124 Proceedings NCWES 2018 PDF

Proceedings of
5th National Conference

on
Water, Environment & Society
(NCWES - 2018)
4-6 June, 2018
at JNTUH, Hyderabad, India
Chief Patron
Prof. A. Venugopal Reddy
Vice-Chancellor, J.N.T. University Hyderabad
Patron
Dr. A. Govardhan
Rector, J.N.T. University Hyderabad
Chairman
Dr. N. Yadaiah
Registrar, J.N.T. University Hyderabad
Co-Chairperson
Dr. B. Venkateswara Rao
Director, IST, J.N.T.University Hyderabad
Convener
Dr. M. V. S. S. Giridhar
Associate Professor, CWR, IST, J.N.T. University Hyderabad
Organized by
Centre for Water Resources
Institute of Science and Technology
Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Hyderabad
Kukatpally, Hyderabad - 500 085
© 2018
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The Publisher and Organisers do not claim any responsibility for the accuracy of the data, statements made, and
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Preface
Water is so familiar in our daily life that we often forget its importance and uniqueness.
Clean, safe drinking water is scarce. India is bestowed with good number of rivers,
ponds and lakes but still, far too many people spend their entire day searching for
it. It's hard for most of us to imagine that clean, safe water is not something that can
be taken for granted. But, in the developing world, finding a reliable source of safe
water is often time consuming and expensive.
The scarcity of clean water is from the result of multiple reasons like over usage of water,
pollution, increasing demand of population, climate change etc. Water scarcity involves water crisis,
water shortage, water deficit or water stress. Water scarcity can be due to physical water scarcity
and economic water scarcity. Physical water scarcity refers to a situation where natural water
resources are unable to meet a region’s demand and economic water scarcity is a result of poor
water management resources.
It is in this context and backdrop that the Centre for Water Resources, Institute of Science and
Technology, JNTUH felt the need to organize a three day 5th National conference on Water,
Environment and Society (NCWES-2018) to take stock of the current status of applications in water
resources development and management and also to identify areas most relevant to ensure
sustainable development of water resources and environment to benefit the society at large.
Researchers, engineers, site managers, regulatory agents, policy makers, Consultants, NGO’s,
academicians and vendors will all benefit from the opportunity to exchange information on recent
research trends and to examine ongoing research programs in the areas of water and environment.
The conference is expected to recommend suitable strategies and policy guidelines to operationalize
the initiatives and dovetail them into various watershed development programmes appropriately.
Keeping in view the importance and need of the hour, this issue of proceedings is brought out to
coincide with the conduct of the national conference. The high value contributions by eminent
speakers, Research scholars and participants have been overwhelming and encouraging.
The three day national conference on NCWES will focus its attention on various themes in the
form of technical sessions such as
1. Hydrologic parameter estimation & modeling
2. Climate change and environment
3. Urbanisation, Bio-diversity and EIA
4. Groundwater Exploration, Development, Recharge, Modeling and Quality
5. Water quality, Water treatment, Pollution and Society
6. Water Conservation and Irrigation management
7. Water Management, Rainfall and Rainwater Harvesting
8. Geospatial Applications in Water resources
More than 150 delegates and about 60 technical papers are being presented in these eight
technical sessions.
I hope the present conference would serve as a link between technology, policy, practice and
decision making in the quest for synergetic solutions for sustainable development of water resources
and environment.
I wish and expect that the participants will find this conference useful and give their total
participation to make it a grand success.
It is with this great pleasure; I extend a warm welcome to all the delegates, speakers and
participants to NCWES - 2018.
Dr. M. V. S. S Giridhar
-Editor
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Acknowledgements
I would like to express their gratitude to all the people that have helped us during these months for
the organization of the conference. The 5th National Conference on Water, Environment and Society
NCWES-2018 has been made possible with the support of many technical experts, individuals and
organizations both in man power and finance. This support is gratefully acknowledged.
I owe a deep sense of gratitude to Prof. A. Venugopal Reddy, Vice-Chancellor, Jawaharlal
Nehru Technological University Hyderabad and Chief patron of the conference for his constant
encouragement valuable guidance in organizing the conference in most efficient way.
I am very thankful to Dr. A. Govardhan, Rector, Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University
Hyderabad for his precious support as Patron of this three day conference.
My sincere and special thanks to Dr. N Yadaiah, Registrar, Jawaharlal Nehru Technological
University Hyderabad as the Patron of the conference for his cordial, time to time permissions and
support.
I am deeply indebted to Dr. B. Venkateswara Rao, Director, IST, JNTUH and Chairman of this
conference for having taken every responsibility for completing this task through various stages.
I would like to extend my grateful thanks to Dr. K. Rammohan Reddy and Dr. C. Sarla,
Professors, Centre for Water Resources for their valuable support throughout the conference.
My sincere thanks to the officials of Technical Education Quality Improvement Program, Phase-
III, IST, Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), Sri Devi Constructions and Sinsil International
Private Limited for sponsoring this event. Without their help organization of this conference would
not have been possible.
The financial assistance received from Research and Development Fund of National Bank for
Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) towards printing of the proceedings of the conference
is gratefully acknowledged.
We have been very fortunate enough to be backed by a team of very motivated and dedicated
experts of various committees in guiding us throughout the conference very meticulously. My
sincere thanks to all the members of the Scientific and Advisory Committee, Technical Committee
and Organizing Committee for their sincere advice and help from time to time.
I profusely thank all the Key note speakers, Chair persons and Co-chair persons of various
technical sessions of conference have readily responded to our invitation to conduct the proceedings
and to address the gathering and for their kind gesture in the conference.
My thanks are also due to various other Teaching and Non-teaching staff of IST and Engineering
Staff of JNTUH who have cooperated on several occasions in organizing this Conference.
I sincerely thank M/s BS Publications for bringing out the souvenir and pre-conference
proceedings well in advance.
My sincere thanks to my students Ms. Shyama Mohan, Mrs. Rakhee Sheel, and Smt. P. Sowmya
for their continuous day and night support for this conference.
Finally, I thank all the people and organizations who are directly and indirectly involved in
organizing the conference, but I could not mention their names due to paucity of space.
I thank one and all
M.V.S.S. Giridhar
Convenor
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Contents
S.No. Title Page No.
INAUGURAL KEYNOTE
1. Integrated Water Resources Management by Considering Sedimentation in (xxix)

Serially Linked Reservoirs
G.K. Viswanadh and M. Visweswararao
KEYNOTES
2. Challenges in Drinking Water Supply for Rural Households in India Through Village 3
Distribution Systems Feed from Bulk Water Supply
B. Rajeshwar Rao and Shiva Ram Bandari
3. Qualitative Analysis of Rural Water Supply Distribution Network System Using 14
Watergems Model
Gopal M. Naik and R. S. M. Manasa
4. Sense of Urgency for Advanced Irrigation Management Practices for High Agricultural 20
Productivity in the Context of Water Variability Due to Global Climate Change, Food
Insecurity Due to World Population Explosion and Water Conflicts Due to the Conflicts of
Interest of Stakeholders
Mohammed Hussain
5. Water Availability in Indian Rivers: Myths & Realities 29
S. Jeevananda Reddy
6. Sustainable Micro-catchment Development by Continuous Contour Trenching Techniques in 43
Dryland Areas
R. S. Patode
7. Water and Energy Efficient Technologies to Address Climate Changes in Ganges 50
Krishna Reddy Kakumanu
8. Use And Applicability of General Circulation Models in the Simulation of Climate System 58
Kulkarni Shashikanth
9. Integrated Water Management System Storm Water Treatment Areas with Applicable Best 65
Management Practice
Madhu Edara
10. Geoscientific Knowledge for Sustainable Groundwater Management Special Reference to 74
Tannery Belt in India
N. C. Mondal
11. Efficacy of Electrical Resistivity Tomography in Delineation of Groundwater Reservoirs - An 92
Over View
S. N. Rai
12. Nutraceuticals Potentials of Vegetables Crops 102
Surendra R. Patil
13. Mathematical Models in Hydrology and Water Resources Engineering 115
M. Anjaneya Prasad and P. Sunder Kumar
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TECHNICAL PAPERS
14. Ghogha Rain Water Harvesting Scheme in 82 Villages of Bhavnagar, Gujarat - A Success 125
Story 14 Years After Completion
F. R. Sherwani
15. Role of Isotope Techniques in Characterizing Thermal Fluid- Insights from Godavari Valley 135
Geothermal Field, Telengana
Sitangshu Chatterjee and U.K. Sinha
16. Rural Sanitation: A Case Study of Yarikoppa Village 141
Munnoli P M, Mulla S A, Dafedar M, Madivalar P and Reddy G
17. Rural Sanitation for Sustainable Development: A Review 145
Munnoli P M, Mulla S A, Dafedar M, Madivalar P and Reddy G
18. Water Supply and Sanitation Appliances to Save Water: A Review 151
Munnoli P M, Hubli Kiran, Beedimani Priyanka, Aishwarya and Karale Suneel
19. Inferring Dominant Mangrove Vegetation Along Salinity Gradient Based on In-Situ 157
Measurements and Remotely Sensed Imagery
Kripa M K, Hari Nivas A, Nikhil Lele, Thangaradjou T, Saravan Kumar A,
Archana. U. Mankad and T. V. R Murthy
20. Mathematical Model Studies for Optimizing Outfall Location for 162
Hot Water Discharge from Power Plant
Payal Chakote, A. K. Singh, L.R. Ranganath and P. R. Dixit
21. Geospatial Technology to Monitor Spatio-Temporal Changes in Icebergs in East Antarctica 168
Mehanaz sherif and Rajashreebothale
22. Waste Water Treatment Using Moringa Oleifera for Balanced Ecosystem 174
T. Mounika and V. Malathi
23. Atmospheric Changes Due to Photo Chemical Smog 178
M. Kavitha Yadav and K. Sai Pradeep
24. Development of Artificial Neural Network to Forecast Air Pollutants in Pune City 183
Shreenivas N. Londhe and Priyanka P. Shinde
25. Application of Genetic Programming to Retrieve the Ground Water Levels 189
P. R. Dixit, Shrushti D. Lohi and P. S. Kulkarni
26. Flood Routing: A Comparison of Theoretical and Data Driven Technique 195
Pradnya Dixit and Sneha Nikalje and S. N. Londhe
27. Removal of Hexavalent Chromium (Cr Vi) in Wastewater by Using 201
Moringa Olefiera (Drumsticks)
Ajinkya Gadhave and A. S. Dharnaik
28. Hydrogeology and Drainage Morphomeric Study for Groundwater Potential Zones in Joytiba 205
Hill Area in Kolhapur District, Maharashtra, India-Using Remote Sensing and Gis.
Gurav Chandrakant and Md. Babar
29. Non-Revenue-Water Assessment and Reduction Strategy in Urban Water Distribution 211
B. Rajasekhar, G. Venkata Ramana and G. K. Viswanadh
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30. Neglected Reality of Manual Scavenging - Prohibited Yet Practiced, A Case of Hyderabad 219
Sumskrutha Talupula
31. Flow Characteristics Over Broad Crested Weir and Dam Spillway 226
Bhukya Ramakrishna, CH. Shivakumargoud, SK.Vaheed Jallewar Praveenkumar and Myakala
Prasad
32. Trend Analysis of Extreme Temperature Data of India Using Non-Parametric Methods and 232
Empirical Mode Decomposition
Anand Vishnu, Drisya S Dharan, Adarsh S, Anuja PK and Govindan Unnithan
33. Estimation of Physico-Chemical Parameters of Groundwater in Aprupa Watershed, Sangola 239
Taluka, Solapur District, Maharashtra -A Case Study
Karim C Mujawar and Abhishek Gadade, Ravi Kshetri,Abhay Birajdar, Sham Pawar, Suhas
Shingade and Suryakant Patil
34. Reservoir Sedimentation Analysis: A Case Study 247
Zeenat Ara and Mohammad Zakwan
35. Applications of Green Materials for the Preparation of Eco-Friendly Bricks and Pavers 254
J. Kruthika Mehar, K.Pushpa, G.Pushpa, D.Shravya and B. Vamsi Krishna
36. Environmental-Friendly Concrete for Sustainable Construction of the Buildings 262
C. Lakshmi, G. Sai Ram, K.Sravya Sri, Shravan Manda and B. Vamsi Krishna
37. Reconnoitering Hydrochemical Background using Log-Probability Distribution in a Channel 271
Island, Andhra Pradesh
N.C. Mondal
38. Study on Ground Water Contamination in and Around Visakhapatnam Industrial Area 278
P. Trinadha Rao
39. Impacts of Solid Waste Dump Site on Ground Water Quality (Leachate) 287
K. Syamala Devi and K. Venkateswara Rao
40. Spatial Variation of Onset and Withdrawal of Monsoon in Akola District of Western 299
Vidharbha Region
G. U. Satpute, Shivakumar Anna, S. M. Apturkar and N. G. Patil
41. Optimal Water Management Modelling for Water Supply and Hydropower 306
Shahbaz Sida and Geeta S. Joshi
42. Changes in Land Use Land Cover Using Geospatial Techniques: A Case Study of Koyna River 313
Basin, Maharashtra, India
Amarsinh B. Landage and Ashok K. Keshari
43. Groundwater Development through Drainage Line Treatments in Vidarbha Region of 321
Maharashtra
M. B. Nagdeve, R. S. Patode, C. B. Pande and R. S. Mali
44. Impact of Conservation Agriculture Treatments on Runoff and Soil Loss in Soybean Crop 326
under Rainfed Condition
R. S. Patode, M. B. Nagdeve, V.V. Gabhane, A. B. Turkhede, N. R. Palaspagar and R. S. Mali
45. Hydrological Water Balance Assessment of A Micro-Catchment using Physically based Model 331
R. S. Patode, M. B. Nagdeve, K. Ramamohan Reddy and G. Ravindra Chary
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46. Crop Residue Cutting Mechanisms for Direct Drilling in Agriculture Conservation 336
A. K. Kamble, S. H. Thakare, U. R. Badegaonkar and M. B. Nagdeve
47. Bio-Char Production from Agricultural Crop Residue using Horizontal Reactor 344
A. K. Kamble, A. J. Dere and Sandip Gangil
48. Bio-Energy Utilization through Thermo Efficient Biomass Cook Stove for Rural Households 350
A.K. Kamble and M. B. Nagdeve
49. Studies on Biogas Production from Soybean and Cotton Straws Substrate 357
A.K. Kamble, S.B. Kirjat and M. B. Nagdeve
50. Solar Energy Operated Cabinet Dryer for Drying Tomato Slices 365
A. K. Kamble, Ramesh L. Dombale and M. B. Nagdeve
51. Energy Audit of Cotton Crop Production System 372
A.K. Kamble and M. B. Nagdeve
52. Application of GIS and Remote Sensing for Water Conservation Planning and Management of 380
the Purna Watershed in Akola District of Maharashtra
C. B. Pande, R. S. Patode, M. B. Nagdeve, K. N. Moharir and M. B. Dongardive
53. Flow Characteristics of Laboratory Flumes in Free and Submerged Flow Conditions 386
Bhukya Ramakrishna, Gaddam Gangadher, Rapolu Sravani, Hechu Swathi and
Mudhigonda Chandramouli
54. A Preliminary Study of Water Distribution System In Adhainagar, Hyderabad 393
K. Shimola, P. Venugopal and T. Sai Bharath
55. Assessment of Water Quality for Drinking and Irrigation Purpose in Alladurg Mandal of 399
Medak District, Telangana State, South India
Sanda Rajitha, Adimalla Narsimha and Praveen Raj Saxena
56. Pruning: A New Approach for Quality Production in Acid Lime 405
Surendra R. Patil, Mahipal M. Ganvir, Sonali N. Lokhande and Premlata M. Chandan
57. Feasibility of Energy Production from Bio-Degradable Waste 411
T. Kiran Kumar
58. Advanced Spectral Classification Methods for Hyperspectral Data - A Concise Review 420
Veeramallu Satya Sahithi, MVSS Giridhar and I V Murali Krishna
59. Analysis On Green Building (Case Study: GRIET, Hyderabad, India) 434
Akula Prakash and Rathod Ravinder
60. Estimation of Residential Building Using Low Cost Materials 444
Rathod Ravinder, Akula Prakash, M. Govardhan, Ch. Chaitanya Lakshmi and Varala Akhila
61. Laboratory Study of Bituminous Mixes Using Sisal Fiber 448
Kandlagunta Mounika, Akula Prakash and Rathod Ravinder
62. Kinetics and Isotherm Studies on Cationic Dye Adsorption onto Activated Carbon from 455
Sugarcane Bagasse
T. V. Nagalakshmi and K. A. Emmanuel
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63. Applications of Worldwide Free and Open Source Software in Numerical Computation 464
“Scilab (Similar to Matlab)” in Water, Wastewater and Irrigation Engineering:
Certain Examples
Shivarajappa and Mohd. Hussain
64. A Study on Phytoplankton Bloom After the Dust Storm 471
S. Lavanya and M. Viswanadham
65. Study on Compressive Strength of Concrete on Partial Replacement of Cement With 475
Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS)
Rathod Ravinder, K. Sagarika, K. Deepthi, P. Alekya Reddy, R. Spandana and S. Sruthi
66. Hydrogeochemical Studies in and Around Kistapur Area, Medchal District Telangana 482
M. Venkateshwarlu, M. Narsi Reddy, K. Suresh, A. P. Ravi Chandra P. Anjaneyulu,
M. D. Waseemuddin, G. Manoj Reddy and G. Shashank Mitra
67. Water Conservation and Soil Resource Inventory Survey using Geographical Information 488
System at Bio Diversity Park, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad.
A. Shravan Kumar and D. Suresh
Modeling of Road Accidents 498
68. Akula Prakash and Kandlagunta Mounika
69. Correlation Between Land Surface Temperature (LST) and NDVI using Image Processing 512
Techniques
L. Ravi and K. Manjulavani
70. Impact of Textile Effluents on the Ground Water Quality in 519
Chirala Textile Cluster by Water Quality Index
K. Sri Lakshmi and M. Anji Reddy
71. Watershed Analysis A Case Study of Nizampet Area and Proposed Rain Water Structure 524
S. Venkat Charyulu, G.K.Viswanadh and M.V.S.S Giridhar
Author Index ............................................................................................................................................................ 533
List of Sponsors ....................................................................................................................................................... 535
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INAUGURAL KEYNOTE
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Proceedings of 5th National Conference on Water, Environment & Society (NCWES-2018) (xxix)
INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT BY CONSIDERING

SEDIMENTATION IN SERIALLY LINKED RESERVOIRS
G. K. Viswanadh1 and M. Visweswararao2
1
Professor of Civil Engineering and Director UGC HRD, JNTUH, Kukatpally, Hyderabad, Telangana
2
Professor Mallareddy Institute of Technology
ABSTRACT
The river Krishna is a major river system in south India which rises in the Mahadev range of the Western Ghats
near Mahabaleshwar. The catchment area is around 100000 sq. Miles and the average yield of the river is around
2500 TMC. Two tribunals have been formed to solve the water allocation and distribution issues of this river
system. They have imposed several constraints legally for equitable distribution of waters among the states.
Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal 1 has decided the 75 % dependable yield of Krishna basin as 2060 TMC and
distributed 2130 TMC(2060+70 TMC regeneration)among the states as 585 TMC to Maharastra, 734 TMC to
Karnataka and 811 TMC to the state of erstwhile Andhrapradesh. The tribunal imposed certain restrictions on
the riperian states so as to ensure flows to the downstream states.Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal 2 has
determined yield at different dependabilities i.e at 75 % , 65 % and average availability and distributed the
same. The Tribunal has also indicated the manner of use for the implementation of its award so that each state
will start their 65 % dependable allocations only after 75 % dependable allocation of all states are met. Similarly
the allocations at average flows are commenced only after the 65 % allocations are met. The system below
Almatti in Krishna basin is very crucial to the states of Telengana and Andhra Pradesh. Many projects are
planned at Jurala, Srisailam and Nagarjunasagar out of surplus waters over and above 75 % dependable flows.
This will make the system more critical.Further the Srisailam and Nagarjuna Sagar reservoirs have silted during
the last 35 years .In view of the above it is proposed to study the system of serially linked reservoirs from
Almatti to Prakasam Barrage with reference to water allocations, effect of Almatti, siltation in Srisailam and
Nagarjunasagar, and planning of new projects at Jurala, Srisailam and Nagarjunasagar. A model is prepared for
the serially linked reservoir system from Almatti to Prakasam barrage using MIKE-BASIN model and integrated
operation is carried out imposing all the legal, physical, hydrological and Managerial constraints and the
performance is studied.
Keywords: Krishna river, serially linked reservoirs, Almatti, Srisailam, Nagarjunasagar, Pulichintala,
performance, reliability and successrate,
INTRODUCTION
The River Krishna rises in the Mahadev range of the Western Ghats near Mahabaleshwar at an altitude of 1337m
above sea level and flows through Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh gathering water on its way from
innumerable rivers, streams or tributaries and drops into the Bay of Bengal. River Bhima and Tungabhara are major
tributaries of river Krishna. Main Krishna, Bhima and Tungabhadra constitute the stems of the river Krishna.
Jurala,Srisailam, Nagarjunasagar, Krishna delta are the major projects on main Krishna. A map of Krishna basin is
enclosed as Figure1. Almatti, Narayanapur, Jurala, srisailam, Nagarjunasagar, Pulichintala reservoirs and prakasam
Barrage are situated on the main Krishna river and linked serially. These reservoirs are very important and are to be
operated integrally so as to achieve maximum benefits to the states of Telengana and Andhra Pradesh situated at
tail end of the river system. Therefore it is proposed to study this system of Almatti to prakasam Barrage of Krishna
river. For this purpose the simulated model of this serially linked reservoir system is studied for the integrated
water resources management by considering sedimentation in the reservoirs. The salient features of the serially
linked reservoir system studied is shown in Table 1.
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Mike basin model was used considering the hydrological and hydraulic simulation models. The technology can
be used for both long term goals as well as short term goals. The fore casting and optimisation system is
established with a decision support system for real time operation. The model is demonstrated on Han-Binh river in
Vietnam considering hydropower and flood control simulations with balanced optimisation solution ensured a
substantial increase in hydro power production of 210 MKWH on an average per year. Real time optimisation in
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normal solutions provided solutions that trades off between immediate and future volume of hydro power
generation. (The international journal on hydropower and dams, 2007, Vol.14 P.80-83 Henrick Maddison et.al) 2.2
The study was made for application of efficient approaches for optimal operation of multi purpose reservoir
operation systems. specifically the study was made for the objectives of demonstrating MOEA based novel
approach non dominated sorting genetic algorithm(NSGA-11)for multiple reservoir systems . Application of
NSGA for effective optimisation of inter connected reservoir operation demonstrate Mike Basin a tool for
integrated water resources management planning for multi reservoir systems and application of Mike Basin to
simulate inter connected reservoir operation system. It was proved that Mike Basin s output robustly helped to
make necessary decisions in case of trade off solutions between competing objectives in an efficient way.(Mike
Basin studies on Australian river system, 2004, Fayyaz et.al).
Fig. 1 Map of Krishna basin
Table 1 Salient features of Projects in Krishna Basin considered for the Study
S. No. Name of the project Unit Almatti Naryanpur Jurala Srisailam Nagarjuna sagar Pulichintala
1 Sub-basin K-2 K-2 K-7 K-7 K-7 K-7
2 Catchment area (Sq.Km) 35926 47850 129499 206030 215185
3 Gross storage (TMC) 223.52 37.96 11.94 308 408.24 45.76
4 Live storage (TMC) 205.98 30.7 6.79 249.99 202.47 36.23
5 Dead storage (TMC) 17.57 7.16 58.08 205.77 9.53
6 F.R.L M 524.26 492.25 318.52 269.75 179.83 53.34
7 M.D.D.L M 506.87 485.5 314.86 260.3 155.45 42.672
8 D.S.L M 506.87 481.56 314.86 245.35 121.92 42.672
9 Length of spillway dam M 486.5 459 927 266.39 470.92 754.9
10 Length of non-spillway dam M 676.33 562.22 162 246 978.61 442.6
11 Length of earthen dam M 402 9616.3 3210 3414 355
12 Total length of dam M 1564.8 10638 1103.5 512 1449.6 1197.5
13 Crest level M 509.02 480.25 311.52 252.98 179.83 36.54
14 Number of gates 26 30 69 12 26 33
15 Gate size mxm 15x10.584 15x12 12x7 18.3x16.7 13.72x13.41 18.30x16.80
16 Type of Gate Radial Radial Radial Radial Radial Radial
17 Design flood Cumecs 31,007 37,945 30,016 38,365 58,340 57,700
Proceedings of 5th National Conference on Water, Environment & Society (NCWES-2018) (xxxi)
The studies were conducted on ORD river basin catchment in western Australia using Mike basin. The ORD
catchment from Lake angels to the confluence of lower ORD and Dunham rivers has been simulated using the
mike Basin water balancing model. The model incorporates daily time series of the catchment runoff -rainfall and
evaporation from Jan 1906 to 2004. A detailed environmental provision for the lower ORD river water for stage 1
and 2 irrigation areas and for hydro power have been incorporated in the model. The model has recommended an
operative strategy for the current conditions and range of future scenarios. The study indicated that annual
streamflow D/s of Kunnuva diversion dam reduced due to increased industrial and drinking water requirement in
the U/s. Stream flows have further reduced due to irrigation development U/S. (Studies conducted by Govt. of
western Australia for ORD river system using Mike Basin for the period 1906-2004, 2004 )
Han Binh is a lareger reservoir in Vietnam. This plays a importanr role in flood control of red river delta and
hydropower generation. This paper proposed to optimise the control strategies for this reservoir operation by a
combination of simulation and optimisation models. The control strategies are setup using Mike 11 and simulation
model gides the releases from the reservoir depending on the current storage levels the hydro meteorological
conditions and time of the year. A heuristic global optimisation models have been used with shuffled complex
evaluation algorithm was used for optimisation. The results demonstrate that an optimised regulation can be found
to this reservoir compared to present regulations. This reduces the down stream flood peaks and maintains a high
level of increasing hydropower generation. The results also show that SCE algorithm can be used efficiently in
complex systems for optimisation.(Journal of hydrology, April,2007, Long Lengo, Henrik madsen et.al)
The Mike- Basin software was used for optimisation of reservoir operation. A frame work is developed in which
a simulation model is coupled with optimisation technique to optimise the decision variables defined for reservoir
operation. The Mike 11 system is adopted for simulating the flow in the river system and Autocad software for
optimisation . The trade-off between various objectives also denoted the set of non- dominated or paroto optimal
solutions. The frame work was tested for Hoa- Binh reservoir in Red river basin considering hydropower
production and down stream flood control. The results indicated that the optimal curves developed significantly
improved the performance of the reservoir in terms of hydropower production without reducing the safety against
flooding. Real time optimisation performed considering the reservoir inflows and reservoir levels have indicated
that the performance of the reservoir improved considerably and the flexibility of the reservoir operation has also
enhanced.(PHD thesis 2006, Institute of environmental resources , Technical university of Denmark, Long Lengo
The Mike Basin river model was used to prepare a recommended operative policies for the current conditions in
respect of ORD river system and used for a range of future scenarios. The scenarios range from combination of
existing irrigation with moderate hydropower demands to increase the levels of both irrigation and hydro power.
The potential effects of raising the ORD spillway to increase the storage is also studied. The model indicated that
because of the huge size of the reservoir evaporation losses accounted for 26 % of overall annual losses. The
module also indicated that a reliability level of 95 % is ensured for planned irrigation with meeting 25 % of the
demands in very dry years while maximising the hydro power.(Department of water resources &hydrology western
Australia series report , May 2010)
In this paper mike basin modelling system developed by DHI was used for simulating the river flow system and
reservoir operations. The structure control module allows to implement complex strategies where by reservoirs can
be operated by defining a number of control strategies with various conditions. The use of several control strategies
makes it possible to operate multi reservoir system which have large number of objectives. MIKE-11 is combined
with a numerical tool that is used for optimising different control variables defined for various reservoir strategies.
Real time optimisation decision support system was developed for short term and long term operations. The model
is applied to Han-Binh river. The study aimed at meeting the D/S demands of irrigation avoiding saline flows and
enhancing protection and the saving the valuable water resources. The model developed on daily basis can be used
for improving the efficiency of the system.( Presented in conference NZSOLD, 2007, TerryVAn et.al)
The Mike basin system was used to develop a tool for Salman River system in the year 2003. This tool enables
to evaluate plans by viewing simulation results with GIS back ground that can show the river points of diversion
return flows irrigation demands and canal service areas all super imposed on aerial photography of the area. The
(xxxii) Proceedings of 5th National Conference on Water, Environment & Society (NCWES-2018)
Microsoft excel interface was developed to help in giving the input data and obtaining output data in a structural
way. This model was used for deciding the optimal policy of operation of the above river system and can be
improved as and when new data is received as it is also a dynamic model. The module developed has improved the
operation of the reservoirs in the river system.(Mike Basin studies on upper Salman river basi, 10/2003)
DEVELOPMENT OF NET FLOWS IN THE SERIALLY LINKED RESERVOIR SYSTEM
The gross flows estimated from sub basin wise gauge data and utilisations, are routed through each of the sub basin
considering the demands under planned scenario and the allocations made by the Tribunals in different
dependabilities.
The reservoirs in each sub-basin, except for K-2 and K-7 sub-basins, are lumped into one reservoir for each sub-
basin, totalling to ten for the purpose of simulation. The lumped reservoirs are placed at the end of sub-basin. The
total storage is by obtained by adding all the stroages of Major, Medium projects of that sub basin . The storages of
minor irrigation tanks are considered as the minor irrigation utilisations assuming 1:1 storage utilisation ratio. The
time-step used for simulation is one month. The tentative area capacity curves are developed for these sub basins
considering the total storage. Evaporation is not considered separately and the same is included in the utilisation.
For K-2 sub basin the components like k-2 up to Almatti, Almatti to Narayanapur and Narayanapur to K-2 end
are considered separately and each of them are treated as a single reservoir system. The storages in these portions
are added and considered as a lumped reservoir system as explained above. The utilisations in these individual
components including minor irrigation utilisations are also added and considered as utilisation under the lumped
reservoir system. The gross flows in each of the components is worked out in proportion to catchment areas of
that component to the entire K-2 sub basin. The minor irrigation utilisations are also distributed in the ratio of
catchments.The storages under minor irrigation are considered as minor irrigation utilisation . The tentative area
capacity curves are developed considering the total storage. Evaporation is not considered separately and the same
is included in the utilisation.
For K-7 sub basin the components like K-7 up to Jurala, Jurala to Srisailam, Srisailam to NSP, NSP to
Pulichintala and Pulichintala to Prakasam Barrage(K-7 end) are considered separately and each of them are treated
as a single reservoir system. The storages in these portions are added and considered as a lumped reservoir system
as explained above. The utilisations in these individual components including minor irrigation utilisations are also
added and considered as utilisation under the lumped reservoir system. The gross flows in each of the
components is worked out in proportion to catchment areas of that component to the entire K-7 sub basin. The
minor irrigation utilisations are also distributed in the ratio of catchments.The storages under minor irrigation are
considered as minor irrigation utilisation . The tentative area capacity curves are developed considering the total
storage for each of the component. Evaporation is not considered separately and the same is included in the
utilisation.
For the serially linked reservoir system the input parameters required for MIKE- BASIN namely inflows
generated as explained above form the inputs to the model. The net inflows are worked out for Almatti reservoir
and for the interveneing catchments of Almatti- Narayanapur, Narayanapur-Jurala,Jurala-Srisailam, Srisailam-
Nagarjunasagar, Nagarjunasagar- Pulichintala and Pulichintala – Prakasam Barrage on the above procedure.
The planned demands are obtained from Tribunal reports and the data submitted by the states before tribunal.
The reservoir constraints, evaporation rates are also obtained from project reports. The sedimentation data of CWC
and reservoir sedimentation studies are studied and revised area capacity curves for all reservoirs are obtained. The
simulation process is conducted adopting mike basin soft ware. The necessary and sufficient operation rules to
achieve the objectives are arrived at.
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
The results of Almatti, Narayanapur, Jurala , Srisailam , Nagarjunasagar, Pulichintala and prakasam Barrage are
presented below in figures 2 to 20.
Proceediings of 5th Nattional Confereence on Waterr, Environmen
nt & Society (N
NCWES-20188) (xxxiii)
Fig. 2 Drinking
D waterr planned vs met
m Fig. 3 Irrigation
I 75 % planned vs met
m
Fig. 4 irrigattion 65 % plannned vs met Fig. 5 Aveerage irrigationn planned vs met

m
Reesults of Almaatti reservoir (Fig.
( 2 to 5)
Fig. 6 Drink
king water plaanned vs met Fig. 7 Irrigation 75 % planned vs met
m
F 8 Average irrigation plannned vs met

Fig.
Resuults of Narayaanapur reservooir (Fig 6,7,8))
(xxxxiv) Proceeedings of 5th National
N Confeerence on Watter, Environm
ment & Societyy (NCWES-2018)
Figg. 9 Drinking water

w planned vs
v met F 10 Irrigatiion 75 % plannned vs met
Fig.
Fig. 11
1 65% irrigation planned vss met F 12 Surpluss projects plannned vs met
Fig.
Resuults of Jurala reservoir (Figg 9,10,11,12)
F 13 75% irrrigation & CW

Fig. WS planned vs met
m Figg. 14 Averagee irrigation plannned vs met
F 15 Surplus projects plannned vs met

Fig.
Resuults of Srisailaam reservoir (Fig.13,14,15
( )
nt & Society (N
NCWES-20188) (xxxv)
Fig. 166 HWS(hyderaabad water suppply) planned vs

v met F 17 Averagge irrigation plaanned vs met
Fig.
Ressults of Nagarj
rjunasagar resservoir (Fig 16 & 17)
F 18 Irrigattion 75% plannned Vs met

Fig.
R
Results of Prakkasam barragge (Fig 18)
T abstract off success ratees for all the projects

The p are giiven below inn Table 2
Table 2 : D
Demands in TMC
C and Successrates of all projectss in percentagess for all the reservoirs
drinkking water Iirrigation
d
description
75% 65% average suurplus
planned succesrate planned succcesrate planneed succesratee planned succcesrate planned succesrate
Almatti
A 0.544 100 14.62 78.72 22.63 68.08 42.52 46.8 ‐ ‐
N
Narayanapur 0.844 100 133.55 78.72 ‐ ‐ 52.01 42.55 ‐ ‐
Jurala 0.455 100 33.41 87.23 9 55.3 22 21.28
S
Srisailam 155 84 19 63.82 25 180.5 17
N
Nagarjunasagar 16.55 100 263.7 76.6
P
Prakasam Barragge 152.2 76.6
Note ; 1.152.2 TMC for Prakasam
N m Barrage includdes drinking wateer component also . The minimuum requirement of 6.28 TMc forr drinking.
can be m
met in all years oon annual basis
2. The 15 TMC for CWS(C Chennai water suupply from Srisailam the shortagges are marginal and can be met reducing SRBC irrigation.
(xxxvi) Proceedings of 5th National Conference on Water, Environment & Society (NCWES-2018)
CONCLUSIONS
From the above analysis the following conclusions can be drawn.
1. The sedimentation analysis of all the reservoirs is conducted. In Almatti the rate of siltation observed to be 290
Mm3/year/Sq.km. In Narayanapur the rate of siltation observed to be 170 Mm3/year/Sq.km. In Jurala the rate
of siltation observed to be 62 Mm3/year/Sq.km. In Srisailam the rate of siltation observed to be 69
Mm3/year/Sq.km. In Nagarjunasagar the rate of siltation observed to be 252 Mm3 /year/Sq.km. In Pulichintala
the rate of siltation observed to be 30 Mm3/year/Sq.km. It is observed that the deposition of sediment in dead
storage for Almatti, Narayanapur, Jurala, Srisailam, Nagarjunasagar and Pulichintala is 86%, 55.14%, 66.17%,
55.68%, 83.79% and 68.94 % respectively. The life of the reservoirs Almatti, Narayanapur, Jurala, Srisailam,
Nagarjunasagar and Pulichintala worked out as 366, 135, 65, 267, 156, 138 years respectively.
2. The net flows into Almatti, Almatti-Narayapur, Narayanapur-Jurala, Jurala-Srisailam, Srisailam-
Nagarjunasagar, Nagarjunasagar- Pulichintala, Puilchintala- Prakasam barrage are worked considering the
gauge data, upstream utilisations, and the component of flows from upstream sub basins The Average annual
net flows into the Almatti, Almatti-Narayapur, Narayanapur-Jurala, Jurala-Srisailam, Srisailam-
Nagarjunasagar, Nagarjunasagar- Pulichintala, Puilchintala- Prakasam barrage are 461, 25.35, 234.48, 170.22,
40.10, 91.1, 92.5 TMC respectively.
3. One of the conditions of the KRISHNA WATER DISPUTES TRIBUNAL 2 award is that the 65 % and
average demands have to start after the 75 % dependable demands are fully met. The Tribunal has also
imposed several other constraints on utilisations, project wise restrictions. All these conditions imposed by
KRISHNA WATER DISPUTES TRIBUNAL 2 are imposed and the system is studied through the developed
model using MIKE-BASIN. Operating rules necessary to meet these conditions are arrived at by studying the
outputs and adopting the suitable operation Policy. It is concluded that the system can perform satisfactorily
even with these conditions if the operating rules indicated are followed.
4. Necessary and suitable steps like carrying the deficit to the next month and releasing the required flows from
upstream and releasing all the flows in the storages by end of year to down stream etc. are proposed to
improve the performance of down stream projects of erstwhile Andhra Pradesh. It is concluded that these steps
are to be implemented to improve the performance of down stream projects of erstwhile Andhra Pradesh(Now
Andhra Pradesh and Telengana) and to bring them to the required reliability levels of 75 % for irrigation, 90
% for power and 100 % for drinking water requirements..
5. One of the conditions of the Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal 2 award is that the surplus flows are to be
utilized only after the average demands are fully met. The demands of surplus projects are proposed in two
months after the triggering point.The performance of surplus based projects was tested under different
conditions and it was concluded that these drawals are to be made in two wettest months after triggering of
surplus projects. Necessary balancing storages are to be provided for these projects and the flows drawn
should be stored and used in Rabi season.
6. It can be concluded that the following comprehensive operation plan indicated with general rules for all
reservoirs and specific rules for the reservoirs Almatti, Narayanapur, Jurala, Srisailam, NSP and Pulichintala
will improve the system efficiency .
1. Standard linear operating policy(SLOP) be used in all the reservoirs.
2. At UKP project i.e Almatti and Narayanapur, and at the complex of Srisailam , NSP , Pulichintala and
Prakasam Barrage the down stream releases are worked out considering the storages in the down stream
project. No releases will be made if water is available in the storage and the deficit will only be released.
Full releases be made when there is no storage down stream.
3. all the storages available upstream by end of may in good years will be released to down stream keeping
the June and July requirements. However At narayapur and jurala there will be no releases to down
stream by end of the year. Only when the reservoir fills water will flow will flow down. AT srisailam and
NSP the storages are filled so as to have carry over storages at these reservoirs.
4. The 65 % demands, demands in average flows and the demands of surplus projects are to be planned
when the flow exceeds 2130, 2293,2578 TMC respectively.
5. The surplus water projects demands are to be met in two months after the specified condition is achieved.
Proceedings of 5th National Conference on Water, Environment & Society (NCWES-2018) (xxxvii)
6. As soon as triggering of 65 % and average takes place the FRL of almatti may be rised to +521.2 and
+524.256 m respectively.
7. The drawals for 65 %, average may be reduced or stopped from January onwards at Almatti and from
Febraury onwards at Narayanapur if water is not available to meet the demands of 75 % irrigation for the
balance period.
8. Seperate MDDLS for drinking and irrigation may be maintained for Almatti and narayanapur reservoirs.
However irrigation may be allowed up to the lowest MDDL meant for drinking requirements from
January on wards.
9. The deficits in meeting the demands at Narayapur, Jurala, NSP may be carried to the next month and
met in that month if water is available. However this shifting is only for two months for Narayayapur,
NSP and one month for Jurala.
10. The 65 % demands of Jurala are to be met in two months after triggering point.
It is concluded that the above operation policy need to be followed for better performance of the serially
linked reservoir system under consideration.
REFERENCES
1. Henrick Maddison et.al-reservoir system simulation and optimisation models-The international journal on
hydropower and dams, 2007, Vol.14 P.80-83
2. Eayyaz et.al- Mike basin studies on australian river system-mike basin reports for tanzania australin capital
territory, 2004
3. Studies conducted by government of westren australia for ORD river for the period 1906-2004- mike basin
studies,2004
4. Long lengo et.al-simulation and optimisation modelling approach for the operation of Hon- Banh river,
vietnam-journal of hydrology, 4/2007
5. Long lengo et.al-optimisation of reservoir systems-phd thesis 2006, technical university of denmark
6. Department of water resources &hydrology western Australia series report, May 2010
7. Terry van et.al-securing water for future-presented in conference in Newzeland, 2007
8. Mike basin studies-studies on Salman river basin, developing the upper salman river basin-10/2003
9. CWC gauge data of Krishna river system Project reports of Almatti, Narayanapur, Jurala, Srisailam,
Nagarjunasagar, Pulichintala, and modernisation report of Krishna delta.
(xxxviii) Proceedings of 5th National Conference on Water, Environment & Society (NCWES-2018)

KEYNOTES

2 Proceedings of 5th National Conference on Water, Environment & Society (NCWES-2018)

Proceedings of 5th National Conference on Water, Environment & Society (NCWES-2018) 3
CHALLENGES IN DRINKING WATER SUPPLY FOR RURAL HOUSEHOLDS IN

INDIA THROUGH VILLAGE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS FEED FROM BULK
WATER SUPPLY

B. Rajeshwar Rao1 and Shiva Ram Bandari2
1
Executive Engineer, Rural Water Supply & Sanitation, O/o E-N-C.R.W.S.S. Hyderabad, Telangana State. rajeshwardesigns@gmail.com
2
M.S. Department of Mechanical Engineering Blekinge Institute of Technology, Karlskrona, Sweden. ram.shiva546@gmail.com.
ABSTRACT
This paper is to express a few solutions in brief; the TASKS that are facing to Provide Safe Drinking Water
Supply for Rural Households in India through village Elevated Service Reservoirs feed from long sustainable
bulk water supply Transmission Networks. In Rural India the general practices of Drinking water supply
systems, the water is collected to an Elevated storage tank directly by available clear water provision of
pumping/gravity from Bulk Water Supply then the stored water is distributed by gravity from the tank to the
households at the peak demand periods only thus intermittent supply takes place which leads clear water
contamination and improper distribution etc., several uncertain parameters are involved based on the socio-
economic-environments of underdeveloped countries for reliability in water supply access by round the clock
and for sustainability of domestic drinking water supply systems. The Technical Parameters has to be revised
appropriately to overcome the Constraints in Rural Areas in Indian Socio-Economical Environments for
providing safe Drinking water supply systems. Though there are many factors involved, for ‘Equal water
distribution’ and for ‘maintaining the required minimum pressures’ in Distribution Zone Areas becomes critical.
A few experiments conducted on a pilot basis to examine the causes of problems in the present methods adopted
for the existing pipe line systems and for the investigation of appropriate innovative methods for the drinking
water supply to all households simultaneously. A new method of pipeline system has been developed for
maintaining the pressures to reach water supply to all the households at 1st floor level and for overcoming the
problems in the existing drinking water distribution systems. The new pipe line methods implemented for the
experiments villages, Erravelly, Datarpally, Toopran in Gajwel constituency in Medak district of Telangana
State. The required pressure is maintaining in the pipe mains even the situation of all the households in the
villages are taking water simultaneously. This method of piping system is an innovative development for India
and also suitable to other developing countries. This method is a synchronised pipeline design system with
respect to the restricted limited outflows at household’s connections using tampered proof flow control valves
(FCV) designed for 5 litres per minute outflow rate and is suitable for Urban & Rural Areas in India. Now FCVs
provision is made mandatory for all the households in all villages of Telangana State and proposed for fixing at
the government cost in “Mission Bhaghiratha” program.
Keywords: Safe Drinking Water, Demand driven approach (DDA), Distribution System (DNS), Transmission
System, Bulk Water Supply, Constraints in Rural Areas, Peak day demand, Peak hourly demand, tampered proof
flow control valves (FCV) ,Control Water Tariff Plans.
INTRODUCTION
In many places of INDIA, the water supply systems flow patterns are not similar to the systems which are adopting
in developed countries.
1. In general, the 24X7 systems, the water is pumped continuously (24X7) to a distribution pipe network with
average discharges, then reaches to consumers directly for instant use and during lesser demand periods (in
nights) the pumped surplus water in the DNS causes to rise the system pressure then the surplus water moved
to an elevated storage tank (floating on DNS) and thus water balancing takes place from both the ways to
meet the peak hour demands by the DNS, without drop in required residual heads.
2. This type of 24X7 direct pumping system depends on clear water availability by (24X7), power supply by
24X7, systematic users (habituated to 24X7 system that not to collect water for storage of entire day
demands) taping the water only when they use intently as the minimum terminal pressures availability by 30-
40m heads and appropriate system designs with all required extra provisions to suit all the situations.
3
3. In Rural India, the general practices of Drinking Water Supply (DWS) systems, the water is collected to an
Elevated storage tank directly by available clear water provision of pumping/gravity then the stored water is
distributed by gravity from the tank to the consumers through the DNS at the peak demand periods only thus
intermittent supply takes place which leads clear water contamination and improper distribution etc.,
4. To Provide Safe & Adequate Water readily and conveniently Accessible by users at all times (i.e. during all
seasons round the clock) and in all situations (at the peak demand requirements i.e. occasions of festival days
/Sundays), in Rural Areas in Indian Socio-Economical Environments involves the certain following
Technical Constraints.
A. Technical Constraints:
1. Improper adoption of the sufficient design per capita day demand (LPCD).
2. Uncontrolled withdrawal of water through 15mm size service pipelines in absence of flow control valves,
water meters and controlled water tariff plans.
3. Collection of water by individual households (HH) for entire day demands at once in short periods as per the
pressure availabilities and storing the water for full day demands instead of instant use through in house taps
for Bath & kitchen uses.
4. As per the existing unreliable water supply in Quality &Quantity and timings, the consumer’s confidential
levels and mindsets have been disturbed and they opens the taps at all times with limited quantities supply
designs.
5. Improper assessment of sufficient storage capacity of village service reservoirs for peak hour demands.
6. Non availability of quality Power Supply by 24X7.
7. Non availability of Bulk Water Supply by 24X7 due to improper Network Design for simultaneous filling of
village tanks.
8. Improper assessment of sufficient peak hour design demands for the pipe line designs for internal village
Distributions for uncontrolled water withdrawals.
9. Improper assessment of sufficient peak day design demands for designs of the pipe lines from the long
sustainable Bulk water supply systems.
10. Improper adoption of sufficient storage capacity of Balancing Reservoirs for Bulk Water Supply.
11. In-absences of R&D for Updated Methods for planning of Appropriate Systems for O&M feasibility.
12. There is much importance to establish the systems in Rural Areas for reduced cost rather than the results.
TECHNICAL PARAMETERS
The Technical Parameters has to be revised to overcome the Constraints for safe Drinking water supply systems
(24x7): “To Provide Safe & adequate water readily and conveniently accessible by users at all times [1] (i.e. during
all seasons round the clock) in all situations (at the peak demand requirement i.e. during occasion’s, festival days
/Sunday’s requirements).”
A. Distribution system: The Distribution system is to be designed as continuous (24x7) systems, for peak hour
flow with sufficient residual heads based on socio-economic environmental conditions of Rural Habitants for direct
use through HH connections. And to build up their confidence with establishment of most reliable systems for safe
water availability at all times and educating them by IEC (Information Education & Communication) activities
such that do not collect water at once to store water in individual houses for use of entire day demand.
For the design of the distribution systems (DNS), suitable to the peak hourly demands (PD), the peak factor (PF)
has to be revised appropriately for maintaining the minimum residual heads at peak hour demands for applicable to
Developing countries like INDIA. The peak factor (PF) for the Developed Countries are nearly fixed (2 to 3) as
utilizing the systems by so many decades onwards the Peak Hourly Demands are stabilized w. r. to stakeholders’
practices for 24X7 systems. But it is not just similar for Developing countries and involves so many parameters and
increases the PF in many folds to overcome the hurdles for the target of safe water systems (24X7).
B. Peak hourly demand: The expected peak factors for peak hour discharge for design of Main pipe lines for
Distribution systems are given in TABLE I and a peak factor 6 to 8 may suitable for normal demands for big
villages (>5000 population).
C. The storage capacity of service reservoir: The storage capacity of service reservoir, depends on the rate of
supply to village tanks, type of supply to village tanks and Mode of supply of village tanks, Such that the Elevated
Service Reservoirs like ESRs/OHSRs, GLSRs are to be designed to cater for at least to store one additional day
water requirements, the storage capacity should be 1.5 to 2 times of average daily demand to cater even if there is
any break downs in transmission system to reach safe bulk water to villages.
D. Bulk Water Supply:
1. Transmission system in rural areas, as little population and scattered located areas leads low velocities than
recommended self-cleaning velocities (0.6 m/sec). Hence system may not run with quality water and
simultaneous filling of the storage reservoirs in all villages may not possible. To overcome the problem the
gravity transmission pipe line system has to be designed for maximum of net 16 hours to cater even if there
is any break downs in transmission system to reach safe bulk water quickly to villages.
2. And the systems for specific case, even for 8 hours (peak factor of 3) may be optimum solution for certain
very less population zones with sufficient balancing reservoirs to avoid the emptying of the pipes too i.e. in
the case, minimum capacity of balance reservoir (2 to 3 hours of retention time is required).
Water transmission system to fill the village service reservoirs is optimum with respect to less discharge as
the village extent with lesser population density areas , scattered and not spread like towns and located far
away between the villages, hence lot of pressure drop in inevitable smaller diameter pipes (as velocity
normal minimum 0.6 m/sec) for recommended self-cleaning velocities ,hence increase of discharge by
increasing the design per capita demand or designed for reduced operating hours is an optimum solution
for transmission gravity main networks for feeding the village service reservoirs.
3. Hence the Bulk Water Supply Transmission system has to be designed to their day demands in net 8 to 16
hours (peak factor 1.5 to 3) for 100 LPCD at service level. But the working pumps will be operated by 24X7
and number of operating pumps limited, according to the demands such that the Balancing Reservoirs should
neither empty nor overflows for continuous supply.
4. No residual heads required over discharging points (over MWL of Tanks), for balancing the flows for design
of Transmission system for simultaneous filling of all the tanks in the networks. The SCADA system for
controlling in rural backgrounds may not suitable for all situations but may be utilized for fine tuning after
the appropriate adoption of the self-control designs for pipe lines.
5. For maintaining the zero residual heads, over discharging points, each exit points ohsr/glsr/sump/bpt
connections with 2 contiguous pipe sizes are to be utilized in series by fractioning their lengths between the
JN & exit points to exhaust the total residual heads by frictional (+other) losses. This is an appropriate
method for design of gravity mains for continuous supply from OHBR for balancing the inflow &outflow for
maintaining initial HGL over the LWL of OHBR for system sustainability.
6. Velocity limitations in piped pressure flows (for Gravity Networks from MBRs) from the practical
observations, velocity range between 0.45m/s to 3.6m/s is observed satisfactory. The pipes higher velocities
may be utilized only for reducing the excess heads over the MWLs of tanks and the pipes with moderate
velocities (0.6m/s to 1.0m/s) utilized for general provisions according to pipe line terrain. But the pipe lines
should frequently scour for lesser than the self-cleansing velocities (0.6m/s). [3]
7. Design LPCD, are depends on provision of water meters with control tariffs plans.As uncontrolled
withdrawal of water through 15mm service pipelines leads intermittent supply with lesser design LPCD than
required LPCD to suit with the water tariff plans in actual implementation thus induces plenty problems and
obstructions, the system runs with very less reliability in water distribution then system will fails for proving
safe water supply. (In real grounds PF are 12 to 24 instead of 3 and the water carrying capacity of an
individual 15mm size taps are around 1300 LPH @ 6m residual heads which is more than one full day
demand, 500 liters for 5 members of one Household service connection for Rural Areas)
6 Proceeedings of 5th National
8. Design LPCD at serv vice level, may

m be higher or lesser thaan the implem mented tariff plan in realtyy. Hence a
little moore design deemand can bee considered based on thee proposed suuitable reliabiility tariff plaan. Design
LPCD also
a depends on o culture, naature of habitaations, dependds upon sociaal economic siituation of villlages, and
lot of unncertainties which
w may be common andd depends on the system addoptability baased on impleementation
to cater the peak day demands (Suunday, villagee market day, wedding dayys etc.,) requirres additionall water.
9. For 24xx7 water availlability, the gravity
g pressuurized systemms, design from m village waater tank withh sufficient
design LPCD
L (for >=100)
> based on adoptable water tarifff plan and with w 1.5 to 2 times of aveerage daily
demand for storage of o elevated seervice reservooirs at villagees is for betterr reliability and
a also suitabble for the
setup with
w one peak k day demandd storage sum mp combinedd with at leaast ½ day peak demand storage s for
elevatedd reservoir forr big villages (>5000 popuulations) with 24x7 provisions for waterr & power suppply.
1
10. Peak dayy demand: Trransmission systems for villlage tanks, inn flows from Bulk
B Water Supply
S may break down
by 24 hoours from thee transmissionn system. Hennce Pipe liness designed for peak day deemand, (peakk factor 1.5
for net 16
1 operating hours for aveerage day dem mands) for major
m trunks and
a the seconndary networkks for very
small viillages design ned for peak factor of 4 too 2 and based on the pow wer supply innterruptions and
a gravity
networkk feasibility for minimum m self-cleaniing velocity correspondiingly reduce the design operating
pumps/hhours <16 i.e.., for small isoolated zone of villages witth less populaation and for scattered
s locaated.
1
11. Balancinng Reservoirss for Bulk Waater Supply (O OHBR): Gennerally, capaccity is for 1 too 3 hours retenntion time,
and alsoo with sufficieent storage caapacity that baalances the innflow and out flows.
1
12. Break Pressure
P Tankks (BPT): Thee group of sm mall villages inn low laying areas
a may be isolated from m the main
trunk byy putting BPT Ts (with 25% to 100% dailyy demand stoorage capacityy) are good opption for pipee lines with
little moore diameters keeping for self-cleaning velocity for filling in reduuced hours from BPT (B BPT can be
utilized as service resservoir for a group
g of smalll villages).
1
13. Pumpingg Mains: Pu umping in pippeline networrks for more than 2 dischharge locationns may not suuitable for
account of water ham mmer variationns incrementss for alternatee filling in opeeration and maintenance.
m
1
14. Distribuution system: Peak hourlyy demand – peak p factor 6 to 8 used in i normal demands for biig villages
(>5000 population) and a situationss possibility in water suppply 24x7. Buut due to suddden hike in the t village
demand by more than n the said peaak hourly dem mands for unnwanted breakkdown situations for villagge inflows,
the peakk hourly demaand may rise 12 to 24 tim mes the averagge hourly dem mand. Thus leeads low pressure zones
may be possible.
p
1
15. Hence itt is better to design
d the disstribution systtem for peak factor of 12 to t 24 for ruraal areas even it
i designed
for 24x77 system with h 1.5 to 2 timees average daiily demand ellevated storagge capacity (oor combined capacity
c of
sump pllus ohsr ) to overcome
o all the
t above problems to incrrease reliabilitty of safe watter supply (244 × 7).
1
16. Minimuum Residual HeadsH for DNNS, +7 m on FCV F (ferrule) point for ruraal areas anywhere in the viillage.
Models given in Fig g. 1 & Fig. 2 are suitablee for rural areeas with Bullk water suppply with 100 LPCD @
Service Level.
Q peak flow
w =PF*Q avgg. flow
ESR capacity.
c PEA
AK DAY FUL
LL
E
EVEN FOR 24X7
2 SYSTEM
M
Out flow
I flow
In P.F >=1.5 P.F=16 with 5LPM FCV controlled
c outt flow villagee DNS
B
Bulk Supply village DNS
S
Fig. 1 A Villagge System withh Bulk Water Supply

S from Major
M project
nt & Society (N
NCWES-20188) 7
Note 1.S
Storage tanks with full of Peak
P Day Dem
mands
Note 2.P
Pipe lines to be
b designed for
fo individual Peak Factors as mentionedd.
Q
Qpeak flow =P
PF*Qavg.flow
w,
½ to full PEA
AK DAY
ESR capaccity.
EVE
EN FOR 24X77 SYSTEM
Infloow from
Village SUMP
P.F >=1.5
F>=4
P.F P.F =16 witth 5LPM FCV
V controlled out
o flow villagge DNS
Inn flow Supplyy
B
BULK WATE
ER village SU
UMP
Fig. 2 A Viillage System with

w Bulk Water Supply from
m Major Projecct with isolatedd SUMP
Note 1.S
Storage tanks with ½ to fulll Peak Day Demands
D in tootal.
Note 2.P
Pipe lines to be fo individual Peak Factors as mentionedd.
b designed for
For Individuaal (Water Treaatment Plant) WTP, Big Villages
Note 3.F V in placce of sump reeplaced by WTP.
177. Water meter
m with conntrol tariff: itt is very impoortant constraaints. The usage and wastaage will not be curtailed
without use of water meters by coontrolled tarifffs. The servicce lines are evven minimum m 15mm diam meter pipes
water diischarges thro
ough them aree abnormal annd cannot be controlled byy self. Hence water meterss should be
providedd with control tariffs.
18. Based on
o the contro olled water taariff system, the per capiita demand for f operation of the systeem will be
dependeent on the type of tariff plaan adopted.
As a wholee almost of alll Drinking water
w supply systems
s in Deeveloping Coountries, like INDIA
I are opperated by
inntermittent suupply to delivver water to the consumeers. There is a less reliabiility in continnuous system ms that are
pllanned to be functioned, to t keep wateer availabilityy to consumerrs by 24X7 and a the stakeeholder’s impportance in
pllanning and operation
o is not
n up to the extent
e as moddels practicedd in several deeveloped counntries, due to the socio-
ecconomic-enviironment con nditions in devveloping counntries.
What is happpening in thhe distributionn systems (DN
NS) that are operated
o by inntermittently’ in terms of hydraulics
off piped waterr supply systems?
Answer is “as“ a result, a less pressurre (around 1m m head) existtence in the pipeline
p system in entire distribution
d
zoone areas duee to the simulltaneous wateer drawls by the consumerrs irrespective of the wateer demands att the times
annd collecting the water forr storage at house
h service points for usse of entire daaily demandss instead of innstant use”
annd leads, lesss water drawlls at just elevvated house seervice connecctions and muuch more draawls is at low wer ground
leevel houses and
a net rate of o water draw wls is much more
m than thee design peakk discharges ofo pipe netwoorks. Thus
m
more pressure head losses in the pipe networks
n due to mismatchhing of excesss outflows at households w.r.t.w peak
deesign discharrges for pipe networks
n and leads less preessures.
As per the hydraulics ofo pipeline syystems for pressured
p ws, the waterr outflows att the service levels are
flow
prressure depenndents rather than consum mers demand dependents. Even ½“sizee pipe servicee connectionss, outflows
arre around 20 LPM and thee elevated serrvice reservoirs gets emptty in a short duration
d of timme by the unncontrolled
hoouse-holds siimultaneous withdrawals.
w In view of water
w supply for all streets in distribuution zoning areas with
diifferent timinngs in short durations
d aree in practice with unfeasibble environmments, as simuultaneous suppply to all
zones practically not possible at present existing situations as pipe lines design sizes are very less in comparison to
the actual prevailing discharges.
The above explanation is for the DNS if designed in lines of continuous systems for 24X7 water availability at
consumer ends and design criteria is based on ‘Demand Driven Approach (DDA). DDA is not suitable for the
present Indian-socio-economic-environment conditions for Design of Distribution Systems and leads intermittent
supply in reality. Need for an appropriate design methods that are also suitable for intermittent supply situations. At
present, ‘Equal water distribution’ and ‘maintaining the minimum pressures’ in Distribution Zone Areas becomes
the first Task for Rural Areas and Cities in India.
INTEGRATIVE DESIGN APPROACH FOR INTERMITTENT SUPPLY SITUATIONS

