable for fabricating multicomponent thin films, since some bulk materials evaporate
before others due to differences in their melting points and vapor pressures.
Electron-beam evaporation uses high-energy electron beams, typically accelerated with voltages from about 5
to 20 kV, to bombard the target material or materials that are placed in a crucible. Crucibles of copper have
been widely used for many years, although crucibles of boron nitride, graphite, nickel, and tungsten are also
used, depending on the target material(s) [8]. This evaporation technique can vaporize most pure metals,
including those with high melting points. E-beam evaporation is particularly suitable for the deposition of thin
films of refractory materials, including most ceramics (oxides and nitrides), glasses, carbon, and refractory
metals. Among all PVD techniques, e-beam evaporation provides probably the highest deposition rates. By the
use of high-power e-beam sources, deposition rates as high as 50 μm s−1 have been achieved. Moreover, with
adequate adjustment of the waist of the electron beam, uniform films of high purity can be obtained.

Ref: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/thermal-evaporation

Q 2.12: We discussed three zones of different morphologies of evaporated films. What

zone is normally aimed for? Why is there a trade-off between low substrate temperature
and good morphology of the film?

Chapter 2//Slide:21

Ts: temperature of substrate (at yapı)

Tm: melting temperature

Zone 3 is aimed for. Because, in the zone 3, the surface of the metal film is shine with a
specific polyhedral structure. However for this zone high substrate temperature is
needed.
A high density of irregularities of the lattice and pores on the grain boundary is typical for
the zone 1. A small temperature increase Ts is accompanied with a globular structure
coarsening of the zone 1, which gradually comes to a columnar one, specific for the zone
2.
Ref:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281630012_Evolution_of_the_Film_Structure_in_the_Va
rious_Evaporation_Processes

Q 2.13: Why is Ar often used as working gas for sputtering processes? Which drawback
could you think of, when using Ar gas to deposit high-quality thin films? Which other
working gases for sputtering could you think of?

Inert gas: An inert gas/noble gas is a gas which does not undergo chemical reactions under a set
of given conditions.

Ordinarily, the gas species is selected to be chemically inert so that it does not interact with the
target material and form compounds. For this reason, argon gas is typically used in most sputter
systems. It has a reasonably high atomic mass (∼40 u, where u is the unified atomic mass unit of
1 g/mol), is inert, and is relatively inexpensive.

In reactive sputtering, the deposited film is formed by chemical reaction between the target material
and a reactive gas that is introduced into the sputtering chamber. For reactive sputtering, we cannot
use Argon. Instead, non intert gas should be used.
However, it is also possible to use a non inert gas such as oxygen or nitrogen either in place of, or
(more commonly) in addition to the inert gas (argon). When this is done, the ionized non inert gas can
react chemically with the target material vapor cloud and produce a molecular compound which then
becomes the deposited film. For example, a silicon target reactively sputtered with oxygen gas can
produce a silicon oxide film, or with nitrogen gas can produce a silicon nitride film.

Ref:
https://www.researchgate.net/post/why_Ar_is_used_as_a_sputtering_gas_in_sputtering_depositi
on_technique
http://www.semicore.com/news/67-reactive-sputtering-basics
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemical-engineering/sputtering

Q 2.14: What is a typical operating pressure for Ar plasma in chamber? Do you think, high
vacuum conditions (p < 1 × 10−7 mbar) are still needed, when sputtering with an Ar
plasma, as long as the partial pressure of Ar is higher than the chamber’s base pressure?

Argon atoms are introduced into the chamber vacuumed to a very low pressure of about
10-3-10-2 mbar.

http://www.substech.com/dokuwiki/doku.php?id=sputtering

An arc discharge (plasma) is ignited between a negatively charged target electrode and a grounded
substrate electrode at a pressure of about 1-10-2 mbar using a working gas (e.g. argon). Chapter
2//Slide: 22

Therefore, high vacuum conditions are not needed.

Q 2.15: What problems do occur, when sputtering oxide materials with a DC plasma source
(triode-sputtering)? Sketch an RF-magnetron source including vacuum chamber. What
parameter is added in the Thornton zone-model compared to the simpler model in
evaporation?

D C sputtering cannot be used for depositing dielectrics because insulating cathode will cause charge
build up during Ar+ bombarding.

RF-magnetron source: Chapter 2//Slide:23

Difference Gas pressure as additional parameter at Thornton model. Chapter 2//Slide:24

Q 2.16: Discuss the differences of kinetic energies of e.g. Cu atoms, when deposited either
by evaporation or sputtering.

Sputtered Cu atoms has more kinetic energy than evaporated Cu atoms.

One of the major advantages of sputtering process is that sputter-ejected atoms have kinetic
energies significantly larger than evaporated materials. The growing film is subjected to a
number of energetic species from the plasma.
Q 2.17: Water vapor at the chamber walls is a common problem when pumping vacuum
chambers. What are typical countermeasures to significantly speed up pump-down times?

Chapter 2//Slide:32

1) Heat surfaces
2) UV light for desorption
3) Bring in kinetic energy by N2,Ar,etc
Shorter pumpdown times or lower pressures can be achieved by using either bakeout or UV
energy to desorb water vapor. According to graph to speed up pump-down time UV energy is
more logical than Bakeout.

Ref: http://www.normandale.edu/departments/stem-and-education/vacuum-and-thin-film-
technology/vacuum-lab/articles/desorbing-water-in-vacuum-systems-
Q 2.18: What is the time to form a gaseous monolayer on a substrate, operating the
evaporation tool at a base pressure of p = 1 × 10−6 mbar?

Chapter:2//Slide:30 around 1 sec.

Q 2.19: What is the difference between additive and subtractive patterning. Name and
sketch two of them.
1)

Additive manufacturing
Additive manufacturing (AM) refers to manufacturing methods that build up 3D objects by adding
materials layer upon layer. Objects manufactured can be of almost any shape or geometry. Materials
used can be metal, (thermo)plastic, ceramic, or sometimes even chocolate.

Additive manufacturing can be seen as a ‘from-the-bottom-up’ method. It is also referred to as:

additive layer manufacturing, layer manufacturing, additive fabrication, or additive
processes/techniques. We discuss electroforming later in this article.

Subtractive manufacturing

Subtractive manufacturing, the opposite to additive manufacturing, is a manufacturing method that

entails the removal of materials to produce a component or product. One can look at subtractive
manufacturing as a ‘from the top down’ method. Common subtractive manufacturing methods
include: laser cutting, CNC machining, electro discharge machining (EDM), micro stamping, water
jetting — and, of course, chemical etching:

2)
This chapter discusses patterning that can be divided into subtractive and additive processes. It
describes subtractive patterning—the removal of material from a system can occur at a single
moving point or over the whole area simultaneously; when material is removed over a larger area, a
pattern is obtained by selectively protecting the material using a mask. The
subtractive patterning includes various stages such as masking—it is the first stage in blanket
subtractive patterning, it creates a physical mask that will protect specific areas from attack; isotropic
and anisotropic etching—in isotropic etching, all of the exposed surfaces are removed at the same
rate, while, in anisotropic etching, material in certain directions is removed more quickly; and
chemical etching.