Households water drawls are pressure dependents and discharges nearly 20 LPM with ½“size service connections
and cumulative discharges are more excess than the pipelines peak design discharges (considering 5-8 members per
each service connections for rural and urban) from 0.7 to 2.0 LPM for 70 to 135 LPCD with peak factor of 3 as per
CPHEEO Manuals (1999).
The large variations are in water discharges, at house-holds service connections w.r.t. the pipeline design peak
discharges and that are very small peak design discharges even less than ½ GPM (2.25 LPM) which are not
accepted by the people for water collection at all house-holds service connections even-if the system controlled for
simultaneous water drawls in any chance. By the people’s participations with educating about the water scarcity
through awareness programs in “Mission Bhagiratha” projects, finally people are forcibly accepting 5 LPM
discharges at house-holds service points.
For integrative design, the water drawls at house-holds reduced to acceptable range of 5 to 6 LPM by fixing
tampered proof flow control valves (FCV) at each service connections and the main pipeline sizes provided for the
peak design discharges revised appropriately w.r.t. the total controlled outflows at service points. The peak design
discharges should be more than the cumulative controlled outflows at house-holds service connections. Hence the
so called peak factors suitably considered for peak hourly design discharges, w.r.t. the controlled outflows at
service connections using FCVs for 5 LPM.
For rural areas at 70 LPCD, water collecting time at each house-holds of 4.5 avg. members with controlled
drawls using FCV for 5 LPM @ 6m residual heads is 70X4.5/5=63 minutes per day, the peak factor for hourly
design discharges is 24X60/63=23, peak factor preferable is 24 for rural areas where with 70 LPCD with 6m
minimum residual heads.
For urban areas at 135 LPCD, water collecting time at each house-holds of 8 members with controlled drawls
using 5LPM FCV outflows 6 LPM @ 9m residual heads is 135X8/6=180 minutes per day, the peak factor for
hourly design discharges is 24X60/180=8, peak factor preferable is 8 for urban areas where with 135 LPCD with
9m minimum residual heads. Similarly the peak factors assumed for other areas based on per capita demands and
house-holds water drawls controls by fixing FCV and number of average persons in each house connections.
Table1 is for suitable peak factors to be used for peak design discharges for the distribution systems for the
intermittent supply situations in Indian-socio-economic-environments with FCV of 5 LPM @ 5m head loss (at 6m
residual heads, taps are 1m above the GL).
The tampered proof Flow control valve (FCV) is designed for 5 LPM @ 5m head loss over tap levels
(minimum residual heads on ground levels is 6m for the pipelines designs) successfully utilized for trial villages in
phase-1 commission of “Mission Bhagiratha” drinking water supply project in Telangana state. The minimum
residual heads of 6m maintained at all households in trial test villages and all house-holds are getting water
simultaneously and water supplying twice in a day for all, in morning and evening time in total of 1.5 hours supply
for fulfilling the design per-capita supply as 100 LPCD for rural Telangana and 135 LPCD for urban and nagara-
panchayats have been considered in “Mission Bhagiratha” project. The house-hold FCV utilization is also
mentioned in CPHEEO O&M manual (2005) for reducing the UFW/NRW. Now the utilization of FCV is
mandatory in “Mission Bhagiratha” drinking water supply project for Telangana state.
FCV for 5 LPM @ 5m head loss will supply 6 LPM for 8 to 9m head losses if more residual pressure heads
exists around 10m at households service connections. The cost of each FCV is around INR 400/- only and FCV
made with SS 316 body manufactured by CNC machining and SS 316 ball inside will act as non-return valve thus
avoids house-holds contaminations by backflow prevention in addition to control outflows from 20 LPM to around
5 LPM.
The distribution system designed for the peak design discharges as mentioned in the Table 1 and the pipe
diameters are to be suitably checked for the maximum velocities w.r.t. the pipe sizes as mentioned in Table 2 for
economical pipes sizing.
Table 1 Suitable peak factors to be used for peak design discharges for the distribution systems for the intermittent supply
situations in Indian socio-economic-environments with FCV of 5 LPM @ 5m head.
Per- Preferable Avg. Minimum time of Peak Factors

capita minimum Members in supply in hours with preferable for
Area
supply, residual each house- FCV peak hourly
LPCD heads holds 5 to 6LPM discharges
Rural-areas 70 6M 4.5 =70X4.5/5=1.0 24
Rural Telangana 100 6M 4.5 =100X4.5/5=1.5 16
Urban Telangana 135 9M 8.0 =135X8/6=3.0 8
Greater Municipal corporations 150 9M 10.0 =150X10/6=4.0 6
Table 2 For economical pipeline sizing the following velocities are limited based on the higher abrupt
pressure losses for Urban Areas.
Sl no Diameter range (ID) Recommended Velocity Maximum velocity limit
1 Diameter up to 200mm ID 0.6 m/s 0.9 m/s
2 Diameter from 200mm to 350mm ID 0.6 m/s 1.0 m/s
5 Diameter > 900mm 1.2 m/s 1.5 m/s
Flow Control Valves Suitable for Mission Bhaghiratha as 5 LPM FCV

FCV Description: A simple HH level tampered proof flow control valve with backflow prevention.
FCV need for avoiding excess flow rates than the peak design flow rates in distribution systems. For
controlling Household excess drawls over the peak hour design demands.
And for avoiding excess flow rates than the peak design flow rates in distribution mains to control the excess
head losses for safeguarding the minimum residual heads at elevated points and at far end points in entire pipe
networks. FCV used to minimize the higher water drawls at low lying areas and at areas nearby tanks. FCV need
for avoiding excess water usage and wastage of water at Households Level.
FCV Function: for suitable of “Mission Bhaghiratha” outflows of 5LPM to 6.5LPM @ 0.5 to 1.0 bar pressure
heads. A single unique design of 5 LPM FCV is suitable for both Rural and Urban demands also.
FCV Benefits: minimizes the Unaccounted for Water (UFW) / Non-Revenue Water (NRW), simultaneous supply
can be possible in peak timings to all households. Minimum pressure heads maintained to all households.
FCV Fixing: fixed at place of ferrule to threaded saddle clamps to avoid the bypassing the FCV.
FCV Results: Examined for 3 trial villages with deferent terrain and populations in phase-1 commission of
“Mission Bhaghiratha”.
FCV Hydraulics: flow through orifices and notches and works on floating ball principle.
FCV precautions for cavitation due to higher velocities through the small notches. The FCV inner parts
arrangements to be such that to avoid choking with debris and floats .The valve parts made using CNC machined
(valve body, bush part and ball) for accurate dimensional finishing with quality, material preferable of SS 316 for
rustproof.
FCV Future developments: it should be for fixed flows with normal pressure variations with techno-economical.
WATER METERS WITH AFFORDABLE CONTROL WATER TARIFF PLANS

For minimizing the wastage/excess usage of water and for accountability, the provision of Water Meters with
affordable control Water TARIFF PLANS implementation is a next TASK for achievements of uninterrupted
water supply.
After the fixation of the house-hold FCV for minimizing the excess drawls and for Equal water distribution’
and ‘maintaining the minimum pressures’ in Distribution Zone Areas may be possible with water meters fixation of
all house-holds service connections for accountability and implementing the water tariffs affordable for lower
income groups for basic minimum quantity water drawls and for control water tariffs for minimizing the
wastage/excess usage over basic minimum quantities of water in terms of persons living in a house.
As suggested by NRDWP Guidelines (2013) for basic minimum water requirements and the proposal of no
charge (free supply) on water meter reading up to 55 LPCD consumption, (ie.,8kL/month for each HH -5nos) ,but
only to pay Rs 30/month as service charges ,will help to improve the health of poor. The four levels of different
control water tariffs are from 55-70-100-135-150 LPCD are for monthly consumption 8kL-10kL-15kL-20kL-25kL
respective monthly bills INRs 30-50-150-350-750 are planned for controlling the water usage.
CONCLUSIONS
1. In Rural India the general practices of Drinking water supply systems, the water is collected to an Elevated
storage tank directly by available clear water provision of pumping/gravity from Bulk Water Supply then the
stored water is distributed by gravity from the tank to the consumers at the peak demand periods only thus
intermittent supply takes place which leads clear water contamination and improper distribution etc.,
2. The Technical Parameters has to be revised appropriately to overcome the Constraints in Rural Areas in
Indian Socio-Economical Environments for providing safe Drinking water supply systems (24x7) feed by
bulk water supply through the Transmission System Networks.
3. The design parameters for hydraulic components with enough cushioning to accommodate the Factor of
Safety for assured safe DWS availability by 24X7 with provision of FCV at all consumer connections for
limited withdrawals under all the circumstances.
4. Distribution system: pipelines designed for peak hourly demands, peak factor may vary between 16 to 8 for
the 24x7 systems in Urban Areas with 5LPM FCV provisions and 12-24 may be considered for rural areas to
safeguard the residual heads at tail end points even in worst situations of certain unwanted demand and
supply fluctuations in situations of the intermittent supply.
5. The continuous direct pumping model utility, which used for the Developed Countries, may not work in
reality for Rural India based on socio-economic environmental conditions and unreliable quality Power
Supply by 24X7 in village backgrounds.
6. The peak factor for hourly demands ,is depends on so many parameters in rural areas with limited resources
and lack of much importance for public health ,leads other than technical hurdles too and creates the
abnormal situations to succeed the safe drinking water supply systems.
7. The expected peak factors, for peak hour discharge for design of Main pipe lines for Distribution Systems
(DNS) are given in TABLE I, may be applicable for Rural Areas by provision of Water Meters with
implementation of affordable control Water TARIFF PLANS (Given in previous Para’s, based on socio-
economic status expected for 2020 year for people conditionings in TELANGANA STATE in INDIA) with
150% to 200% average day demand storage at Elevated Service Reservoir (or combined capacity with
Ground Level Storage tanks) with minimum of 1.5 Peak Factor for Transmission System (TS) from bulk
water supply for inflow to reservoirs.
8. Models for 24X7 systems for Indian Rural Environments, given in Fig. 1 & Fig. 2 are suitable and adoptable
for design demands not less than 100 LPCD @ service level. The total losses etc., up to 30% may be
considered for UFW for the system reliability for entire 30 years design period, as the long bulk water
Transmission with higher pressures & for uncontrolled losses in Rural Distribution Systems.
9. Transmission System: pipeline designed for peak day demand, (peak factor 1.5 for net 16 operating hours)
for major trunks and the secondary networks for very small villages designed for peak factor of 4 to 2 and
based on the power supply interruptions and gravity network feasibility for minimum self-cleaning velocity
correspondingly reduce the design operating hours <16 i.e., for small isolated zone of villages with less
population and for scattered located. The number of operating pumps (run by 24X7) should be limited
accordingly from flow fluctuations in Balancing Reservoirs based on real demands.
10. Design capacity of elevated service reservoir at village level: elevated service reservoir designed for peak
day demand and 1.5 to 2 times of average daily demand whichever is higher for standby provision for
reliability supply in un-tear situation breaks from Bulk water supply.
11. The rural habitants are not systematic for use of safe water, at present their mindsets are disturbed with the
existing unreliable water supply systems that they are eagerly awaiting for water and try to collecting the
total full day demands at once for storage in their houses instead of direct use for instant needs. The planning
of Safe Drinking Water Supply Systems at lesser costs may not fulfill the goals in reality with the present
unfeasible Rural Socio-Economic Environments. The systems with insufficient provisions may leads to fail
the purpose of rural habitants as they are at the initial stage to change for up-gradations.
12. The provision of Design Parameters for all the units planned collectively with enough cushioning for more
reliable with respect to the actual system operational rural environments for providing the Drinking Water
Supply Systems.
The Distribution System pipelines are designed for peak hourly demands for continuous systems in several
Developed countries. But for Indian cities, the peak factor may vary between 6 to 8 if the circumstances prevails
for available of water by 24x7 at the best of times but the continuous systems based on ‘Demand driven approach
(DDA) and not suitable for the present Indian Socio Economic Environment conditions for Design of Distribution
Systems and leads intermittent supply in reality due to several factors involved.
The water outflows at the service levels are pressure dependents rather than consumers demand dependents. The
service lines are even minimum 15mm size pipes, the water discharges through them are abnormal (around 20Lpm)
and cannot be controlled by self. Hence tampered proof flow control valves (flow rate 5Lpm@ 5m pressure head
loss) at each house service connections should be provided w.r.to the design flow rates of the distribution system in
addition to the fixing of water meters with affordable control tariff plans for maintaining the continuous supply.
Need for an appropriate design methods that are also suitable for intermittent supply situations.
At present, ‘Equal water distribution’ and ‘maintaining the minimum pressures’ in Distribution Zone Areas
becomes the first TASK for Rural Areas and Cities in INDIA.
For integrative design approach, the water drawls at house-holds reduced to acceptable range of 5 to 6 LPM by
fixing tampered proof flow control valves (FCV) at each service connections and the main pipeline sizes provided
for the peak design discharges revised appropriately w.r.t. the total controlled outflows at service points.
Hence peak factor of 6 and 24 may be considered with the control provision of outflows limited to 5 LPM @
0.5 bar pressure loss at service level by fixing of tampered proof flow control valves (FCV) for smart cities and
villages respectively to safeguard the residual heads at all points even in worst situations of certain unwanted
demand-supply fluctuations and to maintain the minimum pressures in situations of intermittent supply. In order to
maintain the minimum required pressures from 7m to 12m on pipelines for Rural to Urban at all points in the
distribution systems, the pipe sizes to be designed for the cumulative peak outflows at all households (restricted by
5 LPM FCVs).
FCV/N
NRV ACT A
AS NRV FLOW CO NG
ONTROLLIN
Fig. 3 H
Household flow control valve parts arrangem
ments

FIG
G. With MDPE ((15mm ID) servvice pipe
liness to HH connecctions With FCV
V‐NRV

ouse connectionns-at ground leevel.

Fig. 4 Ho Fig. 5 HSC connection witth fcv
A
ACKNOWLE
EDGEMENT
TS
I am very grateeful to Sri Drr.Rajesh Guptta, Professor of
o V.N.I.T. Nagpur.,
N and, Sri.B.Surende
S er Reddy, the Engineer-
Inn-Chief Rurall Water Supp ply, Hyderabaad, Sri.V Prabbhakar Rao,RRetd. Superinntending Engiineer P.R.RW
WS, Sri Dr.
D
D.M.Mohan, R
Retd. Chief En ngineer, HMW WS&SB Hydderabad., Shrii D. Hanumanntha Chary, Retd.
R Dy.Chief Engineer
H
HMWS&SB H
Hyderabad. And
A all RWS & PHED Enggineers for thheir motivatioon & cooperaation, useful discussions
d
frrom time to tiime enabled me
m to write thhis paper.
R
REFERENCE
ES
1. B.R.RAO
O & SHIVA RAM
R BANDA
ARI –An Integgrative design approach for intermittent suupply situationns in Indian
cities annd villages,-inn
novative technnologies for water
w and wasste water management" Marrch 21, 2017-Institute of
Engineerrs (INDIA), Hy yderabad.
2. NRDWP Guide lines -2013 for Rural Areas from Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation, Gov’t of India
3. CPHEEO Manual for Water Supply & Treatments from Ministry of Urban Development, Gov’t of India
4. B.R.RAO & SHIVA RAM BANDARI – Appropriate Intra Village Drinking Water Distribution Systems through
“Mission Bhaghiratha” in TELANGANA State-National Conference on SWEM-2017, 21- 23 December 2017-
Organized by CWR, IST, JNTUH.
5. B.R.RAO & SHIVA RAM BANDARI -An Integrative design approach for domestic water Distribution Systems in
Indian cities and villages, 49th Annual Convention of IWWA on "Smart Water Management" January 19-21, 2017.
6. CPHEEO Manual for O&M from Ministry of Urban Development, Gov’t of India.(2005).
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF RURAL WATER SUPPLY DISTRIBUTION
NETWORK SYSTEM USING WATERGEMS MODEL
Gopal M. Naik1 and R. S. M. Manasa2
1
Professor and 2P.G. Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Osmania University, Hyderabad-7
ABSTRACT
Water distribution systems represent a major portion of the investment and a critical component of public works.
The goal is to design water distribution system to deliver potable water over spatially extensive areas in required
quantities and under satisfactory pressures. The proposed water distribution system under Mission Bhageeratha
of Bhongir Mandal with HMWSS reservoir as source has been taken as a case study. The secondary segment
with a Balancing reservoir serving village service reservoirs and a village water distribution network have been
modelled using Arcmap and Model Builderin WaterGEMS. Water age analysis and residual chlorine analysis has
been performed in it with extended period simulation.
Keywords: Water Distribution System, Qualitative Analysis.
INTRODUCTION
The issue of adequate quantity, quality and the distance of the nearest available source is emerging to be the most
contentious issue with regard to urban water supply. The number of piped water supplies in rural areas is rapidly
increasing, driven in part by water resource constraints, but increasingly because people want a higher level of
service. The analysis of water quality parameters levels with time in a piped system can be performed in Water
GEMS using Water Age and Constituent analysis in Extended period simulation. The analysis of water distribution
system of Bhongir Mandal, Telangana state with the help of Water GEMS was carried for design period of 30
years. The variety of analysis has been carried out yielding wide range of results for diameter of pipes, pressure at
different nodes, cost analysis, etc. The network analysis has been done pertaining to the criteria of 100 lpcd water
supply with the minimum head of 6.0 m. Water GEMS found extremely user friendly with variety of hydraulic and
graphical analysis options. The data available with RWS&S department, survey AutoCAD maps of
Bhongirmandal, were used to develop network model in Water GEMS using Model Builder tool. Two models are
developed, one of the model is for Secondary distribution network of Bhongir GLBR and the other model for
village distribution network of Jammapur habitation. Differrent scenarios were created to analyze the same network
for different situations.
BACKGROUND
Drinking water distribution systems are one of the multiple barriers available to public water systems to prevent
contamination and to maintain safe and high-quality water. Increasing emphasis is being placed on monitoring and
preserving drinking water quality from the point-of-entry to the point-of-use. Though physio-chemical processes
assist in removal or killing of microorganisms to varying degree, they cannot be relied upon to provide safe water.
For utmost safety of water for drinking purposes, disinfection of water has to be done for killing of disease
producing organisms.
The most predominantly used water treatment disinfectant is chlorine. Chlorine is usually injected after all
treatments at a water treatment plant to disinfect potable water and maintain a residual within a water distribution
system (WDS) preventing regrowth of pathogenic bacteria. As chlorine reacts with organic materials in the water,
it decays over time. Therefore, to meet water quality standards at customers’ consumption points, it is necessary to
maintain free chlorine residuals throughout the WDS between minimum and maximum levels for various reasons.
According to CPHEEO manual, satisfactory disinfection is obtained by prechlorination to maintain 0.3 to 0.4 mg/l
free available residual throughout treatment or 0.2 to 0.3 mg/l free available residual in the plant effluent at normal
pH values. At higher pH of 8 to 9, at least 0.4 mg/l is required for complete bacterial kill with 10 minutes contact
time. For 30 minutes contact time the dosage reduces to 0.2 to 0.3 mg/l. Chlorine residuals with minimum levels
(generally 0.2 mg/L) must be maintained to control bacterial regrowth. A maximum level (4.0 mg/L) is also needed
14
to avoid potential health effects from long-term exposure and control taste and odour problems.As per IS 10500:
2012 on Drinking Water – Specification, the acceptable free residual chlorine limit is 0.2 mg/l and the permissible
limit in the absence of alternative source is 1.00 mg/l.
Behzadian et al. (2012) studied the disadvantages in conventional chlorination methods and suggested a better
method of booster chlorination. According to their study, compared to conventional chlorination methods which
apply chlorine at water treatment plant, booster chlorination has almost solved the problems of high dosages of
chlorine residuals near water sources and lack of chlorine residuals in the remote points of a water distribution
system (WDS). However, control of trihalomethane (THM) formation as a potentially carcinogenic disinfection by-
product (DBP) within a WDS has still remained as a water quality problem. The objectives are defined as to
maximize the volumetric discharge with appropriate levels of disinfectant residuals throughout all demand nodes
and to minimize the total mass of disinfectant applied with a specified number of booster stations.
Chlorine Decay and THM Formation in WDS
Chlorine decays over time within the WDS as it reacts with organic materials in the water. Various reaction kinetic
models have been developed to describe chlorine decay. Generally, they can be divided into two categories of first-
order and non first-order reaction kinetic models.
The first-order decay model has received more attention from various researchers because of:
(i) its simplicity;
(ii) its reasonable accuracy to represent chlorine decay in water; and
(iii) its adaption for using principle of linear superposition.
The first-order chlorine decay model includes expressions to describe reactions occurring in the bulk fluid and
at the pipe wall. The differential form of the decay model for the bulk fluid is given in eq.(1).
dC/dt = -kbC …..(1)
where C=chlorine concentration in the bulk fluid (mg/L); t=time (days or hours); and kb=bulk decay coefficient
(days−1 or hours−1). The form of the first-order chlorine decay model for reactions at the pipe wall is in eq.(2).
dC/dt = -kw / rhCw …..(2)
where kw=wall decay coefficient (m/day) which is a function of the pipe material and age; rh=hydraulic radius
(m); and Cw=chlorine concentration at the wall (mg/L), which is a function of the bulk chlorine concentration. kw is
usually calculated by the difference between an overall decay coefficient (kT) obtained from pipe-loop experiments
or field data and the bulk decay coefficient (kb) as given in eq.(3).
kw= kT + kb …..(3)
The global bulk (kb) and wall (kw) coefficients for disinfectant dynamics are usually assumed to be 0.5 day-1 and
0.25 m.day-1, respectively. Previous research has shown that THM formation can be modelled solely as a function
of chlorine decay. Boccelli et al. (2003) observed a strong linear relationship between THM formation and chlorine
consumption from experimental data under various chlorination scenarios. Singer et al. (2002) also observed a
strong linear relationship between THM formation and chlorine consumption when applied to data from five water
sources chlorinated at both pH 6 and 8. The following linear relationship can be presented as in eq.(4).
THM = Y(Cl2 Consumption) + M …..(4)
Where, THM=total THM formation (µg/L) and Y=yield parameter µg of THMs formed/mg of Cl2 consumed.
The THM yield parameter (Y) is dependent on many factors including the chemical composition and structure of
the organic material in the water, pH, and temperature. The term M in the equation above is the intercept from
linear regression analysis of experimental data. The limits on the residual disinfectant at the nodes are assumed to
be Cmin=0.2 and Cmax=4.0 mg/L, respectively. The hydraulics and booster injections are assumed to be periodic
with a period of 24 h. The water quality simulation duration is set to be 144 h and the final 24-h results are used in
the calculation of composite response coefficients.
Water Age
Mirjam Blokker et al.(2016) related Water Quality and Water Age in drinking water distribution system. Water
quality deteriorates as it travels through a drinking water distribution system. Parameters and reactions that are
considered of interest include disinfectant residual and disinfectant by-product formation, nitrification, bacterial
regrowth, corrosion, sedimentation, temperature, and taste and odour. Many of these are kinetic in nature and hence
residence time within a system or Water Age may be an indicator of such deterioration. It has also been shown that
higher water temperatures may enhance water quality deterioration. Many of the chemical changes that influence
water quality are driven by reaction kinetics which are temperature dependent, and temperature also influences
microbial populations. An age analysis determines how long the water has been in the system and is more of a
general water quality indicator than a measurement of any specific constituent.Under the US EPA's Stage 2
Disinfectant by-product Rule, utilities are required to identify locations in their water distribution systems that are
likely to have high concentrations of disinfectant by-products such as Trihalomethanes and Haloacetic acids. Both
of these are associated with high water age.
METHODOLOGY
The Constituent Analysis is performed on the network by creating a scenario with constituent alternative. The
Constituent Alternative contains the water quality data used to model a constituent concentration throughout the
network when performing a water quality analysis. To perform Residual Chlorine Concentration analysis, Chlorine
is set as the constituent and the initial concentrations, Source of constituent, Mass rate etc, are specified through a
constituent alternative. Then a scenario is set up for analysis using the constituent alternative.
The following attributes can be defined in the Constituent alternative:
 Concentration (Initial) - The concentration at the associated node at the start of an EPS run.
 Concentration (Base) - The concentration of the inflow into the system at the associated node. If there is no
inflow, then this flow does not affect constituent concentration.
 Mass Rate (Base) - The mass per unit time injected at a node when the constituent source type is set to
"Mass Rate".
Constituent Source Type - there are four ways in which you can specify a constituent entering a system:
 A concentration source fixes the concentration of any external inflow entering the network, such as flow
from a reservoir or from a negative demand placed at a junction.
 A mass booster source adds a fixed mass flow to that entering the node from other points in the network.
 A flow paced booster source adds a fixed concentration to that resulting from the mixing of all inflow to
the node from other points in the network.
 A setpoint booster source fixes the concentration of any flow leaving the node (as long as the concentration
resulting from all inflow to the node is below the setpoint).
Pattern (Constituent) - The name of the constituent pattern created under Component > Patterns that the
constituent will follow. The default value is "Fixed". Is Constituent Source? - This attribute should be set to True if
the element is to be a source in the scenario. Setting it to False will turn off the source even if there are values
defined for Concentration (Base) or Mass Rate (Base).
CASE STUDY DESCRIPTIONS

Two models are developed for analysis of Rural Water Supply Distribution Network using WaterGEMS. One of
the model is for Secondary distribution network of 40KL Bhongir GLBR and the other model for village
distribution network of Jammapur habitation. Under Telangana Drinking Water Supply Project, HMWSS GLBR
located at Ghanpur, near Patancheru, Medak District is the source of treated drinking water for 11 mandals under
Alair-Bhongir constituencies. It is a 2.5MLD GLBR that receives water from Yellampally reservoir on Godavari
River. The main line connects Ghanpur GLBR to OHBRs/GLBRs present in this system. The secondary lines
connect OHBRs / GLBRs to village OHSRs and the flow is by gravity. Fig 1.1 shows the Google Earth image of
this network. The Table 1 gives details on secondary line under Bhongir GLBR.
Fig. 1 Shows the image of Bhongir GLBR network
Table 1 Secondary Line under Bhongir GLBR

Source point Bhongir GLBR
Capacity of GLBR 40 KL
Total Length of Secondary Line 1250 Km
Length of secondary line under Bhongir GLBR 38.51 Km
Number of OHSRs served 26
Material of pipeline HDPE
Total number of habitations served under this segment 16
Total population served 13264
Per Capita Demand 100 lpcd
Hours of Supply 22 Hrs
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Age analysis is performed on this model by creating a scenario of 168hrs time period with Hazen-William friction
method. Graph1 shows the variation in Age with time for all junctions for 24hrs.Minimum age of 2.35hrs is
observed at Ramakrishnapuram village because of its closer proximity to GLBR(2824m) and maximum age of
12.49hrs is observed at Kammagudem village, which is 9916m away from GLBR. Fig.2 shows the variation of
water age at all nodes with time
Fig. 2 Variation of Water Age at all nodes with time

It is observed that although the length of pipeline from GLBR to Yerrambelly junction is 15166m, the Age
calculated at Yerrambelly junction for 24hrs is 8.06hrs, whereas Age calculated for Kammagudem junction which
is 9916m away from GLBR is 12.49hrs. This is because, length of pipeline from GLBR is not the only criteria in
Age estimation but, velocity of water in pipe plays a major role in Age estimation. Here, it is seen that the weighted
average velocity in pipe from GLBR to Kammagudem is 0.36m/s, whereas the weighted average velocity in pipe
from GLBR to Yerrambelly is 0.60m/s. Hence, although length of pipeline is higher from GLBR to Yerrambelly
than from GLBR to Kammagudem, due to higher velocity water reaches earlier to Yerrambelly than to
Kammagudem.
Chlorine Analysis of Bhongir GLBR in WaterGEMS
Chlorine analysis is performed on this model by creating a scenario of 168hrs time period with Hazen-William
friction method. An initial concentration of 0.5mg/l is given for GLBR and 10.00mg/s of Mass booster rate is
selected after trials to maintain minimum 0.2mg/l residual chlorine at all junctions. Table 2 gives details on initial,
maximum and minimum Chlorine concentrations for all nodes in 168hrs time period run.
Fig. 3 Variation of Age Calculated and Chlorine concentration for Pipe-29
It is seen from Fig.3 that initially at nodes far away from GLBR the chlorine residual concentrations are below
0.20 mg/l since the water from GLBR has not reached the node point. Once the flow is stabilized, the minimum
residual chlorine concentration of 0.20 mg/l is maintained at all nodes. With the use of chlorine mass booster at
GLBR, it was possible to maintain minimum chlorine residual and also limit maximum concentration to 0.439 mg/l
only at Junc-1, which is immediate downstream to GLBR. If only initial concentration of a higher value was given
to GLBR, the concentrations at nodes near to GLBR would have been much higher which is not so desirable. The
variation of Age calculated and Chlorine Concentration for pipe-29 with time is shown in Graph 2. Pipe-29
connects Junc-14 and Jammapur Node. From Graph 2 it is seen that, Age calculated and Chlorine concentration,
both are stabilized at same time. There will be a drop in Chlorine concentration from 0.20 mg/l till the water from
GLBR reaches Jammapur point whenever the water flow is started afresh.
CONCLUSION
Hydraulic Designing plays a crucial role in maintaining effective and efficient Water supply system. With EPS
scenario, Age analysis was performed on both the models to track the time taken by discrete water particles to
reach a particular node from reservoir. More is the age of water, more is the chance of constituent entering the
system. Hence, age analysis results give crucial information for water quality monitoring. Performing age analysis
in conventional method is not feasible due to tedious calculations. Hence, software provides easier, efficient and
accurate results. It was seen that Water Age at junctions increased with time in the initial hours and then remained
constant in the 24hrs time period since the flow takes time to get stabilized. Also, the Water Age is directly
dependent on length of pipe and inversely proportional to velocity in pipe, similar to travel time in pipe. Chlorine
analysis was performed on both models and optimal chlorine dosage for GLBR network was found by
simultaneously ensuring a minimum residual chlorine concentration of 0.20 mg/l is maintained in Jammapur
village network with that dosage. Mass booster method of chlorination was adopted at GLBR because booster
chlorination allows utilities to meet disinfection goals better by carrying chlorine residuals to remote points in the
distribution system while lowering the total mass of chlorine applied to the system.
REFERENCES
1. Behzadian K., Alimohammadnejad M., Ardeshir A., Jalilsani F. and Vasheghani H. (2012) “A novel approach for water
quality management in water distribution systems by multi-objective booster chlorination” International Journal of Civil
Engineering, Vol. 10 (1), 51-60.
2. Boccelli, D.L., Tryby, M.E., Uber, J.G. and Summers, R.S. (2003), “A reactive species model for chlorine decay and
THM formation under rechlorination conditions”, Water Res., Vol.37(11),2654–2666.
3. Carrico, B. and Singer, C.P.: 2009, “Impact of Booster Chlorination on Chlorine Decay and THM Production: Simulated
Analysis”, Journal of Environ. Eng. Vol.135(10), 928–935.
4. MirjamBlokker, E.J., William R. Furnass, John Machell, Stephen R. Mounce, Peter G. Schaap and Joby B. Boxall (2016),
“Relating Water Quality and Age in Drinking Water Distribution Systems Using Self-Organising Maps”,Environments.,
Vol. 3, (10).
SENSE OF URGENCY FOR ADVANCED IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT
PRACTICES FOR HIGH AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY IN THE
CONTEXT OF WATER VARIABILITY DUE TO GLOBAL CLIMATE
CHANGE, FOOD INSECURITY DUE TO WORLD POPULATION EXPLOSION
AND WATER CONFLICTS DUE TO THE CONFLICTS OF INTEREST OF
STAKEHOLDERS
Mohammed Hussain
Professor and Dean(Life Skills and Outreach), Department of Civil Engineering, Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of
Engineering and Technology (GRIET), Hyderabad &
Founder Coordinator for Centre for Water Resources Engineering and Management (CREAM) & Centre for Sustainable Technologies for
Eco-Social Resilience to Global Climate Change (CST-ERG), GRIET, Hyderabad &
Former Faculty Member, Water and Land Management Training and Research Institute (WALAMTARI), Hyderabad
ABSTRACT
The present paper describes briefly the practices of Advanced Irrigation Management Practices for high
agricultural productivity in the context of water variability due to global climate change , food insecurity due to
world population explosion and water conflicts due to the conflicts of interest of stakeholders The freely
available vast resources (research papers, research reports, User Manuals and softwares, web courses and video
lectures in the area of Irrigation Water management) described will be useful for engineering teachers to give
guidance to the student projects and research scholars in their research projects. They also will be useful for
practicing engineers to update their knowledge and skills for life long excellence in effectiveness and efficiency
in their engineering duties. Technical capacity building and Managerial capacity building of all concerned
stakeholders in the area of irrigation management are described. Finally, an action plan for implementation of
advanced irrigation water management in India is discussed. Tunnel Vision free Higher order living learning
attitude is essential for all stakeholders with a strong sense of urgency as attitude has three domains with the
corresponding parts of the human brain. The three domains are affective domain(feeling domain-five ascending
levels of Krathwohl’s Taxonomy), psychomotor domain(doing or behaving domain-five ascending levels of
Dave’s taxonomy ) and cognitive domain(thinking domain – six ascending levels of Bloom’s taxonomy).
Choiceless Awareness of Jiddu Krishnamurthy(www.jkrishnamurti.org).
United Nations Peace Medal Awardee is also needed for deconditioning the mind forthe change to advanced
irrigation practices towards sustainability, as conditioned minds( left brain dominance over right brain or vice
versa, according to the Nobel Laureate Dr. Roger Sperry on Split Brain Theory) have fixed and habitually
reinforcing selective perception . This selective perception results in selective listening and selective
observation causing higher and higher order of self-centeredness,self-gratification and self-aggrandizement
.These in turn cause maladapted and stereotyped behaviours that lead to potential water conflicts. Theme
Centred Interaction(TCI) is internationally well recognized methodology for group and individual behaviour
change.This can be used for effective Participatory Irrigation Management.TCI aims to assist people to present
and structure their interests in a responsible and self-determined way and to use resources creatively(The
Handbook of Theme Centred Interaction –Free Download – M.Schneider et.al -2017)(www.ruth-cohn-
institute.org). Newman’s theory of Health as expanding consciousness asserts that every person in every
situation, no matter how disordered and hopeless it seems, is part of the universal process of expanding
consciousness. This is a process of becoming more of oneself (i.e Beingness), of finding greater meaning in life ,
and reaching new dimensions of connectedness with other people, as well as the world (Newman,M,1997).The
seventeen sustainable goals of United Nations gives us that connectedness to the world.
Seven ascending levels of consciousness and corresponding seven ascending stages of psychological
development are given by Barrett. The seven levels of consciousness model applies to all individuals and human
group structures –organizations, communities and nations (www.valuescentre.com/mapping-values/barrett-
model).
20
INTRODUCTION TO THE TERMS USED

(i) Agricultural Productivity
(a) Agricultural Productivity is the quantity of a crop produced on one unit of land. Average Agricultural
Productivity for India is 2070 kg/Hecatre. India’s Productivity is low when compared to Countries such
as China, Brazil and USA. In 2011, the Brazil’s Agricultural Productivity(AP) for Rice is 4900 kg/Ha.,
India’s AP is 3600 kg/Ha and China’s AP is 6700Kg/Ha.86% of landholdings are less than Two
Hectares(Tanvi Deshpande, 2017).
(ii) Water Scarcity
UN –Water(www.unwater.org) ,an organization of United Nations has defined “water scarcity as the point at
which the aggregate impact of all users impinges on the supply or quality of water under prevailing
institutional arrangements to the extent that the demand by all sectors, including the environment , cannot be
satisfied fully “(Brahma Chellaney,2011).
(iii) Food Security
The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United Nations defines “Food Security “ as a situation
where all people have, at all times, physical and economic access to sufficient , safe and nutritious food that
meets the dietary needs and food preferences for a healthy and active life. Naturally, population explosion
affects food security.
India enacted the National Food Security Act in 2013.The 2013 Act aims to provide food and nutritional
security to people by ensuring access to adequate amount of quality food at affordable prices. Under the 2013
Act, persons belonging to certain categories are provided with food grains (Wheat ,Rice and Coarse Cereals)
at subsidized prices.
(iv) Resolution of Conflicts of Interest : OECD Way
The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) is a unique forum where the
governments of thirty democracies work together to address the economic, social and environmental
challenges of globalization. According to OECD, identifying and resolving conflict of interest situations is
crucial to good governance and maintaining trust in public institutions. A conflict of interest involves a
conflict between the public duty and the private interest of a public official , in which the official’s private
capacity interest could improperly influence the performance of their official duties and responsibilities.
OECD has published a toolkit for managing conflict of interest in the public sector(OECD, )
(v) Integrity Pacts of Water Integrity Network (WIN) of Transperency International (TI)
According to Transparency International, a crusader against public corruption, corruption in the water sector is
widespread throughout the world(www.transparency.org/topic/detail/water).It damages drinking supplies ,
sanitation, agriculture, energy and the environment. Corruption wastes billions of dollars in these efforts. It
makes water undrinkable, inaccessible and unaffordable. Corruption in the water sector affects lives and
livelihoods, slowing development and poverty reduction efforts. According to Transparency International, two
billion people still have no access to water and 2.6 billion to sanitation, in part due to corruption. It has
developed Integrity Pacts in the water sector to fight corruption in water worldwide
(www.waterintegritynetwork.net and www.transparency.org) and certain Governments have allowed the
Transparency International to audit the Contract and procurement documents of water projects.
The book by former Central Vigilance Commissioner Sri N.Vittal on “ Ending Corruption? How to clean up
India” is an eye opener for all of us (N.Vittal,2012)
What are Advanced irrigation management practices?
Advanced Irrigation Management Practices are the modern practices which challenge the obsolescence of existing
practices and they ultimately improve the agricultural productivity.
Some of the advanced irrigation management practices are as follows:
(i) Geospatial technologies (S.K.Soam et.al, 2013) Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDTV) data
products are being used to assess agricultural vulnerability to climate change. Open source Quantum
GIS is also useful
(ii) Smart Irrigation Technology using Soilmoisture sensors and microcontrollers
(iii) Irrigation structures such as Standing wave flumes, Parshall flumes etc. to measure canal flow and
Micro Irrigation Methods including Piped Irrigation systems
(iv) Gateless structures such as Duckbill weir used in National Water Management Project(NWMP)
(v) New simulation and optimization tools and methods
(vi) Decision-Support-Systems
(vii) Irrigation Water Management Information Systems for each project
(viii) Design and Seasonal Reservoir operation plans and canal operation plans
(ix) Diagnostic analysis of Irrigation systems
(x) Hydrometry for the measurement of river flows and drainage flows
(xi) SWAT Watershed Modelling
(xii) Multicriterion Analysis in Engineering and Management
(xiii) MODFLOW groundwater flow modelling for groundwater assessment for irrigation& Three on-farm
computer simulation model SWASALT model, FAIDS model and SWACROP model
(xiv) New management interventions like Theme Centred Interaction(TCI)
(xv) Measurement of Irrigation water and Pricing of Irrigation water
(xvi) Participatory Irrigation Water Management(PIM)as many states of India (also in other countries) have
adopted this model and associations of farmers are managing irrigation systems
(xvii) Managing Conflicts of Interest as per the norms ofOrganization for Economic Cooperation and
Development (OECD) and Integrity Pacts of Transparency International(TI)
(xviii) Zero thinking system developed by the author
(xix) Heuristic, Intuitive and Transcendental (HIT) models developed by the author are to be implemented
for managerial capacity building of all stakeholders towards higher order thinking (six ascending and
converging levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy: Remembering, Understanding, Applying, Analyzing,
Evaluating and Creating), feeling(five ascending and converging levels of Krathwohl’s Taxonomy:
Receiving, Responding, Valuing, Organizing - Conceptualizing and Characterizing by a value or value
concept) and behaving (five ascending and converging levels of Dave’s Taxonomy).
National Water Policy 2012 (www.wrmin.nic.in)
Clause 6 deals with demand management and water use efficiency . The Project and the basin water use
efficiencies need to be improved through continuous water balance and water accounting studies.Clause 4 deals
with the adaptation to climate change.
Sixth Sustainable development goal of United Nations on “ Sustainable Water Management with
sanitation”(www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainabledevelopment goals)
According to United Nations,approximately seventy percent of all water abstracted from rivers, lakes and aquifers
is used for irrigation.
There are seventeen sustainable development goals.Goal 6 is to ensure access to cleanwater and sanitation for all.
There are eight targets to be reached by 2030.
Freely available vast resources in the area of Irrigation Water Management
The resources in irrigation management available are from Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), Food and
Agricuture Organisation (FAO) of United Nations, International Water Management Institute (IWMI),Utah State
University Open courseware in the department of Biological and Irrigation Engineering, National Institute of
Hydrology (NIH), National Water Academy (NWA),International Crops Research in Semiarid Tropics
(ICRISAT), United states Geological Survey (USGS),International Network of Participatory Irrigation
Management (INPIM), National Project on Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL) courses, MIT Open
courseware, sixteen Water and Land Management Institutes (WALMIs)/Irrigation Research Institutes in India,
International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), National Water Mission of Ministry of Water
resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation of Government of India & Journal of Irrigation and
Drainage Engineering and Journal of Agricultural Water management. The websites of all the above are given in
the references.
Practices of Sustainable Irrigation water management in the world
Professors and students in all colleges may have to be encouraged to do research and degree projects on seventeen
sustainable development goals of United Nations to be reached by 2030. I guided one B.Tech project in the year
2005 on “ Civil Engineering Practices to meet Millennium Development Goals of United Nations by 2015”.
Two B.Tech projects which the author guided were awarded NIT, Kozhikode National Award for Best B.Tech
Project in Civil Engineering & Architecture during 2003-04 and 2005-06. The names of two projects are as below:
(i) Optimal Surface Irrigation Practices to improve the Water Utilization Efficiency in Irrigation Projects : A
case study in Sriramsagar Project (2003-04)
(ii) Synergic Practices of Engineering for Sustainable Development (2005-06)
Two B.Tech projects on SWAT were guided in collaboration with International Crops Research in Semi-Arid
Tropics (ICRISAT)
Hydrological Modelling of Watershed using SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment Tool) (2015-16)
Hydrological Modelling of Bhanur Watershed using SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment Tool) (2016-17).
Three other projects which are field based are as below.
Field Evaluation of Waste Water Irrigation (2012-13).
Drip Irrigation Evaluation in a farmer’s field (2014-15)
Design and evaluation of Check basin Irrigation Method in Sangareddy District (2017-18).
Literature survey can be done referring to the above cited organizations.
Capacity Building of all stakeholders
Heuristic, Intuitive and Transcendental (HIT) Models developed by the author for Managerial Capacity
Building of all stakeholders in effective participatory irrigation management
Heuristic teaching or education encourages a person to learn by discovering things for himself/herself. Intuition is
the ability to know something by using feelings rather than considering the facts. Transcendental is going beyond
the limits of human knowledge, experience or reason (New Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary)
Zero thinking system to develop perceptual skills of Irrigation scheme managers is to be developed
(Mohd.Hussain,1993). All the stakeholders of sustainable development may have to be trained in Life skills by
developing D.E.E.P. A.C.C.E.S.S. Implementation Quotient (Mohd.Hussain,2013)
Managerial Capacity Building of water resource managers can be done by developing M.A.A.T.R.U.S.H.R.I.
Enlightenment Quotient (Mohd.Hussain,2006).
Capacity Building can also be imparted on “Universal B.E.S.T. Intuitive Leadership Wisdom model of
“Mindfulness attention”(Mohd.Hussain,2010)
Managerial capacity building can be given on “ Universal APT self-facing Environmental Communication
and Leadership Wisdom Model”(Mohd.Hussain,2011).
Another model for capacity building is on “ Selfless-inner- Collective self-centred S.P.R.Y. Living Unlearning
and Learning Practice Model in the present new minute for sustainable natural resource management”
(Mohd.Hussain,2012)
Capacity Building of water resource managers and users can be imparted by developing S.E.L.F. Renewal
Quotient in Participatory Irrigation Management (Mohd.Hussain, 2014)
Management capacity building for all stakeholders is to be imparted based on the following Management
Talks and Technical Talks delivered by the author at Institution of Engineers, A.P. Centre, Hyderabad,
India During 2001-2017
(i) May 4, 2001 - Active Listening Skill for managers
(ii) July 29, 2001 - Improving Communication Skill with Transactional Analysis
(iii) September 20, 2001 - Developing Holistic thinking skill of managers through the re-orientation of self-talk
for improving the performance effectiveness and efficiency
(iv) Febraury 6, 2002 - Developing the spontaneous resolution skill of the Psychological conflict
(v) June 6, 2002 – Positive Assertiveness Skill for effective communication and WIN –WIN management .
(vi) November 7, 2002 - Preparation and Implementation of operation plans of all irrigation projects of India :
An urgent need (Technical)
(vii) March 5, 2003 - Insights of leadership from Panchatantra
(viii) May 7, 2003 - Annual Practice of Multi-disciplinary Diagnostic Analysis (M.D.A) of irrigation systems : A
key task to increase the Crop Productivity and Project efficiency (Technical)
(ix) August 29, 2003 - Anger Management and Release (A.M.A.R) skill for Psycho-biological fitness and
socio-organisational fitness.
(x) December 3, 2003 - G.O.O.D. Skill ( Genuine and Openminded -Organisational –Deaddicted – Behaviour
Skill ) to overcome the seven major addictions of 21st Century to improve the organizational productivity
(xi) July 20, 2004 - F.A.C.E. Skill ( Fears , Anxieties and Chicken-heartedness Emancipation Skill) to
overcome the rational fears and irrartional phobias of 21st century to improve the proactive -decision -
making process.
(xii) December 13, 2004 - Abundance Mentality for the proactive focus of WIN-WIN Management – Scarcity
Mentality for the reactive focus of WIN-LOSE Management .
(xiii) January 25, 2006 - A.S.P.I.R.E. Skill to work with Emotional Intelligence for continuous development of
individuals and organizations
(xiv) January 18, 2007- Attitude of Self- Enquiry, Self- Respect and Self-Acceptance for even more
Effectiveness and Efficiency
(xv) December 10, 2007 – Decision Support Systems for Effective Water Resources Management in the world
(Technical)
(xvi) May 15, 2008 – “Preparation and Implementation of Operation plans in Irrigation Projects of India : An
urgent need” at Vijayawada Local Centre of Institution of Engineers (Technical)
(xvii) December 7,2010 – “ Role of civil Engineers to achieve United Nations Millennium Development Goals
by the year 2015” at Institution of Engineers,Hydrabad (Technical)
(xviii) November19,2011-“Engineering Management Practices for the sustainability of quality and quantity of
water resources under climate change”,Invited lecture in one day workshop on “Recent Advances in
Climatic Modeling for water resources planning and management” at BITS-PILANI-HYD.
(xix) March,21 2012-““Engineering Management Practices for the sustainability of quality and quantity of water
resources in 21st century”, Invited lecture in one day workshop on “Recent Trends in Civil Engineering”
at JBIT-HYD.
(xx) September, 4, 2014-“Preparation and Implementation of Operation Plans in Irrigation Projects to increase
Water Use Efficiency :A case study in India”, Invited talk at seminar on Institution of Engineers(India), AP
Centre.
(xxi) May, 15 2017 –“Preparation and implementation of operation plans as sustainable water management
practice in irrigation projects to increase water use efficiency – A case study in India”, Paper presented at
seminar on “Sustainable Water Management” at Institution of Engineers, Telengana state Centre,
Hyderabad.
(xxii) October , 31, 2017 –“Seventeen Sustainable Development Goals of United Nations to be achieved by
2030: Action Planning and Implementation for Engineers with a particular reference to Civil Engineers
to improve the World Happiness Index”, Presented at Institution of Engineers, Telengana state Centre ,
Hyderabad.
(xxiii) December 21 ,2016 “Seventeen sustainable development goals of united nations to be achieved by 2030-
Action planning and implementation for civil engineers” Er, R. L. Raju 2nd endowment lecture on 21st Dec
2016 organized by Institution of Engineers (INDIA), Telangana state centre.
(xxiv) 6 January 2017 - “Codal provisions & specifications to mitigate natural disasters” in All India seminar on
“Disaster-Mitigation of floods & Urban drainage issues” held at the Institution of Engineers (INDIA),
Telangana state Centre on 6 & 7th Jan 2017
Technical Capacity Building for all stakeholders
Training modules are available in Technical Capacity Building for Engineers, Agricultural officers, Work
inspectors/Laskars and Farmers in Irrigation Management developed by Government of India under National
Water Management Project.
Training modules need to be developed separately for Engineers, Agricultural Officers, Work inspectors/
Laskars and farmers in Sustainable Irrigation Management under Climatic Change.
Action plan for implementation of Practices of Advanced irrigation management in all
Irrigation Schemes of the world
(i) Flow measurement in canals and rivers are required and necessary infrastructure is to be developed.
(ii) Design operation plans of Irrigation schemes are to be prepared and seasonal operation plans are to be
evolved from them as per the principles of National Water Management Project. Reservoir Operation plans
are to be developed.
(iii) Management Information systems for effective management of water resources are to be developed.
(iv) Conjunctive use Management of groundwater and surface water is be encouraged.
(v) Four waters Concept of Former United Nations Consultant Er.T. Hanumantha Rao is to be implemented in
all watersheds
(vi) Where there is feasibility, interlinking of rivers is to be undertaken.
(vii) Diagnostic analysis of Irrigation systems is to be annually undertaken
(viii) Capacity building of all concerned with the water resources management is to be undertaken regularly.
(ix) River Basin Planning and management is to be made more scientific for sustainability
(x) Measures are to be taken to improve groundwater recharge
(xi) Participatory management culture is to be nurtured with international coordination.
(xii) Heuristic, Intuitive and Transcendental (HIT) models developed by the author are to be implemented for
managerial capacity building of all stakeholders.
(xiii) Awareness to calculate Ecological footprint, Water footprint and Carbon footprint is to be created
(www.footprintnetwork.org) at individual, community, state and nation levels.
(xiv) Water management modelling as given by the book by Ralph A. Wurbs is required to be done in all
catchment and command areas
(xv) On-farm Water management models like FAIDS, SWASALT and SWACROP have to be calibrated and
validated for our waterlogged command areas
(xvi) Smart irrigation technologies using sensors and microcontrollers are to be encouraged.
(xvii) SWAT modelling is to be done to all watersheds and river basins for water balance and water quality
studies
(xviii) Irrigation Information Management systems need to be developed for all irrigation projects similar to
Water Resources Information System of National Remote Sensing Centre(NRSC)
(xix) Saltwater Intrusion studies in Coastal aquifers are to be urgently taken up using freely available SEAWAT
computer model of United States Geological Survey (USGS). These studies are essential to know the
impact of salt water intrusion on irrigated lands in coastal areas.
Cultural Models of Attitudes for sustainable advanced irrigation management
Human resource development demands knowledge and skills to help people improve their economic performance.
Sustainable development requires changes in values and attitudes towards environment and development - indeed,
towards society and work at home, on farms, and in factories. The world's religions could help provide direction
and motivation in forming new values that would stress individual and joint responsibility towards the
environment and towards nurturing harmony between humanity and environment( United Nations Brundtland
Commission report ,1987 , known as “Our Common Future – From one Earth to One World ”).
According to THE MOTHER, the five phases of mental education for preparation for a higher life, in brief,
are:
(i) Development of the power of concentration, the capacity of attention
(ii) Development of the capacities of expansion, widening, complexity and richness
(iii) Organization of one’s ideas around a central idea, a higher ideal or a supremely luminous idea that will
serve as a guide in life
(iv) Thought Control ,rejection of undesirable thoughts , to become able to think only what one wants and
when one wants
(v) Development of mental silence, perfect calm and a more and more total receptivity to inspirations
coming from the higher regions of the being. You must never allow your mind to judge things and
people,for the mind is not an instrument of knowledge. Knowledge belongs to much higher domain
than that of the human mind, far above the region of pure ideas. Our mind has to be silent and
attentive to receive knowledge from above and manifest it but our heart must be full of an ardent
aspiration.
According to Sri Aurobindo, Overmind, Intuition, Illumined mind and Higher Mind, these and other levels of
a spiritualized and liberated mentality, will be able to reflect in the uplifted human mind…..Supermind or the Truth
Consciousness is the real creative agency of the universal existence(www.sriaurobindoashram.org)
According to Hazrat Nizamuddin, if a man places a thorn in your way and in retaliation you do the same, then
there will be thorns everywhere.
According to Hazrat Jalaluddin Rumi, your task is not to seek for love, but merely to seek and find all the
barriers within yourself that you have built against it.
According to Mother Teresa, it is not how much we do, but how much love we put in the doing. It is not how
much we give, but how much love is put in the giving.
Attitude of Choiceless Awareness of Jidddu Krishnamurthy, United Nations Peace Medal Awardee is also
needed for sustainability(www.jkrishnamurti.org).
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Watershed Management”, December 5-8,2006 by Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad.
2. Mohd.Hussain(2010),“Universal B.E.S.T. Intuitive Leadership Wisdom model of “Mindfulness attention”-
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Strategies (STEPS-2012) on 19th December,2012
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Social and Psycho-biological Perspective”, National Seminar on Human Resource Development in Irrigation
Management at WALAMTARI, Hyderabad, September 3-4, 1993.
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on 11-21 April,1994 at CCS-Haryana Agricultural University , HISSAR, Haryana
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Land Management Training and Research Institute (WALAMTARI),Hyderabad from 01-07-1987 to 30-04-
1988.
9. Mohd.Hussain(1995), Training notes of seven day programme on “ Water Management in command areas” at
National Institute of Hydrology , Roorkee from January 3- 9, 1995
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of Irrigation Systems” at Irrigation Management Training Institute (IMTI), Tiruchy from 11.03.1996 to
30.03.1996
11. Mohd.Hussain(1999), Training notes of “ Management of Waterlogged areas in Irrigation Commands” at
Administrative Staff College of India (ASCI),Hyderabad from 1-6 November 1999
12. Mohd.Hussain(1992), Training notes of six week International Training Programme on “ Applied Micro-
Computer Use in Irrigation and Drainage “ at International Irrigation Centre of UTAH State University ,
Logan,USA from January 5 - Febraury 15, 1992
13. Mohd.Hussain(2014),Training notes of three day workshop on “ Surge Analysis and Design of Water
Conveyance systems in Lift Irrigation Schemes ”at National Institute of Technology, Warangal from 18-20 ,
June 2014
14. Mohd.Hussain(2015), Training notes of “ Hydrological Modelling with SWAT” ,Global Initiative for
Academic Networks(GIAN) at Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Hyderabad from 14-23 December , 2015
15. Mohd.Hussain(2016),Training notes of “ Ground Water Flow and Transport Modelling through fractured
Geologic Media “ , Global Initiative for Academic Networks(GIAN) at Indian Institute of Technology (IIT),
Hyderabad from 27 June – 8 July ,2016 .
16. Mohd.Hussain(2018), Training notes of six day Faculty Development Programme on “ Computational
Methods in Hydraulics and Water Resources Engineering “ at National Institute of Technology, Warangal
from 19-24 March , 2018.
17. Mohd.Hussain(2018),Training notes of two day workshop on “ Data Mining and Soft Computing Techniques
in Civil Engineering”at Birla Institute of Technology& Science(BITS) Pilani, Hyderabad from 13-14 April ,
2018.
18. Mohd.Hussain(2007),Training notes of two day international workshop of Theme Centred Interaction (TCI)
on the theme “ The Bonds that unite us are stronger than the barriers that divide us ”at Hyderabad on 16-
18,Febraury 2007 by Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala
19. N.Vittal(2012), “ Ending Corruption ? How to clean up India ”, Penguin/Viking publication
20. S.K.Soam,P.D. Sreekanth and N.H.Rao (2013), “Geospatial Technologies for Natural Resources Management
“,New India Publishing Agency, NewDelhi-88
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for TCI International
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institute.org).
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PHI Learning Private Limited
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Publication
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Publication
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31. Donen L.D. and D.W.Westcot (1984), “Irrigation Practice and Water management “, FAO publication 1
32. Daene C.Mc Kinney (2004), “ Technical Report on International Survey of Decision Support Systems for
Integrated Water Management”
33. Prof.Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University , “ Vyavasaaya Panchangam (2016-17)”
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Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), www.bis.gov.in

FAO – www.fao.org
www.iwmi.cgiar.org
ocw.usu.edu
nihroorkee.gov.in
nwa.mah.nic.in
www.icrisat.org
www.usgs.gov
www.inpim.org
nptel.ac.in
ocw.mit.edu
Sixteen WALMIs/Irrigation Research Institutes - nwm.gov.in
www.icid.org
National Water Mission- nwm.gov.in
Ascelibrary.org/journal/jidedh
www.journals.elsevier.com/agricultural-water-management
www.valuescentre.com/mapping-values/barrett-model
www.unwater.org

WATER AVAILABILITY IN INDIAN RIVERS: Myths & Realities

S. Jeevananda Reddy
Formerly Chief Technical Advisor – WMO/UN & Expert – FAO/UN, Fellow, Telangana Academy of Sciences [Founder Member]
Convenor, Forum for a Sustainable Environment, Hyderabad, Telangana, India,
jeevanandareddy@yahoo.com; jeevananda_reddy@yahoo.com
ABSRACT
Accurate information on yearly water availability and their variability with climate change (if any) in Indian
rivers is essential for proper water management, sharing with other riparian states, linking of rivers, etc and to
combat water scarcity. The other important player in this process is the number of years and what part of the
climate cycle (if any) it forms. However, it became a common to use truncated data series of a climate cycle and
come up with stories on water availability statistics that lead to biased conclusions with disastrous consequences.
To understand the nature of the selected data series, namely random or non-random, moving average technique
provides a guide. Non-random means the data series follow a natural variability or fluctuations. The other
important issue is whether the selected data series are homogeneous? If so they follow the Gaussian/Normal
distribution and if not they follow skewed distribution -- biased towards lower values (negatively skewed) or
higher values (positively skewed). The reliability of probability estimates depends up on these factors. These are
discussed with reference to Krishna River water. For this purpose used the data used by Justice Bachawat
Tribunal (78 years), Justice Brijesh Kumar Tribunal (47 years) and Central Water Commission (CWC) (30
years). Justice Bachawat and Justice Brijesh Kumar Tribunals used the yearly water availability data series
collected in a traditional way. Here the groundwater used by riparian states is not added to yearly water
availability. Very recently CWC has come up with a new method to estimate yearly water availability. CWC has
undertaken to carry out this for all rivers in India and thus CWC claimed there is plenty of water in Krishna in
line with Brijesh Kumar Tribunal’s claim with reference to rising of Almatti Dam height. These claims were
made following inaccurate paths. In the case of CWC it relates to the model used in the estimation of potential
evapotranspiration and thus water balance estimates, which present over estimation of water availability by
around 700 tmc ft on an average (by around 20%). To get reliable estimates, the selected data must follow
Normal (Gaussian) distribution, which follows a Bell-shaped pattern wherein mean coincides with median (50%
probability value). Under such condition on the average yearly water available in Krishna basin is around 2400
tmc ft that varies on an average between around 2200 tmc ft under below the average part and around 2600 tmc
ft under above the average part as this follows a 132 year cycle. All these aspects in brief are discussed in the
paper.
INTRODUCTION
For linking of rivers, construction of irrigation dams, hydropower projects, to develop flood control measures,
sharing of water by riparian states under the given river, etc, we need estimates of water flows in to the river chain
in the perspective of climate change. That is “yearly water availability and their variability”. Here climate change
means the long-term variability or fluctuations in rainfall/snowfall in any given river basins. It appears that there
are differing methods in use for such assessments. However, extreme value analysis is different from the variability
with the time in river water flows. The river water flows follow the rainfall/snowfall in the river catchment area.
Water institutions have their origins in pre-independence legislation. Seventh Amendment after independence
Government of India (GoI) introduced to the Indian Constitution the Article 262 “Adjudication of disputes relating
to waters of inter-state rivers or river valleys”. Under this, in resolving the water sharing issue of Krishna River
among the three riparian states, namely Maharashtra, Karnataka and undivided Andhra Pradesh Justice Bachawat
Tribunal was appointed by the GoI in April 1969. 1976 May 27 the tribunal submitted its award to the GoI.
However, this tribunal suggested in their order that if necessary GoI can appoint a second tribunal to look in to the
matter after 2000 May 31. GoI appointed Justice Brijesh Kumar Tribunal on 2004 April 2. The tribunal started its
work on 2006 August and submitted its first award on 2010 December 30 & the final award on November 30, 2013
to GoI. I called this award a “technical fraud”. Unfortunately the tribunals are bestowed with unfettered powers.
However, Andhra Pradesh Government approached the Supreme Court of India on this award and the court has
granted stay in publishing the award in Gazette of India. While the case is still pending, the newly formed
29
Telangana state (earlier part of Andhra Pradesh) filed petitions in the Supreme Court and with Brijesh Kumar
Tribunal. It is going on!!! Just at this time Central Water Commission (CWC) presented a sensational report saying
that “Plenty of water in Krishna” similar to Brijesh Kumar tribunal wherein they claimed “plenty of water is
available to Andhra Pradesh” even if Almatti Dam height is raised to store 230 tmc ft of water and by legalizing
illegal projects for about 40 tmc ft under Tungabhadra (Reddy, 2016).
For assessing the water availability in any given river primarily relates to two factors, namely:
 How many year data is required to get unbiased reliable results?
 How reliable are those yearly data estimates for the analysis?
This article looks in to myths & realities in brief of these two issues with reference to Krishna River water that
provide succor to dry areas of the two Telugu States of India in the perspective of climate and climate change as
enunciated by World Meteorological Organization (WMO) in its reports such as WMO (1966).
METHOD OF ESTIMATION OF WATER AVAILABILITY

In any given river, water sharing among riparian states or among regions in a state primarily relates to water
availability data series built from that river catchment area over years. Government appointed tribunals followed a
simple procedure with little bias; but Central Water Commission (CWC) entered the field in 2013 to revise this
procedure. However, the cure appears to be more hazardous than the disease.
Tribunals
The Bachawat tribunal observed that the volume of water which passes over and through Vijayawada weir would
give us fair idea of the volume of flow in the river after the upstream utilizations are added to it. More or less the
same was followed by Brijesh Kumar Tribunal. Here groundwater was not included. Groundwater rarely enters the
rivers as the level needs to be the river water level. Above this level automatically it enters into water availability in
a river. Rainfall that causes runoff only accounted through storages in minor irrigation tanks and dams plus water
entering the Sea.
First tribunal observed that “hereby declares that the state of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh will
be free to make use of underground water within their respective state territories in the Krishna basin. The use of
groundwater by any state was not to be reckoned as use of water of the river Krishna. Diversion of water of an
inter-state river outside the river basin is legal for optimum utilization of water.
Central Water Commission (CWC)
The Central Water Commission (CWC) and National Remote sensing Centre (NRSC) Hyderabad had initiated a
pilot study on Godavari and Brahmani-Baitarani River Basins for assessing the water resource availability using
satellite based inputs and the study was completed in June 2013. They stated that the “study methodology and
results were reviewed and ratified by an expert committee constituted by Ministry of Water Resources, River
Development and Ganga Rejuvenation (MoWR RD&GR) and suggested to upscale the same methodology for all
river basins in the country”. As a result of this initiated “Reassessment of water availability in India” in July 2016.
The technique was used to arrive at the average annual water availability of all the river basins including Krishna
for the period 1984-85 to 2014-15.
I saw a report in Eenadu, a Telugu Daily, with a heading “In Krishna Plenty of Water!” Within the basin steep
raise in availability of water and it is 20% more than the previous tribunal estimate. I sent my observations on this
through a mail dated 29th November 2017 to The Minister for Water Resources with copy to CWC, titled “New
Evaluation of Krishna River Basin Water Availability: A “Garbage” Report by CWC”. The CWC report is even
worse than Brijesh Kumar Tribunal Report on Krishna Water. I submitted my observations on Brijesh Kumar
Tribunal report to three successive CJIs and as well PM & The President of India. I called that as a “Technical
Fraud” to favour Karnataka.
As there was no response from CWC to my mail, I sent an Open Letter dated 3rd January 2018 to the Prime
Minister of India “Is CWC meant to serve the vested interests???” In response to this, received a mail dated 29th
January 2018 from Director, BPMO/CWC, Basin Planning-1. It states that water resources potential assessment of
the country conducted by Basin Planning and Management Organization of CWC. It states that “This issues with
the approval of Chairman, CWC”. It included the response from the CWC that explains in brief the methodology

used by them in computing water availability in any given river without directly answering to my observations. I
sent my observations again through a mail dated 2nd February 2018 on the CWC note.
I found from the response to my mail to PM “water resources potential assessment of the country conducted by
Basin Planning and Management Organization of CWC” is of poor quality. Modified Thornthwaite – Mather
method: This is a poor quality model which is generally used for broad generalized analysis of climate and not in
the quantification of water availability for distributing among riparian states.
The whole exercise of CWC primarily relates to the accuracy with which potential evapotranspiration (PET)
values are derived for use in modified Thornthwaite & Mather water balance model. The met inputs in this model
are rainfall and temperature. But evaporation and evapotranspiration are not simple function of temperature. Reddy
(1973, 1983a & 1993) and Reddy, et al. (1977) discussed models relating to evaporative demand and discussed
models relating to soil water balance --- “models of the soil water budget range in complexity from simple book
keeping methods to complex computer models. Models that are intermediate in complexity are those of Reddy
(1983a), etc ---.
Extra-tropical models rarely work under tropical conditions. Thornthwaite & Mather (1955) model is a simple
book keeping procedure uses monthly climatic data [rainfall & temperature only] inputs. CWC in its note says that
this technique was used by FAO (1978) in agro-ecological zones conception for selecting crops – In fact, I brought
to the notice of FAO HQ group looking after the agro-ecological zones project in Rome that saying “it is a static
model”. On this they wanted me to take up the project and revise it; but I turn it down as I had developed a
sophisticated model that works on weekly met data series and applied to several developing countries (Reddy,
1993) --.
FAO (1986) model is similar to that of Thornthwaite & Mather (1955) model except that the growth stage
effect is accounted through crop coefficient that limits the water use at a given growth stage and the input data are
used at intervals shorter than a month. This is a too generalized model developed for specific purpose. U.S.
Geological Survey computerized soil-water balance “A modified Thornthwaite & Mather model for estimating
groundwater recharge” [modified Thornthwaite & Mather (1957)]. CWC followed this model.
Reddy (1995) presented comments on, McKenny and Rosenberg (1994) article, wherein used several PET
models to study in climate change impact on agriculture. They noted that Thornthwaite produces the lowest annual
values at all locations and Penman the highest differences; between the two in excess of 100% at some sites. As the
PET is model specific, if the estimates of a given model (like Thornthwaite, 750 mm) are lower than another
(Penman, 1500), then for the same magnitude of increase or decrease (150 mm) as a consequence of supposed
climate changes, expressed in percentage change of PET, naturally they present quite a different picture (20% and
10%). If the magnitude of change, which is important in the water budgeting study, had been used, then the
conclusions drawn would have been quite different. The underestimates of PET results in over estimation of water
availability. This is exactly what has happened in CWC study.
Reddy (1984a) presented that “ICRISAT Hyderabad to test SORGF model developed at A&M Texas, USA
wherein Ritchie’s 1972 water balance model was used. They tried to adapt the model to semi-arid conditions and
tested this with the data collected. They presented the results at a collaborators meet, chaired by ICRISAT DG [Dr.
Swindale, a Soil Scientists from Hawaii]. The model presented poor correlation with dry matter and grain yield
(0.35 and 0.37, respectively). DG asked me in the meeting, change water balance model output by your model
(Reddy, 1983a) output and present the results at tomorrow meeting. I analyzed and presented the results that
improved significantly the correlations (0.85 and 0.81, respectively). That is extra-tropical models rarely work for
tropical climate conditions particularly models use only temperature in place of meteorological parameters.” Thus,
it is less suitable to river water availability estimates.
SOIL WATER BALANCE

The daily soil water balance equation is generally written as:
∆SMn = Rn - AEn - ROn - Dn
∆SMn = Soil moisture change on day n, mm [SMn - SMn-1]
Rn = Rainfall or irrigation on day n, mm

AEn = Actual evapotranspiration on day n, mm

AE is the function of evaporative demand; soil [water holding capacity] and crop factor [crop/cropping pattern
growth stage factors]
ROn = Surface runoff on day n, mm
Dn = Deep drainage on day n, mm
SMn = Soil moisture reserve at the end of day n, mm
SMn-1 = Soil moisture reserve at the end of day n-1, mm
Reddy (1983a) presented a model of soil water balance to estimate the above parameters using daily
meteorological input data. Probability estimates for all these parameters were derived for individual stations and
used for long term agricultural planning. This was carried out for several countries (Reddy, 1993). Reddy &
Timberlake (1987) presented a simple equation for the estimation of annual runoff (surface + deep drainage) under
potential evapotranspiration condition (PE), namely pastures as:
AE = R’ – RO where R’ = (R/PE) × 1800 & PE = potential evapotranspiration, mm
[(R/PE) × 1800] – AE
RO = [15.2482/K0.8] × [R’/100]3
[15.2482/K0.8] × [(R/PE) × 18]3
Under pastures condition with 1296 mm of annual rainfall in heavy textured soils of K = 200 mm, RO was 479
mm (observed 475 mm); the same for 821 and 678 mm of annual rainfall were 122 & 69 (observed: 150 & 70) mm.
They followed non-linear decreasing trend with decreasing rainfall.
Reddy (1984a) presented the soil water balance simulation results using daily rainfall data series for Jodhpur
(with K = 100 mm for 100 day crop); Anantapur ( K = 50, 100, 150 & 200 mm with 100 day crop); Bangalore (K =
100 mm with 100 day crop); Hyderabad (K = 100 & 200 mm with sole, intercrop & double crops of different
durations); Sholapur (K = 250 mm with 75, 100 & 91/180 day crops); Akola (K = 200 mm under different crops,
cropping patterns); Indore (same as Akola but K = 250 mm). In the case of Anantapur cumulative RO + D, that
goes down with increased levels of soil water holding capacity wherein large part goes out as evapotranspiration.
On these lines one Ph.D. student carried out the analysis for Bhima Basin with my help and got his Ph.D. from the
Pune University/Maharashtra.
DATA SERIES IN THE PERSPECTIVE OF CLIMATE CHANGE

To understand this important issue, it is appropriate to look in to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
of United Nations reports. Let us see some of these:
Climate Normal
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and its predecessor, the International Meteorological
Organization (IMO), have been coordinating the publication of global climate normal at monthly interval. Member
nations of the IMO/WMO were first mandated to compute climate normal for their respective countries for the
period of 1901–30 and are required to update these climate normal every 30 years, resulting in the 1931–60 normal
and the 1961–90 normal.
Climatological Normal has long filled two major purposes: (1) they form a benchmark or reference against
which conditions (especially current or recent conditions) can be assessed, and (2) they are widely used (implicitly
or explicitly) as an indicator of the conditions likely to be experienced in a given location. Averages of
climatological data computed for the following consecutive periods of 30 years: 1 January 1901 to 31 December
1930, 1 January 1931 to 31 December 1960, etc, WMO publishes the climatological standard normal which are
computed by the WMO Members for their observing stations.
The role of Climatological Normal in Changing Climate Scenario
The standard WMO climate normal is a useful, albeit imperfect, metric. Indeed, no metric can be perfect by
definition. Climate change, and in particular significant nonzero trends in climate time series, renders the standard
WMO climate normal “less useful”. For use as a reference period average for computing climate anomalies,

climate normal retain their usefulness despite climate change. Clearly, the standard WMO climate normal is not
ideal in an era of observed climate change.
In climatology, we are concerned with identifying as clearly and as unambiguously as possible the precise
nature and extent of “non-randomness” in time series of meteorological observations. Indeed, statistical evidence of
non-randomness in such time series is equated with evidence of bona fide climatic fluctuations: verify as carefully
as possible the “homogeneity” of the series; and establish probable form of frequency distribution –
Gaussian/Normal form or Skewed (positively or negatively).
Non-Randomness
However, it is cautioned that blind analysis rarely provides realistic climatic fluctuations in the data series. To
ascertain this, as a first step compute the moving averages. The acknowledged purpose of computing moving
average of climatic series is to smooth away the short (rapid) period variations so that the longer (slower) period
variations can be revealed more clearly. If there are well defined long period variations in the series this device is
quite useful in revealing their form (WMO, 1966). However, this may not specify the quantitative nature of the
cycle as such.
British Royal Society and US National Academy of Sciences presented an overview “Climate Change:
Evidence & Causes” on 24th February 2014. The report included moving averages of annual march of global
temperature anomaly of 1850 to 2010 for 10, 30 & 60 years. The 60-year moving average – eliminated variations
less than 60 years -- showed a linear trend. The 60-year cycle showed variation between -0.3 and +0.3 oC.
India is divided in to 32 met subdivisions by India Meteorological Department (IMD). I collected the dates of
onset and withdrawal for all the met sub-divisions. The onset dates of monsoon over Kerala Coast with 10 year
moving average showed a 52 year cycle (Reddy, 1977) – eliminated variations less than 10 years. Power Spectral
Analysis provides the cyclic nature in the data series (Reddy et al., 1977; Reddy, 1984b). Through iterative
regression approach computed amplitude & Phase angles that help integrating the cycle and its sub-multiples which
is helpful for projecting the future pattern. Let us see this for Durban in South Africa.
I saw "World's first big city to run out of water?" on 2nd page of Times Special dated 8th Feb. 2018. This is not
an unusual pattern but it is a pattern of natural variation in rainfall in this zone. I studied the annual rainfall pattern
of Durban/South Africa. The data series start at 1873. This data series presented a 66 year cyclic pattern. I
published in 80s and later included in my book (Reddy, 1993). The data series showed 66 year cycle with sub-
multiple of 22 years. By integrating their Amplitudes with the respective phase angles, a predictive curve was
derived. The predictive curve of the 66-year cycle presented "WM" pattern, that means the first 33 year follow a
below the average line [average annual rainfall of 1020 mm] W-shaped pattern, then followed 33 year above the
average line M-shaped pattern. The first 66 years “WM” started in 1876 and ended in 1941; the second 66 years
“WM” started in 1942 and ended in 2007; and the third 66 year “WM” started in 2008 will continue up to
2073. The below the average W-shaped pattern started in 2008 will continue up to 2040. That is low rainfall
pattern started in 2008 will continue up to 2040.
Parthasarathy, et al. (1995) compiled the rainfall data for all the sub-divisions at monthly interval for 1871 to
1994 and published in a book form. The ten year averages of “all India Southwest Monsoon” Rainfall (June to
September) showed a sine curve pattern representing 60-year cycle. This in fact followed the rhythm of Telugu
calendar (Prabhava, Vibhava, ---) which is lagging the Chinese 60-year calendar by three years. So far two cycles
have been completed; and the third cycle started in 1987 (Prabhava). The first 30 years form part of the above the
average pattern (1987- 2016). The next 30 years form part of the below the average part (2017-2046) comes under
the below the average pattern.
However, individual met sub-divisional rainfall data series have showed different patterns. For example, the
undivided Andhra Pradesh’s three met sub-divisions data series presented 132 year cycle in annual rainfall (Figure
1a). First 66 years up to 1934 presented below the average pattern, in which 24 years received < 90% of the
average and 12 years received > 110% of the average. Between 1935 and 2000 presented above the average
pattern, in which 12 years received < 90% of the average and 24 years received > 110% of the average. The new
below the average cycle started in 2001 and will continue up to 2065.
If the data series follow random distribution, longer the data series better are the results but it will not be so with
meteorological data that are generally non-random in nature.

Nature of data series Distribution

MoEF published an environmental report, in which presented frequency of occurrence of floods in some of the
major northwestern Indian Rivers. They follow the 60-year cyclic pattern only. Figure 1b presents the water
availability in Krishna River. The water availability data series are based on the data presented by Justice Bachawat
and Justice Brijesh Kumar tribunals in their reports. The water availability data series are following the same 132
year cyclic pattern seen in the rainfall (Figure 1a). Thus the time series follow a non-random distribution.
Therefore, the selection of data series with reference to cycle is critical to get meaningful results.
Fig. 1 Annual march of (a) Andhra Pradesh rainfall and (b) Water availability in Krishna River
To estimate the homogeneity of the data series, the first step to be undertaken is the study of frequency
distribution. Homogeneous data series follow the Gaussian/Normal distribution. Non-homogeneous distribution is
generally termed as skewed distribution. This may be positively skewed or negatively skewed, respectively
representing bias in higher values or lower values. For this we need to estimate the mean and the median of the data
series. Figure 2 presents these estimates for the three data sets.
Justice Bachawat Tribunal used all the 78 years (1894-95 to 1971-72) data that was available to him at that time.
This was agreed by the three riparian states. At the time of writing the report Brijesh Kumar Tribunal has 114 years
data (1894-95 to 2007-08) but selected only a part, 47 years (1961-62 to 2007-08). Andhra Pradesh disagreed on
such selection as this represents the period of high rainfall. Tribunal rejected the objection and also rejected the
previous tribunal data series. The tribunal put forth some subjective, unscientific and illogical arguments for
selecting the 47-years data instead of 114 years data series. CWC used 30 years data series (1984-85 to 2014-15).

The data series of 114 years is very close to Gaussian distribution. The 78 and 47 years data series respectively
follow the negatively and positively skewed distribution. That means 114 years data series are homogeneous and
better data set for the assessment of water availability at different probability levels. The 26 years data set (1981-
82 to 2006-07) from the 47 years data set however followed Gaussian distribution. The 30 years CWC data appears
to be negatively skewed.
SELECTION OF DATA SERIES

Historical facts
78 years data series: Mean: 43% -- negatively skewed distribution

114 years data series: Mean: 48% -- normal distribution
47 years data series: Mean: 58% -- positively skewed distribution
Median: 50%
Fig. 2 Probability curves with 78, 47 & 114 annual water availability in Krishna River data series

Indian rainfall is seasonal. To conserve water, Rajas and Maharajas built tanks, later on Krishna River: during
British rule built Prakasham Barrage (1857), K.C. Canal (1870), Sunkesula barrage, etc; Nizam Nawab built
reservoirs like Tungabhadra dam (1953), Rajoli Banda Barrage (1958); after Independence to India the First Prime
Minister of India, Pundit Jawaharlal Nehru put importance to dams as he considered them as modern temples and
built, Nagarjunasagar Dam (1967), Bhima Dam (1980), Srisailem Dam (1981), Narayanpur Dam (1982), Jurala
Dam (1995), Almatti Dam (2005), Pulichintala Dam (2013), etc. They are providing water for irrigation, drinking,
industry and production of power at very low price. The major dams have come in to operation during the high
rainfall cycle and thus showed high water availability, which was used by Brijesh Kumar Tribunal.
The average along with the lowest and the highest rainfall in met sub-divisions of three riparian states are as
follows [Table 1]:
Table 1 The averages along with the lowest and the highest rainfall in met sub-divisions of three riparian states
Met Sub-division Rainfall, mm

The lowest/year The highest/year Average
Rayalaseema 225.7/1876 1228.3/1874 709
South Interior Karnataka 515.7/1876 1173.6/1882 878
North Interior Karnataka 413.5/1876 1182.1/1892 833
Madhya Maharashtra 344.9/1899 1108.2/1878 735
Marathwada 283.8/1871 1501.3/1892 833
Vidarbha 445.1/1899 1532.4/1936 1094
Very low rainfall zone and also in rain shadow zones of the Western Ghats, namely Sangly-Bellary-Anantapur
zone, more than 50% of the years experience drought.
Tribunals Scenario
Brijesh Kumar Tribunal put forth some subjective, unscientific and illogical arguments for selecting the 47 years
data instead of 114 years data that was available to them for use and for rejecting 78 years data series used by
Bachawat Tribunal. They are mostly subjective arguments and not based on analysis as defined by WMO (1966).
They are given as follows:
 On Bachawat Tribunal data series, Brijesh Kumar Tribunal observed that “It is simply commendable. It has
been very rightly agreed by the parties”. “They do not match hence cannot be integrated” – not tried cyclic
pattern to integrate them;
 “The longer the time series, however, greater the chance that it is neither stationary, consistent, nor
homogeneous. The later part of long time series can present a better data set if it is reasonable to expect that
similar condition will prevail in future” – 114 years data series followed homogeneous pattern;
 “We are of the opinion that 47 years length of a series should be considered sufficient to assess water
availability of river. It more than fulfills the minimum requirements of IS Code ---“ – 47 years data series
followed positively skewed pattern and thus not homogeneous;
 “such increase as reflected seems to be quite natural & obvious. The utilization has more than doubled since
1971-72.The increase is therefore clearly seems to be on account of the return flows and addition of increase
in storage and utilization in minor irrigation” – in cyclic form data, high rainfall period showed higher
values.
Though Brijesh Kumar Tribunal selected 47 years data series but used five widely differing data sets including
parts of 78 years of Bachawat Tribunal data series which was rejected by them to prove their pre-conceived
objective. They are:
 Used 78 years (1894-95 to 1971-72) data to define water availability at 75% probability level – Scheme A of
Bachawat Tribunal;

 Used 47 years (1961-62 to 2007-08) data to define values at 65% probability level and the Mean (meets at
58% probability level) – this is not truly Scheme B of Bachawat Tribunal;
 Used 26 years data (1981-82 to 2007-08) of Krishna-Bhima River zones to raise the Almatti Dam height;
 Used one year (2006-07) data of water use to change the dependable water availability from world widely
used 75% level to 65% level;
 Used data from 1941-42 to 2007-08 to prove delta is getting its share of water even under low availability of
water and thus wants show that the 78 years data set is not accurate
Probability estimates Scenario

For the estimation of dependable water availability, both the tribunals used simple technique, namely plotting the
lowest to the highest. Figure 2 presents the probability curves for 78, 114 and 47 years data series. Bachawat
Tribunal used water availability at 75% probability in the graph defined as “dependable” water. Internationally
accepted level of probability to define “dependability” is 75% probability level. The irrigation commission
recommended to continuing the practice to design supplies at 75% dependability for irrigation schemes. 75%
probability is being widely [nationally & internationally, including India Meteorological Department, ICRISAT
Hyderabad, etc] used as dependable – which means available in three out of four years. Bachawat also followed
this and used water available at 75% probability level as dependable – though AP proposed higher probability
level.
That means the water availability is highly variable with year to year and follows a natural rhythmic pattern.
Let us see this:
1. Bachawat Tribunal:
The Lowest --- 1007 tmc ft [1007, 1125, 1273, 1451]
The Highest --- 4166 tmc ft [4166, 3760, 3721, 3482]
The value at the 75% probability --- 2060 tmc ft + 70 tmc ft of return flows = 2130 tmc ft
The mean [the value at 43% probability] --- 2393 tmc ft
2. Brijesh Kumar Tribunal:
The Lowest --- 1239 tmc ft [1239, 1253, 1512, 1649, 1836, 1840]
The Highest --- 4194 tmc ft [4194, 3760, 3624, 3519, 3397, 3318]
The value at the 75% probability --- 2173 tmc ft – but used 2130 tmc ft of previous tribunal
The mean (value at 58% probability) --- 2578 tmc ft
3. 114 years data series:
The Lowest --- 1007 tmc ft [1007, 1125, 1239, 1253]
The Highest --- 4194 tmc ft [4194, 4166, 3760, 3721]
The value at the 75% probability --- 2060 tmc ft + return flows
The mean [value at 48% probability value] --- 2443 tmc ft
4. Brijesh Kumar Tribunal to justify for raising Almatti Dam height:
The Lowest --- 1239 tmc ft [1239, 1253, 1649, 1836, 1840, 1842, 1868, 1934]
The Highest --- 3624 tmc ft [3624, 3318, 3239, 3187, 3185]
The value at the 75% probability --- 2000 tmc ft
The mean [value at 50% Probability] --- 2400 tmc ft
5. CWC
The Lowest --- 1934.89 tmc ft

The Highest --- 4165.42 tmc ft

The value at the 75% probability --- 2522 tmc ft
The mean [value at --% Probability] --- 3144 tmc ft
3 and 4 follows the normal distribution – Bell-shaped distribution. One is 114 years data series and the other one
is 26 years’ data series. The data series periods in the five systems along with the 132 year cycle periods in rainfall
of AP [top] are schematically represented below:
1868 B 1935 A 2001 B 2066

|-----------------------------------|----------------------------------|----------------------------------|
1894-95 78 1971-72
1. |----------------------------------------| Bachawat Tribunal
1961-62 47 2007-08
2. Brijesh Kumar Tribunal|--------------------------|
1894-95 114 2007-08

3. |----------------------------------------------------------------|
1981-2 26 2006-07
4. Brijesh Kumar Tribunal |--------------------|
1985-86 30 2014-15
5. CWC |----------------------|
A = above the average part of 66 years [24 drought years, 12 flood years]; B = below the average part of 66
pears [12 drought years, 24 flood years]
PLENTY OF WATER IN KRISHNA RIVER

Method followed by Brijesh Kumar Tribunal
Brijesh Kumar Tribunal pronounced that Undivided Andhra Pradesh will get 1530 tmc ft on an average; and thus
even after deducting 230 tmc ft allocated to Almatti dam still Undivided Andhra Pradesh will get 1300 tmc ft,
which is far higher than 811 tmc ft allocated to Undivided Andhra Pradesh by Bachawat Tribunal. To show how
they arrived at 1530 tmc ft on an average they did not used their choice 47 years data series but used selected 26
years data series (1981-82 to 2006-07) of Bhima-Krishna River reaching Jurala dam. This was stated to be 932 tmc
ft on an average. To this added 190 tmc ft from Tungabhadra and 350-400 tmc ft locally available in Undivided
Andhra Pradesh.
To this if we add the water allocated to Karnataka and Maharashtra it will be around 3050 tmc ft. On probability
curve of 47 years data series, 3050 tmc ft is available at around 24%; but from the 26 years data series (which is
part of 47 years data series) probability curve it is available at around 18%. The values at 75% probability and
mean are around 2000 and 2400 tmc ft for 26 years data series; and the same for 47 years data series are 2173 and

2578 tmc ft. Then the basic question arises is: is the whole report created from 47 years data series is erroneous or
is it a technical fraud enacted by the tribunal?
Out of the 26 values 8 are below 2000 tmc ft and 5 are more than 3000 tmc ft; 13 points each are on either side
of the mean of 2400 tmc ft [at 50% probability level] and thus they show that the data series follow a normal
distribution pattern; and in the 47 values, 28 are on higher side and 19 are on lower side of the mean [2578 tmc ft].
It s a positively skewed distribution – because of this mean is available at 58% probability level -- and thus
estimates are bias on the higher side. The estimates are reliable only when it follows normal distribution in which
mean coincides with 50% probability level. 114 data series follow this.
Method followed by CWC
Similar to Brijesh Kumar Tribunal, Central Water Commission (CWC) used 30 years data series (1985-86 to 2014-
15) in which 16 years are in good rainfall period and 14 years are in poor rainfall period. 22 years of 26 years data
series of Brijesh Kumar Tribunal are part of the 30 years. And yet CWC claimed plenty of water available in
Krishna River (Table 2).
Table 2 Rainfall and water availability statistics

(a) From CWC note
Parameter BCM [1 BCM = 35.31 tmc ft]
1971-85 1985-2015
Average Basin Rainfall 212 226
Average Water Availability 78.12 89.04
Maximum Water Availability 117.95 [2010-11]
Minimum Water Availability 54.79 [2002-03]
% of available water to rainfall 36.84% 39.39%
(b) Reddy & Timberlake (1987)
Year Rainfall, mm Runoff [surface + deep drainage], mm
Observed Predicted
1967-68 1296 475 479 (36.7%)*
1964-65 821 150 122 (18.3%)
1969-70 678 70 69 (10.3%)
 In brackets, % of runoff to rainfall
In the case of CWC, the % of available water [surface runoff] to rainfall was 36.84 – 39.39% with the
increasing rainfall. In the case of Reddy & Timberlake (1987) % of runoff [surface + deep drainage] to rainfall
was 10.3 to 36.7% -- non-linearly increasing with increasing rainfall. U.S. Geological Survey used monograms to
separate surface runoff.
CWC says that 2522.52 (54.79 BCM) and 3144.42 (89.04 BCM) tmc ft of water available respectively at 75%
probability and at Mean. 3144.22 tmc ft at mean is nearly the same as that of Brijesh Kumar Tribunal arrived to
raise the Almatti dam height [3050 tmc ft]. If they are correct then more than around 1000 tmc ft must enter the Sea
most of the years and dams will be full every year. In the last few years dams are not getting water to their full
capacity.
According CWC the highest water availability of 4165.42 (117.95 BCM) tmc ft was in 2010-11. However, even
higher value of 4194 tmc ft was recorded in1975-76. They say the lowest 1934.89 tmc ft was recorded in 2002-03.
According to Brijesh Kumar Tribunal this was shown against 2004-05; and in 2002-03 and 2003-04 recorded 1239
& 1253 tmc ft [the lowest observed was 1007 in 1918-19; also 1125 in 1899-1900; 1273 in 1905-06]. That means
CWC showed around 700 tmc ft more than the real lowest value.
How it is possible when rainfall, water received in to Nagarjunasagar Dam, water used in Delta as against
allocated 181.2 tmc ft and water entered in to the sea, etc are all against this inference of CWC. For example: In
undivided Andhra Pradesh out of 23 districts, in 2002-03 received deficit [< 90% of the average] rainfall in 16
districts during the southwest and 15 districts during the northeast monsoons -- In 2002 and 2009 with severe

drought conditions of 81 and 79 % of average rainfall presented a raise of 0.7 and 0.9 oC, respectively at all
India level --. . It is also a fact that many years after 2001 Nagarjunasagar Dam wasn’t reached to its full capacity
– pumped below the dead storage level to meet the drinking water needs of Hyderabad. Also, according to Brijesh
Kumar Tribunal data during 2001-02 to 2005-06 showed that the water availability were 1836, 1239, 1253, 1934,
3624 tmc ft and Delta received 190, 118, 84, 137 & 187 tmc ft against the allocated 181.2 tmc ft; and water entered
the sea were respectively 111, 13, 12, 23, 1273 tmc ft.
All these clearly show it is a false alarm created by CWC to serve the vested interests and finally the intension
appears to be that with this get vacated the Supreme Court stay order on Brijesh Kumar Tribunal Award. The 75%
probability and the mean values on the probability curve primarily relate to the lowest and the highest water
availability values per year. CWC manipulated the lowest [1935 tmc ft] by around 700 tmc ft and arrived at very
high values for “75% as 2523 tmc ft and for the mean as 3144 tmc ft”, which are abnormally high and thus created
sensation by saying “Plenty of Water Available in Krishna”. With low rainfall there is highly impossible to get 700
tmc ft as ground water recharge out of 1935 tmc ft. It is the lower potential evapotranspiration and thus
evapotranspiration that raised the water availability with that water balance model.
This is with reference to their mail dated 9th March 2018 on CWC methodology used in assessing the water
availability in Indian Rivers, the following suggestion was given [sent mail on 10th March 2018]: “As I have
already brought to your notice the fact that Thornthwaite and Mather method of water balance is not suitable to
estimate water availability in Indian rivers. It is appropriate that “CWC must concentrate to build the annual water
availability data sets based on traditional system” that Tribunals like Justice Bachawat, Justice Brijesh Kumar, etc
followed. In these two awards on Krishna and Godavari Rivers, legal cases are not relating to yearly water
availability estimates but on the methods followed in the distribution of water to riparian states. In fact I termed the
Justice Brijesh Kumar Tribunal Award as “Technical Fraud”. If the new Act becomes a Law, it may not be
surprised to see him as the Chairman of the Tribunal. “
Justice Bachawat used all available data at the time of writing the report but Justice Brijesh Kumar, not only
used selected high rainfall period but changed the traditional limit for dependable“ water. Also, he used different
data sets to prove his unethical favours bestowed to Karnataka State. CWC instead of wasting public funds on
Thornthwaite and Mather method, clear the grounds for sharing of the water among riparian states, such as:
 Present yearly water availability data series for each river in India following the traditional system;
 To reject the data series that don’t fit in to his pre-conceived biased path, Justice Brijesh Kumar used three
words, namely continuity, homogeneity and data length. He didn’t made any attempt to test his data series
for these three conditions;
 To understand continuity in data series, first study the data series for non-randomness if any in the data series
by using methods presented by WMO in its reports [available in IMD Library and as well online, 1966
WMO report is available online of WMO Library Copy – Late K. N. Rao from IMD is the co-author (my
boss in Pune DDGC)];
 Study the data series for homogeneity using normality test [Gaussian/Normal distribution or skewed
distribution] – see WMO reports. Then decide on the length of the data series;
 Define what is dependable water availability;
Justice Brijesh Kumar allocated 1005 tmc ft to undivided AP while it is 194 tmc ft over Bachawat tribunal and
of this 150 tmc ft is carryover water as allowed by Bachawat tribunal. That means AP will get water up to mean at
the mercy of the upper riparian states. Also, the major problem is with natural variability in rainfall and thus water
availability. This must be characterized before allocating water to riparian states. Justice Brijesh Kumar Tribunal
violated all Ethical norms while writing the Krishna River Water Award. To avoid such calamities in future, it is
important to work out in the above said directions.
SUMMARY & CONCLUSIONS

The reliability of yearly water availability in a given river depends on three important factors, namely method
followed in the estimation of yearly water availability, presence or absence of natural variability in yearly water
availability data series, and selection of data set.

1. Method of estimation: Government appointed tribunals followed a simple concept with little bias but CWC
entered the field in 2013 to revise the estimation procedures. CWC estimates are more than around 700 tmc
ft over the traditional method of collecting the yearly water-availability in Krishna River basin. That means
it overestimates by around 20% of water availability. Because of this, CWC claimed “Plenty of Water in
Krishna River”;
The estimates proposed by CWC may become part of decision making with Single Tribunal Act and thus
might create water wars in future water disputes settlements. The revised maximum floods of 50 lakh cusecs
instead of 38.2 lakh cusecs in the case of Polavaram project appears to be part of this game by CWC and
caused delay in the execution of the project that escalated the costs – this project is supposed to be most cost
effective project ever proposed in India but with the CWC interference turned in to most ineffective project.
Interlinking of Godavari water proposal by CWC is also infected by this overestimation of annual water
availability under CWC method.
2. Natural variability: It is always preferred to use long term data series for the computation of estimates at
different probabilities. If the data series follow a cyclic variation, truncated data series might give good or
bad results based on which part of the cycle the series are part. Therefore, it is always good to test the data
series for the presence of cyclic variation using moving average technique. This provides the simple and
easy answer whether the data series are following the random distribution or non-random distribution;
3. Selection of data: Also, it is always good to test the data series for the homogeneity. If the data series follow
Gaussian/Normal distribution, the data series present homogeneous distribution wherein mean coincides with
median [50% probability] value. This is a bell-shaped pattern with equal number of data points on either side
of the mean. Then it is said that the data series are homogeneous and thus the results will be unbiased. If the
data series follow skewed distribution then it is said that the data series are not homogeneous and thus the
results will be biased [positively, higher values side or negatively, lower values side];
On the average water available in Krishna basin is around 2400 tmc ft that varies on an average between
around 2200 tmc ft under below the average part and around 2600 tmc ft under above the average part. This
excludes groundwater use and soil moisture use by dry-land crops & fallow-pastures-trees.
REFERENCES
1. Parthasarathy, B., Munot, A.A. & Kothawale, D. R., 1995:”Monthly and seasonal rainfall series for all-India
homogeneous regions and meteorological sub-divisions: 1871-1994”, IITM, Pune [ISSN0252-1075], 113p
2. Reddy, S. J., 1977: Forecasting the onset of southwest monsoon over Kerala”, Indian J. Metorol. Hydrol. Geophys.,
28:113-114
3. Reddy, S. J., 1983a: “A simple method of estimating the soil water balance”, Agricultural Meteorology, 28: 1-17
4. Reddy, S. J., 1983b: “Irrigation scheduling using ICSWAB model”, Pesq. Agropec. Bras., Brasilia, 18:1121-1126
5. Reddy, S. J., 1984a: “Agroclimatic classification of the semi-arid tropics: III. Characteristics of variables relevant to
crop production potential”, Agricultural Meteorology, 30:269-292
6. Reddy, S. J., 1984b: “Climatic fluctuations and homogenization of northeast Brazil using precipitation data”, Pesq.
Agropec. Bras., Brasilia, 19:529-543
7. Reddy, S. J., 1993: “Agroclimatic/Agrometeorological Techniques: As applicable to dry-land agriculture in developing
countries”, 205, www.scribd.com/Google Books, Book Review appeared in Agric. For. Meteor., (1994) 325-327 –
recommended as reference book at post-graduate level in Agricultural Meteorology by Universities – refers to world.
8. Reddy, S. J., 1995: “Comment: Sensitivity of some potential evapotranspiration estimation methods to climate change”,
Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 77: 121-125
9. Reddy S. J., 2016a: “Irrigation and irrigation projects in India: Tribunals, disputes and water wars perspective”, BS
Publications, Hyderabad, India, 154p
10. Reddy S. J., 2016b: “Climate Change and its impacts: Ground Realities”, BS Publications, Hyderabad, India, 276p
11. Reddy, S. J. & Rao, K. R., 1973: ”An empirical method for estimation of evaporation from free surface of water”,
Indian, J. Met. Geophys., 24: 137-152
12. Reddy, S. J., Juneja, O. A. & Lahori, (Miss) S. N., 1977: “Power Spectral Analysis of Total & Net Radiation
Intensities”, Indian Journal of Radio & Space Physics, 6:60-66

13. Reddy, S. J. & Malaquias da M. S. N., 1984: “A method for the estimation of potential evapotranspiration and/or open
pan evaporation over Brazil”, Pesq. Agropec. Bras., Brasilia, 19:247-267
14. Reddy, S. J. & Timberlake, J. R., 1987: “A simple method for the estimation of potential primary pasture productivity
over Mozambique”, Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 39: 335-349
15. Thornthwaite, C.W. & Mather, J.R., 1955: “The water budget and its use in irrigation”, In Water, the yearbook of
agriculture, Washington, D.C., USDA, 346p
16. Thornthwaite, C.W. & Mather, J.R., 1957: “Instructions and tables for computing potential evapotranspiration and the
water balance”, Publications in Climatology, 10:185-311
17. WMO (World Meteorological Organization), 1966: “Climate change”, Geneva, Switzerland, WMO Technical Note No.
79, 81p

SUSTAINABLE MICRO-CATCHMENT DEVELOPMENT BY CONTINUOUS
CONTOUR TRENCHING TECHNIQUES IN DRYLAND AREAS
R. S. Patode
Associate Professor (Agricultural Engineer)
All India Coordinated Research Project for Dryland Agriculture
Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola (M.S.) 444 104
INTRODUCTION
Environment has been considered as the aggregate of all external conditions and influences affecting the life and
development of an organism. Development without regard to the ecological equilibrium has led to an environmental
crisis in the recent past. Based on per capita renewable water availability, India-the second most populous country in
the world-has water enough to meet its people’s needs. But many of its nearly 900 million people suffer severe water
shortages, in part as a result of uneven availability of water. Most rainfall comes during the monsoon season, from
June to September, and levels of precipitation vary from 100 millimeters a year in the western parts of Rajasthan to
over 9,000 millimeters in the northeastern state of Meghalaya. Floods and droughts are both common
throughout the country. India’s vulnerability to regional water scarcity is well illustrated by the case of
Rajasthan, a state in northwest India. Situated in one of the most in hospitable arid zones in the world,
Rajasthan’s northwest corner extends into the vast Thar Desert. With a wide range of temperatures and an
unpredictable monsoon climate, drought and desertification are common, and water is a scarce commodity. Even
those who live in areas of high rainfall in India often face drought because landscapes have been denuded. Soil
is compacted and most rainfall runs off before it can sink into the ground, increasing flooding.
After decades of work by governments and organization to bring potable water to poorer people of the world, the
situation is still dire. The reasons are many and varied. The poor of the world cannot afford the capital intensive and
technically complex traditional water supply systems which are widely promoted by government and agencies
throughout the world. Water is the key of life, presence of water and its absence determine the fertility of the bareness of
the land and the ecosystem that surrounds it. Soil erosion takes place on steep slope because no obstruction to
flowing water. Water is explosive; not to shunt loose. In degraded watershed, which lacks forests and cropland
conservation measures, water running downhill too fast erodes soils and washes out crops. It pollutes streams or fills
lakes with sediment. It causes frequent flash floods and contributes to bigger floods downstream. In a well
managed watershed, most of the storm water soaks into the soil, increasing groundwater supplies and providing
crops, pastures and trees with needed moisture.
In India, about 175 million hectares of land is classified as wasteland. Most of this wasteland can be
transformed into a precious and bountiful natural capital in order to overcome this water crisis. The denuded
forestlands have great potential for producing fodder, fuel and low quality timber. To achieve this, it is necessary
to adopt the different soil and water conservation engineering measures, supplemented with proper afforestation
techniques, grassland development. In the top portion of catchment area, Contour trenches are excavated all
along a uniform level across of the slope of the land. Bunds are formed downstream along the trenches with material
taken out of them to create more favourable moisture conditions and thus accelerate the growth of vegetation.
Contour trenches break the velocity of runoff. The rainwater percolates through the soil slowly and travels down
and benefits the better types of land in the middle and lower sections of the catchments. Sustainable development
of watershed area is the need of the hour not only for soil conservation, ground water conservation but it also has
impact on national economy and solution for employment problem. For balancing of the balance of the earth, it is
necessary to maintain at least 33% forest coverage of the available land in each country. In draught prone area, there
are two critical factors: water and soil. So in such areas main objective is to conserve the soil and conserve water.
Once soil and water conserved, vegetative growth sustain easily. For the same to satisfy this objective economically
and efficiently, continuous contour trenching (CCT) technology is one of the solutions for sustainable watershed
development.
43
Contour trenches
Continuous contour trenching implies excavating trenches along the contour or along a uniform level (Murty,
1985). Trenches can be continuous or interrupted. Continuous one is used for rainwater conservation in low rainfall
areas and require careful layout (Thomas et al., 2010). Continuous Contour Trenches (CCTs) are used both on
hilly lands as well as on degraded and barren waste lands for water, soil and moisture conservation and for
afforestation purposes. The trenches reduce the surface runoff by breaking the slope length and consequently retard
its scouring action and carrying capacity. The water retained in the trenches results in moisture conservation and
provides advantageous sites for sowing and planting. It can be used in all slopes irrespective of rainfall conditions
(i.e., in both high and low rainfall conditions), varying soil types and depths. Even though contour trenches have
been used on all slopes, trenching on slopes exceeding 20% is not technically or economically advisable. The CCTs
are to be constructed strictly on contours irrespective of the category. The size of the trench depends upon the soil's
depth. Normally 1,000 sq.cm to 2,500 sq.cm. in cross section are adopted. By knowing the amount of rainfall to be
retained in a unit area, it can be possible to calculate the size and number of trenches required. As far as the length
of the CCTs is concerned, shorter lengths, viz. 2-6m, are reasonably adopted for convenience of layout and
construction. However, if careful layout is done then longer lengths of trenches (up to 200m) can be adopted. The
trench may be of 30 cm base and 30 cm top width and square in cross section or it can be trapezoidal with side
slopes 1:1. In Vidarbha region of Maharashtra the trench size of 60 cm top, and 30 cm deep is commonly adopted.
STUDY AREA
The study was conducted at the experimental field of All India Coordinated Research Project for Dryland
Agriculture, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola (M.S.), India. The site is situated between latitude
of 20° 43’ 05.8” to 20° 43’ 09.3” North and Longitude of 77° 02’ 43.1” to 77° 02’ 46.0” East with the altitude of
307m above MSL. It is located in the Western Vidarbha Zone, a part of the Central Maharashtra Plateau Agro-
climatic zone. In the present study three types of soils were identified in the micro-catchment viz. Inceptisol,
Entisol and Vertisol.
METHODOLOGY
The research as it is essential to understand the dominant hydrological processes prevalent in the CCT system
through hydrological modelling and thereby impact assessment of CCT was undertaken at AICRPDA, Dr. PDKV,
Akola. The outcome is expected to help in providing technical information to Agriculture Department, Govt. of
Maharashtra, NGO,s and promoting more adaptation of CCT systems in other parts of the region in the country,
i.e., with different rainfall characteristics. For this purpose MIKE SHE modelling system was selected, the details
of which are described below.
Description of MIKE SHE
MIKE SHE model area is discretized by two analogous horizontal-grid square networks for surface and
groundwater flow components. These are linked by vertical column of nodes at each grid representing the
unsaturated zone. MIKE SHE has capability to simulate surface and groundwater movement and the interactions
between the surface and groundwater systems and it is a comprehensive deterministic, physically-based, spatially-
distributed modeling system (DHI, 2005). MIKE SHE system has no limitations regarding catchment size. The
files of model input can be generated by overlaying the model input parameters with a grid network. The model has
a pre and post-processing capabilities with graphic user interface (GUI). MIKE SHE can be coupled with MIKE 11
and is capable of modeling the main processes in the land phase of the hydrological cycle including, overland flow,
interception, evapotranspiration, channel flow, 1-D unsaturated soil flow and 3-D ground-water flow. A brief
description of the components of MIKE SHE is given in the following sections.
Interception component
The process of interception is modeled by introducing interception storage expressed as a function of Leaf Area
Index, LAI (Jensen, 1983). The vegetation type and its stage of development affects the intercepted water storage
capacity (Imax) and is calculated by:
I max = C int LAI
where, Cint = interception parameter, mm; and LAI = leaf area index.
The interception parameter, is independent of vegetation, but depends on time. From the values of interception
storage capacities given in the literature for different vegetation types, a typical value of Cint is 0.05 mm. However,
the exact value of Cint may be assessed from calibration. The LAI usually varies for different plantations from
0 to 5.
Evapotranspiration component
Interception of rainfall by canopy, drainage from canopy to the soil surface, evaporation from canopy surface,
evaporation from soil surface and uptake of water by plant roots and its transpiration, based on soil moisture in the
unsaturated root zone have been incorporated in Kristensen and Jensen (1975) ET model.
Overland flow component
Overland flow (OL) is modelled by approximations of Saint-Venant equations of continuity and momentum. The
OL flow process is simulated in each square grid by solving 2-D diffusive wave approximations of Saint-Venant
equations. The rectangular cartesian (x, y) coordinates over the horizontal plane is used, let the flow depth above
the ground surface be h(x,y), the ground surface level be Zg(x,y) and the flow velocities in the x- and y-directions be
u(x,y) and v(x,y) respectively.
Unsaturated zone (UZ) component
The driving force for transport of water in the unsaturated zone (UZ) is the gradient of hydraulic head, h, which
includes a gravitational component, z, and a pressure component, . Soil moisture distribution in the unsaturated
zone (UZ) is calculated by solving 1-D Richards’ equation.
Saturated zone component
MIKE SHE allows for a fully 3-D flow in a heterogeneous aquifer with shifting condition between confined and
unconfined conditions. The saturated zone (SZ) component of MIKE SHE water movement calculates the saturated
subsurface flow in the catchment of the watershed. The temporal and spatial variations of the dependent variable
(the hydraulic head) is described mathematically by the nonlinear Boussinesq equation and solved numerically by
an iterative finite difference technique.
Coupling of unsaturated and saturated zones
The actual moisture distribution in the unsaturated zone (UZ) influences the recharge to the groundwater. However,
the correct description of the recharge process is complicated because the water table also rises as water enters the
groundwater zone and thus, exerts a feedback on the flow conditions in the unsaturated zone (UZ). Entire
procedure consists of book keeping of the accumulated mass balance error Ecum for entire grid square column. If
Ecum exceeds certain specific limit Emax, action is taken for adjustment of the water table and redistribution of
moisture content in the lower part of the UZ until Ecum <Emax . To ensure that the UZ does not drop below the
bottom of the first calculation layer of the SZ following procedure should be used:
Overland - groundwater exchange
There are situations where a soil profile becomes completely saturated, and thus UZ calculations are disabled. At
the same time, if there is ponded water, the exchange between the OL flow and the groundwater components is
calculated based on the vertical hydraulic conductivity in the upper layer of the SZ and the hydraulic gradient
between the surface water and the groundwater table in the upper layer of the SZ.
Evaluation of CCT performance
For knowing the CCT performance, the rainfall was main hydrological process and from the analysis it was
observed that during the year 2013 the rainfall was above normal, during 2014 it was below normal and during
2015 it was close to normal. Performance of the CCTs existing in the treated micro-catchment was evaluated by
comparing the relevant components of the hydrological cycle of the treated and control micro-catchments. The
results of water balance obtained with MIKE SHE model for the two micro-catchments, viz., control and treated for
these years were used for the impact assessment purpose. Other than hydrological monitoring, the physical
observations and analysis of fruit production was also used for assessing CCT performance.

The validated model of the treated and control micro-catchment was used to work out simulation for the
hydrological Water Balance during 2015 (1st January to 31st December). The results obtained are given in following
sections. The impact of the conservation measure adopted in the treated micro-catchment, i.e., existing CCT, was
evaluated. The comparison between the hydrological components for the year 2015 is given in Table 1. It was
observed that the runoff was less by 93.33% in the CCT treated micro-catchment over control. The water uptake
from unsaturated zone was more by 17.14% by the plantation in the CCT treated micro-catchment over control and
this reflects into evapotranspiration.
Table 1 Comparison of hydrological water balance components for control and treated micro-catchment during 2015
Hydrological components Treated Control (Untreated) Increase/decrease over control (%)

Rainfall (mm) 759 759 -
UZ Storage Change (mm) 41 35 17.14
Runoff (mm) 7 105 -93.33
Evapotranspiration (mm) 380 345 10.14
Recharge (mm) 331 274 20.80
Furthermore, CCT provides favorable environment for plant growth, which is evident from about 10.51%
increase (380mm compared to 345mm in control micro-catchment during 2015) in the ET in the treated micro-
catchment compared to control (untreated) micro-catchment.
Impact of CCT on seasonal crop productivity
In between the plant rows of perennial plantation, the green gram crop has been cultivated during Kharif season.
The yield obtained during 2012, 2013 and 2015 is depicted in Fig. 1 and given in Table 2. It was observed that the
increase in yield in treated micro-catchment was 47.57, 59.56 and 47.89% over control during the year 2012, 2013
and 2015, respectively.
Table 2 Yield of green gram crop

Yield of green gram, kg ha-1 Increase over control
Year
Treated Control (%)
2012 207.89 140.87 47.57
2013 170.48 106.84 59.56
2015 230.26 155.70 47.89
250
Treated
Control
Yield of green gram, kg/ha
200
150
100
50
0
2012 2013 2015
Year
Fig. 1 Comparison of yield of green gram in control and treated micro-catchment

Impact of CCT on fruit production

The perennial plantation of the Custard apple and Atemoya started yielding fruits from 2012, but initially the fruit
production was less. During 2013, for Custard apple plantation, in CCT treated micro-catchment out of total
established 100 plants only 39 plants yields fruits similarly, in control micro-catchment out of total established 90
plants only 22 plants yields fruits. For Atemoya plantation, in CCT treated micro-catchment out of total 80 plants
only 39 plants yields fruits similarly, in control micro-catchment out of 72 plants only 20 plants yields fruits. The
picking of fruits was carried out as per maturity of fruits. The picking data of fruits of Custard apple and Atemoya
in CCT treated and control micro-catchments are given in Table 3. From this table it was observed that the
production of fruits is more in CCT treated micro-catchment as compared to control in Custard apple (32.72%) as
well as Atemoya (27.47%) plantation.
Similarly, during 2014 for Custard apple plantation, in treated micro-catchment out of total established 80
plants, 43 plants yields fruits and in control out of total established 64 plants, 32 plants yields fruits. For Atemoya
plantation, in treated micro-catchment out of total 64 plants, 39 plants yields fruits and in control out of 52 plants,
30 plants yield fruits. The picking of fruits was carried out as per maturity of fruits. The picking data of fruits of
Custard apple and Atemoya in CCT treated and control micro-catchments are given in Table 4. From this table it is
observed that the total and per plant yield is more in CCT treated catchment as compared to control catchment for
Custard apple as well as Atemoya.
During 2015 for Custard apple plantation, in treated micro-catchment, 40 plants yields fruits and in control, 31
plants yields fruits. For Atemoya plantation, in treated micro-catchment, 9 plants yields fruits and in control, 5
plants yield fruits. The picking of fruits was carried out as per maturity of fruits. The picking data of fruits of
Custard apple and Atemoya in CCT treated and control micro-catchments are given in Table 5. From this table it
was observed that the production of fruits was more in CCT treated micro-catchment as compared to control in
Custard apple (90.91%) as well as Atemoya (57.40%) plantation. The comparison of fruit production for Custard
apple and Atemoya in treated and control micro-catchments for the year 2013 to 2015 is shown in Figs. 2 and 3,
respectively. On an average the fruit production was more in CCT treated micro-catchment as compared to control
in Custard apple (92.48%) as well as Atemoya plantation.
Table 3 Production of Custard apple and Atemoya during 2013

Weight of fruits of Custard apple (kg) Weight of fruits of Atemoya (kg)
Picking of
CCT Treated Control CCT Treated Control
fruits
(39 plants) (32 plants) (39 plants) (33 plants)
I 2.42 0.95 1.54 2.19
II 7.66 6.38 14.41 11.06
III 12.77 10.67 2.51 2.52
IV 11.21 9.86 3.94 1.81
V 6.18 2.46 - -
Total 40.24 30.31 22.41 17.58
Table 4 Production of Custard apple and Atemoya during 2014

Weight of fruits of Custard apple (kg) Weight of fruits of Atemoya (kg)
Picking of
CCT Treated Control CCT Treated Control
fruits
(43 plants) (32 plants) (39 plants) (30 plants)
I 8.34 1.37 5.29 2.10
II 20.50 9.50 24.87 6.35
III 18.70 5.80 14.39 3.97
IV 28.15 16.47 5.09 1.34
V 28.58 11.34 8.51 1.86
Total 104.27 44.48 58.15 15.62
Table 5 Production of Cusstard apple andd Atemoya duriing 2015

Weight of fruiits of Custard appple (kg) Weigght of fruits of Atemoya
A (kg)
Pickingg of
CC
CT Treated Conntrol CCT Treaated Control
fruits
(4
40 plants) (31 plants)
p (9 plantts) (5 plants)
I 8.60 3..21 - -
II 14.26 7..77 - -
III 16.00 8..82 - -
IV 13.50 7..41 5.09 2.64
V 14.25 7..68 3.51 2.86
Totaal 66.61 344.89 8.50 5.40
Fruit production of custard apple, kg
Treated C
Control
100
80
60
40
20
0
2013
2014
2015
Year
Fig. 2 Comp
parison of fruit production of Custard apple in control and treated micro--catchment
Treated
Fruit production of atemoya, kg
Control
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2013
2
2014
2015
Year
Fig. 3 Com
mparison of fruiit production of
o Atemoya in control
c and treated micro-cattchment
CONCLUSION
 It can be concluded that the continuous contour trenches (CCTs) are useful in low rainfall areas for moisture
conservation. Moreover, it can be an effective measure for utilizing non-arable lands for fruit plantations and
for raising agronomical crops between plant rows.
 The evaluation of performance of CCTs in terms of yield of green gram, fruit production from perennial
plantation was observed and it can be concluded that the yield of green gram, Custard apple and Atemoya
plantation was more in CCT treated over control micro-catchment.
 CCTs are useful for reducing runoff and thereby increasing groundwater recharge. MIKE-SHE model can be
applied to micro-catchment for hydrological parameter estimation.
REFERENCES
1. Danish Hydraulic Institute (DHI), MIKE SHE - User Guide, 2005.
2. Graham D. N. and Butts M. B., Flexible integrated watershed modelling with MIKE SHE. In: Watershed Models, Eds.,
V. P. Singh and D. K. Frevert, 2005: 245-272.
3. Jensen, K. H., Simulation of water flow in the unsaturated zone including the root zone. Technical Series Paper No. 33,
Institute of Hydrodynamics and Hydraulic Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Copenhagen, Denmark,
1983.
4. Kristensen, K. J. and Jensen, S. E., A model for estimating actual evapotranspiration from potential transpiration.
Nordic Hydrology, 6, 1975: 170-188.
5. Kulkarni, S. S., Swami, V. A., Gune, M. and Thoravat, A., Water and soil conservation through simple techniques – a
case study. Int. J. of Engineering Science and Technology (IJEST), 3(8), 2011: 6305-6309.
6. Murty, V. V. N., Land and water management engineering. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi, India, 1985.
7. Nagdeve, M. B., Bharad, G. M., Singh, R., Patra, J. P. and Raghuwanshi, N. S. (2009). “Modelling hydrological
impacts of Continuous contour trench conservation systems.” International conference on, Water, Environment, Energy
and Society (WEES) New Delhi, 1739-1748.
8. Patode, R. S., Nagdeve, M. B. and K. Ramamohan Reddy (2015). Continuous contour trenches – A useful conservation
measure for groundwater recharge, International Journal of Scientific Research Issue 2, Vol.4 :11-13.
9. Pendke, M. S. (2009). “Qualitative evaluation of soil and water conservation structures in Daregaon watershed.” Journal
of Soil and Water Conservation, 8(1), 9-13.
10. Pramana, K.E.R. (2007). “The Design of contour trenches in Vietnam.” Master Thesis, Technische Universiteit, Delft,
The Netherlands, 1-87.
11. Sadgir, P. A., Patil, G. K. and Takalkar, V. G. (2006). “Sustainable watershed development by refilled continuous
contour trenching technology.” National seminar on rainwater harvesting and water management, Nagpur (M.S.), 331-
338.
12. Shinde, M., Smout, I. and Gorantiwar, S. (2006). “Assessment of water harvesting and groundwater recharge through
continuous contour trenches.” Recharge systems for protecting and enhancing groundwater resources, UNESCO, IHP-
VI, series on Groundwater, 13, 229-235.
13. Sussman, D. (2007). “Design manual- Contour trenches.” Bren school of environmental science and management,
University of California Santa Barbara, U.S.A, 1-7.
14. Thomas, C. George (2010). “Land husbandry and watershed management.” 1st Eds. Kalyani publishers, New-Delhi,
India, 324-352.
WATER AND ENERGY EFFICIENT TECHNOLOGIES TO ADDRESS
CLIMATE CHANGES IN GANGES
Krishna Reddy Kakumanu
Associate Professor
National Institute of Rural Development & Panchayati Raj (NIRD & PR), India
ABSTRACT
Climate change impacts on agriculture are being witnessed all over the world, but countries like India are more
vulnerable to floods and droughts in view of agricultural dependency and pressure on natural resources. The
Indian River basins and its tributaries have abundance of surface water and bountiful aquifers. But, unable to
store the monsoon flood water due to less storage capacity. This is increasing the water scarcity during the post
monsoon season. The groundwater extraction is very low in some states and exceeds the net recharge in some
other states. The western and southern states of India suffer from scarcity and depletion of groundwater
resources, while the north eastern states have enough groundwater resources to improve the livelihoods and
reduce the intensity of floods to the climate variability. The major source of energy for pumping groundwater in
the north eastern states is diesel pumps followed by electricity pumps with high carbon emission. The subsidized
electricity prices to agriculture with limited supply and soaring diesel prices are limiting the pumping capacity.
The power utilities are bankrupt and supply to the villages’ were very poor. Farmers are also constrained by
unreliable grid power and higher diesel cost. The recharge capacity is also poor due to the low groundwater
development. In the recent years, solar irrigation pumps with higher subsidy and zero marginal cost is also
attracting the farmers’ attention. However, leaving it to the open market it has unique cost structure with high
capital investment. This makes it similar to the electric pump investments with flat tariff at zero marginal cost.
Hence, the present paper focus on the energy development, consumption, reforms and alternate options and
trade-off to the meet energy needs in the north eastern regions. The Ramganga sub-basin was selected for the
study as one of the sub-basins of Indo-Gangetic basin covering eastern states. The Ramganaga River dam falls in
Uttarakhand but also benefits Uttar Pradesh and rejuvenate the groundwater. Hence, Uttar Pradesh was selected
purposively for the present study where majority of the farmers are depending on the canal and borewells. The
major source of energy for pumping groundwater in the study area is diesel pump. There are some electric
operated government tube-well in the study area but most of them are defunct. The study assess the cost benefits
of different irrigation energy options and their trade-offs on emission cleaning. The results show low net returns
for diesel pumps and poor electricity infrastructure to meet the water requirement in the study area. Solar
irrigation pumps found to be more feasible option in the long-term to meet the groundwater and energy demands
with socio-ecological benefits. Establishment of Photo voltaic plants on community basis with a guaranteed
long-term buy-back contracts by the state government would improve the investment and livelihoods of farmers
Keywords: Groundwater energy nexus, Ganges, Technologies, climate change, solar
Groundwater development in India

In India, groundwater plays a major role for meeting the water requirement for industry, domestic and agricultural
sectors. About 55 percent of water demand for agriculture is met from groundwater. The first systematic approach
to estimate the groundwater resources of the country was made by groundwater overexploitation committee in
1979. Based on their report, the total replenishable groundwater in India is estimated to be about 432 billion cubic
meter, of which 71 BCM is used for domestic and industrial purposes. Between 1970 and 1994, the area under
groundwater has been increased by 105 percent, while the area under surface water irrigation grew only by 28
percent (Shah, 2002). The western and southern states suffer from scarcity and depletion of groundwater resources,
while the eastern states have enough groundwater resources to improve the livelihoods and reduce the intensity of
floods (Shah et al. 2014).
50
The major source of energy for pumping groundwater in many states is electricity followed by diesel pumps.
Groundwater extraction far exceeds the net recharge in many regions (Rodell et al 2009). As many as 16% of the
6,475 groundwater development blocks in the country are above critical or semi-critical thresholds with extraction
exceeding natural recharge by at least 80% (Kakumanu 2009). The western and southern states are highly equipped
with electricity pumps and have notified with dark blocks (CGWB, 2015). This precipitate severe environmental
degradation, including drying of wet lands and streams and deteriorating quality of water and soil (Giordano 2009).
On other hand, the ground water development is low in the Eastern Indo-Gangetic plains (EIGP), while the
recharge is better due to good rainfall and alluvial soils (Sikka and Bhatnagar, 2006). The north eastern states of
EIGP are highly depend on the diesel pump for irrigation due to the poor electricity. In the groundwater abundant
areas, solar pumps can be a good option to overcome the electricity scarcity and reducing marginal cost of pumping
and generate massive livelihoods (Shah and Kishore, 2012). This can also help in developing the aquifers by
absorbing the monsoon flood water.
Electricity development and its consumption in agricultural sector
Electricity is one of the essential requirements for all facets of our life. It has been recognized as a basic human
need. It is a critical infrastructure on which socio-economic development of the country depends. Since
independence electricity has been placed in concurrent list in the constitution of India. In India, power generation is
mostly performed by government entities and is controlled by central public sector corporations like National
Hydroelectric Power Corporation, National Thermal Power Corporation and various State Electricity Boards
(SEBs). The parliament and the state governments have authority to legislate on the subject. Of the total installed
capacity (274,818 megawatt) in the country, 35 percent of the current installed base is from state sector, 26.6
percent from central and 38.4 percent from private sector (Ministry of Power, 2015). In thermal power plants, coal
based thermal power is about 61 percent, gas 8.4 percent and oil 0.4 percent (Table 1). Hydro power is 15.3
percent of the total installed base, Nuclear 2.1 percent and renewable energy is of 13 percent. With the available
power sources, India is producing electricity of 1048 billion kWh by 2014-15 and the ministry of power is trying to
produce additional power (88, 425 MW) by the end of 12th five year plan.
Electricity consumption was also increased with the increasing population and economy over the years
(Figure 1). Electricity is playing a major role in industrial and agriculture sectors. Agriculture is the second largest
consumer of electricity after industry competing with the domestic consumption. Electricity consumption in
agriculture sector has been increased significantly due to rural electrification. Especially in southern part of India,
99.6 percent of the villages are electrified. In total 84.3 percent of the villages were electrified by the end of 2004
in India. Electricity consumption has been increased from 10 to 18 percent (1970-2013) in agriculture sector at
country level (MOSPI, 2015). Irrigation pumpsets energized in India are 15.09 million by 2007. Southern region
was on the top of its share of 42 percent in total pumpsets energized, followed by western and northern region with
33 and 21 percent respectively. Among the states, pumpsets energized are highest in Maharashtra with 2.49 million
followed by Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka with 2.31 and 1.42 million respectively (CWC, 2006).
Table 1 Installed power sector in India

Megawatt Percentage
S.No Energy
2007 2015 2007 2015
1 Thermal power 86,935.8 191,264 64.5 69.6
(i) Coal 71,932.3 167,208 53.4 60.8
(ii) Gas 13,801.7 23,062 10.2 8.4
(iii) Oil 1,201.7 994 0.9 0.4
2 Hydro Power 33, 485.7 41,997 24.8 15.3
3 Nuclear Power 4,120.0 5,780 3.1 2.1
4 Renewable Power 10,175.0 35,777 7.6 13.0
Total 134,716.6 274,818 100.0 100
Source: Ministry of Power, 2007 and 2015

900000 16.00
800000 14.00
700000 12.00
% annual growth
600000
10.00
500000
GWh
8.00
400000
6.00
300000
200000 4.00
100000 2.00
0 0.00
Industry Agriculture Domestic
Commercial Traction & Railways Others
Total Electricity Consumed % Annual growth in electricity
Fig. 1 Electricity consumption by sector (from utility)

Source: MOSPI, 2015
In the first three states where higher energized pumpsets are found, the sates have announced free electricity
polices or low electricity prices to gain the farmers vote bank, which are not even equal to the supply cost. In
addition to this, it is believed that poor agriculturist needs this subsidy due to frequent droughts and the need to
alleviate poverty. It is largely believed that the poorer sections among the agricultural areas cannot afford to pay
electricity tariff as per the cost of electricity generation and supply. It is also expensive for the electricity boards to
meter it for agricultural consumption. Hence, the electricity tariffs have been kept below the cost price and billing
of most pumpsets has been linked to the pump capacity i.e. HP rather than the electricity use. Some states have
declared free electricity policy to the agriculture sector for 7 hours to extract groundwater and written off the
previous bills, which were used to charge on pump capacity. However, the electricity supply is regulated with 7 hrs
per day in two phases to stabilise the extraction and efficient use of energy.
The diesel pumps are second largest source of pumping in the north-eastern states. The diesel pumps used for
agriculture are higher in Uttar Pradesh (46%) of the 13.18 million in India (Rawat and Mukherji, 2012). However,
the soaring diesel prices are regulating the use of groundwater in the state. The power utilities are bankrupt and
supply to the villages were very poor. Hence, farmers are constrained by unreliable grid power and higher diesel
cost (WLE, 2015).
In the recent years, solar irrigation pumps with higher subsidy and zero marginal cost is also attracting the
farmers’ attention (Tewari, 2012, Kishore et al 2014). However, leaving it to the open market it has unique cost
structure with high capital investment. This makes it similar to the electric pump investments with flat tariff at zero
marginal cost.
In this context, the present paper/report discuss on the energy development, consumption, reforms and alternate
options and trade-off to the meet energy needs in the north eastern regions of India.
STUDY AREA
The Ramganga sub-basin was selected for the study as one of the sub-basins of Indo-Gangetic basin covering
eastern states. The Ramganaga River dam falls in Uttarakhand but also benefits Uttar Pradesh and rejuvenate the
groundwater. Hence, Uttar Pradesh was selected purposively for the present study where majority of the farmers
are depending on the canal and borewells. Shahjehanpur, Bareilly and Rampur districts from Uttar Pradesh were
selected for the study, which fall under Ramganga basin (Figure 2). The major source of energy for pumping
groundwater in the study area is diesel pump. All most all the farmers have their own bore and diesel pump. Some
the villages having privet electric motors. The government owned deep tube-wells working in Shahjahanpur district
were 491. Out of this, 91 tube-wells in Jalalabad tahsil, 102 in Tilhar, 189 in Puvaya and 109 in Shahjahanpur
tahsil. Most of them are not working properly due to lower hours of electricity supply i.e. 3-4 hours per day.
Fig. 2 Study area locations
The groundwater irrigation is one of the important sources for taking irrigated crop production in the study area.
As study area falls in the trai tract of Uttar Pradesh. This tract is one of the most fertile land, rich natural resources
endowment and densely populated tract. This tract is formed by soil deposition of the Ganga, Ramganga and
Ghaghra perennial rivers. The groundwater recharge takes place by these rivers and canals i.e. Shard canal.
Resulting to this, farmers are not facing difficulty in the front of groundwater availability.
The main source of energy for pumping out groundwater is diesel pumps and electric pumps are almost absent
in the study area. There are some electric operated government tube-well were found in the study area but most of
them are defunct. These government tube-wells were constructed by the government under minor irrigation
scheme. The original command area of each tube-well is covering two to three villages depending upon the
agricultural land.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Farmers of the study area mostly dependent on the groundwater for irrigated crop production and main source of
energy for pumping out groundwater was diesel pumps. All most all the farmers in the study area have one or two
bore-wells depending upon the land holding size and size of each parcel. In the study area, farmers are sharing their
bore-well among farmers without any cost, because diesel pumps are portable in nature and it can easily move from
one place to another. Resulting to this there is complete absent of water market in the study area.
The average cost of digging bore-well was INR 7406 at an average depth of 80 feet (Table 2). Farmers are using
7HP diesel pumps to pump the groundwater, which cost about INR 17,584. The life span of the diesel pump was
assumed to be 13 years (farmer’s survey). Generally, diesel pump owners incurred some cost as repair and
maintenance of oil engine besides changing mobile oil, which cost about INR 1536. The command area of the each
bore-well was one to two hectares depending upon the location of bore-well (Table 2).
Table 2 Groundwater structure and costs in Uttar Pradesh

Cost of Working Repair & maintenance Command
Depth of Capacity Cost of oil
digging life of of pump area of
Name of district bore of pump engine
bore pump pump
(Feet) (HP) (INR) No/year INR/ repair
(INR) (Years) (Ha)
Shahjahanpur 9626.09 88.64 7.68 20304.76 9.68 1.50 1717.15 1.40
Bareilly 5688.72 77.03 7.75 16459.26 14.95 1.32 1339.67 1.53
Rampur 6903.23 73.77 7.05 15987.86 16.00 1.16 1551.65 1.37
Average 7406.01 79.81 7.49 17583.96 13.54 1.32 1536.15 1.43
Groundwater is used for cultivating various crops (viz., Paddy, Lady finger, sesamum, groundnut, Bajra, Maize
in Kharif; Wheat, Mustard, lentil, potato, carrot, white pumkin in Rabi and Sugarcane, menthol and watermelon in
summer) in the study districts. However, to focus on the present study on the cost of groundwater extraction and
alternative energy options the present study focus on the details of the paddy crop which uses more energy and
water compared to the other crops listed. Groundwater and canal water is used for irrigating paddy crop in
Shahjahnapur and Bareilly except in Rampur. The number of irrigations from groundwater extractions are more
than the canal water in the study area (Table 3).
Table 3 Cost of pumping for Paddy cultivation by Diesel

Duration of irrigation Cost of irrigation
No. of irrigations Total cost (INR/ha)
District (Hrs/irrigation/ha) (INR/hr)
Canal GW Canal GW Canal GW Canal GW
Shahjahanpur 3.37 6.04 25.27 27.96 0.00 81.98 0.00 13829.87
Bareilly 3.79 5.54 27.88 24.38 0.00 93.66 0.00 12639.41
Rampur - 5.27 - 25.69 - 93.04 - 12594.78
Average 3.58 5.61 26.57 26.01 0.00 89.56 0.00 13021.35
The duration of irrigation is same for canal and groundwater which range from 25 to 28 hrs per hectare. The
canal water is fully subsided and marginal cost is zero. The diesel pumps are operated at a higher cost of INR
13,000 per ha. Considering the investments on digging and diesel engine with a life span of 13 years and with 10%
interest rate the annualized cost was about INR 18,075 (including O & M).
Similarly, cost for electricity and solar operated wells were estimated by using different sources (Table 4).
Operational cost is zero for electricity due to subsidy and zero operational cost for solar. The solar system have
long lifetime, need minimal attendance and maintenance with an additional advantage of emission free power by
using renewable source. The higher cost of diesel for irrigation and limited supply of electricity and canal water in
the study areas need to think of adopting to solar water pump system to favour the farmer crop, groundwater
development and environment. Though net income from electricity show better off than the other diesel and solar
energy, carbon emission rates are 5.5 times higher for electricity (Shah 2009). The diesel pumps also become
inefficient beyond a depth of 15 m.
Table 4 Trade-off of pumping with different energy sources in paddy cultivation

Sl.no Particulars Diesel Electricity Solar
1 Borewell (ft)@ 80 80 80
2 Digging cost (INR)@ 7406 7406 7406
3 Motor cost (INR) 17584 15000# 389900 (54,586)*
4 Pump capacity (HP) 7 5 2
5 Maintenance cost (INR) 1536 2500 NA
6 Operational cost (INR) 13021 - -
7 Life span (years) 13 13 13
8 Annualized cost (INR) 18075 6020 57389 (10222)
9 Input cost (INR/ha) 39050 26995 31197
10 Gross Income (INR/ha)@ 52835 52835 52835
11 Net Income (INR/ha) 13784 25839 21637
12 Consistency High cost and less efficient 6-7 hrs and Stable (8 hrs)
above 15 m uncertainty in
supply
13 Carbon emission** 4 ton/ha 6 ton/ha 0
14 Cleaning cost (1200 4800 7200 0
INR/ton)##
15 Irrigation pumpsets in UP 37,41,642 437495 NA
16 Cleaning cost UP (million 25,143 4,409 0
INR)
17 Solar Pumps subsidy with - - 83812 (Diesel)
cleaning cost 14699 (Electricity)
98512 (Total)
#
Kakumanu 2009, * Submersible pump 20m head and values in parenthesis are subsidized rates (Kishore et al
2014), ** estimates from Reddy et al 2015, NA: not available, @: Assumed to be same for all sources, ##: $ 20 per
ton of CO2 (http://www.forbes.com/2009/06/03/cap-and-trade-intelligent-investing-carbon.html),
The carbon emissions contributed due to the electric pump (11.09 million tonnes) and diesel pumps (3.29
million tonnes) are also high as India is the top abstractors of the groundwater (GoI 2005, Shah 2009). Many
researchers estimated carbon dioxide emissions in different parts of world, where water pumping and conveyance
accounts to the emissions from energy activities in the agricultural sector (Zou et al 2013, Sattenspiel et al 2009,
Quershi 2014, and Reddy et al 2015). The emissions are more in case of rice crop and varies with the groundwater
level for irrigation (Reddy et al 2015). The authors estimated that the tube well with 91 m depth emits 1.6
t/ha/month in rice crop, whereas dug well with 12 m depth emits 0.8 t/ha/month. This refers to the emission rate of
4 -8 t/ha for the paddy crop. Hence, preferring more electricity or diesel pump would increase the emissions and
abatement cost to the state government.
The solar irrigation pumps can replace the emission challenges in the north eastern areas of India. But the initial
capital cost is reducing the solar irrigation pump adoption in the study districts, which have rich groundwater
resources. Nevertheless, if the governments really think of emission cleaning costs in the developing countries like
India, governments can substitute the cost of cleaning to subsidize the solar irrigation pump. For example, Uttar
Pradesh alone can provide 95 thousand solar irrigation pumps with the emissions cleaning cost from diesel and
electricity (Table 4). On the other hand the groundwater scare states like Gujarat and Karnataka the solar systems
were integrated with the drip irrigation to provide better solution to save water and energy (GGRC, 2015).
Rajasthan has promoted solar energy with 86% subsidy to horticultural farmers who use drip irrigation and farm
ponds (Kishore et al 2014). This has replaced majority of the diesel pumps and tractors in Rajasthan and saved the
operation cost of diesel worth up to sixty five thousand. Besides saving diesel and electricity, solar also saved
labour as the requirement of operators would be reduced.
The timeliness of irrigation without any shortages in the irrigation schedule also enhance water use efficiency
by 5-10% (Kishore et al 2014). The tubewells that pumped 400-500 hrs/year with diesel will pump 1500-2000
hrs/year with solar (Shah et al 2014). This can increase the recharge capability under the Ramganga and reduce the
flood intensity to a little extent. Hence, in the groundwater abundant areas of north eastern states the prevailing
capital subsidy for solar system would be useful to the marginal and small farmers and socio-ecological benefits. In
addition, promotion of solar with a buy back option with an attractive feed in tariff would help farmers to invest on
the solar system (Shah et al 2014).
CONCLUSION
The groundwater withdrawals are high in India to meet the domestic, agricultural and industrial demands. The
withdrawals are more in the western and southern regions of India where many of the aquifers are marked as dark
blocks. In contrast, the groundwater resources are poorly managed in the north-eastern states of India, where
groundwater is high. Majority of the farmers in the north-eastern states are using diesel pumps to meet the water
demand, which has high operational cost and emission rates. Electricity is also poorly developed in the regions to
withdraw the groundwater for agriculture. On the hand the regions are flood prone with the major rivers (Ganga
and Brahmaputra) and abundant with groundwater. Groundwater extraction with proper energy source during the
post monsoon season helps in improving the aquifer recharge capacity. Hence the present study from Ramganaga
basin provide information on trade-off of energy sources. The study area has high irrigation cost for diesel pumps
and poor electricity infrastructure to meet the water requirement. Solar irrigation pumps found to be more feasible
option in the long-term to meet the groundwater and energy demands with socio-ecological benefits. Establishment
of Photo voltaic plants on community basis with a guaranteed long-term buy-back contracts by the state
government would improve the investment and livelihoods of farmers. On the other hand providing subsides (by
state and national governments) to the solar irrigation pumps with the carbon abatement cost can enhance the
adoption rate in the basin.
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USE AND APPLICABILITY OF GENERAL CIRCULATION MODELS IN THE
SIMULATION OF CLIMATE SYSTEM
Kulkarni Shashikanth
Department of Civil Engineering, UCE, Osmania University, Hyderabad-7
ABSTRACT
General Circulation Models (GCMs) are the state of models to study the impacts of climate change and to
simulate the increasing levels of Green House Gases, changes in the atmospheric conditions, land use and land
cover changes. Coupled Atmosphere–Ocean General Circulation Models (AOGCMs) have long been used for
making climate projections. Model runs coordinated through the 5th Coupled Model Intercomparison Project
(CMIP5) form the core of the projections section of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 5th
Assessment Report. In the present study the applicability and usage of GCMs has been studied at global sale and
this forms core for climate adaptation and policy framing purposes.
INTRODUCTION
Global warming due to enhanced green house gas emission is likely to have major impact on the hydrological cycle
and likely to affect every facet of human well beings. Therefore, assessing the influence of impact of climate
change on hydrology and related fields is very important. The General Circulation Models (GCMs) and Earth
System Models (ESMs) are the state of art models offering the best approach to simulate the climate system. It
simulates the physical processes that drive the climate and climate change. GCMs are used for weather forecasting,
understanding the climate and projecting climate change (IPCC, 2013).
Under the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP), the Working Group on Coupled Modelling (WGCM)
established the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP) as a standard experimental protocol for studying
the output of coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation models (AOGCMs). This framework enables a diverse
community of scientists to analyze GCMs in a systematic manner. CMIP began in 1995 and subsequently, new
additions of CMIPs were launched for studying the impact of climate change with improvements in climate
modeling. The output from GCMs [Coupled Model Intercomparison Project-Phase 3 CMIP3, (2003) and phase 5,
CMIP5, 2012] are available at global and regional scales for adaptation and policy framing purposes. The new
generation climate models (CMIP5) have undergone several improvements in terms of physics and resolutions
when compared to old generation CMIP3 model outputs.
Climate and Weather
Climate is usually defined as the "average weather," or more specifically, as the statistical description in terms of
the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a period ranging from months to thousands or millions of years.
The classical period is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). These quantities
are most often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation, and wind. Climate in a wider sense is the state,
including a statistical description, of the climate system [IPCC, 2007]. The climate of a location is affected by its
latitude, terrain and altitude as well as nearby water bodies and their currents. Weather is the fluctuating state of the
atmosphere, characterized by temperature, wind, precipitation, clouds and other weather elements. Common
examples of weather phenomena include fog, dust storm, hailstorm, and so on. Weather is the result of rapidly
developing and decaying weather systems such as low and high pressure systems, and so on.
Climate system is defined as totality of atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and geo-sphere and their
interactions. Global climate varies as a result of complex nonlinear interactions involving water cycle in oceans,
atmosphere and land surface, snow ice, other bodies of water and living organisms. Climate system evolves over
time under the influence of its own internal dynamics and also due to changes in external factors that affect climate.
Climate Change
Climate change refers to any systematic change/ deviations in long term statistics of climate elements (such as
temperature, pressure or winds) and that persists for extended period for decades or longer time periods. (American
Meteorological Society, http:// www.amsglossary.allenpress.com/ glossary). It refers to any change in climate over
58
time, whether due to natural or anthropogenic (Intergovernmental panel on climate change, IPCC, 2007). Warming
of the globe is unequivocal, as is now evident from observations of increases in global average air and ocean
temperature, widespread melting of snow and ice, and rising global average sea level [IPCC, 2013]. Moreover,
“most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the
observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations” [IPCC, 2007]. The main drivers for climate
change are increases in atmospheric emissions of green house gases (GHG), the changes in aerosols, land cover and
solar radiation. They affect the absorption, scattering and emission of radiation within the atmosphere and at the
Earth surface.
Improved understanding of climate is happening through extensive use of geophysical data under climate
change. Changes are observed in terms of decreases in snow cover, increases in global average air and ocean
temperatures and rising average sea level. Each of the last three decades has been successively warmer at the
Earth’s surface than any preceding decade since 1850. The period from 1983 to 2012 was the warmest 30-year
period of the last 800 years in the Northern Hemisphere [IPCC, 2013]. The globally averaged combined land and
ocean surface temperature data as calculated by a linear trend show a warming of 0.85 [0.65 to 1.06] °C over the
period 1880 to 2012, for which multiple independently produced datasets exist. The total increase between the
average of the 1850–1900 period and the 2003–2012 period is 0.78 [0.72 to 0.85] °C, based on the single longest
dataset. In addition to robust multi-decadal warming, the globally averaged surface temperature exhibits substantial
decadal and inter-annual variability (Fig. 1.1). Due to this natural variability, trends based on short records are very
sensitive to the beginning and end dates and do not in general reflect long-term climate trends [IPCC, 2013].
Ocean warming dominates the increase in energy stored in the climate system, accounting for more than 90% of
the energy accumulated between 1971 and 2010. On a global scale, the ocean warming is largest near the surface;
the upper 75 m has been warmed by 0.11 [0.09 to 0.13] °C per decade over the period 1971 to 2010. It is virtually
certain that the upper ocean (0−700 m) warmed from 1971 to 2010, and it likely warmed between the 1870s and
1971. It is likely that the ocean warmed from 700 to 2000 m from 1957 to 2009 and from 3000 m to the bottom for
the period 1992 to 2005.
The annual mean Arctic sea ice extent decreased over the period 1979 (when satellite observations commenced)
to 2012. The rate of decrease was in the range 3.5 to 4.1% per decade. Arctic sea ice extent has decreased in every
season and in every successive decade since 1979, with the most rapid decrease in decadal mean extent in summer.
For the summer sea ice minimum, the decrease was in the range of 9.4 to 13.6% per decade (range of 0.73 to 1.07
million km2 per decade) (see Figure 1.1). The annual mean Antarctic sea ice extent increased in the range of 1.2 to
1.8% per decade (range of 0.13 to 0.20 million km2 per decade) between 1979 and 2012. However, there are strong
regional differences in Antarctica, with extent increasing in some regions and decreasing in others. There is very
high confidence that the extent of Northern Hemisphere snow cover has decreased since the mid-20th century by
1.6 [0.8 to 2.4] % per decade for March and April, and 11.7% per decade for June, over the period, 1967 to 2012.
The permafrost temperatures have increased in most of the regions of the Northern Hemisphere since the early
1980s, with reductions in thickness and areal extent in some regions. The increase in permafrost temperatures has
occurred in response to increased surface temperature and changing snow cover. The mean rate of global averaged
sea level rise is 1.7 [1.5 to 1.9] mm/yr between 1901 and 2010 and 3.2 [2.8 to 3.6] mm/yr between 1993 and 2010.
Tide gauge and satellite altimeter data are consistent regarding the higher rate during the later period [IPCC, 2013].
Since the beginning of the industrial era, oceanic uptake of CO2 has resulted in acidification of the ocean; the pH
of ocean surface water has decreased by 0.1 corresponding to a 26% increase in acidity, measured as hydrogen ion
concentration.
Changes of average precipitation in the world are not uniform, with some regions experiencing increases, and
others with decreases or not much change at all. The high latitude land masses are likely to experience greater
amounts of precipitation due to the additional water carrying capacity of the warmer troposphere. Many mid-
latitude and subtropical arid and semi-arid regions will likely experience less precipitation [IPCC, 2013]. It
observed that since about 1950 the numbers of heavy precipitation events over land have increased in more regions,
than it has decreased. The highest increases in extremes are expected for North America and Europe with some
seasonal and regional variations.
It is evident that the consequences of global warming are reflected in global as well as regional climate systems
in terms of changes in key climatic variables, which have the potential to affect mean runoff, frequency, intensity
of floods and droughts, soil moisture, and water supplies for irrigation and hydroelectric generation [IPCC, 2013].
Fig. 1 Multiple observed indicators of a changing global climate system.
(a) Observed globally averaged combined land and ocean surface temperature anomalies (relative to the mean
of 1986 to 2005 period, as annual and decadal averages b) Map of the observed surface temperature
change, from 1901 to 2012, derived from temperature trends determined by linear regression from one data
set. Trends have been calculated where data availability permitted a robust estimate c) Arctic (July to
September average) and Antarctic (February) sea ice extent d) Global mean sea level relative to the 1986–
2005 mean of the longest running data set, and with all data sets aligned to have the same value in 1993 e)
Map of observed precipitation change, from 1951 to 2010; trends in annual accumulation calculated using
the same criteria as in Panel b [IPCC, 2013].
Impacts of climate change on Hydrology
One of the most important impacts of climate change on society will be changes in regional water availability
[Buytaert et al., 2009]. IPCC appraises the fact that the hydrological cycle would be intensified, with more
evaporation and more precipitation. However, extra precipitation will be unequally distributed over the globe. It
envisages that some parts of the globe might see significant reductions in precipitation or major alterations in the
timing of wet and dry seasons. Hydrological systems are potentially very sensitive to changes in climate. Such
hydrologic changes induced by global warming will affect nearly every aspect of human well being such as
agricultural productivity, energy use to flood control, municipal and industrial water supply, aquatic life and wild
life management. Therefore, study of climate change is necessary to understand its impact on hydrological
processes. It is important to project the climate variables (e.g. precipitation and temperature) in future time period
and accordingly design effective management principles for adaptation purposes. There is a strong socio-economic
value in projecting the potential impacts of climate change affecting the local hydrological processes [e.g., Vergara
et al., 2007].
General Circulation Models (GCMs)
General Circulation Models (GCMs) are mathematical models simulating circulations of a planetary atmosphere or
ocean and uses Navier–Stokes equations on a rotating sphere with thermodynamic terms for various energy sources
(radiation, latent heat). They divide earth system in to three dimensional grids and on each of the grids basic
equations of physics, fluid motion, conservation of energy, momentum, ideal gas laws are solved numerically and
climate variables are simulated in each of the grids. These GCMs obtain winds, heat transfer, radiation, relative
humidity, and surface hydrology within each grid and evaluate interactions with neighboring points. GCMs are the
class of computer driven models for weather forecasting, understanding of climate and projecting the climate for
future time periods [IPCC, 2007].
The GCMs are broadly classified into atmospheric and oceanic GCMs (AGCM and OGCM). An AGCM and an
OGCM can be coupled together to form an atmosphere-ocean (or fully) coupled general circulation model
(AOGCM). These models also combine other components such as sea ice and land-surface components. A recent
trend in AOGCMs is to couple with sub models such as atmospheric chemistry or a carbon cycle or interactive
(dynamical) vegetation. These models are called Earth system models (ESMs). Both AOGCMs and ESM models
have the capability of simulating of earth system with time varying concentrations of various atmospheric
constituents (e.g., greenhouse gases). Hence, they are the basis for sophisticated model projections of future
climate.
Simulations with GCMs have greatly advanced in recent years with improvements in computing power with
higher spatial resolution and included detailed features of water and energy. Moreover, many physical processes
such as those related to clouds, also occur at smaller scales and properly cannot be modeled. Instead their known
properties must be averaged over the large scale in a technique known as parameterization. This is one source of
uncertainty in GCM based simulations of future climate. Other sources of uncertainty include various feedback
mechanisms in models such as water vapour and warming, clouds and radiation, ocean circulation and ice and
snow albedo [IPCC, 2013]. For these reasons, GCMs may simulate quite different responses to the same forcing,
simply because of the way certain processes and feedbacks are modeled [Knutti, 2008].
GCMs exhibit a significant skill at the continental and hemispheric spatial scales and incorporate a large
proportion of the complexity of the global system, but they are inherently unable to represent local sub grid scale
feature and dynamics [Wigley et al., 1990; Carter et al., 1994]. Further, they provide accurate simulation of climate
related variables like temperature, humidity etc. however, they fail to reproduce the hydro meteorological variables
such as precipitation, runoff etc to local scale [Wigley et al., 1990] which are highly affected by local parameters.
This is mainly attributed to the fact that GCMs work at coarse resolutions.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC] developed long-term emissions for future greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions determined by driving forces such as demographic development, socio-economic
development, and technological change. Scenarios are alternative images of how the future might unfold and are an
appropriate tool with which to analyze the climate.
The CMIP5 [Taylor et al., 2012] reports improvements in simulations of certain processes and have undergone
several improvements in terms of physics and resolution as compared to CMIP3. CMIP5 promotes a standard set of
model simulations in order to (1) evaluate how realistic the models are in simulating the recent past, (2) provide
projections of future climate change on two time scales, near term (out to about 2035) and long term (out to 2100
and beyond), and (3) understand some of the factors responsible for differences in model projections, including
quantifying some key feedbacks such as those involved in clouds and the carbon cycle. CMIP5 simulations for
future are mainly characterized by four emission scenarios known as 'representative concentration pathways'
(RCPs.) [Wayne, 2013]. RCPs were developed based on different development pathways and well defined
assumptions as reported earlier. These choices of emissions cause considerable uncertainties in the climate
projections for future. These start from year 2006 and continue through the end of 2300.
The lack of a common scenario makes a direct comparison between CMIP3 and CMIP5 is difficult [Knutti and
Sedlacek, 2012]. However, based on the CO2 concentration emissions the CMIP3 and CMIP5 models are
compared. As far as 21 st century comparisons are concerned, the comparisons are not straight forward to compare
because CMIP3 has used SRES scheme scenarios viz. B1, A1B, and A2. Whereas CMIP5 uses new RCPs
[Meinshausen et al., 2011] viz. RCP 2.6, RCP4.5, RCP 6.0, RCP 8.5. The model spread relative to model mean
looks similar and in some cases it is large; implying the models have not converged [Knitti and Sedlacek, 2012].
As compared to CMIP3 scenarios, CMIP5 scenarios show more spread in terms of CO2 content at the end of 21st
century. The A2 scenario from CMIP3 and RCP 8.5 represents the worst case scenario from both generations of
models.
Fig. 2 Comparison of CO2 concentration in CMIP3 and CMIP5 (PPM) [Sillmann et al., 2013].
The vertical shading indicates the reference period (1981–2000) and the two 20 year periods (2046–2065 and
2081–2100) considered in the analysis of future climate change
Projections using Downscaling techniques
Downscaling is a process in which the hydro metrological variables of interest are projected to a finer scale based
on the synoptic scale simulated by outputs received from GCMs. Downscaling attempts to bridge the gap between
GCM resolutions and resolution required at the local scale impact assessment [Maruan et al., 2010]. It is based on
primary assumption that the large scale climate has profound influence on the local scale climate. Downscaling is
of two types
(i) Dynamic Downscaling
(ii) Statistical Downscaling
Dynamical downscaling technique uses a limited-area, high-resolution model (a regional climate model, or
RCM) driven by boundary conditions from a GCM to derive local scale hydro meteorological variable [Schoof,
2013] to predict the local-scale hydrological variables. The goal of dynamic downscaling (i.e., to extract the local-
scale information from the large-scale GCM data) is achieved by developing and using limited-area models
(LAMs) or regional climate models (RCMs) which can attain horizontal resolution to the order of tens of
kilometers or less over selected areas of interest. RCMs have been applied with relative success to numerous
regions. Compared with GCMs the resolution of RCMs is much closer to that of landscape-scale hydrologic models
(LSHMs) and makes coupling of RCMs and LSHMs potentially suitable for evaluating the effects of hydrologic
systems. While nested modelling is likely to be the most informative approach for regional information at high-
resolution, there are some limitations in the approach. For example, RCMs require considerable computing
resources and complicated design makes them less popular. Dynamical downscaling operates on some (high-
resolution) grid-point scales and thus the results will be in the form of spatial averages. These models still cannot
meet the needs of spatially explicit models of hydrological systems, and there will remain the need to downscale
the results from such models to individual sites or localities for impact studies. Moreover, it is inflexible in the
sense that expanding the region or moving to an adjoining region requires redoing of the entire experiment [Crane
and Hewitson, 1998].
Another approach to downscaling is statistical downscaling, in which regional or local information about a
hydro metrological variable are derived by first finding the statistical relationship between large scale climate
variables and regional or local scale hydro metrological variable. Then the large scale output of a GCM simulation
is fed in to this statistical model to estimate the corresponding local or regional hydro metrological characteristic
[Wilby et al., 2004]. Statistical methods are further classified in to weather generators, weather typing and transfer
function based technique.
Uncertainty in climate projections
Climate models are unable to represent the true behaviour of the actual climate system because of various
limitations [Knutti and Sedlacek, 2012]. Hence, the climate projections at global/regional scale are subject to
uncertainty due to different types of sources. The three main sources of uncertainty viz. Model uncertainty,
anthropogenic/ scenario uncertainty and natural forced [Hawkins and Sutton, 2009; Woldsmakel et al., 2012; Yip et
al., 2011]. Other sources of uncertainty include initial and boundary conditions, parameterizations and model
structure. Initial conditions are often dismissed as a source of uncertainty in climate projections since the results
from model runs are usually averaged over decades [IPCC, 2007].
GCM (model) uncertainty roots from incomplete knowledge about underlying climatic processes and their
forcings (e.g., radiative fluxes from solar and terrestrial sources modified by clouds, atmospheric aerosols, GHG
emissions and land use changes) which leads to limitations in the accuracy of GCMs. Scenario uncertainty results
from unpredictability in the forecast of future socioeconomic and human behavior resulting in future green house
gas (GHG) emission scenarios. The internal uncertainty is due to chaotic climate system and natural fluctuations
that arise in the absence of any radiative forcing of the planet [Hawkins and Sutton, 2009].
The important roles played by these sources of uncertainty depend on the time scales. In the decades of the
immediate future, the projections are argued to be dominated by model uncertainties and internal variabilities
whereas in the following decades, scenario uncertainties are significantly larger [Hawkins and Sutton, 2009; Yip et
al., 2011;]. However, the internal variability increases at smaller spatial scales and shorter time scales [Hawkins
and Sutton, 2009] reported that uncertainties due to downscaling methods and emission scenarios are of similar
magnitude, and generally smaller than GCM uncertainty for the 2080 time horizon.
Limitations of Simulations by GCMs
GCMs have been developed to simulate the present climate and as well as are used to project future climatic
change with forcing by greenhouse gases and aerosols. These GCMs are generally not designed for climate change
impact studies at local scale and do not permit a good estimation of hydrological responses to climate change at
local or regional scale. While GCMs demonstrate a significant skill at the continental and hemispheric spatial
scales and incorporate a large proportion of the complexity of the global system, they are inherently unable to
represent local sub grid scale features and dynamics [Schoof, 2013]. Some of the drawbacks, which limit direct use
of GCM output in hydrology, are
• Accuracy of GCMs decreases at increasingly finer spatial and temporal scales, while the needs of impacts
studies conversely increase with higher resolution.
• Accuracy of GCMs decreases from climate related variables, i.e., wind, temperature, humidity and air
pressure to precipitation, evapotranspiration, runoff and soil moisture, while the later variables are very
important to hydrologist.
Therefore, bias correction and downscaling techniques are popularly employed to address the limitations of
GCMs.
CONCLUSIONS
The results of GCM projections contain a lot of bias at regional level although at global scale are comparable.
However, the need of the hour is to understand the regional projections. There is a need for finer scale GCM
models.
Downscaling methods such as Dynamic and Statistical downscaling models, indicate that dynamic downscaling
though efficient in terms of producing the local conditions, because of high computational requirement makes less
popular. Different statistical methods viz. weather generators, weather typing and transfer function are discussed.
The transfer function is a regression based downscaling method that relies on direct quantitative relationship
between the local scale climate variable and synoptic scale circulation pattern. Transfer function based downscaling
methods have gained popularity among researchers because of their simplicity and low computational requirement
compared to dynamic downscaling. The ability of statistical downscaling models to provide point estimate may be
an added advantage to hydrologists [Schoof, 2013].
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Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor,
S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1535 pp, doi:10.1017/CBO9781107415324.
2. IPCC (2007), Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Solomon S, Qin D, Manning M, Chen Z, Marquis
M, Averyt K.B, Tignor, M, Miller HL eds. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK/New York,
3. Buytaert, W., R. Celleri, and L. Timbe (2009), Predicting climate change impacts on water resources in the tropical
Andes: the effects of GCM uncertainty, Geophys. Res. Let., 36(7), L07406, doi:10.1029/2008GL037048.
4. Vergara, W., A. M. Deeb, A. M. Velencia, R. S. Bradley, B. Francou, A. Zarzar, A. Grunwaldt, and S. M. Haeussling
(2007), Economic impacts of rapid glacier retreat in the Andes, ESO, 88(25), 261-268.
5. Wayne, G.P. (2013), Beginners guide to Representative concentration pathways Skeptical Science version 1.
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Amer. Meteor. Soc., 93, 485–498. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-11-00094.1
7. Knutti, R., and J. Sedláček (2012), Robustness and uncertainties in the new CMIP5 climate Nat. Clim. Change, 2, 587–
595 doi:10.1038/nclimate1495.
8. Meinshausen et al. (2011), The RCP greenhouse gas concentrations and their extensions from 1765 to 2300, Climatic
Change, 109:213–241 DOI 10.1007/s10584-011-0156-z,
9. Maraun, et al. (2010), Precipitation downscaling under climate change: Recent developments to bridge the gap between
dynamical models and the end user, Rev. Geophys., 48 RG3003, doi:10.1029/2009RG000314.
10. Schoof J.T., 2013, Statistical downscaling in climatology, Geography Compass 7/4:249-265, doi10.111/gec3.12036
11. Crane, R.G., and Hewitson, B.C. (1998), Doubled CO2 climate change scenarios for the Susquehanna basin:
Precipitation, Int. J. Climatol., 18, 65-76
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scenarios developed from statistical downscaling methods. Supporting material of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC), pre-pared on behalf of Task Group on Data and Scenario Support for Impacts and Climate
Analysis (TGICA) http://www.narccap.ucar.edu/doc/tgica-guidance-2004.pdfaccessed on 10/08/2013
13. Woldemeskel, F. M., Sharma, A., Sivakumar, B., Mehrotra, R., (2012), An error estimation method for precipitation and
temperature projections for future climates, J. Geophys. Res., 117, D22104, doi: 10.1029/2012JD018062.
14. Yip, Stan, Christopher A. T., Ferro, David B., Stephenson, Ed Hawkins, (2011), A Simple, Coherent Framework for
Partitioning Uncertainty in Climate Predictions. J. Clim.. 24, 4634–4643. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2011JCLI4085.1.
15. Hawkins, Ed., Rowan Sutton (2009), The Potential to Narrow Uncertainty in Regional Climate Predictions. Bull. Amer.
Meteor. Soc., 90, 1095–1107. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2009BAMS2607.1
INTEGRATED WATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM STORM WATER
TREATMENT AREAS WITH APPLICABLE BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Madhu Edara
M. Affi. ASCE, Environmental Scientist, FLORIDA, USA
madhuedara@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
The flow computation in storm water treatment area (STA) will measure the water flows in lakes, canals, creeks
and streams. The operational control plans will help in constructing flood protection facilities provides storm
water attenuation and water quality treatment. The observation of water levels from time to time is very
important for water managers and makes necessary regulatory decisions based on the availability of water. The
primary need is of understanding the water management (WM) with the network of hydrological connections.
The watershed characteristics include the area, shape, drainage pattern, land use, land and channel properties,
land and drainage slopes, and the infiltration capacity of the soil will substantiate the stream flow measurements.
The best management practices (BMP) are useful in the storm water control system in reducing the quality of
pollutants (phosphorus load) to meet the water quality goals. The surface water availability for stream flow
records, the study of storm water detention ponds and outflow control devices will help in preparing the water
budget (mass balance analysis). The WM is associated with culverts, spillways, weirs and pumps and their
operation is based on the type of flow characterization (supercritical, subcritical and critical flow), so the head
water, tail water and critical depth are considered as important variables. STA are Constructed wetlands and
function to reduce phosphorus loading from runoff. The biology and hydrology of the STA’s are monitored for
accuracy. Physical parameters include stage, gate openings, flows, phosphorus loading, and overall health of the
vegetation within STAs. Estimation of Evapo-Transpiration is critical in the water management practice which
depends on the key factors net radiation, atmospheric pressure, relative humidity, air temperature and wind
velocity, the operating and monitoring of water levels in both wet and dry seasons depends on the control and
storage of stream flow.
Keywords: Storm water, Wetlands, Water Management, Evapotranspiration.
OBJECTIVE
To present the study of Hydro Ecological water balance with the help of water management practices in
conjunction with air and soil associated with Real Time readings (water levels) of Everglades restoration projects.
The key objectives of the Everglades restoration program are:
(i) to improve the quality of water entering the Everglades
(ii) to improve the volume, timing and distribution of water entering the Everglades
(iii) to increase the spatial extent of Everglades wetland communities; Ultimately this will reduce the presence of
exotic plant species where atmospheric stability and soil erosion impacts the ecosystem.
BACKGROUND
The South Florida Water Management District (SFWMD) maintains approximately 400 water control structures
and measures the flow computation in Stormwater Treatment (ST) and Water Conservation Areas (WCAs) under
Everglades Restoration for controlling the water flows in lakes, canals, creeks and streams of South Florida. The
water control structures include pumps, spillways, weirs and culverts; the operational control plans were prepared
by taking into consideration flood protection, storm water attenuation and water quality treatment. The
Stormwater Treatment areas (STAs) in South Florida are large-scale constructed wetlands operated as flow-through
treatment systems to reduce phosphorus levels entering the Everglades in order to promote ecological restoration.
The removal mechanism is through vegetation and periphyton uptake and sedimentation accretion. As part of the
Everglades Construction project, 16,800 hectares of constructed wetlands are being built to reduce phosphorus load
from storm water runoff and Lake Oke Chobee discharges into the Everglades Protection Area in South Florida.
The net removal of phosphorus (P) by constructed wet lands for the purpose of surface water management is the
65
sum of sediment accretion, leaching, and uptake by growing biomass. The Everglades ecosystem is impacted by
both natural and anthropogenic factors. Anthropogenic Phosphorus loads to the Everglades of South Florida have
resulted in significant changes to the oligotrophic ecosystem. As a result, the state of Florida enacted a program to
reduce phosphorus loading to the Everglades through a series of best management practices and constructed
wetlands. To manage these phosphorus loads accurate monitoring and analysis were required of both controllable
and non-controllable sources. In South Florida, where large water bodies are large and shallow, atmospheric
deposition, a non-controllable source, is a significant contributor of phosphorus. Atmospheric deposition becomes
more significant as controllable loads from agricultural regions were reduced. Atmospheric deposition is
commonly sampled in two separate forms: wet (rainfall) and dry (dust fall). The monitoring program can be
improved with the help of wet/dry collectors (automatic wet/dry samplers) by implementing the standard operating
procedures and data collection activities by following the recommendations of the National Atmospheric
Deposition Program (Bigelow and Dossett;1988). Many sources contribute to atmospheric P deposition. These
include a combination of oceanic aerosols, dust from agricultural practices, burning, soil erosion, industrial and
automobile pollution. Changes in the flora and fauna observed over the last several decades are attributed to the
alteration of natural hydro-periods and increased nutrient levels in the inflow waters (Davis 1991, Koch and Reddy
64 1992). Florida’s 1994 Everglades Forever Act requires that phosphorus in drainage/runoff and other water be
reduced before it is discharged to the Everglades Protection Area (EPA). The Everglades Agriculture Area (EAA)
is a 224,000 ha highly productive irrigation/drainage basin with sugarcane as the major crop. EAA
agricultural/runoff and Lake Okeechobee discharges flow to the south and southeast through 4 primary canals
(Miami, North New River, Hillsborough, West Palm Beach). A minimum of 25% of the P load needs to be
removed at the farm level through the application of various Best Management Practices. Additional removal of P
is achieved through constructed wetlands known as Stormwater Treatment Areas (STAs). Six constructed wetlands
with a total area of 16,800 ha are being built to reduce P load from three basins and Lake Okeechobee discharges in
South Florida.
SUMMARY
The surface water flow, or discharge flow rate, is the amount of surface water moved through a particular location
per unit of time usually expressed in cubic feet per second (cfs) or cubic meters per second (cms). The amount of
flow in a river, creek, stream, or estuary is directly related to the amount of water moving off the watershed (river
basin) into the stream channel. It is affected by weather, increasing during rain-storms and decreasing during dry
periods. It also changes during different seasons of the year. In managed canal systems, released flow is affected by
various water management policies and water quality and environmental constraints. Surface water flow data are
critical for water management, operations of the water control structures, hydrological modeling, water balance
analysis, flood control, hydrological analysis, and many other purposes. In South-Central Florida, flow monitoring
is primarily the responsibility of the District (SFWMD). However, USGS continues to monitor some “designated”
sites in cooperation with the District and USACE. The District works closely with the USGS, the USACE, and
various local agencies in measuring and/or estimating flow through the District’s water control structures. The
District’s water control structures are used to divert, restrict, stop, or otherwise manage the flow of water. Water
control structures include pump stations, spillways, weirs, and culverts. District structures are typically designed to
operate under a combination of water levels and operating conditions, which in turn result in different flow
conditions. Flow that moves through the structure is estimated by using a rating equation appropriate for the flow
conditions based on the structure’s static and dynamic data. The “static” data include the geometric characteristics
of the structure, whereas the “dynamic” data comprise the prevailing headwater and tail water stages and operating
conditions (gate opening for spillways and culverts and pump speed for pumps). The water control structures
(pump stations, culverts, spillways, weirs and unregulated open channels) in the Kissimmee-Okeechobee-
Everglades Canal and water body network. These structures are used to regulate water levels and discharge either
by gravitational or mechanical force. The hydraulic structure is anything that can be used to divert, restrict, stop or
otherwise manage the flow of water. There are two types of Hydraulic Structures; water containing and water
control. Water containing structures include: dams, dikes, levees, and embankments. Water control structures
include: pump stations, spillways, gates, weirs, flumes and culverts. The flow under pressure is a definitely fixed
cross section; it is similar to pipe flow. So flow through orifices, nozzles, short pipes and under gates is pressure
flow. The flow through initially undetermined cross section is referred to as gravity flow; this type of flow is over
weirs, flumes, spillways, chutes and drop structures.
The climate in South Florida is subtropical, humid, and prone to severe conditions. The variability in rainfall is
often characterized by multiple wet and dry cycles with severe droughts from time to time. Evapotranspiration in
South Florida has been estimated to be from 70 to 90 percent of the rainfall in undisturbed wetlands. Tropical
cyclones (hurricanes and tropical storms) produce the most severe weather conditions in South Florida. The high
tides and heavy rains – often in excess of 5 inches – associated with these storms can produce coastal and inland
flooding, and strong winds can cause extensive damage. Tropical cyclones have repeatedly passed through the
region, most frequently in late summer or early fall. Several meteorological parameters (such as barometric
pressure, solar radiation, air temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed) are measured at the weather stations
that form the District meteorological monitoring network. Typically, these parameters also include rainfall
measurements—one of the most important meteorological parameters that is used at the District for water
management, hydrologic analysis, and other purposes. Because of this reason, the District has a large number of
rain gauge stations (seven to eight times more than the total number of weather stations). Considering these natural
conditions in South Florida, the District’s weather stations are valuable in providing monitoring and prediction in
the following three areas: evapotranspiration; hurricanes and tropical storms; and soil dryness and associated
wildfire conditions.
The five figures shown below will help to understand the normal dry, wet season and pre-storm draw down
operations and also about the gated spillway structure over which flow is discharged from a reservoir or a canal
will give an idea about the Gated Spillway Basics (energy dissipation) or Gated Spillway (coastal structure) of the
tidal waves:

Fig. 1 Canal/Groundwater Interaction Normal Dry Season Operations

Fig. 2 Canal/Groundwater Interaction Normal Wet Season Operations

Fig. 3 Canal/Groundwater Interaction Wet Season Pre-Storm Drawdown Operations

Fig. 4 Gated Spillway Basics

Fig. 5 Gated Spillway (Coastal Structures)
Ditch and Canal Bank Berms

The main objective of the best management practice is to minimize agricultural field surface runoff that may
transport soil and associated nutrients from agricultural fields into field ditches and drainage canals (Figure 6). It is
implemented by constructing small raised berms parallel to the ditch and canal banks that surround Everglades
Agriculture Area (EAA) fields. During construction of berms along field ditches, part of the organic soil along the
ditch banks is used to build a small mound that will block runoff from fields from eroding directly into field
ditches. The water that may pond on the surface of a field is then forced to percolate down vertically into the soil,
eliminating the transport of soil via sheet and rill erosion after heavy rainfall events. When rock material dug from
field ditches is available, a layer of broken rock, later covered with soil material, is laid along the ditch banks to
build a small berm.

Fig. 6 Field Ditch Bank Bern/Main Canal Bank Berm
Main Canal Sediment Sumps and Traps

The main objective of this sediment control BMP practice is to deepen and/or widen a section of a main drainage
canal upstream of drainage pump structure to reduce flow velocity and trap the heavier sediment material before it
is pumped off the farm (Figure 7). Depending upon the farm canal configuration, sediment sumps are generally
constructed at a distance of 100 to 1000 ft (or more) upstream of the drainage pump station. The dimensions of the
sump will depend on the size of the canal, the operating flow range of the pump station and the target drainage flow
velocity. Sumps constructed upstream of drainage pumps should be cleaned regularly to remain effective.
Maintenance and cleaning of sumps should be combined with the regular canal/ditch cleaning program of the farm,
with the sediment material placed back into production fields.
Fig. 7 Sediment Sumps/Traps at the Pump
Sediment Sumps in Field Ditches

Construction of sumps in field ditches has become one of the most commonly used sediment control BMP practices
in the EAA. The dimensions of field ditch sumps can 186 vary from farm to farm, but it is basically a sump of
about 20 ft long, 6 ft wide and 3 to 5 ft deep, dug into the caprock just before the mouth of a culvert draining into a
farm drainage canal (Figure 8). The main objective of this sediment control BMP practice is to trap the heavier
sediments that have been deposited in field ditches during field preparation, by wind erosion, and by surface water
runoff, before it is transported into main drainage canals. Growers that use field ditch sumps have observed that
this is an effective BMP practice and reduces considerably the amount of sediment that would otherwise reach the
main drainage canal and potentially be discharged off the farm. However, field ditch sumps need to be cleaned as
they fill with sediment, usually every other year to maintain their effectiveness in trapping sediments. Maintenance
and cleaning of sumps should be combined with the regular canal/ditch cleaning program of the farm and the
sediment material put back into adjacent fields.

Fig. 8 Field Ditch Sump
Installation of Raised Culverts
The use of raised culverts is another sediment control BMP practice that has been widely accepted and
implemented by the growers of the EAA basin. The implementation technique for this practice is to install culverts
that join field ditches with adjoining canals at a calculated and measured height above the ditch or canal bottom to
reduce the chance of sediment transport during drainage events and consequent discharge off farm (Figure 9). This
sediment control practice can be combined with the construction of a sump at the entrance of the culvert to take
advantage of sediment trapping in the sump. The sediment accumulated in the sump or depression around the
entrance of the culvert needs to be regularly removed for this practice to remain effective. Maintenance and
cleaning should be included with the regular canal/ditch cleaning program of the farm and any sediment material
removed from ditches and canals should be put back into adjacent fields.

Fig. 9 Raised Culverts
Raised culverts effectively serve as barriers to the transport of the heavier sediments and soil particles that may
enter the drainage flow from field ditches under high velocity conditions. High flow velocity in field ditches may
occur during conditions of high flow drainage coupled with concurrent intense rainfall. Installing culverts that are
raised slightly relative to the ditch bottom and coupling them with ditch sumps are two effective measures to
reduce sediment transport off EAA farms.
Focus & Criteria of Water Management Practices:
• The day to day work of the South Florida Water Management District is primarily concerned with the remote
control and monitoring operation of real time readings (SCADA) for observing water levels from time to
time is very important for the water managers. The primary need is of understanding and management of
water resources and also about the network of hydrological connections.
• The water resource manager uses water levels in making the necessary regulatory decisions based on the
availability of water. The watershed characteristics include the area, shape, drainage pattern, land use, land
and channel properties, land and drainage slopes, and the infiltration capacity of the soil to substantiate the
stream flow measurements.
• The best management practices (BMP) are useful in the storm water control system in reducing the
quantity of pollutants (phosphorus load) to meet the water quality goals. The surface water availability for
stream flow records, the study of storm water detention ponds and outflow control devices will help in
preparing the water budget (mass balance analysis).
• Management of water is associated with the water control structures (culverts, spillways, weirs and pumps)
and is based on the type of flow characterization (supercritical, subcritical and critical flow), so the head
water, tail water and critical depth are considered as important variables.
The below figure 10 illustrates the remotely operated structures:

Fig. 10 Remotely Operated Structures
• The Everglades Construction project(ECP), Storm water Treatment Areas(STA) are Constructed wetlands
that are mandated by the Everglades Forever Act and function to reduce phosphorus loading from runoff
before entering the Everglades Protection Area. The biology and hydrology of the STA’s are monitored for
accuracy. Physical parameters include stage, gate openings, flows, phosphorus loading, and overall health of
the vegetation within STAs.
• Water Management Practice will minimize soil drying and rewetting cycles that will mitigate sulfate release
during soil oxidation. A multifaceted approach employing best management practices for sulfur in
agriculture, agricultural practices that minimize soil oxidation, and changes to storm water treatment areas
that increase sulfate retention could help achieve reduced sulfate loads to the Everglades with resulting
benefits.
• Estimation of Evapo Transpiration is critical in the water management practice which depends on the key
factors of net radiation, atmospheric pressure, relative humidity, air 270 temperature and wind velocity.
The Dam Safety monitoring and inspections by SFWMD in conjunction with USACOE will help to measure
the water pressure and locate the seepage along the embankment of earthern dams. The maintenance & operation of
the inflow and outflow structures surrounding Lake Okeechobee encompassed by Herbert Hoover Dike helps to
maintain the optimum level based on regulatory releases and also the timely mowing of grass on the embankment
provides a safe range for the dike and balances the diverse environmental and ecological needs of South Florida.
Critical Issues/Problem Resolved
The critical issues are the operating and monitoring of water levels in both wet and dry seasons by water managers.
The scientists and engineers need to constantly evaluate the 25% reduction of phosphorus load because the rainfall
and stream flow is subject to large temporal and spatial variation of atmosphere (air factors) in South Florida. The
discharge and rainfall are dominant factors when computing total phosphorus loads. The dam safety monitoring of
Herbert Hoover dike in relation to soil erosion is considered as a critical issue. These problems are resolved by
having effective field equipment at weather stations for measuring air temperature, barometric pressure and relative
humidity
Multi media/Multi-Disciplinary – Technical Knowledge & Environmental Experience
The Environmental monitoring of the water levels is useful for various other projects including Salt Water
intrusion; Environmental Protection; Flood Control and Water Supply in conjunction with Air, Soil and
Water data. The critical issue is to know the wind pressure, air temperature and humidity of the atmosphere
particularly during the storm season which will help to predict the nature of the storm and the amount of rainfall.
The necessary precautionary steps are then taken to avoid soil erosion and scours near the water control structures
by maintaining the required water levels with the help of rock fill along the embankment.
Environmental Monitoring encompasses Hydrology; Hydrogeology; Water Quality;
Weather and Dam Safety.
Hydrology
The field of engineering hydrology includes monitoring of water levels with the help of water levels which includes
gate openings and stages (head water and tail water) for flood control.
Hydro-Geology
The Hydrogeology deals with the artesian pressurized and static wells; Groundwater level or head for a water table
(unconfined) aquifer is simply the elevation of the upper surface that indicates the uppermost extent of
groundwater, and is usually expressed in units of feet or meters above an established datum. The artesian
pressurized groundwater is under pressure and the groundwater level or head is the elevation of the piezometric or
hydraulic head in the confined aquifer, which may be above the land surface.
Water Quality
The water quality monitoring helps to find the flow with proportional sampling by Auto Samplers; finding the Ph
and turbidity with the help of water quality probe sensors in the field; measuring dissolved oxygen and salinity at
mixing basins with the help of sonde sensors.
Weather
The Hydro meteorological monitoring helps in measuring the rainfall with the help of rain gages and also to record
the weather parameters at each weather station. The rainfall is measured in mm; other weather parameters include:
 Evaporation is measured with a pan
 Wind velocity and wind speed measured with wind sensor (anemometer).
 Relative humidity and temperature measured with temperature and humidity probe.
 Barometric Pressure is measured with pressure transducer.
 Solar radiation; Net radiation is measured by Pyranometer and Net Radiometer
Dam safety: The embankment monitoring helps in measuring the pore water pressure by having the piezometer
wells along the phreatic surface of the embankment. The toe drain collects seepage from the embankment and
carries it to an outfall pipe that discharges the seepage into the spillway or outlet works basin safely away from the
dam.
Personal Contribution/Leadership: The applicant’s (Madhu Edara) role as an Engineer developed the
Environmental Monitoring procedures and processes with the help of technical expertise in water resource
engineering. He helped the water managers in making the regulatory decisions for the remote-control operations of
the water control structures (gate operation - open/close and pump stations – start /stop pumps) in monitoring the
real time readings of water levels. He assisted in the STA Expansion and Enhancement works by utilizing his
knowledge of storm water professional engineering principles, storm water control program principles, laws,
regulations and storm water best management practices, design, implementation, and effectiveness. Assisted in
events management and educated the scientists and engineers about the various Environmental Monitoring
Parameters Engineering functions (Hydrology, Hydrogeology, Ground Water, Water Quality, and Weather). Mr.
Edara validated the project case studies about the construction of storm water retention ponds, installation of
weather stations and piezometric wells (study of the phreatic surface).
CONCLUSION
I convey my sincere thanks for NCWES 2018 conference organizing committee efforts; I look forward to providing
a record of this conference that will be useful to upcoming Water Resource/Environmental Professionals for many
years to come.
REFERENCES
1. Environmental Monitoring Procedures –South Florida (Missing Paper) – Madhu Edara
2. Florida Waters – Water Resources Manual from Florida Water Management Districts
3. Best Management Practices, Public Information, and Environmental Education Resources – Florida Department of
Environmental Protection.
GEOSCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE FOR SUSTAINABLE GROUNDWATER
MANAGEMENT SPECIAL REFERENCE TO TANNERY BELT IN INDIA
N. C. Mondal
Earth Process Modeling Group, CSIR-National Geophysical Research Institute, Uppal Road, Hyderabad, Telangana, India.
ncmngri@gmail.com; mondal@ngri.res.in
ABSTRACT
In the face of rapid growth rate among the major economies in the world, India is undergoing a transformation
with large-scale developments in various sectors (i.e., agriculture, industry, infrastructure facilities, energy
resources, mining, etc.). All these activities relate to the mother Earth in one or other ways and require precise
geoscientific knowledge of the subsurface conditions at various scales of driving process-based parameters. For
example, the agriculture needs precise information on soil, moisture conditions as well as assured water supply.
Water itself is singularly the most vital resource for drinking, health, hygiene, agriculture, industry, mining,
urban development, etc. But it is unevenly distributed in the world wise and is also being polluted by several
sources. This pollution is irreversible either surface water or groundwater. There are several sources of water
pollution. Tannery industry is one of them in Southern India where around 80 functioning tanneries are
discharging continuously untreated effluents into open land and channel. Identifying and assessing the impact of
industry and human activities on groundwater resources are the keys to finding the occurrence of groundwater
resources, drinking water suitability and its availability. This note will explore the geoscientific knowledge of
groundwater resources using hydrogeological, geophysical, hydrochemical and statistical approaches for its
sustainable management.
INTRODUCTION
Earth without water is difficult to imagine. There is evidence that the life on the earth originated in water. Water is
distributed unevenly and continuously getting polluted nowadays from many different sources. These include
untreated sewage (Mondal et al., 2005), industrial discharge (Mondal and Singh, 2011), leakage from oil storage
tanks (Andreolli et al., 2016; Hayek, 2017), mine drainage (Grande et al., 2018), pesticides (Papadakis et al., 2018)
and seawater intrusion (Saxena et al., 2013; 2004, Sarwade et al., 2007; Mondal et al., 2011), etc. The process of
groundwater pollution is complicated one and quite different from that of surface water pollution. It means once
groundwater is polluted, it is so difficult to bring to its original position. Tannery is also one industry, which is
continuously polluting the groundwater systems and also eco-systems in all over India as well as world wise
(Khwaja, et al. 2001; Leghouchi et al. 2009; Hashem, et Al., 2017, Lunardelli et al., 2018). Most of the tanneries in
India (Figure 1) are located near the riverbanks i.e., Ganges river in Northern India and Palar river in Southern
India (CLRI, 1990), because it needs a large amount of fresh water to process hides and skins. Various chemicals
are used to process the raw materials in tannery industries, which causes of the surface water pollution as well as
groundwater. Such type of problem is also faced in and around Dindigul town, Tamil Nadu and its impact is
discussed in this key note using the geoscientific knowledge.
TANNING INDUSTRY: INDIAN SCENARIO

There are about 1083 tanneries in India with a total installed processing capacity of 62.05 million hides and 161.34
skins (Paul Basker, 2000). Tamilnadu, West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh states together claim 88.40 percent of the
tannery units in this country. Statistic shows that more than 50% tanneries are located in Tamil Nadu, India
(Figure 2).
74
Fig. 1 Location of major tannery clusters in India
Fig. 2 Distribution of the tannery in India

Tanneries in Tamil Nadu
Tannery industries in Tamil Nadu are mainly concentrated in places like Ranipet, Ambur, Vaniambadi and
Pernambet of North Arcot Ambedkar District. The other tanning centres in the state include Erdoe, Salem, Vellore,
Dindigul, Tiruchirapalli, Pallavaram, Madhavaram, Coimbatore and Madras. The tanneries in Vaniamvadi, Ambur,
Trichy and Dindigul process mostly goat or sheepskins while the tanneries in Ranipet, Pernambet, Erode and
Pallavarm undertake tanning of hides. Location wise distribution of the tannery in Tamil Nadu is shown in
Figure 3. This figure shows that more than 70% tanneries are located at Ranipet, Vanaiyambadi, Dindigul, Ambur
and Chrompet. More than 14% tanneries are at Pernambet and Erode. There are less than 16% tanneries located at
the other places.
Fig. 3 Distribution of the tannery in Tamil Nadu state of India
Impact of Tanneries in Dindigul

There are about 80 functional tanneries in and around Dindigul town, Tamil Nadu, India (Figure 4) with a capacity
to process about 200 MT hides and skins as leather. It was estimated that about 76,400- 85,600 kg of leather was
produced in Dindigul town every day (Paul Basker, 2000). The concentration of tanneries can be found along
Madurai, Batla Gundu and Ponmandurai roads. The tanning industries commenced in 1939. The process of tanning
involves the use of large amount of fresh water and various chemicals. The various chemicals used in tanning are
lime, sodium carbonate, sodium bi-carbonate, common salt, sodium sulphate, chrome sulphate, fat, liquors,
vegetable oils and dyes etc.
This industry is one of the major consumers of fresh water and most of the water is discharged as wastewater.
The quantity of total wastewater discharged for 100 kg of skins and hides processed varies from 3000 to 3200
litres. Common salt (NaCl) is the biggest polluting material in the tanning industry and very difficult to get rid off.
For every 10 tons of salted hides and skins processed, 2-3 tons of salt is removed and in addition another one ton of
salt is removed, while pickling. The amount of wastewater generated by these tanneries is approximately from 2.5-
3.0 MLD (Million Litres per Day) with TDS level of 20, 000-25,000 mg/l on the surface, which in turn is collected
in irrigation ponds (Mondal et al., 2005; Mondal and Singh, 2011). These collection ponds act as a source of
pollution. The pollution penetrated vertically down and polluted the groundwater system. It pollutes the
groundwater and makes it unfit for drinking, irrigation and for general consumption (WHO, 1984). It is established
that a single tannery can cause the pollution of groundwater around the radius of 7 to 8 km (Bhaskaran, 1977).
Used salts lime, sludge, spent bark, tan liquor sludge, fat, primary and biological sludges, protein, pig bristles, tail
and body hair, tanned trimmings and shavings are the main solid wastes from the tanneries.
These functional tanneries employ about 3000 workers in all for total population of nearly 2 lakhs. In 13
villages, as many as 1,090 houses had been damaged due to tannery pollution. Local people also are suffering from
different diseases. They are eye irritation and exacerbation of skin disorders. Kidney degeneration and testicular
atrophy have also been observed, while excessive intake of drinking water containing high sodium chloride has
been reported to produce hypertension. Excess chromium causes respiratory trouble and liver problems as
chromium is known a carcinogenic agent (Mondal, 2005).
Ecosystem Damaged in Dindigul town
Tannery pollution has spread over about 100 km2 in and around Dindigul town (Mondal and Singh, 2011). The
ecosystem is also damaged due to untreated effluents from the tannery industries. Groundwater in shallow dug well
emits foul smell and colour has also become dark. The use of various chemicals generated toxic effluents. Only 30
percent of the chemicals were absorbed with help of the existing technology (i.e. CEPT). But the rest was let out
into the open land, canal, and nearby tanks etc. Apart from the chemical effluents, solid waste was generated for
hide processed. No technology was in place to handle the solid wastes. Solid wastes, including sludge and animal
fleshing and hair, were either dumped into the barren land, irrigation land, open land or buried in trenches. The
irrigation land had also lost its fertility (Mondal and Singh, 2010).
LEGEND:
10.44 0 2.2 4.4Km.
S-1 SH Structural Hill
Drainage
Granite
S-2 S-4 Charnokite
S-3
Lineament
10.40 Tannery cluster
S-5 Sampling points
S-9 S-1
S-7 S-10
S-6 River: Kodaganar
S-8
S-11
Latitude ( in degrees)
10.36
S-12 S-13 S-14 Dindigul
S-15 Town
S-16 S-18
S-17
S-19
r
ve
S-21
Ri
10.32 S-25 S-20

S-24
S-23 S-22
S-27
S-26
10.28
S-28
SH
ill
aiH
al INDIA
S-29
u m
r
10.24 Si
Tannery Belt
77.90 77.94 77.98 78.02

Longitude (in degrees)
Fig. 4 Location of the tannery belt in Dindigul, Tamil Nadu, India
Needs for Sustainable Groundwater Management

In the early 1980s, ignoring warnings about pollution, the industry pursued business growth as the demand for
leather increased worldwide. The Central Government helped it along with its export policy. To meet the demand,
tanners switched from the traditional eco-friendly process using tree bark and vegetable extracts to a chromium-
based process using over 200 chemicals that reduced the time and space required for tanning. It causes groundwater
pollution due to disposal of untreated effluents not only Dindigul but also in Jalandhar, Agra, Kunpur, Lucknow,
Patna, Kolkata, Pewas, Rajkot, Warangal, Palar, Ranipet, Ambur, Vaniyambadi, Erode and other towns in India.
Now a day there is a lot of water scarcity. People are not getting fresh water at proper time and proper places.
Question has come about Water Security! Therefore, we have present duty to safe the water in terms of quantity
as well as quality, and bring the damaged groundwater systems to its original position after doing extensive
research. For a sustainable, economic development and management of damaged/polluted groundwater resources, a
systematic evaluation through the geoscitific knowledge based approach, is imperative. Initially, the
hydrogeological, geophysical, hydrochemical and statistical studies have to carry out in the spoiled aquifers for
acquiring required data. Finally, groundwater numerical model is to be prepared with integrating these data
depending upon all input and output stresses on the groundwater system. Then these models help us for proper
management of groundwater resources in the damaged aquifers in terms of quantity and quality to bring to its
original position.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

Geoscientific knowledge-based approaches namely hydrogeological, geophysical, hydrochemical and statistical
investigations were carried out for deciphering subsurface litho zones, evaluation of groundwater quality,
understanding prevailing hydrogeological conditions, evaluation of aquifer parameters, such as natural recharge,
storativity, and hydraulic conductivity, etc. Groundwater levels were monitored in 6 wells by PWD since 1971, and
were, in addition, also collected from more than 45 observation network wells. To determine aquifer properties,
pumping tests were also carried out and the data was analyzed by numerical methods (Singh and Gupta, 1991). A
total of 37 Vertical Electrical Soundings (VES) were conducted using Schlumberger electrode configuration for a
spread of 60-120 m. Initially VES data had been interpreted through a curve matching technique (Orellana and
Mooney, 1966) and then interpreted by computer programme, which involved the inverse modeling method
(Vender Velpen, 1988). About 6-PWD well sites were selected for the determination of average natural recharge by
the entropy theory (Mondal et al., 2012). For evaluation of groundwater quality, groundwater samples were
collected from representative wells distributed throughout the area, which were under use at 0.5 m below the water
table, and were pumped for more than 5 minutes. Methods of collection and analysis of water samples followed
were essentially the same as given by Brown et al. (1970). The generated data was utilized for developing the
groundwater flow model, which was further used for the modeling of pollutant migration. The steps involved in
sustainable management of groundwater resources are shown in Figure 5.
Fig. 5 Flow chart of groundwater modeling for sustainable management of groundwater resources

Hydrogeological studies
Groundwater level measurement
Monthly water level data were available from the selective PWD wells, which are uniformly spread over the study
area. A contour map was prepared; from which it was difficult to identify hydrogeological characteristics of the
aquifer with respect to the groundwater flow pattern. The contours do not follow the topography and drainage
patterns. For this reason, in addition, about 45 monitoring wells were selected and collected groundwater level for
the analysis. The depth of water table varied from 1.00-22.80 m below ground level (bgl) with a mean value of 8.07
m (bgl) during dry season. The groundwater flow patter is towards north and north-east directions (Figure 6) The
trend of PWD-well hydrographs closely followed the rainfall trend (Mondal and Singh, 2004). In most cases the
water level returns to its original position after a good rainfall. This may be due to the rapid recharge taking place
due to rainfall and also irrigation return flow.
Fig. 6 Water level contours and its flow direction during wet season
Aquifer characterization
Aquifer parameters, namely transmissivity (T) and storativity (S), are essential for groundwater modeling. Several
analytical methods have been developed to determine these parameters, however, the numerical approach has an
advantage in that it incorporates actual field conditions with ease and hence parameters estimated are more realistic
(Sarwade et al., 2007). This method is described in detail by Rushton and Redshaw (1979) and Singh and Gupta
(1991). During field investigations, three existing large diameter open wells fitted with pumps in the study area
were selected for the pumping test. Most of these wells had been kept without pumping prior to beginning the test
and water levels had been continuously monitored. The period of pumping varied from 45 to 126 minutes, whereas
recovery times varied from 170 to 1313 minutes. Both pumping and recovery data were used for interpretation
using a forward modeling technique as suggested by Singh and Gupta (1991). The nearby features, such as water
body or lateral inhomogenities had been incorporated into individual interpretations. Initial parameter values were
considered to generate time drawdown curves for individual tests, which were then compared with observed time-
drawdown/recovery data. The aquifer parameters were varied until a close match was obtained. The best-fit match
was considered as representative aquifer parameters. The estimated T and S values varied from 15 to 200 m2/day
and 0.00001 to 0.00035, respectively (Mondal, 2005).
Estimation of natural recharge
For modeling of groundwater resources, it is essential to determine natural recharge. There are several methods for
determining groundwater recharge, such as groundwater balance, piston-flow model, RS and GIS techniques,
hydrogeological approach, geophysical methods, 14C-age dating and regional groundwater model, etc. (Scanlon et
al., 2000; Mondal et al., 2012). Among these methods, the tracer technique is the only direct method for estimation
of groundwater recharge (Zimmermann et al., 1967). This technique estimates recharge on the basis of piston flow
model, and has been found useful (Rangarajan and Athavale, 2000; Chand et al., 2005; Rangarajan et al., 2009).
Other methods are time consuming and sometimes even uneconomical in developing countries, particularly when
one has to deal with a large area. Therefore, an entropy-based approach (Mondal et al., 2012) was applied for
assessing natural recharge in this study area. To determine the fractional amount of rainfall (monitored for 8 years
from January 2000 to December 2007 at Dindigul rain gauge station), called natural recharge, marginal entropies
and transinformation of rainfall and depth to the water table (collected from 6 PWD wells for the same period)
were calculated. Then a ratio of transinformation to marginal entropy of rainfall was used as a measure for
evaluating natural recharge. The estimated natural recharge using entropy varied from 0.63 to 12.53% and 2.00 to
23.71% in the entire period and NE monsoons, respectively. But the mean of the estimated recharge values was
14.56% of rainfall in NE monsoon.
Geophysical investigations
The results of VES data obtained from the optimization techniques using IX1D (v.3) Interprex software, when
compared with the existing litho-log data (PWD, 2000) and cross-sections of nearby open wells (depth to water level
range: 3.50 to 17.50 m, bgl), confirmed the resistivity ranges of different sub-surface geo-electrical layers as 2-95 Ω-
m : Top soil cover/ Clay with kankar; 6-100 Ω-m: Weathered formation/ saturated or saline aquifers; 100-300 Ω-m :
Semi-weathered/ fractured granite and gneissic granite, and >300 Ω-m : Hard rock (gneissic granite and gneisses).
The shallow aquifer resistivity was compared with EC values of the nearby well waters. It indicated that the resistivity
of saline water aquifer ranged from 6.08 to 61.00 Ω-m whereas fresh water aquifer, 67.12 to 264.27 Ω-m. It also
showed that the resistivity of shallow aquifer in weathered zone near the industries was comparatively less and semi-
weathered zone resistivity was higher than weathered zone in this hard rock area. The interpreted VES results showed
that the weathered thickness ranged from 5.30 to 26.62 m (Figure 7). It was confirmed that its value ranged from
15.00 to 26.62 m in the western part of the town, which is highly dense with tannery clusters. But it varied from 5.30
to 15.0 m in other parts. The soil thickness was varied from 0.52 to 5.35 m and the thickness of black cotton soil
around the tannery belt was <1.5 m and its infiltration rate was <1.7 cm/hour (PWD, 2000).
Fig. 7 Fence diagram showing shallow aquifer in a tannery belt, India
The results of VES data were used to calculate Dar-Zarrouk (D-Z) parameters such as S and T (Honriet, 1976).
The applicability of these parameters is discussed now for demarcating fresh groundwater zones in the tannery belt.
Longitudinal unit conductance (S) values varied from 0.04 to 2.09 Siemens and it clearly demarcated fresh and
saline water zones (Figure 8a) with the constraints of well water EC values. In the saline water region, the S values
ranged from 0.40 to 2.09 Siemens and < 0.40 Siemens in the fresh water region. It shows distinct, clear and did not
display an overlapping character. The lower S-values (<0.40) except at VES 4, 6, 19 and 33 were in northern,
eastern and southern parts of the industries, which is a good signal for the existence of fresh groundwater aquifers
(Mondal et al., 2013). This was covered by the soundings 1-3, 5, 7-11, 22-23, 25, 27-29, 31-32 and 34-37, but the
aquifers were polluted at locations of VES 4, 6, 19 and 33 due to anthropogenic activities. The regions between
Kodaganar River and Dindigul town were covered by a saline water aquifer due to the tannery effluents. Hence the
anomaly of fresh/saline water was reflected by the S values.
Transverse unit resistance (T) varied from 56.8 to 3904.1 Ω-m2 and it gives a broad picture of the areas of
saline and fresh aquifers (Figure 8b). Saline aquifers identified their presence by attaining T-values in the range of
56.8 to 1319.9 Ω-m2. On the other hand, fresh water aquifers identify their presence by attaining resistance values
in the range of 1323.5 to 3904.1 Ω-m2. Fresh and saline waters had almost clear regions and did not mix with each
other. The T value for saline water aquifers ranged from 56.8 – 486.9 Ω-m2 except at sounding points 15 and 17,
where it was 1318.5 Ω-m2 and 1319.9 Ω-m2, respectively, in the presence of comparatively thick weathered zones.
The T map shows easily recognizable range and separates zones from each other by a wide margin. Hence,
resolution of saline water and fresh water aquifers became easy in this industrial belt.
The soundings were classified into fresh and saline water groups for a better understanding of the D-Z
parameters based on the interpreted resistivity ranges obtained after correlating them with available litho-logs and
using the hydrochemical constraint. The resistivity of weathered zone ranging from 67.12 to 264.27 Ω-m
corresponds to fresh aquifers in this area, whereas from 6.08 to 47.20 Ω-m (except VES 15 & 17) for saline
aquifers. A graphical plot of S and T values corresponding EC values at nearby wells reflects a remarkable contrast
in the ranges of S and T values for fresh and saline water aquifers (Figure 8). The S and T values ranged from 0.40
to 2.09 Siemens, and 56.9 to 1319.9 Ω-m2 for saline; and 0.04 to 0.32 Siemens and 1323.5 to 3904.1 Ω-m2 for fresh
water aquifers, respectively, whereas EC-values range from 900 to 2810 µS/cm for fresh water and 4235 to 26,600
µS/cm for saline water (Saxena et al. 2003). In this context, especially the D-Z parameters had an upper hand as
they reflected clear, conspicuous and widely varying ranges for saline and fresh water aquifers in the tannery belt
(Mondal et al., 2013). They did not possess an overlapping character and in turn facilitated easy resolution.
Fig. 8 Showing (a) Cross plot of T and S-values, and (b) EC-values corresponding to the
VES points at the tannery belt, Dindigul, Tamil Nadu.
Hydrochemical Investigations
Statistical parameters, including minimum, maximum, mean, and standard deviation, of different chemical
constituents of the analyzed groundwater samples (N=29) from the study area were computed. Comparison of
hydrochemical data with the World Health Organization (WHO, 1984) drinking water standards showed about
96% (N= 27), 72% (N=21), 62% (N=18), 52% (N= 15) and 3% (N=1) of the samples exceeded the guideline
values for Total Dissolved Solids (TDS: 500 mg/l), chloride (Cl-: 200 mg/l), sodium (Na+: 200 mg/ l), sulphate
(SO42-: 200 mg/l) and nitrate (NO3-: 45 mg/l), respectively. This indicated that water quality has deteriorated
significantly and it was mainly in NaCl, Ca Cl2, Ca-HCO3, mixed, and Na-HCO3 types. About 35% of the samples
were in NaCl-type. The degree of salinization in a well or a given area can be indicated by an increase in the TDSs
and possibly an increase in nearly all major cations and anions. Most parameters had wide ranges and high
standard deviations. In particular, the TDS value had a wide range between 499 and 6, 895 mg/l (mean: 2, 411
mg/l). The ranges of Na+ and Cl- ions were from 43 to 1, 090 mg/l (mean: 328 mg/l) and 57 to 2,517 mg/l (mean:
770 mg/l), respectively. The concentration of SO42- also widely varied from 25 to 1, 013 mg/l (mean: 255 mg/l).
Such wide ranges of solute concentrations suggest that multiple sources and/or complex hydrochemical processes
acted in unison to generate the chemical composition of groundwater. The very high nitrate concentration
(maximum: 55 mg/l) was a characteristic of the groundwater. This reflects a considerable degradation of
groundwaters due to anthropogenic contamination/continuous untreated effluent discharge that was potentially
maximized around the tannery cluster. It is also true that NO3- has no known lithological source (Handa, 1988).
Sodium, magnesium, chloride and sulphate ions were predominant in the tannery effluents (Peace Trust, 2000),
while mainly fresh waters were enriched in calcium and bicarbonate ions. It has shown that groundwaters, in the
study area, compared with the average composition of worldwide groundwaters, were enriched in Na+, Mg2+, Cl-
and SO42-. Therefore, it is suggested that hydrochemistry in this industrial area was controlled by several processes.
Estimated hydrochemical backgrounds
Most of the hydrochemical parameters obtained in this tannery belt generally exhibited log-normal density
distributions. It should be noted that Na+, Mg2+, Cl- and SO42- were major components of the saline water intrusion,
while NO3- was among the best indicators of anthropogenic pollution (Handa, 1988). However, the occurrence of
an anomalous population as a ‘tail’ on the distribution suggested that groundwater chemistry was controlled by
several intermixing processes. The frequency plots of all major cations and anions including TDS concentration
showed a log-normal distribution but had a tail at high concentration ranges. This indicated that a few numbers in
the samples with high ionic concentrations can be attributed to an anomalous population whose chemistry was
locally affected by several processes. The frequency distribution of log NO3- data showed a good normal
distribution, except for a few data points in the samples with higher concentrations. This means that the samples
forming a tail on the distribution diagram can be considered due to anthropogenic contamination.
The estimated cumulative probability distributions of TDS, Ca2+, Mg2+ and Na+ indicate that there are three
individual intersection points with two distinct inflection points on the cumulative probability plots. It can be
assumed as the regional threshold values and also highly impacted threshold values for differentiating the samples
with the effects of geogenic, anthropogenic and saline water mixing in this area. The first approximate regional
threshold values obtained were 906 mg/l for TDS, 182 mg/l for Ca2+, 60 mg/l for Mg2+, and 160 mg/l for Na+
(Figure 9). The sample nos. 9, 20, 22 and 26 fallen on the first segment on all cumulative probability curves for the
concentrations of TDS, Ca2+, Mg2+ and Na+, which were not affected by saline water mixing and/ anthropogenic
activities. Similarly, cumulative probability distributions of Cl- and SO42- have three individual intersection points
on the cumulative probability plots, which can be considered as regional threshold values and highly impacted
threshold values for differentiating the samples with the effects of geogenic and others. The first approximate
regional threshold values obtained were 191 mg/l for Cl- and 109 mg/l for SO42- corresponding second thresholds
values were 390 mg/l and 310 mg/l, respectively. The sample having more than the first threshold values in
groundwater were highly affected by anthropogenic activities and other processes in several folds. The background
values of pH in the study area was also estimated and its ranges were from 7.05 to 7.45 with an average of 7.29.
The background values of K+, HCO3- and NO3- ranged from 2 to 5, 200 to 280 and 2 to 12 mg/l, respectively.
5.00 3.00
(a) (b)
Inflection point-I
(182 mg/l)
Inflection point-II
Log Ca (mg/l
Log TDS (mg/l)
4.00 (2896 mg/l) Inflection point-II
Inflection point-I (442 mg/l)
(906 mg/l)
2.00
3.00
2.00 1.00
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Cumulative Probability (% ) Cumulative Probability (% )
3.00 3.50
(c) (d)
Inflection point-I
Log Mg (mg/l)
Log Na (mg/l)
(60 mg/l) Inflection point-I
(160 mg/l)
2.00 2.50
Inflection point-II
Inflection point-II (424 mg/l)
(136 mg/l)
1.00 1.50
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Cumulative Probability (% ) Cumulative Probability (% )
Fig. 9 Showing the cumulative probability distributions for (a) TDS, (b) Ca2+, (c) Mg2+, and (d) Na+
concentrations in the tannery belt, India
Distribution of background of hydrochemical parameter

The spatial distribution of plume along with the backgrounds had been plotted individual constituent on the same
plate. This information helps to demarcate the occurrence of pollutant and assign background level for the
preparation of mass transport modelling. As an example, sodium concentration was observed more than its
background (range: 43-160 mg/l) in the clusters and less towards the bottom of the hill in the southern part (Figure
10). Similarly, other plots were made for the better understanding of the backgrounds.
0 2.2 4.4Km.
Tannery cluster
0 150
20
Background
Value
160
0
20
50
0
150
r
ve
Ri
0 100
30
0
10
0
10
50
ll
Hi
ai
al
m
S iru Index:
43
Na Contours
200 mg/l
Fig. 10 Showing Na+ ionic contours of groundwater along with background values in a tannery belt, Southern India
Groundwater Mass Transport Model

Main stages of mass transport modeling are as follows: (1) Solving the groundwater flow equation using finite
difference method, (2) Estimation of fluid velocities at each node, (3) Solving the mass transport equation using
finite difference technique, and (4) method of characteristics using the flow velocities (Anderson and Woessner,
1992). The followings were included for the preparation of mass transport model of this tannery belt for sustainable
management.
Grid design
In order to setup the model in MODFLOW developed by the USGS, the area of interest needs to be divided into a
series of grid blocks or cells (Anderson and Woessner, 1992). This grid has to be block-centered (i.e. the
groundwater heads will be computed at the center of each grid block). Taking into account that there are no steep
slopes in the water table and that the areal extend of the basin in about 209 km2, a grid size of 250* 250 m2 (total of
cells = 3342) was selected. The layer is under unconfined condition and corresponds to a layer type 1 in
MODFLOW. This type of layer requires only horizontal hydraulic conductivity values as well as specific yield
values to be defined. The actual values of the bottom of soil layer elevation and bottom elevation of the bedrock
were entered at the model (Mondal and Singh, 2005). This is simplification of the system based on the geological
setting and the primary and secondary permeability. It is justified by the fact that the weathering and fracturing
processes actually, start from the surface of the formations and gradually progress deeper. The aquifer is dipping
from SE to NW and the variation of thickness. Boundary conditions: In the present case, the boundary conditions
had been determined based on the hydraulic condition. Initially these values will be applied in the conceptual
model. No-flow boundary: A specified flow boundary (Neumann conditions) is one for which the derivative of
head (flux) across the boundary is given. A no-flow boundary condition is set by specifying this flux to be zero
(Anderson and Woessner, 1992). No-flow boundary has been set in the southern part of the area. There are two
facts that justify the use of a no flow boundary: (1) Charnokite has been characterized as practically impermeable
in the conceptual model and (2) The water table is close to the surface. A groundwater flow divide is therefore
likely to occur where the surface flow divide is. Head dependent boundaries: The northern boundary of the area
(towards hilly area) will be simulated thorough Generalized Head Boundary (GHB), in order to represent the
groundwater discharge. These values will be used in the steady state simulation. At the calibration time, due to lack
of data it will be assumed as constant. Other important boundaries: (1) The weathered part of aquifer will be
considered as a porous one, (2) Areal recharge and pumpages will be assigned at a systematic manner (PWD, 2000;
Mondal and Singh, 2005) and (3) wherever exposures are present, transmissivity values will be approximately zero
and assigned as per its dimension.
Assumptions used in the model
Groundwater flow regime model was prepared only for the shallow aquifer zone tapped by dug wells and dug-
cum-bore wells (up to 27.68 m thickness). This implies that the deeper fractured zones (extend in the granite) do
not take part either in the groundwater flow or in the mass transport. The aquifer under weathered zone is also
treated as a porous one for modeling purposes. The TDS concentration in the surface effluents was assumed to be
more than 30,000 mg/l during the period September 1988 to February 2002. The quantity of fluid effluents seeping
to the groundwater system was assumed to be 30% of the surface effluents. It was also assumed that on a
conservative basis the solvent reaching the water table has a solute concentration, which is 30% of that present at
the surface. The remaining 70% of the solutes may get absorbed in the unsaturated zones or are carried away by the
runoff. An effective porosity of 0.2, longitudinal dispersivity of 30 m, transverse dispersivity of 10 m (GEC, 1997)
and 906 mg/l of TDS as constant concentration were uniformly assumed for the entire interested area. There are no
perennial rivers in the study area. During NE-monsoon period (October-December) the main river Kodaganar
influences to the groundwater system. It was simulated in the model as supported by river boundary of Visual
MODFLOW during October-December. The mass transport model was calibrated in two stages: steady and
transient states. It was also assumed that TDS do not influence the density and viscosity values, which may affect
the groundwater flow and pollutant migration. The computer software based on the groundwater flow equation and
the Modified Method of Characteristics (MMOC) is uses. The various parameters (as collected from the field) were
assigned to the corresponding nodes.
Model calibration
The purpose of the calibration of a groundwater flow model is to demonstrate that the model can response field
measured heads and flows, which are the calibration values (Anderson and Woessener, 1992). The purpose of this
modeling exercise is to solve an inverse problem, i.e. to find a set of parameters, boundary conditions and stresses
that reproduce the calibration values within a certain re-established range of error (calibration targets). In this case
a trial and error calibration technique has been used. Parameters are initially assigned to each node in the grid. Then
these parameter values are adjusted in sequential model runs to match the calibration targets. This method was
chosen because information that cannot be quantified is being used (as opposed to an automated calibration
procedure). Nevertheless, this method is largely influenced by the modeler’s expertise and biases. The calibration
parameters set in this modeling exercise are the generalized head boundary, recharge, evapotranspiration, hydraulic
conductivity and specific yield etc (Mondal and Singh, 2012). The calibrated hydraulic conductivity is assigned
zone wise. In the southeastern part was assigned the conductivity as 3 m/day, in the central part as 8 m/day and in
the northwestern part as 12 m/day whereas specific yield (Sy) are assigned as 0.0005, 0.002 and 0.003, respectively,
corresponding the above zones of the area. The calibrated recharge values have been divided into four zones
(Mondal and Singh, 2005). The extreme southern zone is assigned as 200 mm/year, next zone as 130 mm/year,
then third zone as 110 mm/year and the extreme northern zone as 80 mm/year. But the evaporation is estimated to a
maximum rate of 70 mm/year with an extinction depth of 3.0 m based on the type of crops and plants that grow in
the area. The steady state flow model was also calibrated in April 2001 for the real representation of the study area.
The model shows that the minimum and maximum residuals are 0.02 m and 0.95 m in between observed and
calibrated hydraulic heads at the targets with mean 0.45 m but the standard error is 0.04 m.
Steady state condition
The TDS concentration ‘C’ was then calculated at all node points for September 1988, a date up to which the
system was assumed to be in a steady state condition. There was a mismatch between observed and computed
values of ‘C’. Therefore, efforts were made to obtain a reasonably better match by modifying the magnitude and
distribution of the background concentration and pollutant load based on the geological setting and location of the
tanneries. However, the situation could not be improved much. This may be due to a variety of factors; the most
important which are the deficiencies and inaccuracies in the historical database. To get the real representation of
the aquifer system, field data (January 2001) was considered for another steady state condition and it also run to
visualize the mass transport model. The computed versus observed C is illustrated in Figure 11. This indicates that
most of the calculated TDS-values are little higher than observed values, but others are fallen along the straight line
y=x.
Fig. 11 Computed vs. observed C in the steady state (January 2001)

Transient condition
A time variant simulation was carried out for the period January 1988 to July 1995 based on available of historical
data. The pollution load was reaching the groundwater system at various clusters during this period. The computed
‘C’-values for the PWD-wells, which are located nearby the tannery clusters, is being increased steeply than the
other wells.
Sensitivity analysis
The impact of varying conductivity, dispersivity, and C/W (pollutant load at the source) was studied and discussed
below. The variation is caused in the TDS concentration ‘C’ at some selected node points as result of some
variations in these parameters (Mondal and Singh, 2005).
Conductivity: This parameter was changed by 20% (upwards and downwards) of the value assigned in the model at
each node the change in the conductivity affects the groundwater velocity causing redistribution of solute
concentration. In general, the higher the conductivity, the faster is the movement of the solute. Therefore, the
concentration is reduced near the sources and increased and vice versa.
Dispersivity: The longitudinal dispersivity was changed to 50 m and 20 m (from 30 m). The transverse dispersivity
was taken as one-third of the longitudinal dispersivity. No significant changes in the TDS concentration were
noticed due to increase in the dispersivity. This shows that advection and not dispersion is the predominant mode of
solute migration in the tannery belt.
TDS pollution load at sources points (C/W): The effect of varying this parameter by 20% (upwards and
downwards) at 32 source points (nodes taken at the major tannery clusters) was examined and it was found that
TDS concentration ‘C’ rises with an increase in the pollution load C/W and vice versa.
Prediction model
A reliable prediction of the tannery pollutant migration is possible only if a validated model is available. The
present model could be used to predict some general inferences. The following 3-scenarios were considered for
predicting the extent of pollution in the tannery belt at the end of a 20 years’ period.
1. The TDS load remains constant during the entire period of prediction;
2. The load is increased to double of the present level (January 2001) during the entire period of prediction;
and
3. The load is reduced to half of the present level. The TDS load is a result of both the effluents discharged
from the tanneries and the leaching of the previous adsorbed solutes in the unsaturated zone. Thus
effectively the overall discharge from the tanneries is assumed to reduce about 50% of the present level.
The predicted TDS concentration level (Scenario-I) for the year 2020 is shown in Figure 12. It can be seen that
the TDS concentration ‘C’ progressively increases in the area due to continuous addition of solids to the
groundwater system. The area which TDS content in groundwater may be more than 4000 mg/l is likely to be
doubled within the next two decades from the present size in between river and Dindigul town towards north and
west of this town. When it was compared with the observed and computed TDS concentration ‘C’ for Scenario-II,
it can be seen that at the end of a 10-year period, TDS concentration will be the same of Scenario-I, but still it may
be quite high at some locations. A comparison of predicted and observed TDS concentration ‘C’ for Scenario-III
shows that at the end of a 20-year period (2020) TDS concentration ‘C’ will be reduced but will be quite high at
some places. At the center of the tannery cluster, TDS concentration is reduced, but in the northern side it is
increasing order due to the advective movement of the pollutant. Prediction using the model confirms that the
polluted area, as well as the concentration of pollutants in the groundwater, will continue to increase in future. The
study also indicated that even if the pollutant sources were reduced to half fold of the present level, the TDS
concentration level in the groundwater, even after 20 years, would not be reduced below 50% TDS of 2001.
Fig. 12 Predicted TDS concentration in mg/l for January 2020 (Scenario-I)
RESULTS AND CONCLUDING REMARKS

Geoscientific knowledge has been gained regarding the hydrogeology, geophysics, and hydrochemistry of a
tannery belt in Southern India. The following conclusions drawn as:
 The estimated average natural groundwater reserve, in both the NE and SW monsoons, varied from 4.428
to 8.530 MCM during the period of 2012-2016. But the maximum natural groundwater reserve of around
8.530 MCM is only in the Year of 2014, but it is almost half for the years of 2012, 2013 and 2016.
 Two types of weathered zones, which act shallow aquifers, are delineated using the VES data
(Schlumberger configuration) in and around tannery belt in Tamil Nadu, India. The first type of aquifer has
a true resistivity range of 6.08 - 61.00 Ω-m, whereas second type aquifer has a true resistivity range of
67.12 - 267.27 Ω-m, when it has been compared with the constraints of EC-values at nearby wells. The
EC-vales vary from 4, 235 to 26, 600 µS/cm for the first type of aquifer and 900 to 2, 810 µS/cm for the
second type of aquifer, which are called saline and fresh shallow aquifers, respectively.
 Groundwater is in worse condition due to continuous discharge of untreated effluents from 80 functional
tanneries in the tannery belt although water level is so shallow.
 There are a several degrees of abnormality in hydrochemical data estimated by the threshold values. The
threshold values are two types, which indicate mainly three processes. First threshold values of TDS, Ca2+,
Mg2+, Na+, K+, Cl-, HCO3-, SO42- and NO3- ions are about 906, 182, 60, 160, 5, 191,109 and 15 mg/l,
respectively, indicating the backgrounds in the tannery belt. But the second threshold values are about
2896, 442, 136, 424, 12, 390, 310 and 360 mg/l, respectively, for these ions except the NO3- indicating the
strong influence areas mainly distributed in and around the tannery clusters.
 The TDS concentration has been computed through MT3D mass transport model starting with a
background concentration 906 mg/l. Even through TDS has selected for simulation of contaminant
migration, the migration of any species will follow a similar pattern as mass transport is primarily driven
by advection.
 It is inferred that TDS concentration is steeply increased in and around the tannery clusters under transient
condition. The impact of varying TDS in the tannery belt is based on the advection than dispersive
mechanism.
 Mass transport modeling in the damaged aquifers is shown indisputably that if tannery effluents continue to
be discharged at the present level, both as regards the volume and TDS concentration, groundwater
pollution will continue to increase.
It is noted that even if tannery effluents are reduced to half fold of the present level, even after 20 years, the
TDS concentration in groundwater will not be reduced to 50% of the original level (for the year 2001). This study
indicates that it is very important to evolve suitable measure for reversal of the damage caused to tannery effluents
in this locality. In areas, where water is available abundantly, flushing out of these discharge salts to the nearby
streams can be adopted. But for areas like Upper Kodaganar River basin, where water is scarce, some other
methods such as biological treatment method, physical method and chemical method are to be adopted. Out of
them physical method like creation of percolation ponds and check dams for groundwater recharge is an alternative
to check the problem of groundwater pollution. Such method, which will be found to be successful in reducing the
pollution load of groundwater and agricultural soil, are to be adopted. There are more than 92 medium and minor
irrigation tanks in the study area, which influence the shallow aquifer during surface water spread (monsoon
season). These can be used for augmentation of groundwater resources through artificial recharge structures, which
help for sustainable management of groundwater resources.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Dr. V.M. Tiwari, Director of CSIR-NGRI, Hyderabad, India has encouraged to present this note. The members of
Groundwater Group helped for the collection and analysis of the water samples. The CSIR-New Delhi (Ref. No.:
MLP 6407-28) has also funded partially for this work. The author is thankful to them.
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EFFICACY OF ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY TOMOGRAPHY IN
DELINEATION OF GROUNDWATER RESERVOIRS - AN OVER VIEW
S. N. Rai
Chief Scientist (Retired)
CSIR - National Geophysical Research Institute, Uppal Road, Hyderabad-500 007, India. snrai_ngri@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
Acute shortage of water supply in hard rock terrains is well known because of their limited groundwater storage
capacity. On the other hand presence of groundwater pockets in mines leads to landslides which leads to
obstruction of mining work and sometimes causes precious loss of human lives. Hard rock terrains exhibit
weathered formation and structural features such as fractures, joints, faults and fissures which are capable to
store ground water and allow its movement through them if these formations/ structures are inter connected.
Because of withdrawal of groundwater in excess to recharging of groundwater system to meet the ever
increasing demand of water supply, the ground water level is declining year by year beyond recovery limit. As a
result groundwater in many areas has been almost depleted in the upper weathered zones which are the main
sources of water supply to the dug wells penetrating shallower aquifers. Thus, the possibility of availability of
ground water is mainly confined to the geological structures like fractures, faults and joints at deeper level. Such
water bearing geological structures are distributed sporadically and are of finite areal extent. Delineation of their
exact locations is a challenging task. This becomes possible only with the development of 2D Electrical
Resistivity Tomography (ERT) which is capable of mapping 2D/3D images of subsurface geological formations.
It helps in identification of groundwater potential zones and their spatial extent. This task is accomplished by
inversion of the measured apparent resistivity data which provides distribution of sub-surface geological
formations/structures. It helps in identification of groundwater bearing geological formations/structures.
Delineation of groundwater potential zones is prerequisite for the sustainable development and management of
groundwater resources, identification of geothermal fields, prevention of landslide in mines etc. This paper is
aimed to describe the efficacy of ERT in delineation of groundwater potential zones for the purpose of
groundwater exploration, exploration of geothermal energy, and prevention of landslide in mines etc. with the
help of some field examples.
INTRODUCTION
Hard rocks possess negligible primary porosity but are rendered porous and permeable due to the formation of
secondary porosity in the form of fractures, lineaments, faults, joints which are developed after their genesis by
geological processes such as weathering, fracturing, earthquakes etc. Basaltic Deccan traps, which alone occupy
almost half million square kilometres areas spread over in parts of Gujarat Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh, Karnatak and Telagana are exception among the hard rocks. Unlike other hard rocks, Deccan traps are pile
up of multiple layers of volcanic lava flows. Each lava flow consists of upper vesicular unit and lower massive
basalt unit. Two consecutive lava flows are intervened by sedimentary formations called intertrappeans. These
intertrappeans are the marker of interval between the two consecutive lava flows. Thus the Deccan traps are
characterized with both primary and secondary porosities. The upper sub unit of lava flow with vesicles and the
intertrappean sedimentary formations are characterized with the primary porosity while the lower sub unit of
massive lava flows is characterized with the secondary porosity. The occurrence and movement of ground water in
sedimentary hard rocks, except carbonate rocks, are governed by geological structures such as bedding planes,
cleavages, fractures, joints, faults and contact zones. In case of carbonate rocks which include limestone, marble
and dolomite, the circulation of water facilitates their dissolution which increases pore spaces and ultimately
permeability with time. The measure source of replenishment of aquifers is rainfall which occurs irregularly during
rainy season from June to September. For sustainable development to achieve the preset objectives of sustainable
development and management of groundwater resources meet demand of water supply, exploration of geothermal
energy, to prevent landslide in mines etc, delineation of precise locations of water bearing zones is prerequisite.
92
Geophysical Electrical resistivity methods with different types of electrode configurations are widely used for
delineation of groundwater resources because of noticeable decrease in resistivity values of water saturated
geological formations/structures in comparison to those devoid of groundwater. This contrast is more prominent in
hard rock terrains. In early works mostly vertical electrical sounding (VES) technique with four electrodes based
Schlumberger configurations was used for delineation of deeper resources of groundwater (Rao et al, 1983; Murthy
et al, 1986, Muralidharan et al., 1994; Rai et al. 2011, 2012, 2013). The limitation of this technique is that it
provides only 1-D model of resistivity variation with depth below the centre of the survey line which provides
information about the litho units and their thicknesses below the centre of the electrode configuration only and does
not provide any information about the litho units falling on either side of the central point. Therefore, a more
accurate model of the subsurface geological formations/structures would be a 2-D model which provides
information about their distribution in the vertical as well as lateral direction below the entire spread of the survey
line. This becomes possible by development of 2-D electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) technique (Griffiths et
al 1990; Griffiths and Barker, 1993; Loke, 2000) and effective data processing software based on inversion
techniques (Loke and Barker, 1996, Loke, 1997). The main advantages of the ERT are: (1) fast and large amount of
computer controlled data acquisition, (2) presentation of resistivity variation in vertical and horizontal directions
below the entire spread length of the survey line, and (3) increased resolution of the computed 2-D images of the
subsurface geological formation. ERT is now being used for groundwater exploration worldwide such as in Harare
greenstone belt in northeastern Zimbabwe (Owen et al, 2005), Banting in Selangor, Malaysia (Hamzah, et al.
2006), Ahmadu Bello University farm dam in northern Nigeria (Osazuwa and Chii, 2010), Pagoh and Johor in
Malaysia (Kadri and Nawawi, 2010) and Kumbani River Basin, Zaria, in Nigeria (Anthony and John, 2010), Badra
area in eastern Iraq (Thabit and Al-Hameedawie, 2014), Chikotra basin in Kolhapur district (Gupta et al, 2015) of
Maharashtra state, India, and part of Choutuppal mandal of Nalgonda district in Telangana state, India (Dewashis
Kumar et al, 2016). Objective of this paper is to present an overview of the application of ERT in delineation of
exact locations of groundwater resources with the help of some case studies. A brief description of ERT is
presented in the next section.
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY TOMOGRAPHY (ERT)

Electrical Resistivity Tomography is carried out by using multi-electrode resistivity imaging system. In this system
many electrodes are connected with multi core cables to form a multi- electrode setup where selection of any four
(two for current injection and two for potential measurement) of those electrodes is possible. Figure 1 shows field
setup of an ERT survey with four multi-core cables. In each multi-core cable, 16 electrodes are placed at equal
spacing. Multi-core cables are connected to an electronic switching unit. The switching unit is connected to a
resistivity meter and the resistivity meter is connected to a laptop. A software stored in Laptop together with the
electronic switching unit is used to select automatically four relevant electrodes (two current electrodes and two
potential electrodes) for each measurement. Provision is made for resistivity survey using different electrode
configurations such as Wenner, Schlumberger, Wenner- Schlumberger, Dipole-Dipole, Pole-dipole, Pole-Pole etc
(Loke, 2000, Rai, 2017). In the case studies under consideration, ERT is conducted using Wenner configuration for
the measurement of apparent resistivity values on ground surface which are computed by using the following
mathematical expression.
V
 a  2a
I
in which a is the apparent resistivity, a is the spacing between the two consecutive electrodes,V is the potential
difference between the two potential electrodes, and I is the current induced in to ground through current
electrodes. These measured apparent resistivity values are used for inverse modelling to create 2 D model of
resistivity variation with depth below the entire length of survey line. Inverse modeling of the measured apparent
resistivity data was carried out by using the RES2DINV program (Loke, 1997).
Fig. 1 Field Layout of Electrical Resistivity Tomography set up
INTERPRETATION OF RESISTIVITY MODELS

Based on the electrical resistivity surveys carried out in parts of Nagpur, Amaravati, Akola and Jalgaon districts,
the following resistivity values for the different litho units of Deccan traps are suggested by the Central Ground
Water Board (CGWB) of India for the hydrogeological interpretation of resistivity models for Deccan traps region
(CGWB web site).
Alluvial, black cotton soil, Lameta beds: 5–15 ohm m; weathered/fractured/vesicular basalt saturated with
water: 20–45 ohm m; moderately weathered/fractured/vesicular basalt saturated with water: 40–70 ohm m; massive
basalt: > 70 ohm m; water-saturated Gondwana formation:< 50 ohm m; and Gondwana formation without water:
> 50 ohm m..
Similarly, based on the resistivity surveys carried out in different granitic terrains, the Central Ground Water
Board (CGWB), has suggested the following resistivity values of different litho units of granitic terrains.
Soil cover: < 20 ohm m, highly weathered granite saturated with water: 20–50 ohm m, Semi weathered granite:
50–120 ohm m, moderately fractured/jointed granite: 120–200 ohm m. massive granite: > 300 ohm m. These
values are used for the interpretation of resistivity models of basaltic Deccan traps and granitic terrains.
CASE STUDIES
(i) Chandrabhaga basin, Napur district, Vidarbha region, Maharastra state.
Chandrabhaga basin is located about 25 km away from Nagpur city in north-west direction. This basin is spread
over between 78o42’ to 79o east longitudes and 21o11’to 21o20’ north latitudes. It occupies about 500 km2 area and
is encompassing 50 villages. Western part of the basin falls under Katol taluk, central part under Kalmeshwar taluk
and a small segment towards its eastern margin under Nagpur rural. The basin is traversed by Chandrabhaga river
from west to east direction near its northern boundary and leaves the basin near Yarandgaon to join the Kolar river.
ERT has been carried out at 19 sites in a part of the basin which lies between 78o48′ to 78°55′ east longitudes and
21°14′N to 21°18′ north latitudes. Map of the study area and locations of the ERT sites with Pn (n=1-19) marking
are shown in figure 2. For the present case study, an example of 2-D resistivity model for ERT profile P1, located
near Ghogali village, is considered and is presented in figure 3. The profile is in North-South direction and the
coordinate of the centre of the profile is 78o52’9.6”E, 21o14’19.2”N. The resistivity model is presented with the
marking of the electrode positions in horizontal direction at 10 m spacing on top of the resistivity model. Distance
of the geological formations in horizontal direction is measured from the position of the 1st electrode placed at
northern end of the profile. The colour index of the resistivity values for the interpretation of resistivity model in
terms of hydrogeology is presented below the model. Resistivity model for P1 shows 10–12 m thick layer of
alluvium/weathered formation which constitutes the unconfined aquifer. This layer is underlain by moderately
fractured basalt (40–70 ohm m) followed by two units of massive basalts (> 70 Ohm m). The massive basalt units
are separated by a fracture zone at 300 m distance, below which lies a potential groundwater zone (< 40 Ohm m) at
35 m depth. This water-bearing zone is found to widen with depth between both units of massive basalt and
extends beyond the depth of study, i.e. 73.5 m. Sequence of litho units including ground water zone is confirmed
by drilling bore well at 300m distance. Bore-well yield is found to be 15,900 lph (Ratna et al 2012).
Fig. 2 Part of Chandrabhaga basin and locations of ERT profiles marked by Pn (n=1-19) (after Ratnakumari et al, 2012
Fig. 3 2 D resistivity model for ERT profile P1. Groundwater zone is shown with resistivity values in range of 20 to 40 Ohm
m (Ratnakumari et al, 2012).
(ii) Tawarja basin, district Latur, Marathwada region, Maharshtra

Tawarja river basin, located in Latur district of draught prone Marathwada region, occupies an area of 642 km2
between 76o15’ to 76o41’35” east longitudes and 18o12’16” to 18o24’15” north latitudes (Babar and Shah, 2012). A
part of the basin is shown in figure 4. The entire basin is covered by basaltic Deccan traps overlain by
soil/weathered mantle of varying thicknesses. Electrical resistivity tomography has been conducted at 35 locations
in the western part of the basin in order to delineate water bearing aquifers and suitable sites for managing aquifer
recharge (Rai et al 2015). For this case study a 2-D resistivity model for profile P 21 located near Kond village is
considered and is presented in figure 5.This model indicates the presence of groundwater bearing zone
characterized by resistivity value in the range of 20 to 40 ohm m. The presence of this zone is verified by a bore
well positioned at the location marked by BW. This bore well is in use by a farmer for irrigation. Figure 5 also
suggests a suitable site for the development of a recharge structure between 360m to 400 m adjacent to the bore
well.
Fig. 4 Map of the part of Tawarja basin with the locations of ERT sites.
Fig. 5 2-D resistivity model showing groundwater potential zone characterized by resistivity values in range of
20 to 40 ohm m (after Rai et al 2015).
(iii) Chiplun Taluk, Ratnagiri district, Western Ghat, Maharashtra

In this study the region of Unhavare, Tural, Rajwadi and Aravali hot springs, located in Chiplun taluk of Ratnagiri
District in the region of Western Ghat, Maharashtra India, is considered. This region is located on the western
margin of Deccan traps. These hot springs are located between 73°05'00" to 74°07' 20" east longitudes and
17°12'37" to 17°47'50" north latitude as shown in figure 6. The geothermal belt which marks the western margin of
the Deccan basalt province exposes about 1000 m thick sequence of near horizontal lava flows overlying
Precambrian sedimentary and meta-sedimentary (Kaladgi and Dharwar) rocks and Archaean igneous complex.
Electrical Resistivity tomography is conducted along eight profiles, namely L1, L2, L3, L4, L5, L6, L7 and L8.
Locations of these profiles are shown in figure 6. The present study is aimed to delineate the groundwater
reservoirs with normal temperature for exploration to meet the local water supply demand and geothermal
reservoirs of hot springs to harness the geothermal energy for industrial uses.
Fig. 6 Map of study area showing locations of ERT profiles L1-L8 (after Dewashish et al 2013)
For this case study resistivity models of profiles P7 and P8 are considered. These models are presented in
figures 7 and 8, respectively. Profile L7 is laid towards east while L8 towards west of the Aravali hot spring and are
oriented in the SE-NW direction. Centre of profile L7 is positioned at N17°18'58.2" and E73°31'22.8". In this case
spacing between two the two consecutive electrodes is 5 m. The resistivity model of profile L7 shows a thin layer
soil of cover (<20 Ohm m) extended up to 130 m distance and is underlain by moderately to massive basalt having
>50 ohm m. A zone of weathered/fractured basalt can be seen between 130 to 190 m which is extended downward
up to 38 m depth. This zone characterized with resistivity values in the range of 20-40 ohm m appears to be water
bearing. This low resistivity zone can be considered for the groundwater exploration through bore wells drilled up
to a depth of 38 m at 140 m distance. Figure 8 presents resistivity model for profile L8 with centre located at
N17°18'55.4" and E73°31'19.2". This model shows two zones of weathered/fractured basalt (< 40 ohm m) between
25 to 60 m and 100 to 160 m which are underlain by two units of massive basalt (>70 ohm m). A zone of low
resistivity (<15 ohm m) can be seen between both the two units of massive basalts. This zone is extending
downwards beyond 38 m depth and is exposed to the ground surface top layer between 60 to 100 m distances. This
low resistivity zone appears to be the source of geothermal water and can be considered for geothermal exploration.
SE F NW
Fig. 7 2 D resistivity model for profile E 7. Geological formations/structures with resistivity values < 40 ohm m is marked as
ground water zone (after Dewashish et al, 2013)
SE NW
F
Fig. 8 2 D resistivity model along L8 profile near Aravali hot spring. The zone with <15 ohm m resistivity is the reservoir of
geothermal water (after Dewashish et al. 2013).
CSIR-National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI) campus, Hyderabad

The CSIR-National Geophysical Research Institute is located in Hyderabad city. Its campus is underlain by granitic
terrain. ERT survey using Wenner configuration is conducted along eight profiles marked as E1 to E8. Layout of
CSIR-NGRI and locations of profiles are shown in figure 9. For this case study, two resistivity models, namely E7
and ED are considered. Profile E7 is located in front of groundwater building and profile E8 is parallel to the
boundary with Kalyanpuri. Figure 10 presents 2D resistivity model for profile E7. In this model a zone of
weathered mantle/fractured basalt (15-40 Ohm m) extending from SSW to NNE direction is shown. This is water
bearing formation and is abutting to a massive granite unit (>70 Ohm m) which is extending towards other end of
the survey line. A bore well is drilled up to 100m depth to confirm the occurrence of the groundwater. Position of
the drilled bore well is shown by vertical red line located within the water bearing formation near the boundary
with the massive basalt unit. Occurrences of aquifers at five depths, i.e. 30m, 36m, 40m, 62m and 74m named as
aquifers 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, respectively have been confirmed by sonic log as shown in figure 9. Water bearing
aquifers are marked by reduction in seismic velocity, Vp and corresponding increase in the travel time, dt as shown
in figure 9. This bore well is used for water supply to the CSIR-NGRI campus.
Resistivity model for profile E8 is presented in figure 10. Resistivity model indicates the presence of massive
granite along the entire profile length on the top. This massive granite layer is underlain by a low-resistivity
formation (< 40 Ohm m) between 40 and 160 m distance, which is the centre of the profile. This could be a
groundwater potential zone favourable for groundwater exploitation. Depth of this water-bearing zone increases
with distance up to the centre of the profile. Thereafter, its lateral extension towards south is blocked by massive
granite. This water-bearing zone is connected to a 5 m wide fracture zone which is exposed on the ground surface
between 130 and 135 m. At this location a recharge pit or injection well is proposed to divert rain water collected
from rooftops of the nearby quarters and run-off into the aquifer for recharging. Location of a bore well is proposed
at 140 m distance near the contact zone of the water-bearing formation with the massive granite unit.
Fig. 9 Layout of CSIR-NGRI campus and locations of ERT profiles marked by E1-E8 (after Rai et al 2013)

Fig. 10 2 D Resistivity model for profile E7 which shows water bearing formation
(<40 Ohm m), and location of exploratory bore well.
Fig. 11 2 D Resistivity model for profile E8 which shows water bearing formation
(<40 Ohm m), and location of exploratory bore well.
Profile E 8 runs from Kalyanpuri towards Uppal road parallel to the boundary as shown in figure 9. Resistivity
model for this profile is presented in Figure 11. Resistivity model indicates the presence of massive granite along
the entire profile length on the top. This massive granite layer is underlain by water bearing low resistivity
formation (< 40 Ohm m) between 40 and 160 m distance. Depth of this water-bearing zone increases with distance
up to the centre of the profile. Thereafter, its lateral extension towards south is blocked by massive granite. A bore
well drilled at 10 m distance confirms the occurrence of groundwater and is used forwater supply to NGRI colony
supply. This water-bearing zone is connected to a fracture zone which is exposed on the ground surface between
130 and 135 m. At this location a recharge pit or injection well is proposed to divert rain water collected from
rooftops of the nearby quarters and run-off into the aquifer for recharging.
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF AQUIFERS

In hard rock terrains casing of a bore well is done up to depth of the top weathered zone which is normally less than
10 m depth. The remaining depth of the bore well is left without casing. Because of this, sediment particles also
enter in to the well along with the flowing water and get deposited in to the well. Especially in the region of Deccan
traps, water flowing through sedimentary intertrappean layers carries sediments in to the wells in the absence of
casing. Deposition of sedimentary particle leads to the chocking of the bore wells. This causes their failure in
yielding groundwater in short span of time in spite of presence of groundwater in the aquifers. This led to the
significant economic losses to the farmers. Therefore, casing of a bore well for its entire depth is suggested in order
to prevent entering of sediments in to well. Perforated pipes should be used for casing within the aquifers as shown
in figure 12. This kind of casing is provided in the exploratory bore wells located in the CSIR-NGRI campus and at
few ERT sites in Chandrabhaga basin. Because of this, the bore wells are able to maintain their water yielding
capacity which helps in maintaining safe and secured water supply.
Fig. 12 Design of bore well casing.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Based on the above case studies we conclude that Deccan Volcanic Province holds potential groundwater resources
mostly within the weathered formation, sedimentary intertrappenslayers and in fractures, faults and joints within
the massive basalt units. Electrical resistivity tomography is capable to delineate precise locations of these water
bearing aquifers and sites suitable for managing aquifer recharge. Casing of the bore well should be done for its
entire depth. Perforated pipes should be used within the upper weathered zone to allow the infiltration of
precipitation in to well and within the intertrappeans to prevent sediment deposit in to wells. From the image of 2D
resistivity models obtained from ERT, it is clear that the ERT results can also be useful for the selection of suitable
sites for managing aquifer recharge by construction of recharging structures such as ponds, dug wells, injection
wells depending on the physical condition of the site.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I express my I express my sincere thanks to Dr. S. Thiagarajan, Dr Dewashish Kumar, Y Ratnakumari, Dr R
Rangarajan, G. B. K. Shankar, M. Sateesh Kumar, K. M. Dubey, P.K. Rai, A. Ramchandran, B. Nithya, V.
Venkatesam, G. Mahesh and M. Bulliabai for their valuable supports in completion of the works mentioned in the
case studies.
REFERENCES
1. Babar, M. and Shah, I.I., 2012. Influence of geological and geomorphological characteristics on groundwater
occurrence in Deccan basalt hard rock area of Tawarja river sub-basin, Latur, Maharashtra, India, Research Jour. of
Environmental and Earth Sciences, ISSN 2041-0492, v.4(4), pp: 440-447.
2. CGWB website. Geophysical studies; http:/cgwb.gov.in/CR/achi_geo_stu.html
3. Griffiths, D. H. and Barker, R. D., 1993. Two-dimensional resistivity imaging and modeling in areas of complex
geology. J. Appl. Geophys.,1993, 29, 211–226.
4. Griffiths, D. H., Turnbull, J. and Olayinka, A. I., 1990. Two dimensional resistivity mapping with a computer controlled
array. First Break, 8, 121–129.
5. Loke, M. H. and Barker, R. D., Rapid least-squares inversion of apparent resistivity pseudo sections by quasi-Newton
method. Geophys. Prospect., 1996, 44, 131–152.
6. Loke, M. H., 1997. Software: RES 2D INV. 2-D interpretation for DC resistivity and IP for Windows 95. Copyright by
M. H. Loke, 5, Cangkat Minden Lorong 6, Minden Heights, 11700 Penang.
7. Loke, M.H., 2000. Electrical imaging surveys for environmental and engineering studies: A practical guide to 2-D and
3-D surveys, pp: 61.
8. Murthy, B. G. K., Raghunath Rao, K. and Punekar, D. V., 1986. Report on the geophysical investigations for
delineating Gondwana below traps in Umrer, Bander, Kamathi and Katol troughs in Nagpur district under ‘Deep
Geology Project’ .
9. Muralidharan, D., Deshmukh, S. D., Rangarajan, R., Krishna,V. S. R. and Athavale, R. N., 1994.Deep resistivity
surveys for delineation of Deccan trap–Gondwana contact and selection of water well sites in Jam River basin.
Technical Report No. NGRI-94-GW-153, p. 63.
10. Rao, T. G., Athavale, R. N., Singh, V. S., Muralidharan, D. and Murthy, N. N., 1983. Geophysical exploration for
ground water in Deccan traps of Godavari–Purna basin, Maharashtra, NGRI Technical Report no. GH 18-GP10.
11. Rai SN, Thagarajan S, Ratnakumari Y (2011) Exploration for groundwater in the basaltic Deccan traps terrain in Katol
taluk, Nagpur district, India. Current Science 101(9): 1198-1204.
12. Rai, SN, Thaigarajan S, Ratnakumari Y, Kumar D (2012) Exploring Deccan traps for groundwater in parts of
Kalmeshwar taluk, Nagpur district, India, J. of Applied hydrology , XXV (3&4): 85-94.
13. Rai SN, Thiagarajan S, Dewashis Kumar, Dubey KM, Rai PK, Ramchandran A and Nithya B (2013b) Electrical
resistivity tomography for groundwater exploration in a granitic terrain in NGRI campus. Current Science 105(10):
1410-1418.
14. Ratnakumari Y, Rai SN, Thiagarajan S and Kumar D (2012) 2-D Electrical resistivity imaging for delineation of deeper
aquifers in parts of Chandrabhaga basin. Current Sci., 102 (1): 61-69.
15. Loke, M.H., 2000. Electrical imaging surveys for environmental and engineering studies: A Practical guide to 2-D and
3-D surveys. 61 pp.
NUTRACEUTICALS POTENTIALS OF VEGETABLES CROPS
Surendra R. Patil
Professor
Department of Fruit Science
Faculty of Horticulture
Dr. PDKV, Akola.
INTRODUCTION
Food is the basic necessity for every individual to satisfy his hunger and maintain his health and thereby to lead a
quality life. Ancient Hindu religious literature (Vedas) says that “Annam is Aham” meaning ‘you are what you
eat’. The fact that food and optimal health are closely correlated is not a novel concept. About 2500 years ago,
Hippocrates, the renowned father of modern medicine, conceptualized the relationship between the use of
appropriate health foods and their therapeutic benefits and quoted, “Let food be thy medicine, and medicine be thy
food”. Current science reinforces these statements and the food markets today, particularly in the Western world,
are full of functional/novel foods or nutraceuticals.
Understanding of the relationships between foods, physiological function and disease have progressed in recent
years, particularly over the past decade. Linkages between diet habits and the quality of life continue to surface on
numerous fronts. Modern nutritional science is providing even more information on the functions and mechanisms
of specific food components in health promotion and/or disease prevention. Current nutritional approaches are
beginning to reflect a fundamental change in our understanding of health. Today, foods are intended to deliver a
health benefit beyond providing sustenance and nutrition (Siro et al., 2008). Thus, the concept of ‘adequate
nutrition’ now tends to be replaced by ‘optimal nutrition’ with consumer belief increasing at an unprecedented pace
(Tewfik, 2008). Increasing knowledge regarding the impact of diet at the genetic and molecular levels is changing
the way we consider the role of nutrition, resulting in new dietary strategies. These developments have spawned an
important and dynamic new area of research, resulting in increasing numbers of nutritional products with potential
medical and health benefits.
What is Nutraceuticals?
The role of dietary active compounds in human nutrition is one of the most important areas of investigation with
the findings having wide‐ranging implications for consumers, healthcare providers, regulators and industry. Foods
and nutrients play a vital role in the normal functioning of the body.
The word nutraceutical is derived from combining elements of the words “Nutrient” (a nourishing food or food
component) and “Pharmaceutical” (a medical drug), and the intended meaning is quite evident, even if these terms
encompass very different product categories. The term "nutraceutical" was coined by Stephen DeFelice, founder
and chairman of the Foundation for Innovation in Medicine in 1989. According to DeFelice, “a nutraceutical is any
substance that is a food or a part of a food and provides medical or health benefits, including the prevention and
treatment of disease.
The nutraceutical revolution began in the early 1980s, sparked off when the actual or potential clinical benefits
of calcium, fiber, and fish oil were supported by clinical studies published in distinguished medical journals, and
when physicians began to educate their colleagues and consumers about these substances via the mass media. Japan
is the first country that explored the boundary between food and medicine. India is a land of herbal products and
plant-based vegetarian diets. Countries like China, Korea and Srilanka are also steeped in the medicinal food
tradition (Palthur et al., 2010).
Nutraceuticals represents a unique intersection of the pharmaceutical and food industries. Nutraceuticals are
clearly not drugs, which are potential pharmacologically active substances that will potentiate, antagonize, or
otherwise modify any physiological or metabolic function. On the other hand, a nutraceutical is a nutrient that not
only maintains, supports, and normalizes any physiologic or metabolic function; it can also potentiate, antagonize,
or otherwise modify physiologic or metabolic functions. A nutraceutical may be a single natural nutrient in powder
or tablet form, not necessarily a complete food, but equally not a drug. Many nutraceuticals are being used as
alternatives for both nutrition and medicine. The pharmaceutical industry is known for the high costs of research
102
and development associated with drug development and the use of patents to protect the discoveries from this
research; therefore, the industry is associated with high product margins. Consumer belief in the nutraceutical
category has increased significantly in the recent past. The growth in production, distribution, and sales of
nutraceuticals in the past decade has been considerable and is an obvious response to burgeoning consumer
demand. Nutraceuticals will maintain their appeal because they are convenient for today’s lifestyle.
Need of Vegetables as Nutraceuticals

There are over 80 million people in the world who are over nourish that they got more than sufficient food to eat
but on the other hand there are 380 million people who don’t get even the meal of one time i.e. they are under
nourish and interesting thing is there are over 500 million peoples who are nourish but that they only getting
calories without nourishing their body to fill this nutrional gap vegetables act as antidote over this problem.
ICMR (Indian Council of Medicinal Research) recommend to eat 300 gm vegetables per capita, in that also they
divide that to eat 125 gm of green leafy vegetables, 100 gm of root vegetables and 75 gm of other vegetables as per
ICMR.
Plants have been traditionally used in medicine for several years ago. In India, it is reported that traditional
healers are using more than 2500 plant species and 100 species of plants as medicine for treating various diseases.
According to WHO, 80% of the world’s people demand on traditional medicine for their primary health care needs.
In the developed countries, nearly 25% of the medical drugs are based on plants and their derivatives. In recent
years, medical and scientific knowledge on the role of various nutrients in specific disease processes had an
accelerating pace and it created an exciting and explosive new area of research, resulting in a number of potential
nutritional products with medical and health benefits available in the market. The majority of the health promoting
foods from the plants contains phytochemicals. The presence of phytochemicals, play a major role in preventing
various diseases.
Vegetables are considered to be protective foods since they contain low calories and higher vitamins and
minerals. They are exceptionally rich in vitamin A and Vitamin C. They also contain considerable quantity of
vitamin B, D, E and K. Calcium and phosphorous are the important minerals present in vegetables. Iron is also
present in many vegetables like leafy ones.
Vegetable consumption is necessary to avoid nutrient deficiency disorders. Many vegetables are glorified for
their nutritional and therapeutic value. Vegetables are characterized by the presence of
• High water content
• Very low energy (kilojoules)
• Low fat, no cholesterol.
• Polyphenols, phytochemicals, pigments
• Fibre (soluble & insoluble)
Good sources of β-carotene, folic acid, non-haem iron and Vitamin C. Presence of bioactive compounds, called
phytochemicals in vegetables give them nutraceutical value.
PHYTOCHEMICALS
Plant foods contain many bioactive compounds in addition to those which are traditionally considered as nutrients,
such as vitamins and minerals. These physiologically active compounds, referred to simply as ‘phytochemicals’,
are produced via secondary metabolism in relatively small amounts.
Some groups of phytochemicals which have or appear to have significant health potentials are:
 Carotenoids,
 Phenolic compounds (flavonoids, phytoestrogens, phenolic acids),
 Phytosterols and phytostanols,
 Tocotrienols,
 Organosulfur compounds (allium compounds and glucosinolates), and
 Nondigestible carbohydrates (dietary fiber and prebiotics).
Phytochemicals are naturally occurring, biologically active chemical compounds in plants. The prefix “Phyto” is
from a Greek word meaning plant. More than 4000 of these compounds have been discovered to date and it is
expected that scientists will discover many more. Any one serving of vegetables could provide as many as 100
different phytochemicals. The interaction between the diet and phytonutrients is a complex field, as thousands of
dietary components are consumed each day (>25000) through routine diets. Dietary bioactives may modify a
multitude of processes in normal cells. A single, bioactive food constituent can modify multiple steps in molecular
and cellular events such as nutrigenetics, nutritional epigenomics, nutritional transcriptomics, proteomics and
metabolomics. Many of these processes can be influenced by several food components. Further, the dose, timing,
duration of exposure and interactions may alter responses and ultimately the phenotype or manifestations. The most
important action of these chemicals with respect to human beings is somewhat similar in that they function as
antioxidants that react with the free oxygen molecules or free radicals in our bodies.
ANTIOXIDANTS
Any substance that may be present at low concentrations compared to those of an oxidisable substrate and which
significantly delays or prevents oxidation of that substrate by free radicals are called antioxidants. Simply they can
be referred to as free radical scavengers. Lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates are potential targets of
oxidative damage. Antioxidants act and protect the target sample by scavenging oxygen-derived species and
minimizing the formation of oxygen-derived species
Mode of action
1. Retarding the oxidation by free radicals.
2. Intercept and neutralize the free radical before it reacts with the substrates and initiates the chain reaction
3. Binding metal ions
4. Replacing damage to the target, and
5. Destroying badly damaged target molecules and replacing them with new ones
Natural antioxidants in foods can be found in various sources such as, endogenous compound in one or more
components of the food; Substances formed from reactions during processing; and food additives isolated from
natural sources, Selenium, vitamins A, C, E, and beta-Carotene, all function as antioxidants.
Antioxidants can be categorized under two broad classes
1. Preventive antioxidants intercept oxidizing species before damage can be done.
2. Chain breaking antioxidants slow or stop oxidative processes after they begin, by intercepting the chain-
carrying radicals
Modern Theory of Diseases

Free radicals
Free radicals are electronically charged unstable molecules capable of independent existence which contain one or
more unpaired electrons. They are formed in our body both internally & externally.
How they are produced?
Free radicals are formed as a byproduct of metabolism. They can be left behind by smog, smoke, pollution, ozone,
solvents, pesticides and the sun’s ionizing radiation. They are capable of causing cells to lose their structure,
function and eventually destroying them. They are associated with the development of 50 diseases including heart
diseases, cancer, AIDS, Parkinsons and Alzheimers disease, stroke, arthritis etc.
Free Radical Damage
Free radical damage can lead to
• Cell proteins altering functions
• DNA creating mutations
• Damage to polyunsaturated fats in cell membranes
• Damage to polyunsaturated fats in lipoproteins
• Affect signal activities within cells
Superoxide radical (O2-), Hydroxyl radical (OH-), Singlet oxygen, Nitric oxide radical (NO-) are some free
radicals. At excess concentrations free radicals will oxidise and damage biological molecules like proteins, lipids,
DNA, carbohydrates etc. This is referred to as oxidative stress.
MAJOR ANTIOXIDANTS
 Carotenoids
 Vitamin C
 Vitamin E
 Flavonoids
 Organosulphurs
 Glucosinolates
 Minerals like Selenium, Zinc, Copper
Table 1 Major carotenoids, sources and their functions
CAROTENOID SOURCES FUNCTIONS

Reduces the risk of colon and bladder cancer, prostate cancer (Giovannucci et al.,
Lycopene Tomato, Watermelon
2002; Hadley et al., 2002) CVD (Kohlmeier and Hastings, 1995).
Carrot, Colecrops, Improve immune response to contagious diseases. Inhibits early stages of tumour
Beta carotene Sweetpotato, development, decreases lung, skin and digestive tract cancers. Can suppress AIDS and
tomato,Bell pepper Alzheimers disease. Protects against asthma and heart diseases.
Alpha carotene Carrot, Pumpkin Lowers the risk of lung cancer (Omenn et al., 1996)
Cole crops, Spinach, Improve immune response, protects the macula of the eye from age related
Lutein
Turnip leaves deterioration. Lowering of the risk for cataract (Moeller et al., 2000).
Colecrops, Turnip
Zeaxanthin Protects the macula of the eye from age related deterioration
leaves, peas, beans
Phenolic / Polyphenols
Phenolic compounds comprise one of the most numerous and widely distributed groups of substances in the plant
kingdom, with more than 8000 phenolic structures currently known. Natural phenolics can range from simple
molecules, such as phenolic acids, to highly polymerized compounds, such as tannins, and their occurrence in
foods is extremely variable. The term phenolic or polyphenol is chemically defined as a substance that possesses an
aromatic ring, bearing one or more hydroxy substituents, including its functional derivatives (esters, methyl esters,
glycosides,etc.).
• Flavonoids
The most common group of plant phenolics are the flavonoids, the structures of which are based on that of
flavone, consisting of two benzene rings linked through a three-carbon γ-pyrone ring. Common classes of
flavonoids include flavones, flavonols, isoflavones, anthocyanins, catechins (flavanols) and flavanones. More
than 4000 flavonoids have been reported and, except for catechins, most flavonoids occur in nature as
glycosides.
1. Flavonols: Quercetin Kaempferol, Myricetin, Isorhamnetin
2. Flavones: Apigenin, Luteolin
3. Flavonones: Hesperetin, Naringenin, Eriodictyol
4. Isoflavones: Genistein, Daidzein
5. Flavan-3-ols: Catechins, Epicatechins, Theaflavins, Thearufigins
6. Anthocyanidins: Cyanidin, Delphinidin, Malvidin, Pelargonidin
Table 2 Flavonoids and their sources
FLAVONOID SOURCE
Quercetin Tomato, potato, broad beans, broccoli, Italian squash, kale and onion (Hertog et al., 1993;
Aherne and O’Brien, 2002).
Kaempferol Radish, horseradish, endive and kale l (Hertog et al., 1993).
Flavanols Legumes
Luteolin Beetroot, brussels sprout, cabbage, cauliflower
Anthocyanidins Red potato
Table 3 Flavonoid content in vegetables
FLAVONOID RANGE SOURCES

<5-10mg/100g Garlic, beans, carrot, cucmber, tomato, radish, potato
5-10mg/100g Spinach, brussels sprout, cabbage, lettuce, kale, turnip greens, cauliflower, sweetpepper
10-50mg/100g Broccoli, celery, knol-khol, onion
>50mg/100g Broadbeans, parsley, sweet potato leaves, chilli
Present Scenario of Nutraceuticals in India

The approach to regulating and marketing nutraceuticals is notably heterogeneous on the global level. This is
largely due to the challenges in classifying these products, absence of a suitable regulatory category for these
hybrid products, and varying views on what is considered sufficient scientific substantiation to conclude the
functionality. At this juncture, there are no regulations and no regulatory processes that define and explicitly deal
with nutraceuticals. There is no indication of if and when specific regulations for nutraceuticals will come into
force. This regulatory class shall be dealing with the category containing an extremely wide range of products
lacking precise boundaries. An analysis of the legislation underlying nutraceuticals proves to be difficult. Under the
current regulatory framework, nutraceuticals appear to have an awkward fit.
(a) Nutraceutical Market: There is clearly a difference between the Western perspective on functional foods
and the Eastern perspective. In the West, functional foods are viewed as a revolution and represent a fast
growing segment of the food industry. In the Orient, in contrast, functional foods have been a part of the
culture for centuries.
(b) Global Regulatory Scenario: The world market for functional foods and beverages is highly dynamic.
According to an Euromitor survey, Japan is the world's largest market at US$11.7 billion, then US is the
second one market with around US$10.5 billion while the European market is less developed with an
estimated market of US$7.5, the “big four” European markets being UK (US$2.6 billion), Germany
(US$2.4 billion), France (US$1.4 billion), and Italy (US$1.2 billion).
(c) Indian Scenario: At present Indian food supplement market is estimated around Rs 45000 crore of which
nutraceuticals also referred to as fast moving health goods (FMHG) has a 6 % share. Changing
demographics, nuclear family, more working women and increased health awareness offer a great
opportunity for nutraceutical products. India is strong and is a growing force in the international health
foods market (Verma, 2009). Rapid urbanization, rising incomes, changing lifestyles and dietary patterns,
and growing health consciousness have triggered the growth of health and wellness foods in India. The
health and wellness foods market is currently estimated to be around US$ 1.6 billion and is expected to
reach US$ 7.5 to 10 billion by 2015 growing at 25 to 30 percent compound annual growth rate.
nt & Society (N
NCWES-20188) 107
(c) Future of Nutraceeuticals Mark ket: The interrest in Nutracceuticals and functional fooods continuees to grow,
powered by progreessive researcch efforts to identify
i properties and pootential appliccations of nuutraceutical
substannces, and couupled with puublic interest and
a consumerr demand. Thhe principal reeasons for thee growth of
the funnctional food market are current
c populaation and heaalth trends. Peeople today arre more nutrition-savvy
than ever before, th heir interest in health-relaated informattion being meet by many courses c of innformation.
While acceptance of nutraceutiicals is grow wing among physicians,
p m
many membeers of the meedical and
scientiific communiities remain concerned
c thaat many prodducts enteringg the market lack adequatte efficacy
and safety data. Pro a urgent needd for funding to support
ofessionals onn both sides of the fence aggree there is an
high-qquality scientific research, testing
t and cllinical trials before
b nutraceeuticals are inntroduced to consumers.
c
C
Classification of Nutraceu
uticals
D
Dietary suppllement- viz. vitamins,
v minnerals, amino acids etc. (liqquid or capsulle form)
F
Functional foood - 1. Prob
biotic & Prebiiotic foods
2. Enriiched food prooducts
3. Fortiified food
M
Medical food--Formulated to
t be consumeed or adminisstered under the
t supervisioon of a physiccian
Pharmaceuticcals- Medicallly valuable compounds
P c p
produced from
m modified aggriculture croops or animals (usually
thhrough biotecchnology).
V
Vegetables wiith Active Prrincipals a th
heir Beneficiaal to Health
V
VEGETBALE
ES RICH IN
N NUTRACEUTICALS
Dietary recom
D mmendations for the preveention of canncer and otheer chronic disseases have always a emphhasized the
coonsumption of
o a variety of plant foods.. The single compound
c appproach has given
g way to the
t concept thhat overall
prrotection agaiinst disease iss provided byy a range of phhytochemicalls contained inn foods.
Following are plant food ds that are esstablished or emerging
e funnctional foodss, each one with
w a body off scientific
evvidence on thhe positive im
mpact on healthh that the connstituent nutriients and phyttochemicals confer.
c
Sr. No. N
Name crop along
a with th
heir Health Benefits
B
1 Kasuri Metthi/ Common n Fenugreek.
Active prinnciples: Sulpphur containinng amino acid, a fenugreeekine, Trigonnelline, Diosggenin,
sapogenin
Beneficial health
h effectss:
 The seed ds are carminative, tonic annd aphrodisiaac, chronic coough.
 Its soakeen seeds can cure
c dropsy, enlargement
e o liver and sppleen.
of
 It believ
ved that regulaar intake of seeds reduce thet level of glucose, total 107 holesterool and
triglycerrdies in bloodd.
 As its coontain diosgennin: it helps too synthesis offhormones ass stimulant.
Table Contd…
C
Sr. No. Name crop along with their Health Benefits

2 Bitter gourd-
Active principles: Cheratin, & contains the beta-carotene
Beneficial health effects:
 Blood disorders- fresh bitter gourd juice + some lime juice.
 Eye problems- High Beta-carotene improves eyesight
 Diabetes mellitus- Hypoglycemic compound due to Cheratin,
 Respiratory disorders -2 ounces of bitter gourd juice + a cup of honey & diluted in water
 Piles- Mix 3 teaspoonful juice of bittergourd leaves with a glass of buttermilk
3 Onion
Active principles: Quercetin, Volatile sulphur compound, diphenylamine
 Anaemia: High Iron content
 Stomach cancer: Fructo-oligosaccharides
 Diabetes: Chromium in onion helps in diabetes
 Commonly used to treat cold, cough & influenza
 Bacterial infection: Polyphenols, anthocyanins, kaempferol,
 Respiratory disorders
4 Broccoli-
Active principles:
Luteolin, Sulphoraphane, Polyphenol & Glucosinolates,Gluconasturtiin,progoitrin
 Potent antioxidant
 Anticancer activity- Glucosinolates & Indol 3 Carbinol
 Bone building
 Eye disorders- Lutein- protective for age-related macular degeneration
 Stomach disorders-High content of Sulphoraphane
 Boost the Immune system
5 Brinjal ( Aubergines)
Active principles:Solasodine, rich source of vit B, Anathocyanins, Nasunin, Chlorogenic acid
Beneficial health effects
 Lowers blood cholesterol level
 White brinjal for diebetic patient
 Cures flatulation
 Dark colour brinjal has potetial effect against cancer, againg,inflamation and neurological
disorder.
 Digestion
6 Beet-
Active principles: Betacyanin & Betanin, Ferulic acid.
 Anemia- Iron regenerates & reactivates red blood cells
 Cancer- Betaine- has anticancer properties
 Detoxification- Choline from beet juice
 Gastric ulcer- Beet
 Gall blader & Kidney ailments-
Table Contd…

7 Garlic
Active principles: Aliin, Allicin,Diallyldisulphide, Ajoene, Kaempherol , Quecrcetin
 Antiparasitic & anticancer
 Antiviral, antibacterial & antiallergic
 Immunobuilding
 Hypertension: Normalize blood pressure
 Diabetes
 Anti-coagulant: It is protective against thrombosis- blockages of blood flow by clots.
8 Carrot
Active principles: lutein, lycopene, betacarotenes, zeaxanthin and xanthophyll
 Potent anticancer:
 Decrease cholesterol: Pectin reduces the cholesterol level
 Eyesight/vision: Beta-carotene, lutein & zeaxanthin
 Atherosclerosis:
 Immune system: Increases production & performance of white blood cells
 Anemia: Beneficial in blood building
9 Tomato
Active principles: lycopene, betacarotene
 Anti-cancer: Lycopene & Beta-carotene
 Bone and teeth health: Tomato juice is rich source of Vit.C, Calcium & Phosphorous
 Digestive function: Organic acids enhance digestive function
 Heart health: High content of Potassium lower blood pressure
 Stress, tiredness and fatigue
 Anemia: Iron & Vit.C promotes synthesis of hemoglobin
 Skin health: Lycopene & Vit. A & C
10 Cucumber
Active principles: Caffeic acid, anti-oxidants, about 96% water that is naturally distilled,
Potassium.
 Connective tissues building: Silica contributes in proper construction of connective tissues
 Sunburn: Juice is rubbed on affected area
 Inflammation
 Blood pressure & Acidity: Minerals & traces of Sodium.
 Hair growth Silicon & Sulphur content (mix with carrot or spinach juice)
11 Chilli
Active principles: Capsaicinoids, Lignin,α-carotene,β-carotene, lutein, zeaxanthin , rutin and
cryptoxanthin
 Chillies are used to prevent prostrate cancer in mens
 It has anti inflammatory function .
 Its soothes respiratory system
 Green chillies are great source of calcium.
 Green chillies are rich source of iron which boost haemoglobin level.
12 Okra
Active principles: Mucilage, beta-carotene, xanthin and lutein, high in fiber, vitamin A, C,
and folate content.
Table Contd…

 Bone strength: Folate in okra builds strong bones
 Reduce cholesterol: Reduce blood cholesterol & risk of heart diseases
 Diabetes: Insulin like properties reduces blood sugar level
 Immune Booster: High anti-oxidants & Vit. C
 Vision health: Beta- carotenes, xanthin & antioxidants
 Anti-Cancer
13 Fennel
Health benefits of fennel
 Bone health: Iron, phosphorous, calcium, magnesium, and vitamin K content present in
fennel all contribute to building and maintaining bone structure.
 Cancer: Selenium is a mineral that occurs in fennel, but not in most fruits and vegetables.
 Digestion and regularity because of its fiber content, fennel helps to
prevent constipation and promotes regularity for a healthy digestive tract.
 Estrogen occurs naturally in fennel. It is crucial in regulating the female reproductive cycle,
and it can also affect fertility.
 Skin: raw fennel is an excellent source of vitamin C.Vitamin C also promotes collagen's
ability to smooth wrinkles and improve overall skin texture.
14 Ginger
Active Principles: Gingerol
Health benefit:
 Ginger Contains Gingerol, a Substance With Powerful Medicinal Properties.
 Ginger Can Treat Many Forms of Nausea, Especially Morning Sickness.
 Ginger May Reduce Muscle Pain and Soreness.
 Ginger May Drastically Lower Blood Sugars and Improve Heart Disease Risk Factors.
 The Anti-Inflammatory Effects Can Help With Osteoarthritis.
 Ginger Powder May Significantly Reduce Menstrual Pain.
 Ginger May Lower Cholesterol Levels.
 Ginger May Improve Brain Function and Protect Against Alzheimer’s Disease
15 Turmeric
Active Principles: Curcuminoids, Curcumin.
Health benefits:
 Turmeric Contains Bioactive Compounds With Powerful Medicinal Properties
 Curcumin is a Natural Anti-Inflammatory Compound
 Turmeric Dramatically Increases the Antioxidant Capacity of The Body
 Curcumin Boosts Brain-derived Neurotrophic Factor, Linked To Improved Brain Function
And A Lower Risk Of Brain Diseases
 Curcumin Leads to Various Improvements That Should Lower Your Risk of Heart Disease
 Curcumin May be Useful in Preventing and Treating Alzheimer’s Disease
 Arthritis Patients Respond Very Well to Curcumin Supplementation
16 Ajwain
Active Principle: Thymol, Ajoene.
Health benefit:
 Acidity: How to use: Mix 1 tbsp of ajwain seed with 1 tbsp of cumin seeds. Take it every
day with ginger powder.
 Constipation: These seeds are best to treat digestion problems, so this will cure
constipation .
 Kidney Disorders: These seeds are very helpful to cure stones in kidney.
 Asthma: Consuming carom seeds with warm water removes mucus from the body and
relieves from cold and cough.
 Liver And Kidney: Drink ajwain water for treating intestinal pains caused due to
indigestion.
Examples of Nutraceuticals Products

GSK Consumer Health Care: is an industry leader with an estimated seven percent of the worlds Pharmaceuticals
Market. GSK has two products: and OTC. Recently GSK has successfully extended brand Horlicks into food
categories such as oats and bars.
Amway: Amway is one of the worlds largest direct selling companies. it has more than 450 unique, high-quality
products carry the amway name is in the areas of nutrition, wellness.
Abbott Nutrient: is a division of Abbott, the global, brand-based health care company.
Patanajali: is one the rising Nutraceuticals company in India which more than thousand of products.
Future Prospects of Vegetables as Nutraceuticals
Indigenous Vegetables & Underutilized Vegetables
Vegetables provide food diversity and beneficial nutrients and phytochemicals in diets. However, many of the plant
crops remain underutilized and are not known for their nutritional and functional values. These neglected
vegetables are a treasure trove because of their beneficial nutrients and phytochemicals. Yang et al (2007) studied
120 edible plant species, mostly native to tropical and subtropical zones for their nutritional values and antioxidant
and antimicrobial activities. Wide variation exists among species for vitamins including carotene (0-22 mg),
ascorbate (1-353 mg), tocopherols (0-71 mg), folate (3-175 mg); minerals including iron (0.2-26 mg) and calcium
(2-744 mg); total phenolics (0.02-12 g); and antioxidant activities (0-82 millimole trolox equivalent). Eight species
out of 34 vegetables with high phenolic values possessed anti-staphylococcus and/or anti-salmonella activities.
Compared to popular vegetables, many plants, such as moringa, sweet potato leaves, amaranth, nightshade and
Chinese cedar, are easy to grow and have high nutraceutical values. Increased consumption of these vegetables
could help improve human nutrition worldwide. The nutraceutical assessment of a wide range of vegetable species
provides information fundamental to the selection and promotion of indigenous vegetables for increased utilization
and better nutrition.
Biodiversity in Vidharbha: There are lots of biodiversity in Vidharbha region of Maharashta and has high
potentials of different plant spcies which local peoples use to consume and has lots nutritional contents.
Many vegetables grow naturally consumed as remedy against many diseases: Vidharbha region specially
Gadchiroli, Chandrapur and tribal region of Amravati their people consume naturally grown vegetables such as
given below:
Table 4 list of some underutilized vegetables grown in Vidharbha region
Sr.No. Name of crops along with their Health benefits
1 Kartoli (Momordica dioica) : it has antiseptic, anthelmintic used in bleeding piles, urinary infection and as a
sedative. hepatoprotective, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic and analgesic properties
2 Drum-stick (Moringa Oleifera) : it has anti-diabetec, hypertention,HIV, anti-septic, stimulant, diuretic, antithic,
drumstick leaves contains highest β-carotene content.
3 Takla (Cassia tora Linn.): Its eaves, seeds-Decoction of the seeds is given in fever.
4 Lima bean: Contain both soluble fibers, which regulate blood sugar and lowers cholesterol, insoluble fiber, which
aids in the prevention of constipation, digestive disorders, irritable bowel syndrome.
5 Ghol (Purslane): Betalain, betacyanins, . Its leaves are used for on the skin disoreder, bacillary
dysentery,hemorrhoids, intestinal bleeding.
6 Aerial Yam : Diuretic, Diarrhoea and haemorrhoids, Sap expressed from the vine stems is applied to treat purulent
ophthalmia Diosgenin has been detected at 0·45% concentration
7 Tandulja (Amaranthus spp.): It aid in weight management.it useful in maintaining digestive system. It also helps
to strenthing blood vessel.
8 Mayalu (Basella alba L.): Antifungal, anticonvulsant, analgesic, anti-inflammatory and androgenic activities and
for the treatment of anemia.
Table 5 list of some underutilized vegetables
SR.NO. SOME UNDERUTILIZED VEGETABLES

1 Coleus (Solenostemon rotundifolius)
2 Moringa (Moringa oleifera)
3 Ponnangannicheera (Alternanthera sessilis)
4 Basella Basella sp
5 Little gourd (Coccinia grandis)
6 Centella (Centella asiatica)
7 Horse purslane (Boerhavia diffusa)
8 Lettuce tree (Pisonia alba)
9 Winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonalobus)
10 Cluster bean (Cyamopsis tetragonaloba)
11 Sweet potato (Ipomea batatas)
12 Black nightshade (Solanum nigrum)
13 Brahmi (Baccopa monnerii)
Table 6 List of potential varieties developed by IARI with their Nutrient profile.
Vegetable Varieties Health Nutrients
Brinjal Pusa Anthocyanin(48.2mg/100g) Flavonoids (76μg/100g)

Shyamla Anthocyanin(33.5mg/100g) Flavonoids (16μg/100g)
Pusa Uttam
Tomato Pusa Rohini Lycopene (4.5mg/100g) Ascorbic Acid

Lycopene (4.3mg/100g) (40mg/100g)
Pusa Ascorbic Acid
Hybrid-8 (34mg/100g)
Onion Pusa Quercetin (101.2mg/100g) Total Phenolics

Madhavi Quercetin (97.2mg/100g) (85.3mg/100g)
Total Phenolics
Pusa Red (83.4mg/ /100g)
Cauliflower Pusa Potassium(355mg/100g) Ascorbic Acid (99

Meghna mg/100g)
Pusa Potassium(355mg/100g) Ascorbic Acid

Paushja (99 mg/100g)
Pusa Beta carotene

Betakesari (800 – 1000 µg/100 g)
Cabbage Pusa Drum Potassium Ascorbic Acid

Head (281mg/100g) (30 mg/100g)
Carrot Pusa Lycopene Total Carotenoids

Rudhira (10.74mg/100g) (11.46mg/100g)
Red Anthocyanin Carotenoids
Pusa Asita (339.29 mg/100g) (0.22 mg/100g)
(Black)
CONSTRAINTS
 There is a lack of awareness in peoples towards such underexploited vegetables crop which has high
nutritive value.
 There is no proper conservation of wild and elite plant species by Public as well as Government organization
as that species have lot of nutritive value.
 There is lack of Production technologies to adopt underexploited vegetables in Vidharbha.
 Change in life styles of peoples which lead to change eating habits, as in this technology era life style of
human changes as like that there is change in eating habits also observed it turns to junk life style which
leads to cause disease like obesity, diabetes and other serious disorders.
 Nutraceuticals products has high market prices, which leads to develop a new industry for farmer which is
part of processing industry but other than a processing industry it is nutraceuticals industry, which gives high
net returns than any other industry in agricultural and allied field.
CONCLUSION
Vegetables provide dietary diversity as well as health. The consumption of vegetables should be enhanced in order
to have a quality life, since it is scientifically proven that vegetables are good sources of bioactive compounds
having medical and health benefits. Similarly research work related to nutraceutical rich vegetables, their extraction
and marketing should be given priority. Additional research is needed in many areas to ensure this emerging
science continues to be valid and is translated rapidly into consumer-relevant products. Nutraceuticals may provide
a means to reduce the increasing burden on the health care system by a continuous preventive mechanism. These
products will appeal the modern fast life and support mankind to own a quality life.
Manipulation the foods and the concentration of active ingredients can be increased with the help of
Biotechnology is a new, and potentially powerful, tool that has been added by most of the multinational private
seed sector to their vegetable breeding programs. Transgenic crops, commonly referred to as genetically modified
(GM) crops enable plant breeders to bring favourable genes, often previously inaccessible, into elite cultivars,
improving their value considerably and offer unique opportunities for controlling insects, viruses and other
pathogens, as well as nutritional quality and health benefits. Conventional plant breeding that utilizes non-
transgenic approaches will remain the backbone of vegetable genetic improvement strategies. However, transgenic
crop cultivars should not be excluded as products capable of contributing to more nutritious and healthy food. diet
rich in Nutraceuticals will maximize health and reduce disease risk and it has prophylactic and therapeutic role
Scope to develop new production technologies in underexploited vegetables as well as their conservation in
nature.nutraceuticals are present in most of the common vegetables with varying concentration. Concentration,
time and duration of supply of nutraceuticals influence human health
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MATHEMATICAL MODELS IN HYDROLOGY AND
WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING
M. Anjaneya Prasad1 and P. Sunder Kumar2
1
Professor of Civil Engineering Department, University College of Engineering, Osmania University, Hyderabad, (T.S.)
2
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Foundation, Vaddeswaram, Guntur, India
INTRODUCTION
Water is a precise natural resource and vital for sustaining all life on the earth. It is not uniformly distributed in
time and space. Due to its multiple benefits and the problems created by its excesses, shortages and quality
deterioration, conservation and management of water resources requires special attention. The soil movement due
to runoff in a basin will have implication on performance of watershed. The loss of fertile soil from the watershed
may lead to critical soil erosion issue and needs to be treated by conservation of methods to control the soil loss.
Considering the complexity of the hydrologic issues it is essential to understand the mathematical aspects of the
watershed and modelling appropriately to analyse the soil loss characteristics of basin. There is always possibility
from the models and numerical results obtained by models can help decision makers to take appropriate decisions.
These decisions can be appraised under different policies that are possible. However, the real life issues are much
more complicated and they are not always commensurate. The objective of this paper is primarily to focus of some
case studies on mathematical models that were developed and the conclusions drawn on the following models.
 Development of Evapotranspiration Model for a Small Region.
 Simulation of Rainfall and Runoff Models using RS & GIS
 Sediment Yield Model using Fuzzy Logic Method
 Performance and Simulation of EPANET Model
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION MODEL FOR A SMALL REGION

The Potential Evapo Transpiration (PET) is actually the consignment of water that can evaporate potentially and
transpire from vegetation, with atmospheric demand as its only restriction (Lu et al., 2005). The conception of PET
is to designate the micrometeorological environment with the demand the evaporation rate of atmosphere is
proficient in extricating from an area considering
The Andhra Pradesh state is a newly forged state after detachment from combined states of Andhra Pradesh and
Telangana states and the area constituting total area of 160,205 km2. The present study area is a region in the state
along Bandar canal, data possessed from Indian Meteorological Department. Evapotranspiration (ETo) is the sum
of evaporation and plant transpiration from the Earth's land and ocean surface to the atmosphere. Evaporation
accounts for the movement of water to the air from sources such as the soil, canopy interception, and water bodies.
Transpiration accounts for the movement of water with in a plant and the subsequent loss of water as vapour
through stomata in its leaves. Evapotranspiration is an important part of the hydrological cycle and controls Runoff
volume of river discharge, requirement of irrigation water and soil moisture contents (Mohan & Arumugam, 1996).
Methodology Adopted
In spite of global predominance for estimation of Evapotranspiration, its spatial distribution is still fragmentary.
This can be justified as it relies on numerous meteorological parameters, available only at staple stations. The
objective is set to contrast the performance of the empirical equations with the Penman-Monteith method,
computed using CROPWAT has been used at part of region of Andhra Pradesh. The Penman-Monteith method is a
standard recommended by FAO and is valid globally for reference crop Evapotranspiration but it requires daily
meteorological data of maximum and minimum temperature, wind speed, relative humidity, sunshine hours and
solar radiation. The various empirical methods were compared with Penman-Monteith method. This will solve the
issue of huge data oriented Penman – Monteith method. The temperature and radiation based methods and
equations that are available from literature, Thornthwaite, Blaney-Criddle, Hargreaves are in this paper for
comparison, for years 2010 and 2011. For the same purpose, monthly meteorological data is collected form Indian
Meteorological Department.
115
The data of monthly meteorological data of maximum and minimum temperatures, wind speed, relative humidity,
and sunshine hours and solar radiation is used for the same purpose. After computing the ETo using temperature
based models like Blaney-Criddle, Hargreaves and Thornthwaite equations, comparison has been made with
Modified-Penman method to compute the relationship between each method with that of Penman-Monteith method
for the specified data used to develop the models and comparison has been carried out. Blaney-Criddle method
when compared with Penman Monteith method has resulted in correlation of 0.9737, Hargreaves method is
compared with Penman Monteith yielded a correlation of 0.6023. Thornthwaite method when compared with
Penman Monteith has regression coefficient value of 0.9331 with a non-linear relationship.
Observations from Model
In the present study estimation of Evapotranspiration for the cardinal position of Andhra Pradesh state with less
data intensive models have been successfully compared with high data intensive model like Penman-Monteith
method. The relationship equations developed in the study area will be useful to compute accurate estimation of
ET0 with less meteorological data. The resulted equations have produced good correlation coefficient when
compared with standard Penman-Monteith equation for ETo.The correlationship obtained varies from 0.60 to 0.97.
SIMULATION OF RAINFALL RUNOFF USING RS AND GIS

India has only 4% of the world’s freshwater and with 16% of world’s population apart from 10% world’s cattle
population . Hence, the available water should be utilized efficiently to meet the people’s needs. In order to have
precise management of available water, runoff quantity in the basin is essential. Hydrological modeling is a
powerful technique of hydrologic system and investigations by the research hydrologists and the practicing water
resources engineers involved in the planning and development of water resources. The SCS-CN method has
recently been used quite widely by hydrologists. The method uses tabulated curve number values to provide a
relatively simple way of moving from a GIS data set on soils and vegetation to develop rainfall-runoff models
(Ashish Pandey et al., 2009, P.Sundar Kumar et al., 2010, T.Reshma et al., 2010).
Recent reviews of (Probability Distributed Model) PDM which represents a variety of catchment scale
hydrological behaviors, concepts and equations have been provided by Moore (1983) and also developed models.
The planning and execution of water resource project involves runoff estimation. Several methods are available for
estimation of runoff in literature. Among various methods, the USDA Soil Conservation Service curve number
(SCS-CN) method is one of the most popular and widely used. The advantages of this method lies in its simplicity,
predictability, stability and its reliance on only one parameter namely the Curve Number (CN). The land Use /
Land Cover classes can be integrated with the hydrologic soil groups of the sub basin in GIS and the weighted CN
can be estimated. These estimated weighted CN for the entire area can be used to compute runoff. The computed
runoff values can also be checked with the observed data. The main inputs required to the SCS-CN method are
delineation of the watershed, preparation of soil map, preparation of land use/land cover thematic map and
antecedent moisture condition to estimate daily runoff. The objective of the study is to calculate daily runoff using
SCS-CN for Meghadrigedda catchment using remote sensing and GIS.
The primary objectives of the study were to delineate Meghadrigedda catchment area and extraction of land
use/land cover using RS and GIS and also to develop and test the performance of SCS-CN models for runoff
computation. The daily rainfall data for rainy season (May, June, July, August, and September) of four years are
used to estimate daily runoff. The five years (2009, 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013) daily rainfall data of two rain
gauge stations are used to estimate runoff. The rain gauge represent only point sampling of the areal distribution of
rainfall but rainfall over the catchment is never uniform. Curve number is the governing factor, which
predominantly affects the runoff amount that flows over the land after satisfying all losses. Although the curve
number itself having no physical meaning but it plays an important role in defining hydrological response of
catchment. Zero curve number describes the hydrological response only with infiltration. All the rainfall water will
infiltrate to become subsurface flow. When the Curve Number is 100 it describes the hydrological responses with
no infiltration. All the rainfall water will flow as surface flow as soil is in saturation limit that happens during
continuous rainfall events. As soon as CN has increased, the runoff from that watershed will also increase. The CN
is derived from Land use/Land cover classification and hydrological soil group, the land use coverage and soil
coverage were merged using Arc-GIS software. Using ARC-GIS software total of 78 polygons has been developed.
All these polygons having a particular land use and a hydrologic soil group and then curve numbers were assigned
to these polygons. Thus a curve number coverage has been generated such that different polygons will have
different curve number values. The pictorial presentation of CN for different areas is presented in spatial
distribution of Curve Number for Meghadrigedda catchment.
Estimation of Runoff
The CN value for each polygon was used to calculate maximum potential retention S for each polygon and the
depth of runoff of each polygon has been estimated. The daily runoff has been converted into monthly runoff. The
graphical representations of monthly runoff potential for years (2009, 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013) were presented
in respective months and years. The spatial distribution of runoff depth in wet year, dry year and normal year have
been presented appropriately.
Land Use/ Land Cover Classification
Indian Remote Sensing satellite digital image with specifications described under section were classified using
maximum likelihood classifier. The graphical representations of LU/LC statistics of the Meghadrigedda catchment
are also given whereas tabular form is displayed in which shows comparative analysis of land covers variation in
basin. It is found that the Meghadrigedda catchment comprises of eight different types of LU/LC. The selected
geographical area has 363 sq.km with the land use pattern has been 51.28% for cultivation, 8.34% for plantation,
Built-up area 3.67% ,Hilly area 16.98% , waste land 8.63%, Water bodies 11.10% as per study.
Data Input and Software Used
To achieve the stated objectives, daily precipitation and runoff data for period of five years (2009, 2010, 201,2012
and 2013), soil data, topographic maps and satellite imagery data has been collected for the study area. ERDAS
IMAGINE 8.5 and ARC GIS 9.2 software packages were used for analyzing the data. The Survey of India topo
sheets covering the study area were scanned, rectified and digitized for elevation contours, drainage network, and
prominent land cover using ARC-GIS software. The river basin has been divided into micro-units (micro basins)
using Arc-Swat Software. The IRS satellite images for the year 2010 was classified using supervised classification
(after several ground truth verifications) with maximum likelihood classification algorithm in ERDAS IMAGINE
software. The observed runoff data are compared with predicted model data. The mean monthly total rainfall in
mm and provides the information about the rainy months. The observed runoff and calculated runoff relationship is
evaluated using SCS-CN analysis. Based on the results the best fit equation is developed. The comparison of the
observed runoff and predicted value of Runoff (SCS-CN) which indicates that the data points are very close and
can be observed by 1:1 straight-line. It can be observed from the study that SCS-CN method has performed well
in the prediction of ungauged runoff in the river basin considered. If requires data on land use pattern and soil
information based on present study. The value of coefficient of determination (R2) between observed runoff in mm
and that off predicted runoff in mm is 0.943. It was observed that highest values of the calculated and observed
runoff using SCSCN method are 401.01mm and 400 mm respectively in September and November. So, it can be
suggested that SCS-CN can be used for estimation of runoff for this ungauged basin.
The developed model has been successfully validated in a river basin in Andhra Pradesh state. It is based on the
hydrological soil group, Land use/Land cover and daily rainfall data daily runoff depth which were estimated by
SCS-CN method using distributed CN technique. The estimated daily runoff of rainy season has been converted
into monthly runoff. In the present study, SCS-CN model is used for the estimation of ungauged runoff in the
Meghadrigedda Basin, Vishakhapatnam District, Andhra Pradesh, India. The coefficient of determination
(R2=0.943) indicates good performance of model and simulation of runoff from the developed model is reliable.
SEDIMENT YIELD MODEL USING FUZZY LOGIC METHOD

Sediment yield is a complex phenomenon and the variables involved in erosion modelling makes it difficult to
measure and also to predict the sediment yield in a precise manner. Among available soil erosion and sediment
yield models, the universal soil loss equation (USLE), the revised version, Revised universal soil loss equation
(RUSLE), and its modified version (MUSLE) are widely used in hydrology and environmental engineering for
computing the potential soil erosion and sediment yield. The MUSLE equation has been used previously by many
researchers (Tripathi et al. 2001) and, in some cases, the equation was subjected to different modifications. The
sediment yield model like MUSLE is easier to apply because the output data for this model can be determined at
the watershed outlet (Pandey et al. 2009). Fuzzy set theory was originally introduced by Zadeh (1965) and later it
became popular in control engineering problems. Many researchers concluded that fuzzy logic is very effective in
handling uncertain data and when data also associated with certain vagueness in nature. Despic and Simminivic
(2000) presented a general methodology for numerical evaluation of complex qualitative criteria based on the
theory of fuzzy set theory. Many researchers have adopted fuzzy logic based model for reservoir management
problems and also to address uncertainty and vagueness in variables. In the present study a fuzzy logic based model
has been developed to estimate the sediment yield. In the developed model peak rate of flow, rainfall and runoff
volume were considered as input to model and sediment yield as output from the model. All these variables which
are uncertain and also sometimes vague in nature particularly where measurements are involved were considered as
fuzzy variables. The data from 2014 to 2017 events has been considered to develop during calibration of the model.
Membership functions have been derived based on the input and output variables from the part of data base for
calibration of the model. Various membership forms have been tried for all the input and output variables before
arriving to final membership forms for input and output variables. It was found that combination of Triangular,
Trapezoidal and gumbell form of memberships were found to perform well for peak flood variable and Triangular
and Trapezoidal forms were found to perform well for all other variables. A typical membership form for Peak
flow and sediment yield were shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2.
The discharge and sediment yield data from Meghadrigedda watershed were collected for storm events
occurring from January 2014 to 2017. All the required information for the application of the MUSLE model such
as L=3600m, Tp=13.82 hrs, S=0.0004 and area of the Meghadrigedda basin were extracted with the help of GIS
database. Comparison of predicted and estimated values has been carried out and is reported in table 2.0.The good
coefficient of determination value (0.75) indicates that good relation exists between observed and estimated values
as shown in Fig.3. The percentage deviation of the storm in estimated yield from the observed values and
calculated values varied in the range of 0.01% to 53.0% it has presented in table 2.0. The average value of the
estimated error for the studied storm was estimated 7.67% for the MUSLE model. The average value of estimated
error is within 20%. Hence the value can be considered as the acceptable with level of accuracy for the simulation
as per the recommendation of Bingner et al (1989).
Fig. 1 Membership form of Input Variable “Peak Flow”
Fig. 2 Membership form of Output Variable “Sediment Yield”

The correlation obtained between the both model sediment yield was found to be 0.97. In order to verify the
performance of Fuzzy Logic based model the sediment yield results were also compared with actual measurement
of sediment and it has resulted in correlation of 0.937. Fig 4 and Fig 5 shows the correlation obtained from Fuzzy
Logic based model and measured sediment separately. Hence it can be concluded that the fuzzy logic based model
for sediment yield is performing well and can be adopted as a means to estimate the sediment yield in basin of
similar hydrological in nature.
MUSLE model has been successfully used for the estimation of storm-wise sediment yield in the
Meghadrigedda Basin with good coefficient of determination of 0.84 which indicates accurate simulation of
sediment yield from the MUSLE model. The average error value using MUSLE when compared with measured
sediment yield was estimated to be 7.67%. However, the present results can also be used in erosion-based
watershed prioritization in the study area. To regionalize the results of the study area, greater numbers of storms
events as well as case studies are needed. Hence researchers should consider this aspect. In addition, other simple
soil erosion and sediment yield models must be considered with reasonably accurate estimation of system response
at the watershed scales, when scarce information exists. The fuzzy Logic based model developed is performing
well for sediment computation from the inputs peak flow, rainfall and volume of runoff. The resulted correlation
with MUSLE model is 0.97 and with that of measured value it is 0.937.
PERFORMANCE AND SIMULATION OF EPANET MODEL

EPANET was developed by the Water Supply and Water Resources Division (formerly the Drinking Water
Research Division) of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's National Risk Management Research
Laboratory. It is public domain software that may be freely copied and distributed with certain limitations.
EPANET is a computer based software model that performs extended period simulation of hydraulic and water
quality behavior within pressurized pipe networks. EPANET is designed to be a research tool for improving of
understanding of the movement and fate of drinking water constituents within distribution systems. The model can
be simulated with the varying conditions of hydraulics for getting fruitful results and with local restrictions that can
be modeled effectively.
Methodology for EPANET Model
Through the process of calibrating a model, credibility of the model needs to be established. A calibrated model is
known to simulate a network system for a range of operating conditions. Its input data has been examined and
adjusted to insure that the model can be used as an accurate predictive tool. Once a network model has been
calibrated to a known range of operating conditions, it can be used as a benchmark. Pressure and flow rates
computed by this model become the benchmark from which pressure and flow rates computed by subsequent,
modified models can be compared. The differences between the two models can then be used to analyze the
changes brought about in the modified system. A calibrated model can be used to predict any potential problems
due to changes in the system operation. In the process of calibrating a model, collection and analysis of data used to
define the model and studying the existing network. The engineer needs to simulate many of the same system
settings and operations that a network operator makes in order to calibrate the model to the actual operation of the
network system. In addition, by analyzing the system operation, possible improvements to system operation may be
determined. Inconsistencies between the model results and the actual field conditions have to be examined, with
additional field data being collected and analyzed.
Description of Study Area
Mucherla is a village located in Kandukur Block of Rangareddy district in Telangana located in rural area of
Rangareddy district of Telangana State. The distribution system designed here is tree system or dead end system.
By adopting EPANET model data filling of one by number of nodes, demand, elevation, tanks and pipes we design
the respective distribution system. The number of nodes designed here are 54 with 10 overhead water tanks and in
the entire segment with 41 pipes.
Calculation of Pipe Diameters
Once the design discharge is known, pipe diameters are assumed in a way that the velocities of flow in pipes
remain between 0.6 to 3 m/s. smaller velocity is assumed for pipes of smaller diameter and larger velocity for pipes
of larger diameter. The loss of head in the pipes is then calculated using Hazen Williams’s formula as given in
equation 1
V = 0.849 × C × R × 0.63 S × 0.54 .....(1)
Where
V = mean velocity of flow in pipe (m/s)
R = hydraulic radius (mean depth) in m
S = hydraulic gradient
C = coefficient of roughness of pipe
In terms of diameter D of the pipe, the above formula reduces as per equation. 2
V = 0.354 C × D × 0.63 S × 0.54 .....(2)
Where, D is the diameter of the pipe in meters. Expressed in terms of head loss hf and the length L of the pipe,
the Hazen Williams formula takes the following form given is 3 and 4
hf = 6.843 (D × 1.167) × VC × 1.852 .....(3)
3
The discharge Q (m /s) is given by:
Q = 0.278C × D × 2.63S × 0.54 .....(4)
A steady state simulation is used to calibrate the maximum (peak) hour demand, whereas an extended period
simulation is needed to calibrate a maximum day demand. All pipes, pumps, valves, tanks, and reservoirs should be
identified, including nodal elevations, pressure zone boundaries, and other important information. Whenever
changes occur in the water distribution network, such as operational changes, network configuration, or increases
in water consumption, the degree of accuracy for the calibrated model is reduced. If these changes are severe
enough, the model will need to be recalibrated. In practice this means that the model should be recalibrated
whenever major new facilities are added to the network system, a new record for maximum hour is set, or
operational procedures change significantly. The variation of pressure at various junctions is shown in Figure 3
The developed simulation model indicated minimum pressure and maximum pressure of 7.13 m and 53.76 m
when roughness Hazen Willium coefficient varied from 105 to 140 at Mucherla Junction. The variation of
pressures at various nodes due to possible change in Hazen Willum constant from 105 to 140 is shown in Figure 4.
The developed simulation model indicated change in velocity of maximum 0.39 m/s and when diameter is varied in
the network obtained velocity of maximum 0.71 m/s and minimum of 0.01 m/s The model has indicated change in
flow of maximum 1253 cumecs and minimum of 53cumecs when diameter is varied in the network flow obtained
as maximum 656 cumecs and minimum of 24 cumecs.
PRESSURE
120
100
Pressure m
80
60
40
20
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51
Junctions
Fig. 3 Variation of Pressures due to Modified Roughness at Nodes near Mucherla

60
50
PRESSURES in M
40
NODE 8
30
NODE 7
20
NODE 6
10
NODE 4
0
105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 NODE 1
ROUGHNESS
Fig. 4 Variation of Pressures due to Modified Roughness at Nodes near Mucherla
CONCLUSIONS
1. The mathematical models are very useful tools for decision making and management strategies to be adopted
in Hydrology and water resources domain.
2. The high data intence Blaney-Criddle method when compared with Penman Monteith method has resulted in
correlation of 0.9737, Hargreaves method is compared with Penman Monteith yielded a correlation of
0.6023. Thornthwaite method when compared with Penman Monteith has regression coefficient value of
0.9331 with a non-linear relationship in study area chosen.
3. SCS-CN model is used for the estimation of ungauged runoff in the Meghadrigedda Basin, Vishakhapatnam
District, Andhra Pradesh, India has resulted in correlation ship with that of measured value as 0.943 which
indicates good performance of model and hence the developed model is reliable.
4. The fuzzy Logic based model developed is performing well for sediment computation from the inputs peak
flow, rainfall and volume of runoff. The resulted correlation with MUSLE model is 0.97 and with that of
measured value it is 0.937.
5. The developed simulation model using EPANET model indicated minimum pressure and maximum pressure
of 7.13 m and 53.76 m when roughness Hazen Willium coefficient varied from 105 to 140 at Mucherla
Junction.
REFERENCES
1. Despic., Simminivic., 2000. Aggregation operator for soft decision making in water resources Engineering , fuzzy
set and systems Elsevier 115, p11-33
2. P. Sundara Kumar, T. Venkata Praveen and M. Anjanaya Prasad (2016) “Identification Critical Erosion Prone Areas
using Remote Sensing and GIS: A Case Study of Sarada River Basin, Indian Journal of Science and Technology,
Vol 9(32), DOI: 10.17485/ijst/2016/v9i32/86813
3. P.Sundara Kumar, T.V.Praveen, M. Anjaneya Prasad “Simulation of Sediment Yield over Un-gauged Stations
Using MUSLE and Fuzzy Model(2015) Aquatic Procedia 4 (2015) 1291 – 1298
4. Pandey A, Chowdary VM, Mal BC., 2009. Sediment yield modelling of an agricultural watershed using MUSLE,
remote sensing and GIS. J Paddy Water Environ (Springer) 7(2):105–113.
5. Rajasekhar & Anjaneya Prasad et al.(2015) “Comparison of Different Methods for Estimating Potential
Evapotranspiration in a Regional Area of Andhra Pradesh” International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
Volume 08, No. 02, P.P.149-152
6. RajaSekhar Venkata Ayyappa et al (2015) “Determination of Evapotranspiration Relationship for Temperature
Based Methods with Penman-Monteith Method for a Regional Area in Andhra Pradesh” International Journal of
Applied Engineering Research (IJAER), Volume 10, Number (3) 2015 p.p. 2568-2571
7. S. Mohan & N. Arumugam,‘‘Relative Importance of Meteorological Variables In Evapotranspiration: Factor

Analysis Approach,’’Water Resources Management, 10 (1), 1996,1–20.
8. Tripathi, M,P., Panda, R,K., Pradhan, S., Das, R, K., 2001. Estimation of Sediment yield form a small watershed
using MUSLE and GIS. Journal of the Institute of Engineering I 82:40-45.
9. Zadeh, L, A.,1965.Fuzzy sets. Information and Control 8 (3): 338.
TECHNICAL PAPERS


GHOGHA RAIN WATER HARVESTING SCHEME IN 82 VILLAGES OF

BHAVNAGAR, GUJARAT - A SUCCESS STORY 14 YEARS AFTER
COMPLETION
F. R. Sherwani
Chief Civil, WAPCOS Limited, New Delhi, India, frsherwani@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
The projects aimed at conservation of Water through Water Resources Management Structures through Rain
Water Harvesting in 82 villages of Saurashtra, Bhavnagar district of Gujarat including development and
construction supervision of WRM structures. About 300 WRM structures were designed and constructed
successfully in entire project area that included construction of Check Dams, Development of village old ponds.
The project resulted in Development and enhancement of ground water resources, Improvement in ground water
quality due to dilution of dissolve impurities due to recharge, Checking salinity ingress near coastal area and
increased greenery.
Keywords: Rain water Harvesting, Saurashtra, Water Resource Management, Check dams.
INTRODUCTION
The work of “Ghogha Rain Water including construction supervision in 82 villages of Bhavnagar, Gujarat” was
awarded to WAPCOS in 2003 by WASMO (Water & Sanitation Management Organization) A Govt. of Gujarat
undertaking for design and construction of Water Resources Management Structures (WRM) including the
construction supervision till completion.
SCOPE OF WORK
The main scope of work was:
1. Identification of sites for WRM for appropriate structures at suitable location near village for ground water
recharge.
2. Detailed structure wise- location wise hydro-geological studies.
3. Detailed topographical surveys around selected sites.
4. Detailed designs
5. Tender preparation – structure wise, village wise
6. Construction supervision with Quality Control.
The main aims of the above project were:
1. Enhancement of ground of ground water resources through construction of recharge structure like Check
Dams on streams near villages, Development of village ponds including repair of existing ones if required.
2. Salinity reduction/ mitigation measures for salinity control for villages situated near coastline as many villages
like Avania, Ghogha, Koliyak, Gundi, Mithivirdi, Sosia, Aland, Padri Gohil, Devali, are situated near the
western coast line of the Gulf of Khambhat.
3. Improvement in ground water quality as the ground water recharge through WRM structure shall dilute
dissolved impurities including salinity of ground water table.
4. Check the salinity ingress by creating a reverse hydraulic gradient ground water table rises above Sea Level,
due to Recharge.
5. Enhancement of drinking water supply in the village through village resource making the village self-
dependent.
As a matter of fact, the Saurashtra region in general and rural Bhavnagar in particular with three main water
deficient Talukas; Bhavnagar Taluka, Ghogha Taluka and Talaja Taluka have been water starved for past many
125
years. The villages in south, like, Alang and Sosia (famous for ship breaking yard), Mithivirdi Manar, Mandva etc.
have been famous for “Kesar – Badam Mango” which was due to availability of plenty of fresh ground water
resources and the area was lush green. But slowly, due to over exploitation of ground water sources, and cutting of
jungles etc., led to environmental destruction and depletion of ground water resources in entire region, and also
lead to salinity ingress in ground water which has further led to depletion of agriculture and mango groves around
Alang and Sosia.
PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION & PLANNING

The project was implemented by WAPCOS Bhavnagar Field unit that included undersigned with a commitment
and challenge in field of work.
Investigations
During investigations, around 150 most suitable sites were identified for:
1. Check Dams
2. Pond Development
3. Renovation of existing village ponds for
 Diversion of rain water into ponds
 Deepening of ponds
 Bund strengthening, repairs, raising height and pitching
 Provision of spill channel for safe discharge of floods
4. Check dams cum tidal control structures in coastal areas to harvest rain water and prevention of sea water
entry into the stream.
Project Planning
All villages in the project area were extensively visited along with WAPCOS geologist, engineers and surveyors
and it was observed that the villagers were well aware of Water Resources Management practices and importance
of Water conservation when they had droughts in pasts. Almost all villages were located near small or big
Ephemeral streams having firm (impervious) and higher bank and bed had suited rocky strata barely 1 to 2 m below
deepest bed level. For better geological explorations, geological strata and depth of ground water table from village
open wells can be observed.
During the course, it was also concluded that for better ground water recharge through rain water harvesting
construction of Check Dams and Development of village Ponds shall be most effective as it involves initial
construction cost and needs no maintenance for years whereas, other structures like well recharge and inject wells
in rural area are less significant and are almost impossible to maintain as they require continues cleaning.
DESIGN OF PROJECT COMPONENTS

Check Dams
It is small water retaining structure that stores rain water on upstream and passes excess flood water safely to
downstream through over flow section. Rain water thus stored at upstream recharges ground water through
percolation and recharges wells down stream of it depending upon geology, dip directions etc. A check Dam
mainly consists of;
1. An over flow section
2. Abutments and bund on both banks.
3. Upstream and downstream return walls
Design of Check Dams
Overflow section for Check Dams or spill channels for Ponds may be designed as broad crested weir.
Following are steps for design of Check Dam and spill channels
Estimation of High Flood Level

a) Observed HFL – this can calculated through physical verification during site visits and topographical surveys.
b) HFL can also be calculated through :
 Rational Formula which is applicable for small catchments upto watershed area of 1300 ha assuming
uniform intensity of rainfall
 Dicken’ s formula
However, concerned departments in some states have developed their own empirical formulae applicable to
different regions of that state. The rainfall data for run off computations can be collected from nearest Rain
Gauging observatories. Bhavnagar district had 3 Rain Gauging located at Bhavnagar, Ghogha and Talaja.
The HFL at a particular point can also be calculated with latest available software that needs survey and
meteorological data and gives fairly good results.
To be on safer side, the higher value of HFL to adopted.
Top of Abutment/Bund is taken as sum of HFL+ Free Board (as per IS 10430-1982)
The check dams also helps in improving the groundwater condition as depicted in Figure 1 below and hence
greatly improves the living condition in coastal areas
Fig. 1 Effect of construction of check dam on ingress of salinity in ground water
Height of weir of check dam

It is decided after seeing actual site conditions like height of banks on both sides of stream, considered HFL + Free
Board, likely submergence area (no submergence of important Govt. properties including roads, pavements etc. and
private property is tolerable and may lead to litigations if ignored).
Check dams are usually small water retaining structures and to keep submergence area as low as possible,
usually height ranging from 1 to 3 m can be adopted.
Length of weir of Check dam
Length of weir or over flow section /spill section should be enough to safely pass flood through area above waste
weir ( length of over flow weir X height of water above weir (HFL + free board)), in this way, the length and height
of water above top of weir decided to pass the maximum flood safely.
Height of Abutments
This is taken as HFL + Free Board
Top of Bunds (on both the banks of stream, if required)
The top level remains same as that of top of Abutments. It is constructed from top of abutment on both banks till
top level of top of bund matches with the same banks level towards upstream. This is done for safety and
outflanking.
Depth of Foundation
It is decided on the basis geotechnical investigation by digging 1x1m pit at deepest bed level at the section where
check dam is being constructed, depth of this test pit may be taken upto firm strata. It our case, sound and
competent strata was available at a shallow depth of 1 to 2 m. however, availability of sandy strata (which is highly
pervious) and impervious strata at a depth more than 2-3 m makes the structure uneconomical.
Further, the depth of the foundation can also be computed from Rankin’s formula.
Top and base width of waste weir, abutments
This can be calculated by trial and error, by assuming a trapezoidal section of Check Dam while conducting
stability analysis for overflow section, Abutments and upstream and downstream wing walls.
Size of Apron (depth and width) just at downstream of over flow section
a) Depth and width – calculated form equation for hydraulic jump.
b) Length - length of apron was kept equal to length of weir.
STABILITY ANALYSIS
Following stability analysis are carried out safe Sections of Weir, Abutments and Wing/return walls:
a) Stability against over turning
b) Stability against rupture from tension
c) Stability against sliding
d) Stability against crushing
All above analysis is done for following conditions:
a) Reservoir empty conditions
b) Reservoir full conditions with no water at down stream
c) Full HFL conditions with part submergence at down stream
CONSTRUCTION SUPERVISION AND QUALITY CONTROL.

 Thorough checking and examination of material (cements, sand, Steel) to used for constructions and should
confirm to relevant IS code before start of work.
 Checking and control of excavated levels during excavations, lines and grades also to be checked
 During the entire period of execution, strict quality control must be maintained, cement (setting time,
soundness, strength), concrete (grade, strength etc., proper compaction, water cement ratio, consumption of
cement by periodic counting of used and empty cement bags serves the purpose), steel (elongation, tensile
strength) must be check at regular interval with collection of samples and testing at nearby govt. Laboratory
on routine basis.
 In order to economize construction cost, Weirs, abutments are sometimes constructed in Rubble Masonry with
appropriate cement sand ratio. In this case, to make the entire water retaining structure water tight, mortar test
are to be conducted and it should be checked that all rubbles should be properly set in mortar.
RESULTS
In that way, the “Ghogha Rain water harvesting schemes in 82 villages of Bhavnagar district” were well
planned and implemented through very strict quality control and completed on time. Immediately after
constructions, all rain water structures were flooded with rain waters which drew wide spread appreciation in entire
area but also in Gujarat. The success of the project is evident as verified through satellite imageries before
construction of check dams, weirs and 14 years after their construction. The photographs of some of the villages
(Figure 2 to 21) are as below:

Fig. 2 Commissioning of 51 welfare schemes including Gogha project by Honorable Chief Minister Shri Narendra Modi.

Fig. 3 Check Dams at Koliyaak – 14 years After Construction (2017)

Fig. 4. Check Dam at Gundi, Ghogha, Bhavnagar – 14 years After Construction (2017)


Fig. 5. Check Dam at Malekvadar, Bhavnagar- 14 years after Construction (in 2017)

Fig. 6. Check Dam at Hoidad, Bhavnagar – 14 years after Construction in 2017

Fig. 7 3 Nos. Pond Development & 1 Nos. Check Dam at Tagdi, Bhavnagar (Before & after construction)

Fig. 8 Pond Development, Kobadi, Bhavnagar –14 years after Construction

Fig. 9 3 Check Dams at Bhandaria, Bhavnagar – 14 years after Construction

Fig. 10 Check Dam at Tansa – 14 years after Construction (2017)

Fig. 11 2 Check Dams at Chaniyala, Bhavnagar– 14 years after Construction

Fig. 12 4 Nos. Check Dams and 2 Nos. Pond Development at Devali – 14 years after Construction

Fig. 13 2 No.s’ Pond Development at Padri Gohil– 14 years after Construction

Fig. 14 1 Check Dam and 1 Pond Development at Bharapara, Bhavnagar – 14 years after Construction

Fig. 15 3 No’s Check Dams at Mithivirdi– 14 years after Construction

Fig. 16 3 Nos. Check Dams & 1 Nos, Pond, Bhankal – 14 years after Construction

Fig. 17 1 no. Pond Development, Rampar, Bhavnagar – 14 years after Construction

Fig. 18 3 Check Dams at Malpar, Bhavnagar – 14 years after Construction

Fig. 19 1 Check Dam at Velavadar, Bhavnagar– 14 years after Construction

Fig. 20 Pond Development at Bhadbhadiya, Bhavnagar – 14 years after Construction

Fig. 21 Check Dams at Tarasara, Bhavnagar – 14 years after Construction
CONCLUSION
Hard work done by WAPCOS has been reaping good results 14 years after construction of this project. Physically,
as evident from satellite images of year 2003 (before construction) and 2017 (14 years after construction), the
project leads to the socio-economic development of the villages with huge improvement in ground condition.
The area where WAPCOS proposed Rain Water Harvesting structures were constructed has resulted in:
1. Development and enhancement of ground water resources
2. Improvement in ground water quality, due to dilution of dissolve impurities due recharge.
3. Checking salinity ingress near coastal area, as evident from increase in greenery after construction.
4. Social and financial impact due to increase in crop and dairy production.
5. Improved availability of drinking water.
ROLE OF ISOTOPE TECHNIQUES IN CHARACTERIZING
THERMAL FLUID- INSIGHTS FROM GODAVARI VALLEY
GEOTHERMAL FIELD, TELANGANA
Sitangshu Chatterjee* and U. K. Sinha
*Isotope Hydrology Section, Isotope and Radiation Application Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre,
Mumbai, India., sitangshujuchem@gmail.com, sitanshu@barc.gov.in
ABSTRACT
Geothermal energy is an indigenous source of energy and, if used properly, also a renewable one. Many
countries (i.e. USA, Mexico, Italy, Iceland, Japan, and New Zealand etc.) are currently using these
resources either for electric power generation or for direct use of the heat. Vast geothermal resources in
the Pacific region exist and geothermal energy is harnessed by many countries not only for electrical
power generation but for non-electrical applications in agriculture and industry as well. In India,
significant amount of the resource, however, still remains untapped primarily due to lack of exposure to
various technologies of geothermal exploration and exploitation. As most of the resources are situated in
a complex geochemical environment and development is initially capital intensive, exploration activities
demand in-depth data collection and interpretation to understand the characteristics, origin and
movement of fluids. Applications of isotopes (both stable and radioactive) in conjunction with
geochemical analysis are very useful in providing important information about the
1. Possible recharge area,
2. Origin of geothermal fluid,
3. Mixing with cold surface water,
4. Rock-water interaction,
5. Source of the solutes dissolved in the thermal fluids,
6. Subsurface circulation time of the thermal waters
7. Estimation of subsurface reservoir temperature.
Measurement of stable isotopes such as 2H and 18O helps to identify the recharge area and origin of thermal
water. Radioisotopes such as tritium and carbon-14 are to be measured for dating of geothermal waters which in
turn will predict the subsurface circulation time. Carbon isotopic composition of DIC (δ13C) indicates the source
of dissolved inorganic carbon in the water. Tritium can also be used to quantify the extent of mixing with non-
thermal waters. In this present submission the usefulness of these isotopic techniques in characterizing the
thermal fluids from Godavari valley geothermal field will be elucidated.
Keywords: Geothermal Resource, Radioisotopes, Godavari Valley.
INTRODUCTION
Geothermal energy is a ready energy resource stored beneath the earth surface and can be utilised for various
applications from large complex power stations to small and relatively simple pumping systems. Today several
countries are tapping this source of energy quite effectively as an affordable and sustainable solution to reduce
dependency on fossil fuels. Stable isotope techniques coupled with geochemical investigations play a crucial role in
early exploration stage and provide vital information on the possible recharge area, origin of thermal waters,
subsurface temperature, rock-water interaction and other physico-chemical processes such as mixing with non-
thermal waters and steam separation etc. Prior to the development of isotope analytical techniques, it was uncertain
that whether geothermal waters had a magmatic or meteoric origin. Early pioneering work carried out by Craig et
al. (1956) showed that δ2H values of geothermal water were same as that of local precipitation in that area whereas
δ18O values are less negative. Similar deuterium ratio indicates that local precipitation has infiltrated into the deep
levels and recharges the geothermal system. The departure in the δ18O values of geothermal water from that of
meteoric line can be explained by isotopic exchange of 18O between water and rock minerals which are enriched in
δ18O. Low deuterium value in geothermal water compared to local precipitation can be due to the recharge from
higher elevation or due to the presence of “ice age” component in the geothermal water. In this study, stable and
135
raadiogenic isotopes (δ2H, δ18O,

δ 3H, δ113C, 14C) off the thermal waters and a few grounddwaters have also been
annalyzed. Stabble isotopic co
ompositions ofo the thermal springs and local groundd waters are measured
m to fiind out the
orrigin of the thhermal spring
gs. Isotopic coomposition of
o dissolved innorganic carbbon (δ13CDIC C) is analysedd to define
thhe sources off carbon in thhe thermal spprings. This paper
p also diiscusses the residence
r tim
me of the therrmal water
baased on the 14C dating.
STUDY AREA
G
General geoloogy and lithology
The Manuguruu geothermal area, situated in the Teleengana state, is one of thee least exploreed geothermaal fields in
T
Inndia. The Maanuguru geoth hermal area isi located in the Khammaam district off Telengana state, India. The T district
foorms a part off Godavari riv ver basin. Thee Godavari baasin, a NNW-SSE trendingg graben on a precambriann platform,
iss filled with Gondwana seedimentary formations.
fo Thhis area is knnown for coaal explorationn and there are a several
oppencast coall mines operrated by Sinngareni Colliieries Compaany Ltd. (SC CCL). Almoost all of thhe thermal
m
manifestations s are from thee bore wells drilled
d for cooal exploration. These therrmal dischargges are locateed near the
Pagaderu, Golllakatur, ST colony, Shaantinagar andd Kodichenkuuntala villagees of Manugguru tehsil. Geological G
m
mapping in 1:225000 scales was carried outo over an area
a of 80 sq km in and arround the studdy area. The geological
m along wiith the samplle location pooints are shoown in Fig. 1. Lower Goondwana sediimentary form
map mations of
Permian periodd rest uncomfformably oveer Proterozoicc Pakhal metaasediments, which w forms thhe basement rock
r of the
sttudy area. The T Talchir formation,
f thhe Barakar formation,
fo thee Barren Meeasures form mation and thhe Kamthi
foormation colllectively form ms the lower Gondwana suubgroup. Tallchir, the low wermost formaation of the Gondwana
G
grroup, is com mposed of saandstone, shaales and siltsstone. The BarakarB formaation, overlyiing Kamthi formation,
coomprises preedominantly sandstones
s w
with subordinate clays, shhales, coal seeams, carbonaaceous shaless and silt-
sttones. Barrenn Measure, ov verlying the Barakar
B Form mation, consissts of a sequeence of thin alternate bands of gray
cllay and greennish siltstonee inter-beddedd with fine to t medium grrained, whitee argillaceouss sandstone bands.b The
L
Lower Kamthii formation unconformabl
u y overlies thee Barren Meaasure Formation. It is madde up predom minantly of
grray clays, at places sandy with subordiinate inter-baands of fine too medium graained, white sandstone annd greenish
siiltstone. It is rarely
r exposeed in the studyy area. The Middle
M Kamthhi member, ovverlying the Lower
L Kamthhi member,
iss not exposedd in the area. The
T upper Kaamthi membeer is well expoosed more or less continuoously over 8000 m along
thhe Godavari River
R Section
n in the adjoining area. It comprises seeveral fining upwardu cyclees of alternatiing pebbly
saandstone, fine to medium m grained yelllowish brownn ferruginouss sandstone, red clays andd hard grey calcareous
saandstone. Am mong differen nt structures,, well-defineed bedding planes
p and crross beddinggs are observved in the
saandstone. Theere are two seets of joints observed
o in thhe sandstone. One strikes in i N30°W wiith dip towardds east and
thhe other E-W W with dip tow wards south area.
a Apart frrom the jointss, faults are thhe main diasttrophic structture which
coontrols the hoot water moveements withinn the basin. The T fault systeem is characterized by a prrominence off dip-faults
w
whereas some are oblique in i the study area.
a Some faaults extend beyond
b the liimit of Gondw wana basin innto Pakhal
G
Group, whereaas others are restricted wiithin the basinn. The geothermal manifeestations seem m to be confiined to the
N
NE-SW trending fault.
Fig. 1 Geo
ological map along
a with sampple location pooints in Manugguru geothermaal field
METHODOLOGY
Samples (bore well, dug well and hand pumps) were collected from the Manuguru geothermal area during February
2016. The non-thermal groundwater samples (dug well and hand pumps) were taken from various depths ranging
from 6-60m below ground level (bgl). Thermal water samples were collected from the surface discharge. Under
minimal atmospheric contact, different physico-chemical parameters like TDS (total dissolved solids), EC
(electrical conductivity), temperature and pH were measured on site by using a hand held multiparameter probe (HI
9828). Samples for stable isotope (2H, 18O) analysis were collected in 20 mL HDPE bottles without any
preservative and without any headspace. The environmental isotopes i.e. δ2H, δ18O, were analyzed by continuous
flow Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometer (Isoprime 100). The oxygen isotopic ratios (18O/16O) was measured using
the CO2-H2O equilibrium method according to the techniques detailed by Epstein and Mayeda (1953) whereas the
hydrogen isotopic ratio was measured using pyrolysis mode in Elemental Analyser coupled with Isotope ratio mass
spectrometer. For δ13C analysis, the dissolved inorganic carbon in the water was precipitated as BaCO3 which was
later combusted in an Elemental Analyser (Vario Pyro Cube) coupled with a continuous flow isotope ratio mass
spectrometer (Isoprime 100). The isotope ratios of H, O and C are generally expressed in delta notation (δ) and are
reported with respect to VSMOW and VPDB, respectively, according to the following equation:
(δ‰)  {(RsampleRstandard) 1}*1000
where Rsample and Rstandard refer to 2H/1H or 18O/16O or 13C/12C ratios of sample and standard respectively.
Precision of measurement of different isotope ratios are as follows: ±1‰ for δ2H, ±0.1‰ for δ18O and ±0.1‰ for
δ13C at 2σ. The radioactive isotope tritium was measured by electrolytic enrichment method followed by liquid
scintillation counting by using Perkin Elmer 1220 Quantulus counter ( Precision: ±0.5 TU at 1σ). 14C activity of
dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), precipitated as BaCO3, was measured by CO2 absorption technique using the
liquid scintillation counter and expressed as percentage modern carbon (pmC) (precision: 0.5 pmC) (Saravana
Kumar et al. 2009).
Isotope geochemistry
Stable isotopes (18O, 2H)
Stable isotope ratios of hydrogen and oxygen are commonly used to study different hydrological processes and
have been applied to identify the origin, mixing and evaporation of groundwater, hydrograph separation, response
of karst systems to storms and aquifer recharge (Craig, 1961; Gat, 1981; Lakey and Krothe, 1996; Jones et al.,
2000). The oxygen-18 and deuterium ratio also act as useful tracers in the geothermal systems in evaluating various
physico-chemical phenomena such as the origin of the thermal fluids, mixing of shallow ground water with thermal
water, steam separation and rock-water interaction. The origin of thermal water (i.e. magmatic, oceanic and
meteoric) can easily be discerned from stable isotope (18O, 2H) data. The stable isotope compositions of the
thermal and non-thermal waters collected from the Manuguru thermal area are shown in Fig. 2 along with Global
Meteroic Water Line (GMWL). The results of the isotopic analysis are given in Table 1. From the δ2H- δ18O plot
it is seen that most of the thermal water samples fall near to the GMWL line indicating their meteoric origin. The
shallow groundwater (hand pump and dug well), which is essentially recharged by precipitation, falls off the
GMWL. The Best-fit line (BFL) of all the samples is given by
δ2H = 5.81 δ18O + 2.49 (r2 = 0.97, n = 26)
The lower slope of BFL compared to the GMWL indicate that the falling raindrops had undergone evaporation
prior to recharge. Few thermal water samples also fall on this evaporation line. Thermal springs do not show
evidence of an oxygen-18 shift. This absence of an oxygen-18 shift indicates that significant rock-water interaction
has not taken place at elevated temperature (i.e. >2000C). In the present study, the δ18O and δ2H values of the
thermal water range from -3.47 to -2.66 ‰ and -18.08 to -12.9‰, respectively. These isotope data clearly nullify
the presence of any amount of magmatic fluid which has typical δ18O values ranging from +6 to +9 ‰ and δ2H
values from -40 to -80 ‰ (Giggenbach, 1992). Moreover, the absence of highly enriched δ18O, δ2H values along
with low EC (125-723 µS/cm) and chloride contents (9-120 ppm) of the thermal water preclude the possibility of
any oceanic component present in the samples (Ahmad et al. 2001).
Table 1 Isotopic composition of thermal and non-thermal samples

Corrected
Sample δ18O δ2H 3
H δ13C a14C
Type Temp pH EC TDS age (yr)
ID (‰) (‰) (TU) (‰) pMC
BP
S-1 DW 30.3 6.6 1128 706 -2.55 -12.52 - - - -
S-2 HP 31.9 8.3 1361 855 -2.16 -10.34 - - - -
S-5 BW 54.1 8.3 522 328 -3.03 -14.99 - - - -
S-7 HP 30.2 7.2 854 539 -3.2 -15.25 2.81 - - -
S-9 BH 63.8 7.7 510 322 -2.66 -12.9 1.12 -20.2 16.5 14895
S-11 DW 29.8 7.2 1022 646 -1.89 -8.82 - - - -
S-12 BW 51.1 7.4 357 226 -3.43 -16.99 0.62 -20.7 14.5 15963
S-14 BW 50.6 7.3 407 258 -2.98 -15.63 0.84 -
S-15 BW 65.6 7.2 340 215 -3.47 -18.0 1.5 -24.4 22.2 12442
S-16 BW 80.8 7.7 485 307 -3.19 -15.0 1.42 -17.5 30 9952
S-17 DW 30 7.2 484 307 -3.24 -16.12 - - - -
S-19 DW 29.5 7.7 1106 553 -2.3 -11.53 5.7 -
S-26 BW 43.5 7.6 276 174 -3.29 -17.45 0.93 -22.82 17.2 14552
S-32 DW 28.5 8 2820 1421 -2.39 -11.93 - - - -
S-35 HP 30.8 7.6 3434 1717 -3.22 -17.06 - - - -
S-38 BW 35.6 8.3 723 362 -3.03 -15.57 - - - -
S-39 BW 33.1 8 278 139 -3 -14.67 1.73
S-41 BW 41.3 7.3 166 105 -3.27 -17.14 - - - -
S-42 BW 42.6 7 125 79 -3.36 -18.08 - - - -
S-43 HP 30.6 7.6 2213 1403 -1.35 -10.71 - - - -
S-47 BW 54.1 8.5 648 324 -3.0 -14.0 1.02 -19.8 12.5 17190
S-48 BW 37.9 8.5 613 307 -3.21 -13.29 1.45
S-49 BW 43.2 8.4 587 294 -3.22 -16.05 0.68 -18.6 10.46 18663
Fig. 2 δ18O-δ2H plot of groundwater (thermal and non-thermal waters) in the study area
δ13C of dissolved carbon

The 13C/12C isotope ratios are generally used to trace the sources of carbon in water. In waters δ13C of the DIC
depends on the sources of CO2 (atmospheric or soil) and the type of lithology (silicate or carbonate rocks) being
weathered. The average δ13C of the atmospheric CO2 is -8.1‰ (Das et al. 2005) whereas in the present study the
average δ13C value of the thermal springs is -20.57‰. This precludes the possibility of atmospheric CO2
contribution to the DIC of the thermal springs. On the other hand weathering of silicates involves conversion of soil
CO2. The δ13C value of the soil depends on the type of vegetation (i.e. C3 or C4 type of plants). The average δ13C
value of DIC from silicate weathering with soil CO2 coming from C3 type of plants is around ~ -19.1‰ whereas
weathering of silicates with CO2 derived from C4 type of vegetation has δ13C value around ~ -5.1‰ (Das et al.
2005). Likewise weathering of carbonates with soil CO2 from C3 plants has δ13C values ~ -9.6‰ whereas for C4
type of plants the value is ~ -2.6‰ (Das et al. 2005). Thus from the above discussion and considering the lithology
of study area it can be concluded that DIC of the thermal springs is derived pmainly from silicate weathering by
CO2 from the C3 plants.
Tritium and 14C dating
Twelve water samples (nine thermal and three non-thermal samples) from the study area were collected for tritium
measurement. In geothermal systems tritium is generally used to qualitatively estimate the approximate residence
time of the thermal fluids and their mixing with shallow ground water if any (Panichi and Gonfiantini, 1977).
Samples containing tritium value of less than 0.8 TU imply recharge prior to 1951, whereas a value greater than 0.8
TU indicates modern recharge or mixing with modern water (Clark and Fritz, 1997). The tritium value of the
thermal water ranges from 0.62 to 1.5 TU, and in non-thermal water samples the tritium concentration ranges from
2.2 to 5.7 TU. Most of the thermal water samples have tritium value <1 TU, which points out that these samples
have long subsurface residence times (>50 years) and got recharged prior to 1951. Thermal water samples (S-16, S-
9, S-47 etc.) showing tritium concentration >1 TU are probably due to the mixing with cold water in the upflow
zone.
To get more accurate information about the residence time of thermal waters, carbon-14 dating of some of the
samples was carried out. 14C is the most widely used radiogenic dating technique because of its ability to date
groundwater up to 30,000 years old. The a14C of the thermal waters in the Manuguru area varies from 10.46 to 30
pMC. As silicate weathering is the major controlling factor governing the solute chemistry of the thermal water, it
should be straightforward (as input of old 14C-free carbon derived from the dissolution of carbonate mineral would
be negligible) to estimate the residence time of the thermal waters based on a14C values. The δ13C value of DIC of
the thermal water ranges from -17.5‰ to -24.4‰ VPDB with an average δ13C value of -20.57‰, which clearly
shows no evidence of calcite dissolution in these thermal waters. In addition to this, Ca:Na molar ratios of these
thermal water samples are 0.031–0.27, which are far lower than those from groundwater from aquifers where
significant carbonate dissolution has occurred (generally>1: Mast et al., 1990; Leybourne et al., 2006). In the
absence of a correction factor, the radiocarbon age of the thermal water can be deduced directly from the given
equation:
5730 A o
T ln
ln 2 A
where T = time, A0 = modern 14C activity (100 pMC), A = measured  C activity. The calculated radiocarbon age
of the thermal water ranges from 9952 yr to 18663 yr BP (before present). Thus 14C dating gives the approximate
residence time of the thermal water in the present study area.
CONCLUSION
The present study provides isotopic characterization of Manuguru geothermal field, India. The stable isotopic
signature (δ2H, δ18O) of the thermal springs reveals their meteoric origin. The carbon isotope composition of DIC
(also confirms the silicate weathering mechanism with soil CO2 coming from C3 type of plants. Lower tritium
concentration of the thermal springs indicates long residence times (>50 years) of the recharging waters. From the
radiocarbon dating (14C), the approximate residence time of the thermal waters is estimated to be 9952 yr to 18663
yr BP (before present).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge Shri K.S.S. Sarma, Head, IRAD, for his support and contribution during the
study. The tritium and carbon-14 measurements by Shri H.V. Mohokar and Smt. Diksha are also gratefully
acknowledged. The authors would like to thank Shri M.A. Ansari, Mr. G.N. Mendhekar, Shri S.N. Kamble and all
the staff members of GSI associated with this project for their active co-operation in this study.
REFERENCES
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water of Murtazabad area, Pakistan- an isotopic evidence. Appl. Radiat. Isot. 55, 731-736.
2. Clark, I.D., Fritz, P., 1997. Environmental Isotopes in Hydrogeology. Lewis Publishers, New York. p. 328.
3. Craig, H., Boato, G., White, D.E. 1956. Proc. 2nd conf. National Academy of science-National research council 400,
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4. Craig, H., 1961. Isotopic variations in meteoric water. Science 133, 1702–1703.
5. Das, A., Krishnaswami, S., Bhattacharya, S.K., 2005. Carbon isotope ratio of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) in rivers
draining the Deccan Traps, India: Sources of DIC and their magnitudes. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 236, 419–429.
6. Epstein, S., Mayeda, T., 1953. Variation of 18O contents of water from natural sources. Geochim.Cosmochim.Acta 4,
213–224.
7. Gat, J.R., 1981. Groundwater, in Gat, J.R., and Gonfiantini, R., eds., Stable isotope hydrology—Deuterium and oxygen-
18 in the water cycle: Vienna, Austria, International Atomic Energy Agency, 223−240.
8. Giggenbach, W.F., 1992. Isotopic shift in waters from geothermal and volcanic systems along convergent plate
boundaries and their origin. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 113, 495–510.
9. Jones, I.C., Banner, J.L., Humphrey, J.D., 2000. Estimating recharge in a tropical karst aquifer. Water Resources
Research, 36, 1289−1299.
10. Lakey, B., Krothe, N.C., 1996. Stable isotopic variation of storm discharge from a perennial karst spring, Indiana.
Water Resources Research, 32, 721−731.
11. Panichi, C., Gonfiantini, R., 1977. Environmental isotopes in geothermal studies. Geothermics 6, 143–161.
12. Saravana Kumar, U., Sharma, S., Navada, S.V., Deodhar, A.S., 2009. Environmental isotopes investigation on recharge
processes and hydrodynamics of the coastal sedimentary aquifers of Tiruvadanai, Tamilnadu State, India. J. Hydrol.
364, 23-39.
RURAL SANITATION: A CASE STUDY OF YARIKOPPA VILLAGE
Munnoli P M*, Mulla S A1, Dafedar M2, Madivalar P3 and Reddy G4
*Professor, 1,2,3,4 Students S DM College of Engineering and Technology Dhavalagiri, Dharwad, India
*corresponding author munnolipm@gmail.com.
ABSTRACT
Sanitation is the indicator of quality of life in rural and urban areas having highest priority given by engineers,
designers, Architects, and public in general. The quality of living inside the house is governed by the cleanliness
of toilets, bathrooms and kitchens and cowshed in a rural environment. Yarikoppa village situated in Dharwad
taluka has 300 families living, with implementation of Swachh Bharat Abhiyan up to 2016, 210 i.e (70%) of
families got toilets built; with 30% ie 90 families were yet to receive the benefits were still adjusted to open
defecation. Out of 70% toilets built only 50% i.e 105 families were using toilets where as the remaining were
using the toilets for storing agro materials or resting place for goats and sheep’s. The interventions adopted by
SDMCET direct with villagers and through GHSY students bore fruits in achieving the 100% utilization of
toilets by the villagers. The girl child’s responses to having toilets were of significance as now they have social
security for nature’s calls.The paper presents the details of participatory approach at various levels in interaction
with people and students in bringing the acceptance of toilet culture by Yarikoppa villagers. The young minds
trained in right direction through training programs on health and hygiene and dissemination of messages to
public was the key to success of this societal change.
Keywords: Sanitation, Yarikoppa village, Agro materials.

INTRODUCTION
India is an agro based country with its 70% of population living in villages. The GDP of our country depends on
goods and services produced by the nation. The agricultural produce is of significance for the sustainability of
villagers and urban areas as these goods are a source of revenue for the village economy A P J Abdul Kalam,
(1998). The community problems are complex in nature and often require diversified knowledge of different
disciplines Rivera F G and Erlich J L (2018). The rural sector requires inputs from all the engineering
disciplines, to contribute to the development of the selected village. The civil Engineering department can
contribute to the following sectors, Housing, sanitation, rain water harvesting, waste management, water supply,
developing self-help groups, Facilitation of banking sectors. Sanitation plays an important role in the quality of life
and in general the overall productivity of humans is depending on how is living environment in the surrounding
area. The nature calls of human for defecation and urination play a significant role in the village sanitation added to
this the live stock also responsible or rural sanitation like cowsheds, piggery, sheep and goats etc. Therefore, the
present paper is on implementation of Swach Bharat Abhiyan at Yarikoppa village adopted by SDM College of
Engineering and Technology Dharwad.
STUDY AREA
Yarikoppa village panchayat is located on the Dharwad –Kalaghatgi road; the distance from Dharwad is 8 Km
District Dharwad, India. The latitude 12.9779204 and longitude 77.5687766 are the geo-coordinate of the
Yerikoppa.15.3974° N, 75.0005° E. The GHSY is situated at the top of hill 1 Km away from the main road. The
picturesque scenery from the top adds added attraction of living with nature.
Yarikoppa is small village located in Dharwad Taluka of Dharwad district, Karnataka with total 300 families
residing. The Yarikoppa village has population of 1541 of which 802 are males while 739 are females as per
Population Census 2011.
In Yarikoppa village population of children with age 0-6 is 187 which make up 12.13 % of total population of
village. Average Sex Ratio of Yarikoppa village is 921 which are lower than Karnataka state average of 973. Child
Sex Ratio for the Yarikoppa as per census is 870, lower than Karnataka average of 948. As per constitution of India
and Panchyati Raj Act, Yarikoppa village is administrated by Sarpanch (Head of Village) who is elected
representative of village. The total number of houses is 300. The villagers depend on rain fed agriculture growing
maize, jawar, chillies, vegetabls, fruits include mango and
141guava.
The village Yarikoppa has on educational front two anganvadis, one primary school and a Government High
School which has been adopted by Sheri. Dharmasthala Manjunatheshwar College of Engineering and Technology
Dharwad, for the purpose of academic assistance and health and hygiene.

Field data collection: The socio economic survey of the said village was carried out by the students of Civil
Engineering Department involving questions on rural sanitation structures and use of toilets.
Participatory rural appraisal procedure was followed to interact with the people and gather data as per the
Chambers 1994 and Mukharjee N, 2003.
The house to house propagation of use of toilets was carried out by the faculty and students of the SDMCET on
regular basis.
During the sessions for academic assistance faculty were requested to guide and train (Munnoli, 2005) the
students of GHSY to use the toilets and the significance of not using may yield water borne diseases like cholera
typhoid, amoebic dysentery, Hepatitis (Garg 2010, Duggal 2012). The minds of the students were ignited towards
the use of toilets and eradication of open defecation A P J Abdul Kalam, (2002).
Swatch Bharat Abhiyan: The village panchayat has adopted the Swatch Bharat Abhiyan in the year 2015 and
begun its work on construction of two it latrine and latrines with septic tank.

The filed visits to panchayat and GHSY with continuous interaction helped us in gaining confidence of people in
believing our moto to make Yarikoppa open defecation free.
The training programs conducted at GHSY on Hand wash, Use of toilets, cleanliness of cow sheds and how
open defecation can lead to water borne diseases and spread across and cause health issues to the community and
children who are fast vulnerable to these diseases.
During pulse polio programs of Government of India propagation was made to villagers to use toilets and not to
go for open defecation.
The students of SDMCET conducted an awareness campaign house to house to stop open defecation and use of
toilets.
There were a total of 300 toilets built under Swach Bharat Abhiyan in three successive years. The details of year
wise construction are placed in Fig. 1, and the number of families using toilets is placed in Fig 2.
No of Toiltes under Swatch Bharat
Abhiyan
400
No of Toilets
300
200
100 No Of Toiltes
0
2015 2016 2018
Year
Fig. 1 Number of toilets constructed year wise
Families using toiletr
350
300
No of Families
250
200
150 Families using
toiletr
100
50
0
2015 2016 2018
Fig. 2 Number of families using toilets year wise
Even though the toilet construction under swach Bharat Abhiyan got started slowly people were attracted
initially because of the cost of construction up to Rs. 12000 is paid by the Government of India. The construction
went on up to Janaury 2018 to achieve 100% toilet infrastructure. The students survey reveal that most of the toilets
were either not used, kept closed or used as storage of materials like agricultural residues or sleeping place for
sheep’s, goats and dogs. The intense awareness programs and training young minds of GHSY helped as an indirect
channel to influence parents not only to construct and use the toilets. The entire village is now open defecation free
The success could be attributed to participatory approach of conducting training and awareness programs and
actual construction and use of toilets has made the Yarikoppa village to be proud of free from open defecation. But
yet it is a long journey to completely cover India free of open defecation, but nevertheless small beginnings like
this will become success story for others to adopt and become themselves free of open defecation and build a
healthy India.
CONCLUSIONS
The involvement of teachers, Students and people of Yarikoppa in all the stages of construction awareness and use
of toilets has made Yarikoppa 100% free of open defecation.
The students of GHSY were motivated to keep their health and hygiene and food habits in control to work
effectively in all the academic activities. These young minds were also responsible to bring behavioral changes in
their parents and neighbors ultimately in achieving 100% free of open defecation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thankfully acknowledge the funding received from SDME Society, Ujire in carrying out the field survey
adoption of Yarikoppa village. Our special thanks to poojya Dr. D Veerendra Heggade for providing us the
inspiration to do socio technological works. We are also thankful to shri Jeevandhar Kumar Secretary SDME
Society and Prof. S B Vanakudare SDM engineering college Dharwad.
Our sincere thanks to Village Panchayat members and Head Master Shri A V Naganur, GHSY for providing all
require assistance during our visits to Yarikoppa.
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2. A P J Abdul Kalam, (2002) Ignited Minds, Penguin India, p 1-200.
3. Chambers, R, 1994. Participatory rural appraisal (PRA): analysis of experience. World development, 22(9), pp.1253-
1268.
4. Munnoli P M, (2005) Rural waste management through training in vermi compost technology: a case study of
Malcornem village; Goa” In: national meeting on Vocational Educational and Training for sustainable rural livelihood
conducted jointly by Dr. Harisingh gaur university, Sagar Madhya Pradesh and Pandit Sundarlal Sharma Institute of
Vocational Education Bhopal a constituent of NCERT New Delhi at Dr. Harisingh Gaur University, Sagar Madhya
Pradesh from 23rd to 25th February 2005.
5. Mukharjee N, (2003) Participatory Rural Appraisal Methodology and applications, Concept pub New elhi, p-1-157.
6. Rivera F G and Erlich J L (1998).Community organizing in a diverse society, 3rd ed., Allan and Bcon Publishers,
London, pp-25-60.
7. Garg S K (2010)Water supply and Sanitary Engineering Khanna Publisher New Delhi, pp 1-150.
8. Duggal K N (2012) Environmental Engineering, S Chand Publisher New Delhi, pp-20-45.
RURAL SANITATION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: A REVIEW
Munnoli P M*, Mulla S A1, Dafedar M2, Madivalar P3 and Reddy G4
*Professor, 1,2,3,4 Students, S D M College of Engineering and Technology Dhavalagiri, Dharwad India
*corresponding author, munnolipm@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The development of rural sanitation in India has been always occupied a back seat even though the sanitation
plays a significant role in the quality of rural environment. The water borne diseases due to poor sanitation
conditions, and haphazard disposal of liquid and solid wastes of live stock creating a feasible site for breeding
hens and cockroaches makes the rural environment unhygienic with low level of quality of life. The paper
presents the historical development of rural sanitation from conservancy system to water carriage system and
available technologies for rural toilets like single pit, two pit, toilet with septic tank, toilets connected to biogas
generation. The paper also presents rural toilet construction using local, new and waste materials to achieve
economy in cost of construction.
Keywords: Water borne, liquid and solid wastes, live stock.
INTRODUCTION
Quality of life and human development index is indicated by the sanitation facilities of the country. Good sanitary
practices prevent contamination of water and soil thereby prevents diseases. The concept of sanitation was
therefore expanded to include personal hygiene, home sanitation, safe water, garbage disposal, excreta disposal and
waste water disposal (WHO 1992). The sanitation practices in general involve Bhangi system or humans were
carrying excreta, before the water carriage system started (Khanna S K 2009). Sanitation refers to public
health conditions related to clean drinking water and adequate treatment and disposal of human
excreta and sewage. Preventing human contact with feces, hand washing with soap is part of sanitation. Sanitation
system aim to protect human health by providing a clean environment that will stop the transmission of disease.
The overall purposes of sanitation are to provide a healthy living environment for everyone, to protect the natural
resources (such as surface water, groundwater, soil), and to provide safety, security and dignity for people when
they defecate or urinate (Duggal K.N 2010). Maintaining and sustaining sanitation has aspects that are
technological, institutional and social in nature. Sanitation infrastructure has to be adapted to several specific
contexts including consumers' expectations and local resources available (Thomas C et al. 2014).
World Scenario: The global sanitation sector is in a severe situation. Over 2.6 billion people are without access to
improved sanitation facilities in the world (Seetharam K 2015). Each year 1.5 million children die before their fifth
birthday because of diarrhoea, nearly all in developing countries. It is estimated that 88%of these deaths could be
prevented by a safe water supply, sanitation, and hygiene. Massive resources have been invested in providing water
and sanitation facilities, such as drinking water disinfection technologies, improved toilets, and hand washing
stands (Peal A et al. 2010). However the percentages of population with safe water supply and with improved
sanitation facilities have increased only 3 % and 5% respectively because of rapid population increase during that
time. Therefore, 2.4 billion people are now without access to improved sanitation facilities worldwide, as well as
1.1 billion people are without safe water supply (Thomas C et al .2014). The WHO 2000 report says distribution of
population without improved water supply in ASIA is 63 % where as population without improved sanitation is
80%. The total amount spent is 1.104 and 6.063 US billion dollars for sanitation and water supply respectively
whereas the sewage treatment facility were not adequate (WHO 2000).
Indian Scenario: Recent evidence indicates that India is heading towards a major sanitation crisis in the coming
years. An estimated 2.5 billion people lack access to improved facilities for the disposal of human excreta, such as
a basic pit latrine (Patil S.R et al. 2014). Seven out of ten people who are without improved sanitation live in rural
areas. Faced with this challenge, governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and others have
undertaken large-scale efforts to expand sanitation coverage. The most ambitious of these is the Government of
India’s Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC), recently revised and renamed as Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan, which was first
implemented in 1999. The TSC is a low-subsidy regime that aims to generate household involvement and demand
145
responsiveness for the building of individual household latrines in below poverty line (BPL) households. It also
uses information, education and communication strategy in rural areas designed to generate demand, elicit greater
community involvement and encourage use of latrines (Barnard S et al. 2013).
Sulabh Souchalaya mission of India: Provision of the Sulabh public toilet complexes in public places and slums
on ‘pay-and-use basis’ is an important landmark in the field environmental sanitation. The concept of construction
of public toilets and its maintenance originated by Sulabh in 1974. Sulabh International Social Service
Organisation, a non-profit voluntary social organisation founded in 1970. It was felt that along with community
toilets, if facilities for bathing and washing clothes could also be provided, people would like to use them and also
pay for the use. In 1978 a National Seminar at Patna was organized by the Government of India . Here the system
of twin pit toilets and maintenance of public toilets was discussed and the participants visited households and
public toilets to see their functioning. After that, it was recommended that these two methodologies be adopted by
other States also. The dissemination of information regarding these innovations spread after the seminar and now
the technology and its implementation has spread from one local body of Bihar state to 1147 local bodies spread
over 25 states and 4 union territories of India. Till now more than 7500 such public toilets have been constructed
and are being maintained by Sulabh. The biggest public toilet of Sulabh has been constructed at Shirdi, in the
district of Nasik, in the State of Maharashtra, having 120 WCs, 108 bathrooms, 28 special toilets (separate for
ladies and gents) and 5,000 lockers for the convenience of the pilgrims.
(http://www.sulabhinternational.org/sulabh-public-toilet-complexes/).
Development of rural toilets in Karnataka: Toilet ownership in rural Karnataka increased from 17.4% in 2001 to
28.4% in 2011.There are three distinct types of districts the poor, the middling, and the stellar performers. The
poor performers have a low base of toilets to begin with, and improved by only a few percentages. The middling
performers are those that had between 10 and 20% toilet ownership in 2001, and all improved by about 10
percentage points since then. The third type is the stellar performers, who had more than 20% toilets to begin with
and improved significantly over the decade. It is possible that districts with about 20-30% rural toilet ownership
have reached a certain stage of socio-economic development, where the prosperity, aspirations, governance quality
and cluster effects of some households having toilets spurs the rest in building toilets. The State government has
declared 76% of the rural population of Karnataka as not dependent on open defecation anymore. The Karnataka
state still have more than 32.61% of villagers without adequate sanitation facilities like access to toilets (Srinath P
2013).
TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT
Conservancy system:- In this type refuse are collected separately and disposed off. A. Garbage is collected
separately in dustbins and conveyed by covered Carts or Lorries to suitable place. It is very cheap in initial cost.
Due to foul smell from the latrines, they are to be constructed away from the living room, so building cannot be
constructed as compact units. The aesthetic appearance of the city cannot be increased. For burying of excremental
matter, large area is required. Excreta is not removed immediately hence its decomposition starts before its
removal, causing nuisance of smell. Storm water is carried in usually surface drains, hence no problem of pumping
the storm water. The quantity of waste liquid reaching the disposed point is less, hence it can be disposed of
without any treatment. The conservancy system is fully dependent on the human agency. In case of strike by the
sweepers, there is danger of insanitary conditions in the city, which may cause spreading of disease. As sewage is
disposed of without any treatment, it may pollute the natural water sources (Garg S K 2014).
Water carriage system: In this system water is used as a medium to carry wastes to the point of final disposal.
The quantity of water is so high (99.9%) that wastes becomes liquid which is carried by the sewers. The garbage is
collected separately as in conservancy system. Water-carriage systems involves high initial cost. As there is no foul
smell, latrines remain clean and neat hence are constructed with rooms. Good aesthetic appearance of the city can
be obtained. Less area is required as compared with the conservancy system. Excreta is immediately removed with
water, no problem of foul smell or hygienic trouble. Sewage is treated before disposing off, it may or may not
require pumping, it depends on the topography of the town. Large quantity of sewage highly polluted in nature, it
requires its treatment before disposal. So it is costlier in operation and maintenance. As no human agency is
involved in this system, there is no such problem as in case of conservancy system. Sewage is treated up to
required degree of sanitation (Duggal K.N 2010).
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF TOILETS

Pig toilet: This type of toilet has been existing in India before independence as people use to treat piggery as
domestic animals. It is a simple type of toilet consisting of an outhouse mounted over a pigsty, with a chute or hole
connecting the two. The pigs consume the feces of the users of the toilet, as well as other food. Pig toilets once
common in rural China, where a single toilet signifies both "pigsty" and "privy". These arrangements have been
strongly discouraged by the Chinese authorities in recent years although as late as 2005, they could still be found in
remote Northern styled provinces (https://www.indiamike.com/india/goa-f23/the-sad-but-increasing-demise-of-the-
goan-pig-toilets-t1127/).
Fishpond toilet: Family dwellings are commonly built close to the fish pond with toilets overhanging the pond to
facilitate fertilization. Some pigsties as well as latrines for humans are built on the adjacent dike so as to overhang
the pond." But by 1988, these fish pond toilets were falling out of favour, as the farmers found it more useful to
ferment human and pig excrement together, and apply it to the aquaculture ponds as needed.
(http://www.tribuneindia.com/news/jammu-kashmir/community/filthy-toilets-stray-dogs-bane-of-bhaderwah-
fishpond/326464.html)
Single Pit toilet: Pit toilet is one of the most commonest toilet adopted in whole world. Looking at its merits low
cost, less water requirement easy maintenance etc it is most suitable type. It is a user friendly toilet. Observation
show that there are some issues like groundwater safety, hollowing of ground due to increasing density of pit
toilets, removal and usage of pit contents, non availability of specialised pan or trap (Navrekar S 2012)
Two pit toilet: It is a toilet which is eco-friendly, technically appropriate, socio-culturally acceptable and
economically affordable. It is a toilet can easily be constructed by local labour and materials. It provides health
benefits by safe disposal of human excreta on-site. It consists of a pan with a steep slope of 25°-28° and an
especially designed trap with 20 mm water seal requiring only 1 to 1.5 litres of water for flushing. It does not need
scavengers to clean the pits. There are two pits of varying size and capacity depending on the number of users. The
capacity of each pit is normally designed for 3 years’ usage. Both pits are used alternately. When one pit is full, the
incoming excreta is diverted into the second pit. In about two years, the sludge gets digested and is almost dry and
pathogen free, thus safe for handling as manure. Digested sludge is odourless and is a good manure and soil-
conditioner. It can be dug out easily and used for agricultural purposes (ENVIS report 2016).
Toilet with septic tank: A septic tank is a chamber made of concrete, fiberglass, PVC or plastic, through which
domestic wastewater (sewage) flows for primary treatment. Settling and anaerobic processes reduce solids and
organics, but the treatment is only moderate. Septic tank systems are a type of onsite sewage facility (OSSF). They
can be used in areas that are not connected to a sewerage system, such as rural areas. The treated liquid effluent is
commonly disposed in a septic drain field which provides further treatment. However, groundwater pollution may
occur and can be a problem.
Advantages: The system reduces the level of odour and flies. The user has the convenience of a WC which can be
located indoors
Disadvantages: The system comes at a high cost – including the cost of land. Water is required (both in quantity
and reliability) Permeable soil is required for drainage Requires regular emptying
(http://practicalaction.org/practicalanswers/).
Vermi toilet: It needs no external energy input or machinery to process the sewage. There are two main parts to the
system (apart from the flush toilet): an insulated tank which houses the worms with their associated ecosystem, and
a ‘greenfilter’ or soakaway area to allow the vermifiltered water to be cleaned further and returned to the
environment. This simplicity allows for a lot of flexibility in how the system is implemented to adapt to individual
sites. The vermicomposting toilet system revolves around biologically active aerobic processing of sewage. This
applies to both the worm tank. At its simplest, the system is gravity-fed, so it’s best suited to sloping sites or sites
where the waste pipe outlet from the flush toilet is half the height of the tank (0.5m) or more above ground level
(Yadav K D et al. 2011).
Aqua privy: An aqua-privy functions in a similar manner to a septic tank whilst avoiding the need for a consistent
water supply to operate a flush toilet. The water will drain off the top and the sludge needs to be emptied on a
regular basis. An advantage of the aqua privy is that it reduces odours. However, regular emptying could become
an onerous requirement.
Advantages: Does not require a piped water supply and user can directly defecate directly into the tank. It is
cheaper form of a septic tank
Disadvantages: The system can fail to reduce smell if the water seal is not maintained. Water must be available
and plentiful. Requires emptying. permeable land is needed to drain effluent
(http://practicalaction.org/practicalanswers/).
Eco toilets: Composting toilets treat human excrement using biological processes, turning it into organic compost
material that can be used to fertilize the soil. They are small-scale, complete waste processing systems. The eastern
world has been using composting toilets for hundreds of years, but it is only in recent years that they have become
more popular in the west. Many composting toilets collect urine in the same chamber as feces, thus they do
not divert urine. Adding small amounts of water that is used for anal cleansing is no problem for the composting
toilet to handle. Some composting toilets divert urine (and water used for anal washing) to prevent the creation of
anaerobic conditions that can result from over saturation of the compost, which leads to odours and vector
problems. Offering a waterless urinal in addition to the toilet can help keep excess amounts of urine out of the
composting chamber(http://www.eco-toilets.co.uk/eco-toilet-info/).
Community toilet: It plays an important role in setting the sanitation needs of densely populated low income
settlements. In the urban areas of India community toilets have in the past been provided in municipalities and
corporations as well as nongovernmental organizations (NGO's). The success of these efforts judged on the basis of
sustained and proper use has been a mixed one for various reasons at present there has been no compressive
guideline on the issues to be addressed at the preparation stage in order to enhance the chances of proper and
sustained use of these facilities
The design is an important aspect of a community toilet ,A well designed community toilet reflects the
preference of the community it serves and enhances its use and sustainability while designing a community toilet
factors like the preference and convenience of the users, durability of construction, ease of operation and
maintenance and cost effectiveness should be taken into account (World bank 1995).
Temporary or portable toilets: The portable toilet story begins during World War II, when the owners of the
shipyards in Long Beach, New Jersey realized that the employees were losing a lot of valuable work time in the
long trek from the ships back to the docks to answer nature’s call. According to the Minneapolis Porta Potty Pros,
they decided to construct small, portable cubicles that were made with wood or metal, that contained a small
holding tank. As a result, more work got done, workers were happier, and the portable toilet industry was birthed. It
started as something that was used only on ships, and has now grown and evolved into something much larger, and
catering to a much broader scope. They started out as structures made of wood and metal. This made them
incredibly heavy, and extremely difficult to empty once the ships docked. Eventually they began to use lighter
building materials, which made them a lot easier to clean (https://www.encyclopedia.com/manufacturing/news-
wires-white-papers-and-books/portable-toilet)
Decomposing waste to turn it into useful material
All composting toilets decompose waste by creating the aerobic conditions for bacteria and other macro and micro-
organisms to thrive. The objective is to destroy harmful pathogens, eliminate the risk to human health and
environment, and transform the waste nutrients into fertile soil. They typically break down waste material to a
small percentage of its original volume.
Most toilet composting systems are low-temperature (mouldering) toilets. The waste material must be left for
long enough for pathogens to break down naturally (Jaćimović M et al. 2009).
Separating human waste
Compost that is too wet can become anaerobic and produce unpleasant smells. Because of this, our composting
toilets separate urine from faeces. The collected urine (85% of the volume we produce) is therefore a bacteria-free
liquid that can be used as a fertiliser or leached safely into the ground. Beware toilets which separate out the liquid
later on – this is a polluted hazardous waste and cannot be used until rendered safe (Andersson A 1977, B.B Jana
2018).The faeces and toilet paper are collected in a holding tank under the toilet seat with a composting medium
using a screen to avoid any unpleasant sights and to keep out flies and other unwanted bugs. The tank either has a
stirrer or rotation mechanism to distribute the material and allow even decomposition. When the tank is full it is
removed and either stored until fully decomposed or added to a compost pile. No basement processing plant or
mechanical removal is required. Note that, by removing the urine at source the volume of solid matter produced is
very small and, as moisture is extracted, becomes even smaller, normally leaving only 10% by volume of what
comes out of us (Bremner J M 1982).
Swachh Bharath Mission: Prime Minister of India [PM], Shri Narendra Modi, launched the CLEAN INDIA
campaign/mission [Swachh Bharat Abhiyaan] on October 2, 2014 and asked people from all walks of life to help in
successful implementation of this mission. The mission seeks to achieve the goal of Clean India in next five years
so that the 150th birth anniversary of Bapu can be celebrated as an accomplishment of this duty. Swachh Bharat
Abhiyaan exhorts people to devote 100 hours every year towards the cause of cleanliness. This mission has been
launched in order to work seriously towards the vision of Gandhi, who gave a quintessential message to the nation
through his efforts to educate people around him about cleanliness. He wished to see a "Clean India" where people
work hand in hand to make the country clean. The author has studied and discussed hereafter the importance,
objectives, merits and demerits, and deficiencies of this mission. Expected realistic contributions from this mission
and the ways to achieve the objectives of the mission have also been hereafter by the author.
OBJECTIVES OF SWACHH BHARATH MISSION

1. Elimination of open defecation
2. Eradication of Manual Scavenging
3. Modern and Scientific Municipal Solid Waste Management
4. To effect behavioral change regarding healthy sanitation practices
5. Generate awareness about sanitation and its linkage with public health
6. To create an enabling environment for private sector participation in Capital expenditure (Thakkar et al.
2016).
CONCLUSIONS
The review reveals that even though there exist technologies to improve rural sanitation where as there is a gap of
technologies reaching the poorest of the poor. There is further need to study toilet structures for different soil
conditions and also separate urine to use as a source of liquid manure. This requires alternative designs which are
to be tailor made and at low cost to suit the local needs of the people. Also there is a further scope to conduct pin
pointing experiments on two pit latrine sludge and urine separated.
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WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION APPLIANCES TO
SAVE WATER: A REVIEW
Munnoli P M*, Hubli Kiran1, Beedimani Priyanka2, Aishwarya3, Karale Suneel4
*Professor, 1,2,3,4 students
S DM College of Engineering and Technology Dhavalagiri, Dharwad, India 580002
*corresponding Author,munnolipm@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Water supply and sanitation appliances play a significant role in quality of life, right from the ancient civilization to till today
man is being using appliances for sanitary purpose and there is a continuous improvement in the appliances and appurtenances,
with abundantly use of water resources. The world scenario on water is becoming crucial for saving water and save water has
become the world slogan. The human beings consume water for their domestic purpose and 80% of this water is being
delivered out as sewage. Conserving water in all possible ways without affecting quality of life has now being thought by
planners and engineers and enforcing law for wasting water unnecessarily. The paper presents the developments in the water
supply and sanitary appliances in both for rural and urban environment and innovative technologies for water less toilets in
urban environment leading to saving water.
Keywords: Water, Sanitation, Sewage, Conserving.
INTRODUCTION
Water is essential for our survival. It is important to remember that water is not a permanent resource available
throughout the year. However, it can be recycled. But in fact water is now going slowly to be scare in the world.
Earth is full of water but 99 percent of water is in sea which is salty hence can't be use. Others sources are locked in
glacier in ice form hence only 1% of water is available in groundwater and surface waters for human survival.
Water is a prime limiting factor of productivity in all terrestrial ecosystems because all vegetation requires
enormous quantities of water for its growth and production of fruits (Flankenmark 1989; Pimentel et al. 1995).
Therefore, it is of utmost important to ‘save water’ in whatever best possible ways and has been taken as a world
slogan.The global climate change has been viewed as a serious threat for hydrologic cycle. Technologies like rain
water harvesting, watershed management etc. are aimed at ultimately maintaining water cycle which in turn gives
increased water resource (Munnoli P M & Bosle S 2011).In developing countries, most water supplies are
unmetered. In India, for communities with a population of between 20,000 to 1,00,000 the water demand is over
100 to 150 litres per head per day (BIS 1172:1993, reaffirmed in 1998).
Water is a basic need, a day starts with water and ends with it, meanwhile we are running in scare of it,
henceforth we have to save water, now the question starts that, to conserve water, we have to restrict its use? No,
we can’t do so, because on its restriction we do feel uncomfortable. Let us think in another perspective can we save
the water by optimizing its quantity through plumbing appliances? Yes, off course we can do that. Water is
expected to be used in our daily routine through taps or shower, than we can think of designing our taps and
showers in such a way that it can emit minimum water with satisfactory need. Here in this paper, there are some
Water Efficient Fixtures which emit minimum water and meanwhile satisfies the objective or need. Water efficient
fixtures are devices designed to reduce water consumption and can be installed or retrofitted in most domestic and
commercial sites where inefficient fixtures exist.
Development
Major human settlements could initially develop only where fresh surface water was plentiful, such as near rivers
or natural springs. Throughout history, people have devised systems to make getting water into their communities
and households. With time evolution, up gradation in civilization took place, humans created advancement in water
supply that, the water is provided for door to door service, through conduits & pipes.
151
P
Plumbing
The word Pluumbing deriv
T ves from the Latin for leadd, plumbum, as the first effective pippes used in the
t Roman
erra were lead pipes. It is i a system m that convveys fluids forr a wide range of applications.
a Plumbing
usses pipes, vallves, plumbin
ng fixtures, tanks, and other appparatuses to t convey fluids. Heating and
coooling (HVAC), waste rem moval, and pootable waterdeelivery are am
mong the mosst common usses for plumbbing, but it
iss not limited to
t these appliccations.
M
Materials Evoolution
W the evoluution of time, there is a trem
With mendous channge in plumbing materials appliances as followed:
Table 1 Plumbbing Material Evolution

E
Period Materials used
Ancient Timmes clay, lead, bamboo, wood, or stone
14thcentury onwards Wooden loogs wrapped in steel s banding weere used for plum
mbing pipes, parrticularly water mains.
Logs were used for water distribution
d
19th centuryy onwards water suppply pipe is made out of steel, coppper, and plastic; most waste (alsso known as "sooil")out
of steel, coopper, plastic, annd cast iron
Present-day water-supply
P w y systems use a network off high-pressurre pumps, andd pipes in buildings are noww made of
coopper, brass, plastic (partiicularly cross--linked polyeethylene called PEX, whicch is estimated to be used in 60% of
siingle-family homes),
h or othher nontoxic material.
N appliancces to save wa
New ater
The issue withh regular taps is that most of water moles get bouncee of the surfaace of hands or
T o plates or evven worse,
itt just passes riight by and sttraight down the
t drain.
Sh
hower Flow Aerator
A (Spray
y)
This innovativve adaptor forr washbasin & sink taps can
T c reduce water
w wastagee by up to 877%. Water dispenses in
shhower/spray type
t patterns to give highher efficiencyy in wash; whhile using verry less water in comparisoon to your
reegular taps. Anti-clogging
A screen prevennt debris and blockages annd material is scale resistannt.
Fig. 1 Tap Adaptoor for washbasiin or sink& its difference in water

w flow ratee
1. Flow Raate: 2/3/4/6 L/M

2. Flow Tyype: Shower/S Spray Flow
3. Size: 21 mm Dia.(Fitts Male 24 mm
m/Female 22 mm threadedd shell)
T Altered: Nozzle
The N
Itt is the world’s most extreme water savving nozzle. It
I installs easiily into your existing
e tap. By
B atomizingg water we
caan use 98% less
l water andd still retain full
f functionaality. And if wew need a litttle more, then we can swiitch to our
reegular saving mode, still 75% savings, meanwhile
m fuull functionaliity is achievedd.
nt & Society (N
NCWES-20188) 153
Fig. 2 Tap Nozzzle with its diffferent modes
Fig
g. 3 Application of Nozzle wiith different modes
m for differrent materials
1. Fits intoo your existing

g tap.
2. Super eaasy installatio
on. 30 sec.
3. Multiplee finishes andd sizes.
4. Lead Free Eco Brass..
While atommizing the waater, its dropllets break it up
u into millioons of tiny drroplets. Thuss creating a high
h speed,
heeavy mist, shhooting out of
o tap. This inncreases the surface
s area of
o the water drastically annd makes it possible
p to
coome in contacct with almosst all of the waater coming out
o of tap.
One big isssue. 2% is no
ot so great whhen it takes 2 minutes to fill
fi a glass of water. That’ss why the maanufacturer
haad developedd a switch to a more regullar Saving Moode, where sttill water savving of 75% is
i possible coompared to
olld tap, meanw
while all functtionality of water
w is achievved.
T
Taps: low-flow
w aerators and restrictorrs
Businesses andd homeownerrs pay for waater three timees – once to buy it from a utility, oncee to heat it ussing gas or
B
ellectricity, andd once to disp
pose of it as wastewater.
w T
That’s why higgh-efficiency tap aerators attached to thhe spout of
baasin taps cann save business owners and a homeow wners considerable amounnts of water and a money. These tap
aeerators are a simple insert for your exissting tap fixtuures and achiieved an estimmated basin water
w saving of
o 45-65%
(aand associatedd hot water coosts) as they strict
s flow froom 12-15 l/miin to 6-7 l/minn.
Fig. 4 Low
w Flow Tap Aeerators
These low-flow tap restrictors supply all outlets evenly with an aerated spray. Aerators restricts the flow of
water from your tap without reducing water pressure. They may also include an integrated anti-clogging dome
screen to filter sediments and particles. Aerators fit any regular 'M22' or 'M24' aerator housing (22 to 24mm
diameter).
They can be purchased at various outlet stores. A reliable online shop to order water efficient fixtures is
provided in the following link: http://www.sustainable.co.za/water-saving/water-saving-shower-heads.html.
They provide a non-aerated spray and include an integrated anti-clogging dome screen to filter sediments and
particles. They are also very robust and hardy as a single piece insert that ensures a longer design life. These
restrictors achieved an estimated basin water saving of 50-65% as they strict flow from 12-15 lit/min to 6-7 lit/min.
Showerhead: flow restrictors and aerators
Installing low-flow aerated showerheads can save substantial amounts of money and considerably reduce water
consumption. These low-flow showerheads are simple to install and can fit any regular shower attachment. They
achieve estimated shower water saving of 45-65% (and associated water heating cost savings) as they strict flow
from 12-15 lit/min to 6-7 lit/min.
They provide an aerated spray and some items include an integrated anti-clogging dome screen to filter
sediments and particles. Effective aerators restrict the flow of water from your shower without drastically reducing
water pressure.
Not all showerheads are made equal. Two locally available low-flow showerheads that have found favourable
public appeal are the Oxygenics ‘e-Shower’ (A) head available commercially for roughly Rs.300 and the ‘Value-
Eco’ (B) showerhead available commercially for roughly Rs. 150. The design of these shower heads create narrow
and high velocity needle jets through the use of laminar flow technology. Each jet remains intact rather than
breaking into droplets, thereby using the water saving low-flow efficiently. The result is a powerful spray that feels
like a normal shower while saving water and energy (at supply pressures below around 5-7 litres per minute).
(A) (B) (C)

Fig. 5 Three types of locally available showerheads
Toilets: hold-flush mechanism
Most toilets in are installed with standard cisterns. Older toilet cisterns with a syphon-flushing system hold between
9 litres and 15 litres of water. Modern toilet cisterns hold about 6 litres of water. These standard toilets drain the
entire water for each flush. Urine requires smaller flushing volumes than faecal solids and therefore using a full
cistern flush for liquids is wasteful. Toilet flushing consumption easily can be optimised through simple water
saving initiative (and good maintenance).
Fig. 6 Lead fishing cup sinkers attachment

A simple, cost-effective, water saving initiative that can be used is to convert standard toilets to a hold-flush
(multi-flush or interruptible flush) system that flushes for as long as the handle is held down. Hold-flush systems
can result in savings of up to 20% on your water bill. A hold-flush system is simple and tends to control the flush
volume – as soon as depress of toilet handle is done it will stop flushing. This can save more than 50% of the
flushing volume. Most existing standard toilet cisterns (except dual flush systems and some very old-fashioned
mechanisms) can be retrofitted with a hold-flush system for approximately Rs. 50 (or less). Materials needed for
this retrofit are as follows:
1. 3 x lead fishing cup-sinkers (weight 85-100g) per toilet
2. 1 x cable tie (4.8 x 200mm) per toilet
When the toilet handle is pushed down, the internal cistern lever arm is pulled up to initiate siphon action. A
lead sinker can be attached to the end of the internal cistern lever arm to counterbalance the flush mechanism. The
weight of the sinker forces the lever arm downand prevents the entire cistern from draining at each flush. Suitable
fishing sinkers can be ordered online from the following online fishing store: http://www.fishingstore.co.za/cup-
fishing-sinkers. This intervention can be implemented easily and cost effectively without making any structural
changes to the cistern. The cistern should be checked for leaks after installation.
Urinal & Sink Combo
Urinal – sink combo was created in a year 2011 by designer Kaspars Jursons as a pilot project for a product design
and development company SIA Jursons, located in Latvia, European Union. Since that urinal – sink combo has
been successfully sold all over the world in more than 25 countries and 5 continents. Urinal – sink combo is an
innovation solution which makes urinal almost waterless as it reuses water from the sink above to rinse the waste.
This innovative technique is in favour of four parameters, which are commonly considered while selecting a
material for installation:
Fig. 7 Urinal & Sink Combo
Water
When equipped with appropriate faucet urinal – sink combo can save up to 50% of water comparing with
separate urinal and sink. This consumes only the water used in the sink. It makes the urinal almost waterless in
terms of water consumption.
Space
In a timely manner when planning new buildings or renovations anticipating a space for urinal – sink combo it is
possible to save valuable space by placing the two essential restroom devices in one place. It fits for large scale
commercial toilets as well as for small and private restrooms with limited space.
Time
By equipping heavy duty toilets with urinal – sink combos it is possible to significantly increase people flow and
space efficiency. It’s useful peace of sanitary equipment in sports arenas or clubs, pubs and restaurants where
people flow plays important role in comfort.
Sustainability
By producing multifunctional product that combines two functions in one product we significantly decreases usage
of materials during production process. This makes urinal – sink combo technique sustainable and green product in
all aspects.
Why water efficient fixtures are important?
According to manufacturer of Altered: Nozzle appliance, approximately 18% of the water used in our homes is
water running through our taps that is equivalent to 32 gallons per household per day. The 18% of water running
directly towards drains per home is not a small loss, this 18% might be useful for any other effective work, if we do
save that using above mentioned appliances.
Reducing water use from fixtures and equipment is perhaps the easiest method to reduce total potable water use.
It does not require extensive design solutions, just specifying certain products. Water-efficient appliances and
fixtures can save you a lot of water and money in the long term as well as make a big difference to the country’s
overall use of clean tap water. Replacing older water fixtures with low-flowing ones is a relatively low-cost and
quick way for home / workplace to conserve water and save money.
Therefore these fixtures are a high impact appliance to address when looking to reduce water consumption.
They are also relatively easy and cost effective to retrofit with water saving fixtures. For this reason, toilets, taps
and showers were selected as the focus of this study.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of installing efficient water saving fixtures in toilet, taps and showers is as follows:
1. Periodic maintenance to remove solids (i.e. sediment) from inlet mesh strainer of aerators and low-flow
showerheads is required
2. Behavioural change may be required to become accustomed to different water pressures / volumes
REFERENCES
1. Munnoli P M & Bhosle S (2011), “Water-holding capacity of earthworms’ vermicompost made of sugar industry waste
(press mud) in mono- and polyculture vermireactors”, Springer Science+Business Media, 31:394–400.
2. Bader I M, Abusitta A H (2013), “A Water-Saving Technique Using Embedded System”,Applied Mathematics, 2013,
Vol. 4, Pg. 119-123, scientific research.
3. Biggs B (2017) “Domestic Water Saving Fixtures Report”, JG AFRIKA (PTY) LTD, February 2017.
4. Das O, Bera P , Moulick S, (2015),”Water Conservation Aspects Of Green Buildings”, International Journal of
Research in Engineering and Technology, Volume: 04 Special Issue: 13, ICISE-2015.
5. Cha K S, Park M S, & Seo H Y, (2010),”Performance Evaluation of Hot Water Efficiency Plumbing System Using
Thermal Valve”, 17th Symposium for Improving Building Systems in Hot and Humid Climates Austin Texas August
24-25.
6. Bhattacharya S, The great Indian water crisis: Data drought compounds depleting stock, The Times of India, Article,
Apr. 19, 2016.
7. http://www.firstpost.com/india/the-great-indian-water-crisis-data-drought-compounds-depleting-stock-
2737186.html(Sited at 3:30PM on 20-04-2018)
8. https://www.wbdg.org/design-disciplines/plumbing-engineering(Sited at 3:42PM on 20-04-2018)
9. https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/621008351/altered-nozzle-same-tap-98-less-water(Sited at 4:05PM on 20-04-
2018)
10. https://www.bdcnetwork.com/10-high-efficiency-plumbing-fixtures(Sited at 2:15PM on 22-04-2018)
11. https://www.indiamart.com/neosystek/water-saving-components.html(Sited at 1:43PM on 23-04-2018)
12. https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/621008351/altered-nozzle-same-tap-98-less-water(Sited at 1:54PM on 23-04-
2018)
13. https://www.greencape.co.za/assets/Uploads/Domestic-Water-Saving-Fixtures-Report-.pdf(Sited at 2:31PM on 23-04-
2018)
14. http://www.capetowngreenmap.co.za/go-green/save-water-toilets) (Sited at 2:36PM on 23-04-2018).
INFERRING DOMINANT MANGROVE VEGETATION
ALONG SALINITY GRADIENT BASED ON IN-SITU MEASUREMENTS AND
REMOTELY SENSED IMAGERY
Kripa M K1, 2, Hari Nivas A3, Nikhil Lele1, Thangaradjou T3, Saravan Kumar A3, Archana. U. Mankad2,
T. V. R Murthy1
1
Agriculture and Land Ecosystem Division (AED), Biological and Planetary Sciences and Applications Group (BPSG),
Earth, Ocean, Atmosphere, Planetary Sciences and Applications Area (EPSA), Space Applications Centre (ISRO),
Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
2
Department of Botany, Bioinformatics and Climate Change Impacts Management, University School of Sciences, Gujarat University,
Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India.
3
Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology, Annamalai University, Parangipettai, Cuddalore Dt., Tamil Nadu, India
Corresponding author, mrajeev777@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Mangrove ecosystems play a vital role in stabilization and protection of coast line. They are highly prone to
changes in salinity, micro environment and also anthropogenic pressure. Their contribution to the global cycles
of Carbon, Sulphur and Nitrogen are really note-worthy. The present study aims to model the dominant
vegetation type of the Pichavaram mangroves, Tamil Nadu on the basis of their salinity with the aid of field
measurements and remotely sensed data. A total of 18 quadrats, each of 20 m x 20 m were studied for vegetation
composition and soil characteristics. Analysis revealed the presence of five dominant categories of mangroves
coexisting with a class of mixed mangroves. Simultaneously spectral signatures of these species were collected
from the satellite data. Maximum likelihood classification was carried out to deduce a Dominant Vegetation Map
of the study area. The soil salinity measured from all the quadrats (point features) were interpolated over the
entire Pichavaram mangrove region using kriging method to derive a spatial map of salinity. Further the salinity
of the area was categorized into low, medium and high. Based on overlay analysis of dominant vegetation and
soil salinity, Dominant Vegetation Map was generated that is correlated with salinity.Aerial estimates were
computed to assess the area covered under each class. The study would be of utmost concern to policy makers
where management practices and restoration activities are carried out on a large scale.
Keywords: Pichavaram mangroves, Remote sensing, Soil salinity, Dominant vegetation map, Maximum
likelihood classification, Overlay analysis, Kriging.
INTRODUCTION
Mangroves constitute a diverse range of tree species growing along the saline intertidal coastal regions of the
tropics and the subtropics. They facilitate coastal resilience by protecting the coast from storm, wind, flood and
tsunami. Apart from providing habitat for a wide variety of flora and fauna, they provide great economic value
services.They act as a potential source of revenue generation in terms of tourism. Carbon storage capacity of
mangroves are very high and with their living biomass ranging from 100-400tonnes/ha, they rival the sequestration
potential of rainforests.
Mangroves has the ability to survive in a diverse range of salinity conditions like brackish water to pure sea
water (30ppt to 40ppt) (Pravinkumaret al., 2013). Their adaptation to thrive in a saline rich environment makes
them well established along the shorelines. They have a relatively higher tolerance towards a broad range of soil
salinity (Lugo and Snedaker, 1974; Odumet al., 1982; Hutchings and Saenger,1987). Even though, widely seen in
saline environment, an increased rate of salinity affects the growth and productivity in mangroves (Clough and
Sim, 1989; Lin and Sternberg, 1992; Ball, 2002).Non-saline soils accelerate the water uptake process whereas the
saline soil poses the physiological challengeslike very high negative water potential and ion toxicity. Mangroves
overcome these cytotoxic effects by performing a higher water use (Ruth Reef and Lovelock, 2015).Previous
studies conducted by Lopez-Hoffman et al. (2006) reveals that both salinity and light together affects the
physiological conditions in mangroves. They observed that the prevalence of low salinity (rather than high) along
with an increased light availability condition triggered the plant growth and survivorship. Salinity decreased the net
photosynthetic efficiency in mangroves as the ratio of assimilation to leaf respiration increased fourfold. Also
higher salinity affects the transpiration rate in leaves, intercellular CO2 concentrations and stomatal conductance.
157
Higher salinity also increases the ratio of root mass to leaf mass, which in turn affects the water and nutrient
availability.
Regardless of the higher salt concentration in soil, mangroves regulate the concentration of salt in their tissue by
the mechanism of decoupling ion uptake from water uptake. Tests prove that in almost all the mangrove species,
the xylem sap has relatively lower concentrations of salt (Waiselet al., 1986; Werner and Stelzer, 1990; Melcher et
al., 2001; Stuart et al., 2007) irrespective of the higher soil salinity. Mangrove roots prevent the uptake of non-
selective apoplastic water, since their epidermal cells have a higher content of Suberin (Krishnamurthy et al.,
2014).In addition, the Casparian strip emerging very close to the root cap is highly developed in mangroves
(Lawton et al., 1981).
A wide range of spatial and temporal variability is observed in highly saline soils (Silvestriet al. 2005; Haoet
al., 2009).Mangroves being comparatively larger trees than the normal halophytes, they have an expansive root
system (Comley and McGuinness, 2005) and a higher below ground biomass. Hence they are subjected to a
heterogeneous condition of soil salinity varying from 0 to .160 p.p.t., where the evaporation rate is high (Ball,
1998). So, eventhough the salinity is higher at the rhizosphere region, mangroves are often exposed to lesser saline
water resources like riverine water, groundwater and rain water (Ewe et al., 2007). Studies by Ball (1981) shows
that the growth rate in mangroves like Avicennia marina and Aegicerascorniculatum decreased with an increase in
salinity. A considerable decrease was noticed in the Leaf area/ Plant mass ratio, intercellular CO2, stomatal
conductance to water vapour, Vapour pressure deficit and photosynthetic CO2 assimilation rate.
In this context the salinity of mangrove areas need to be monitored and emphasis to studies related to soil
salinity should be encouraged. Mangrove conservation and management activities are gaining momentum in the
present situation of coastal areas being affected by natural calamities and disasters. Also, mangroves play a
remarkable role in minimizing the greenhouse effect. They act as rich sources of carbon sink as their carbon
assimilation potential is very high. In the present study, an attempt has been made to model the mangrove species
conducive for particular salinity range, with the aid of in-situ measurements from the field and remote sensing
techniques. Mangrove areas being vast and inaccessible due to their swampy terrain, it is practically impossible to
collect data from a wide range of points. In this regard, limited in-situ measurements of soil salinity can be
extrapolated over the entire region of interest of study. The objective envisages to 1)Study the soil salinity of
Pichavaram mangroves and to extrapolate them to the entire mangrove region. 2)To record and study the vegetation
type of the study area and to generate a Dominant vegetation map. 3)To generate a Salinity- wise (High, Medium,
Low) Dominant vegetation map of Pichavaram mangroves.
STUDY AREA
The Pichavaram mangroves of Tamil Nadu, lying between the latitudes 11º 20’ N and 11º 30’N and the longitudes
79º 45’ E and 79º 55’E, covers an area of about 1471 ha. Phytosociological studies reveals13 true mangrove species
predominantly dominated by Avicennia marina (Forsk.). Analysis of distribution pattern reveals two distinct zones,
RhizophorazoneandAvicenniazone. The climate is sub-humid with very warm summer and with an annual average
rainfall (70 years) of 1310 mm and annual average rainy days up to 56. Thus the dry season is comparatively longer
extending from February to September and thus the salinity will also be higher during the same period ranging
from 35 to 45 ppt (Selvamet al., 2003).
METHODOLOGY
Phytosociological analysis was carried out in the Pichavaram mangrove region for the documentation of the
prevailing dominant mangrove species. Simultaneously, satellite data near synchronous to the field data was
archived.On the basis of ground information, species signatures were obtained from the stack of Resourcesat-2
LISS IV data of 07/02/2016 and RISAT1 C-band HH/HV MRS data of 01/01/2016. Accurate delineation of the
dominant vegetation was made and for each class, at least more than 100 pixels were collected to generate the
spectral signatures. Transformed Divergence method was carried out to check the seperability among the species.
The results showed that four major mangrove species are fairly seperable from each other and also from the other
classes like mudflats, sand, water, mixed forest and non-mangroves.Accuracy assessment was carried out,with an
overall accuracy of 84.09% and a kappa value of 0.81. Simultaneously a spatial map of salinity was generated with
the aid of in-situ measured soil salinity values and interpolated over the entire region of interest through kriging
method in ArcGIS software. Further the salinity map was classified into low salinity, medium salinity and high
salinity. Overlay analysis technique was then carried out between the vegetation map and the salinity map to
generate a spatial layer of salinity based dominant vegetation map.

From the overlay analysis, a total of 15 classes were resulted, among which the mixed class of Avciennia (both
Avicenniamarina and Avicenniaoffiicinalis) dominated the entire Pichavaram area. Computation of aerial statistics
of the various species is summarized as in the table 1. The mixed species occupied about 16.9% and 16.6% under
the high saline and medium saline conditions respectively. This was followed by the group of mixed mangroves
growing in moderate saline soil. These were followed by Avicennia marina growing in moderate and high saline
conditions. The least area was occupied by Excoecariaagallocha growing in moderate saline condition
(1.2%).While species wise distribution is considered, except Excoecariaagallochaand Mixed mangroves which
displayed a higher distribution in low saline and moderate saline region, all other species had an ability to thrive
well in highly saline soil condition, which is evident from their distributionpattern.
Table 1 Aerial statistics of the Salinity based Dominant Vegetation Map
Area covered Area covered

Vegetation type
(in ha) (in %)
1 Avicennia marina- Low salinity 43.1 5.5
2 Avicennia marina- Medium salinity 63.4 8.1
3 Avicennia marina- High salinity 64.1 8.2
4 Excoecariaagallocha- Low salinity 40.0 5.1
5 Excoecariaagallocha- Medium salinity 9.5 1.2
6 Excoecariaagallocha- High salinity 18.7 2.4
7 Rhizophoramucronata- Low salinity 20.4 2.6
8 Rhizophoramucronata- Medium salinity 30.7 3.9
9 Rhizophoramucronata- High salinity 31.4 4.0
10 Mixed mangroves- Low salinity 15.3 1.9
11 Mixed mangroves- Medium salinity 83.8 10.7
12 Mixed mangroves- High salinity 64.9 8.3
13 Avicennia mixed - Low salinity 37.6 4.8
14 Avicennia mixed – Medium salinity 130.2 16.6
15 Avicennia mixed – High salinity 132.7 16.9
Fig. 1 Spatial layer of Salinity gradient dominant vegetation map

Naidu et al. (2011) reported that in some mangrove species like Avicennia marina, with an increasing salinity,
the cuticle thickness tends to increase.Also higher salinity tolerance seen in majority of mangroves causes a
decreased vapor pressure deficit (VPD) around their leaves. VPD can be considered as the most crucial
environmental factor for plant growth and development (Leuschner, 2002) as it determines the rate of water loss
from the leaves through transpiration (Oren et al., 1999). Mangroves having the ability to survive in a highly saline
condition, has an efficient water use capacity. In such a system, the reduced VPD can have an adverse effect in its
carbon gain potential.Thus in the case of various species of mangroves which thrive in varied saline conditions, the
differences in the adaptations for water conducting mechanism contributes to an increased productivity rate in
heterogeneous saline conditions.
CONCLUSION
Salinity has a major role in determining the distribution patterns and even primary productivity of mangroves.
Mangroves being diverse in species and having a wide, global and regional distribution, it is difficult to monitor the
areas conducive for their afforestation based on their salinity. In this context it is better to monitor them with the
aid of remotely sensed data. Extensive in-situ measurements ofsoil salinity are practically impossible because the
mangroves are vast in area. Under such circumstances remote sensing plays a crucial role. With the aid of remotely
sensed image and limited in-situ measurements, it is possible to interpret the salinity of the entire region under
concern. Also the vegetation type conducive for particular salinity measures could also be determined. Thus the
study would be of utmost concern to policy makers and management practitioners.
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1. Ball, M.C.(1981).“Physiology of photosynthesis in two mangrove species: Responses to salinity and other
environmental factors”. Ph.D. thesis. Australian National University, Canberra.
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River floodplain, northern Australia”. Global Ecology & Biogeography Letters,7: 71–82.
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Australian mangroves”. Australian Journal of Botany, 53: 431–436.
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Ramos., and David D. Ackerly. “Mangrove Seedling Net Photosynthesis, Growth, and Survivorship Are Interactively
Affected by Salinity and Light”. BIOTROPICA 38(5): 606–616 2006. doi:10.1111/j.1744-7429.2006.00189.x
11. Lawton, J.R, Todd, A.N.N, Naidoo, D.K. (1981). “Preliminary investigations into the
12. structure of the roots of the mangroves, Avicennia marina and Bruguiera
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17. Melcher, P.J., Goldstein, G., Meinzer, F.C., et al. (2001). “Water relations of coastal and estuarine Rhizophora mangle:
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18. Naidoo, G., Hiralal, O., Naidoo, Y. (2011). “Hypersalinity effects on leaf ultrastructure and physiology in the mangrove
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biodiversity in the Pichavaram mangroves, Southeast Coast of India”. Journal of Oceanography and Marine Science
Vol. 4(1), pp.1-11, DOI:10.5897/JOMS12.004
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and presence of NaCl”. Plant, Cell & Environment 13: 243–255.
MATHEMATICAL MODEL STUDIES FOR OPTIMIZING OUTFALL
LOCATION FOR HOT WATER DISCHARGE FROM POWER PLANT
Payal Chakote1, A. K. Singh2, L.R. Ranganath3 and P. R. Dixit4
1
PG-Student, 4Associate Professor,Civil Engineering, VIIT-University of Pune
2
ARO, CW&PRS, Pune 3Scientist, CW & PRS, Pune
payalchakote11@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The shoreline is widely used for siting electrical utilities, refineries, and other industrial processes that require
substantial volumes of cooling water. This has lead to large volume of thermal contamination of the sea.
Thermal contamination has lead to abnormal temperature changes in a natural body of water, caused by the
release of industrial hot water. This is resulting to various changes on coral reef and also changes in chemical
and biological properties of sea water. Hence it is necessary to have a proper idea of all these adverse effects
before construction of any coastal infrastructure. The Present study aims at modelling of flow patterns in open
coast near Udupi, Karnataka. Simulation was carried out to study the hydrodynamic behaviour. The model
predicts Flow Field, Currents Speed, Surface Elevation at different location and cooling water re-circulation
from source point. To meet the objectives The Flexible Mesh Flow Model HD of MIKE21 is used which are
suitable. MIKE 21 is a comprehensive coastal modelling suite which simulates hydrodynamics, wave field, sand
transport and advection-diffusion of hot water and industrial effluents. The spatial resolution of model is 20km x
10 km. The model results for hydrodynamic study were found to be good with observed current data. The
predicted currents given by model are matches 80 to 85 % with observed value of currents. In the second part of
the research, the advection dispersion studies are to be carried out to identify suitable outfall location for hot
water discharge from thermal plant.
Keywords: Hydrodynamic, advection dispersion, Coastal process, Currents.
INTRODUCTION
Coastal zone is the triple interface of land, ocean and atmosphere. Any developmental activity along the coastal
zone requires a clear understanding of the dynamic processes controlling its very existence. Throughout the world,
the ocean shoreline is widely used for siting electrical utilities, refineries, and other industrial processes that require
substantial volumes of cooling water. Hence large power plants are usually sited in coastal regions or on
lakeshores. This is so that large quantities of heated water from once-through condenser cooling systems can be
discharged into an immense receiving water body as a way of reducing the detrimental effects of the thermal
effluent on the environment. Since surface heat transfer to the atmosphere is considerably less than advection heat
transfer to the receiving water, the thermal plume will travel a large distance while cooling down to ambient
temperature. However, if the thermal plume reaches the intake channel, recirculated cooling water could cause heat
build-up and reduce power plant operational efficiency. Moreover, the thermal plume has potential to damage coral
reefs that exist in most coastal regions. The hot water discharge from thermal power plant is also considered as one
of the most pollution sources of rivers, which require large amount of refrigeration water. Thermal pollution affects
both the physical and chemical characteristics of the flowing water. The change in temperature affects oxygen
supply thereafter affects ecosystem composition. Elevated temperature typically decreases the level of dissolved
oxygen in water. It affects the plants and organisms living in water body near the hot water discharge location. All
plants, animals, bacteria and algae have a temperature which do not suits them to sustain. This is thermal pollution
of water. Also, thermal pollution effect on morphology of the rivers due to the growth of the water plants
depending on the water temperature increase and sedimentation process. The chemical reactions is approximately
doubled for each 10°C temperature rise, which increase the sedimentation due to changes of water properties,
changes in flocculation, and ion exchange. Therefore, a reliable hydrothermal analysis of cooling water discharges
is important.
Hence it is necessary to select a proper location of intake and outfall so that hot water does not enter the
intake channel and efficiency of plant can be maintained. Unpolluted water will be available and less filtration of
water at intake. Discharged water should not be more than 10 C greater than ambient water temperature so that the
162
biodiversity is not affected. (Pollution Control Implémentation Division – II). The present paper includes the
introduction of the topic, i.e. present section which is followed by study area details, description of modeling tools
used, methodology used and finally results and conclusion.
STUDY AREA
The proposed research area is near Udupi, Karnataka, India. The location lies in eastern part of the Arabian Sea as
shown in the fig 1. The north south extent of analysis region is approximately 120km . The width is 10 km. The
maximum depth is 35m. The tides are semi durinal type with large durinal inequality and varying amplitudes,
which increase from south to north along the coast.
Fig. 1 Location of Study Area on the map of India
Table 1 Details of Study Area (Source: CW&PRS)

Country India
State Karnataka
Region Right coast near Udupi
Approximate Latitude and Longitude 13o 26’ N & 74o 40’E
Datum Height Expressed in Meter
MODELLING TOOLS
MIKE 21 HD and AD is a tool available for coastal modeling developed by Danish Hydraulics Institute (DHI),
Denmark. MIKE 21 is useful for the studies of oceans and coastlines, rivers and reservoirs, ecology, groundwater,
water distribution, wastewater and many more. (Source: Mike21 Manual). Numerical models play an important
role in many proposed development projects, including assessments of their potential impacts. They are also
indispensable tools in decision making and for countless operational and planning purposes.
METHODOLOGY USED
1. Model Set-Up: The site investigations were carried out for collecting field data with regard to bathymetry of
the area, tidal levels, and currents. Bathymetry information is taken from CMAP software. A digitized
hydrographic chart of is made available which is superimposed on CMAP to get local bathymetry
information.Tidal flow is in north south direction parallel to the coastline. The input parameters like eddy
viscosity, chezys roughness coefficient, dispersion coefficient etc., were fixed after performing different
trails for calibrating the model.
2. Development of Bathymetry for Existing and Proposed Conditions by using Mike21 software: Bathymetry is
the foundation of the science of hydrography, which measures the physical features of a water body.
Hydrography includes not only bathymetry, but also the shape and features of the shoreline; the
characteristics of tides, currents, and waves; and the physical and chemical properties of the water itself.
Bathymetry involved the measurement of ocean depth through depth sounding. The data for bathymetry is
obtained from naval hydrographic charts extracted using C-MAP. The bathymetry used in the computational
model is shown in Figure 2., is of area 20km x 10 km. Bathymetry of proposed condition shows various
locations of outfall is also shown.
Fig. 2 Bathymetry of Existing and Proposed Conditions with various outfall location alternatives
3. Tidal data and Boundary Conditions: The tidal range for one month, non monsoon is shown below in Figure
2. On x axis the period of tide and on y axis tidal range in meters is represented. The location has tidal range
of 1.7m.
Fig. 3 Tidal level for non monsoon

4. Currents: The observed current data at a location near Udupi port was used to for calibration and it is found
that during the observation period the maximum current observed is of the order 0.3 m/s. (Source CWPRS
Technical Report .4812)
5. Current Calibration for Model: The hydrodynamic model was run for two cases:
(i) Before development of cooling water plant.
(ii) After development of cooling water plant.
Then comparison in both models for currents was observed. The model computed currents are in fair
agreement of around 80 to 85% with observed values.
6. Modelling of advection dispersion: The Advection-Dispersion model MIKE21-AD simulates dispersion of
hot water in coastal waters. The AD module enables us to describe transport, dispersion and decay of
temperature, dissolved or suspended substances etc.
A need for development of Power Park at coast near Udupi was proposed to serve the additional power
requirements. Hence various alternatives have been proposed for intake and outfall of water and their effects
have been studied.
Initially only one intake and outfall was considered. Various alternatives were taken as below. The distance
of the outfall also differs from the intake location.
Table 2 Details of various alternatives

No of intakes Capacity in m3/sec Distance from source(km)
1 83 1.5
1 83 2.0
1 83 2.5
Table 3 Details of Parameter used for TR Simulation

Parameters Selection
Model Mike 21 Transport
Minimum Temperature 28 0C
Maximum Temperature 400C
Dispersion Coefficient 0.50
Salinity 50 psu
Wind Speed 1 m/s
Boundary Condition 280C
Below are figures showing discharges at 1.5, 2 and 2.5 km away from the intake location.
Figure 4,5 and 6 shows the discharge is 83 cumecs and the distance of 1.5km, 2.0 km and 2.5km is taken from
source respectively. Temperature at discharge is given 40 0 C. The circulation of the hot water discharged is then
observed For Figure 4 where discharge is 1.5 km away from coast. Here there is some amount of discharged hot
water that is entering the rivers.
Fig. 4 Temperature dispersion patterns observed at high water and low water (83 cumecs at 1.5 km)
Figure 5 shows when discharge is kept 2.0 km away from the source no hot water dispersion in the river and the
channel dredged. The plume dispersion doesn’t significantly influence the environment as the maximum
temperature near coastal zone is in the range of 28.10C to 28.2 0C which is nearer to ambient air temperature.
Figure 5.3 shows when discharge is kept 2.5 km away from the source no hot water dispersion in the river and
the channel dredged. The plume dispersion doesn’t significantly influence the environment as the maximum
temperature near coastal zone is in the range of 28.10C to 28.2 0C which is nearer to ambient air temperature.
RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

The thermal plume is moving in north south direction.
The movement of the plume is towards the north during high waters and towards the south during low waters.
Where discharge is 1.5 km away from coast, there is some amount of discharged hot water that is entering the
rivers.
When discharge is kept 2.0 km away from the source no hot water dispersion in the river and the channel
dredged is observed.
When discharge is kept 2.5 km away from the source no hot water dispersion in the river and the channel
dredged is observed.
The best alternative suggested is one in which distance between intake and outfall is 2.5 km.
REFERENCES
1. Shih-Huang Chieh., “Two dimensional numerical model of thermal discharge in coastal region”, (Journal of Hydraulic
Engineering) 1987.
2. E. John, Gregory Gartrel, Clinton D. Winant,” Diffusion and dispersion in coastal waters”, (Journal of Hydraulic
Engineering) 1990.
3. Jia-Lin Chen, Tian-Jian Hsu, Fengyan Shi, Britt Raubenheime, and Steve Elgar, “Hydrodynamic and sediment transport
modeling of New River Inlet (NC) under the interaction of tides and waves”, (Journal of Geophysical Research:
Oceans) 2015.
4. Shaikh Mohamed Ashfaq, “Thermal Dispersion Model for Cooling Water of Thermal Power Plant System”,
(International Journal of Current Engineering and Technology) 2015.
5. MIKE 21, Hydrodynamics- User Manual (DHI) 2017.
6. MIKE 21, Advection Dispersion- User Manual (DHI) 2017.
7. Ghosh L. K.”Impact of withdrawal of cooling water from Ennore port basin”, (CW&PRS) 2000
8. Patil B.M. et al., “Mathematical model studies for relocation of intake and outfall for proposed development of port at
Kattupalli, Tamil Nadu”, (CW&PRS) 2009.
GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGY TO MONITOR SPATIO-TEMPORAL CHANGES
IN ICEBERGS IN EAST ANTARCTICA
Mehanaz Sherif and Rajashreebothale

National Remote Sensing Centre/ISRO, Hyderabad
mehanaz123@gmail.com, rbothale@gmail.com.
ABSTRACT
Ice bergs are masses of freshwater ice that have calved from a glacier or ice shelf and fallen into the ocean.
Icebergs come in all shapes and sizes from ice cubed chunks to ice islands. Studies on icebergs act as the
breakup for clues to the processes that cause ice shelf collapse. The rate at which the icebergs are produced is
highly variable since it is influenced by the glacier velocity including the surge and the recession events. About
15 to 20% of the volume of the newly calved iceberg is above the waterline, because the upper part of the ice
berg is less dense and the life time of the icebergs is strongly dependent on the ocean drift that carries it into the
warmer waters. Most of the ice lost from Antarctic ice sheet is in the form of iceberg calving. Monitoring the
position of the edge of the ice shelf gives information on its rate of growth and hence the iceberg discharge
cycle. Remote sensing plays a critical role in allowing us to examine an area over a period of time to see what
change has happened. This study aims to monitor the ice bergs and shoreline changes in the Larsemann Hills
area located on the south-eastern coast of Prydz Bay, Princess Elizabeth Land, East Antarctica over a period of
two years 2016 and 2017. Because of its ice free area of approximately 40 sq km, this hill region is
environmentally, scientifically and logistically significant. The ice-free area consists of two major peninsulas
(Stornes and Broknes), four minor peninsulas, and approximately 130 near-shore islands. Total of 939 icebergs
were identified in the year 2016 whereas the icebergs identified in the year 2017 were 853.Thevariability in the
number of ice bergs mapped in individual years is due to three major reasons. First reason is melting of small
icebergs as the area is dominated by single year ice only. Second reason is the calving of icebergs which was
observed in the year 2017 resulting in additional number of icebergs. It was observed that the calving took place
at three places where the total area which was calved was around 3.02 sq.km. The third reason is drifting of
icebergs away from study area. There were 59 icebergs found to be common in both the years. This study also
aims to classify the icebergs based on the texture as smooth and rough and to detect the percentage of change
occurred in 2017 with respect to 2016. The movement of icebergs was also analysed with respect to 2016 to
know the general direction of movement of icebergs. It was observed that the rotational movement of icebergs
was not pertaining to a specific direction. The maximum displacement observed was 2 Km.
Keywords: Icebergs, Shore line, Remote Sensing, Larsemann Hills.
INTRODUCTION
Icebergs are pieces of ice that are formed on land and float in an ocean. They are large blocks of freshwater ice that
break away from marine glaciers and floating ice shelves of glacial origin. Even though they originate on land they
mostly come under the sea ice investigations because they are surrounded by them. Ice berg come in all shapes and
sizes from ice cubed chunks to ice islands the size of a small country. Iceberg travel with ocean currents sometimes
smashing up against the shore or getting caught in shallow waters. When an iceberg reached warm waters the new
climate attacks it from all the sides. On the iceberg surface warm air melts snow and ice into pools called melt
ponds that can trickle through the iceberg and widen cracks. At the same time warm water laps at the iceberg
edges, melting the ice and causing the chunks of ice to break off. Iceberg poses a danger to ships traversing.
168
Iceberg serves as a tool for scientists to learn more about climate and ocean processes. Climate scientists study
icebergs as they break up clues to the processes that cause ice shelf collapse. Studies have noticed that the way
icebergs break up when they reach warmer waters mirrors the disintegration of Antarctic ice shelves. By studying
the factors that cause icebergs to break up, researchers hope to better understand the influences that lead to ice shelf
and to predict how ice shelves will respond to a warming climate. Icebergs are found in Polar Regions, their sizes
and numbers generally being greater at higher latitudes, they pose a hazard both to shipping and to sea bed
structures (Schodlok et al., 2006). In Antarctica the ice spreads out on the sea surface, staying connected to land
and forming a floating ice shelf or greater or lesser extent. Antarctic icebergs are mostly calved from the edges of
the huge ice shelves that fringe much of the continent (Jacobs et al., 1992 and Liu et al., 2015). The result is that
the southern icebergs at the time of calving tend to be very large and tabular in nature. The drift of icebergs is
largely governed by ocean currents although wind may exert some influence. The total estimated volume of ice
calved annually from Antarctica ranges from 750 to 3000 km3 per year (reference). The occasional release of
extremely large icebergs has a major impact on annual estimates of Antarctic mass loss. The speed at which the
icebergs are lost is dependent on glacier velocity which depends on surge and recession events (Jensen et al., 1991).
Climatic predictions from IPCC 2013 expect global surface temperatures to continue to warm. As a consequence
the Antarctic continent will experience increasing air and ocean temperatures which affect the stability of glacial
systems and the rate of calving of ice bergs. (IPCC 2013). Calving of icebergs is natural process. The snow
accumulation and ablation are year round processes maintaining the total mass balance of the ice sheet and glaciers.
Thus, when the accumulation exceeds the limit it is balanced by calving out the ice in the form of iceberg. (Jawak
and Luis 2017a ).
Ice Loss
The loss of ice begins as soon as an iceberg calves from its parent glacier. Even icebergs locked into sea ice over
the winter show signs of mass loss. The major causes of ice loss are melting, calving and splitting. (Walker et al
2013). Ice loss due to melting is hard to quantify where it is highly dependent on water temperature, wave action
and water currents. (Christine Wesche et al., 2013) Secondly small pieces of ice are constantly breaking off the
sides of icebergs, mostly owing to waterline undercutting. Such calving events may produce only a few small
pieces or a great number especially in warm water. Usually the individual pieces are quite small and are quickly
melted, but the total mass loss can be considerable and the resulting imbalance can cause the iceberg to roll causing
further ice loss. Thirdly splitting occurs when a large iceberg breaks into two or more pieces each of which is an
iceberg in its own right.
Role and limitations of remote sensing
Remote sensing techniques play a major role in monitoring the area of interest using long term satellite data. The
data allows us to examine the area on a temporal basis and see what change has happened and determine the cause
for it. Ice margin monitoring has been carried out between Indian Antarctic research stations Bharati and Amery
ice shelf using RISAT 1 data (Jayaprasad et al., 2014). Various optical satellite datasets has been used to monitor
the iceberg calving (Jawak and Luis 2014). Despite its convenience remote sensing techniques do have limitations
that restrict their usefulness such as the cloud affected areas etc.
STUDY AREA
The study aims to monitor the iceberg and shoreline changes in the Larsemann hills area which is located on the
south eastern coast of Pyrdz bay, Princess Elizabeth Land, East Antarctica. Because of its ice free area of
approximately 40 sq km this hill region is environmentally, scientifically and logistically significant. It consists of
two major peninsulas (Stornes and Broknes), four minor peninsulas, and approximately 130 near-shore islands
Fig. 1 Study area
METHODOLOGY
The methodology opted for the study is given below in Figure 2. The IRS and the Sentinel 2 data for two different
years 2016 and 2017 respectively were obtained. The icebergs present in the two images were captured by
digitization and the icebergs were classified as smooth and rough based on their texture. The area was calculated
for all the icebergs and the common icebergs in both the years were identified. The percentage change in the area of
the icebergs in 2017 with respect to 2016 was calculated. The angular movement of the icebergs was also
monitored and the shoreline of the images was captured and the changes were captured.

The results observed in the study are as follows, the total of 841 and 854 numbers of icebergs were captured in
2016 and 2017 respectively. 59 icebergs were found to be common in both the years, out of which maximum area
of iceberg in 2016 is 0.67sq km and in 2017 it was 0.64 sq km. The number of rough icebergs in 2016 is 543 and
674 rough icebergs were identified in 2017 and the number of smooth icebergs is 298 and 180 in 2016 and 2017
respectively. The difference in the number of icebergs mapped is due to three reasons first is melting and the study
area is dominated by single year icebergs and secondly calving of icebergs in 2017 led to the increase in their
number and third reason is due to the drifting of icebergs away from the study area. The calving of icebergs was
observed in three places and the total area which was calved was around 3.02 sq km. The rotational movement of
icebergs in 2017 with respect to 2016 was calculated and it was observed that there was no specific direction in
which the icebergs moved it was evenly dispersed in all directions. The maximum displacement observed in the
icebergs is around 2Km.
nt & Society (N
NCWES-20188) 171
Fiig. 2 Methodology adopted for

f the study
Fig. 3 Showing the driift of icebergs from 2016 to 2017

2
Fig. 4 Showing the shorre line change at three placess which is markked in yellow colour
c
Fig. 4 Showing perccentage changee in iceberg areea
Fig. 5 Graaphs showing thhe area distribuution of the iceebergs.
R
REFERENC
CES
1. Schodlokk M.P, Hellmeer H.H, Roharddt, G, & Fahrbaach E, 2006“W Weddell Sea iceeberg drift: Fivve years of obsservations”,
Journal of
o Geophysicall Research, 111(C06018), 1––14.
2. Wesche C, Jansen D, anda Dierking W, W 2014,“Calviing Fronts of Antarctica:
A Maapping and Claassification”, Remote
R Sen,
5, 6305-66322.
3. Jacobs S.S, Helmer H.H H, Doake C.S.MM, Jenkins A and
a Frolich R.M M, 1992, “Mellting of ice shelves and the mass
m balance
of Antarcctica”, Journal of Glaciology, Vol.38, No.130.
4. Jensen H,
H Loset S and Lovas
L M, 19911, “Sampling of
o iceberg”, Repports on Polar search, No 87..
5. “Climatee change 2013: The physical Science
S basis”- Report on cliimate change 2013
2 by IPCC.
6. Jawak S.D,
S Luis A.J,, 2017a,” Traccking of Antarrctic icebergs using
u optical reemote sensing satellite data””, MADICE
Summer School on Anttarctic Climatee Variability annd Ice Dynamiccs, 8-11,
7. Jawak S.D, Luis, A.J, 2014 “Prospective application of NASA-ISRO SAR (NISAR) in cryospheric studies: a practical
approach”, NISAR Science Workshop, DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.1587.5687.
8. Jayaprasad P, Rajak D Singh, R Oza S, Sharma, R and Kumar, 2014, “Ice calving and deformation from Antarctic ice
margins using RISAT-1 circular polarization SAR data”, ISPRS - International Archives of the Photogrammetry,
Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, XL-8, pp.525-529.
9. Liu, Y, J. C. Moore, X. Cheng, R. M. Gladstone, J. N. Bassis, H. Liu, J. Wen, and F. Hui, 2015, “Ocean-driven
thinning enhances iceberg calving and retreat of Antarctic ice shelves”, Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of America,112(11), pp. 3263–3268, doi: 10.1073/pnas.1415137112
10. Walker C, Bassis J, Fricker H, and Czerwinski R, 2013, “Structural and environmental controls on Antarctic ice shelf
rift propagation inferred from satellite monitoring”. Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface, 118(4), pp.2354-
2364.
WASTE WATER TREATMENT USING MORINGA OLEIFERA FOR
BALANCED ECOSYSTEM
T. Mounika1 and V. Malathi2*

1,
Department of Environmental Science & Technology, 2* Department of Chemistry BVRIT Hyderabad College
of Engineering for Women, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
Author for correspondence mounika.t@bvrithyderabad.edu.in
ABSTRACT
Water is one of our basic human needs, and lack of potable water is a major cause of death and disease in our
country. The purpose of this paper is to provide information on waste water treatment with low cost water
purification using natural coagulant like Moringa Oleifera for better water quality standards and usage.
Moringa Oleifera, also known as the “Tree of Life” “Mothers Best Friend,” “Natures Medicine Cabinet.”
Moringa happens to be the only genus in the family Moringaceae is rightfully named because of its potential to
use everything from root to leaf to seed for many health benefits. It deposits organic matter back into the ground
and over time actually can make the ground more fertile. Moringa Oleifera seeds acts as a natural coagulant,
Study of flocculent, absorbent for the treatment of waste water. Moringa oleifera seeds were efficient as a
primary coagulant in wastewater treatment for removal of suspended solids and microorganisms, and also
removal of some metals. Nutrients and COD were not successfully removed. COD and nutrients were somehow
increased by coagulation using Moringa oleifera seeds. Compared to alum, Moringa oleifera seeds produced 4 to
6 times less sludge volume.
Keywords: Waste Water Treatment, Moringa Oleifera, Coagulant, Water purification.
INTRODUCTION
Moringa oleifera is a small tree from India, Pakistan, and Nepal that has been used for generations in Eastern
countries to treat and prevent diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, anemia, arthritis, liver disease, and
respiratory, skin, and digestive disorders. It may be propagated from seeds or cuttings, grows well even in poor
soils requiring minimal horticultural attention and is able to survive long periods of drought. Moringa Oleifera (see
figure 1) is a perennial plant that grows very fast, with flowers and fruits appearing within 12 months of planting.
They grow up to a height of 5-12 meters and pods 30-120 cm long56 and are harvested up to two times a year in
India57. The tree prefers lowlands in hot semiarid conditions with sandy or loamy soils58 but is known to adapt to
new conditions quickly. It tolerates light frost, a soil pH of 9 and can live in areas with annual rainfall off up to
3000 mm. Today it can be found on elevations up to 2000 m in Zimbabwe59. It is accepted that treatments with
moringa solutions will remove 90%–99.9% of the impurities in water. Removal efficiency was found to increase
with increasing dosage of Moringa oleifera. Higher dosages were required to achieve equivalent residual hardness
for water samples with the same initial hardness but higher number of hardness-causing species in the water.
Hardness removal was found to be independent of pH of the raw water. The protein is thermo resistant and
remained active after 5 h heat treatment at 95 °C Moringa oleifera seeds treat water on two levels, acting both as a
coagulant and an antimicrobial agent. It is generally accepted that moringa works as a coagulant due to positively
charged ,water-soluble proteins, which bind with negatively charged particles (silt, clay, bacteria, toxins, etc)
allowing the resulting “flocs” to settle to the bottom or be removed by filtration.
The different purposes of the tree are many as all parts of the tree are used. Oil extracted from the seeds is used
for working machinery, cosmetics, cooking and soap. The press cakes, what is left after the oil extraction, is used
as soil fertilizer. Pods and leaves are used for eating both by humans and animals, as they contain a lot of vitamins.
Using the tree as a vegetable is the main reason that it has been cultivated in large scale in India, but this is yet the
only commercialized part of the tree62. Different parts of the tree are used in traditional medicine for treating
diarrhoea and epilepsy among others63, and some even claim to be treating tumors64. The wood pulp can be used
for papermaking and the tree itself can be used as a fence, natural windbreaks or fuel.
174
MATERIAL & METHODOLOGY

Moringa seeds, seed kernels or dried press cake can be stored for long periods but moringa solutions for treating
water should be prepared fresh each time. Extraction of the coagulants can be done in several ways.
Most of them, including recommendations for domestic use, follow the pattern: dried seeds are ground, with
or without shells, using either a kitchen blender or a mortar. 10 gm of seed powder was mixed in 1 liter of distilled
water to prepare stock solution of coagulant. Then mixture was kept in rapid mixture for 15 minutes with 120-150
rpm. Then mixture was filtered with ordinary filter paper. Filtered mixture was used for coagulation process.
Coagulant was mixed with raw water and stirring it for 30-45 minutes at 120-150 rpm the settling time s 2 hours.
After sedimentation optimum dose of coagulant were selected then raw water were treated using
optimum dose in proportion of 1 liter raw water treatment. The supernatant of treated water was used for
tests for The water quality parameters were checked for physico-chemical parameter as per standard
methods.
Table 1 Results Obtained with methods used for physicochemical study of raw lake water and treated water [1]
Raw Treated
S.No Parameters
Sample Sample
1 pH 6.5 7.5
2 Turbidity 7.0 5.0
3 TS 700± 20 300
4 TDS 600 170
5 DO 2.3 2.6
6 BOD 1.9 1.2
7 Chlorides 120 110
8 Alkalinity 8.0 5.0
9 Acidity 170 115
10 Hardness 260 230
pH
Lake water was treated with natural coagulant stock solution which was prepared with Moringa Oleifera seed
powder. During the analysis it was observed that after coagulation process the pH of lake water increased .After
treatment pH was in the range 6.5 to 7.5 and within the limit. According to WHO standards accepted limit is 6- 8.
The pH increase with increasing concentration of Moringa Oleifera seed powder as a coagulant it represents that
water soluble cations are present in the seed in the form of proteins. It was reported that the action of Moringa
Oleifera as a coagulant lies in the presence of water soluble cationic proteins in the seeds. This suggests that in
water, the basic amino acids present in the protein of Moringa would accept a proton from water resulting in the
release of a hydroxyl group making the solution basic.
Turbidity
Turbidity Before treatment turbidity was observed in range of 7.0 , which was not within the range of drinking
water standards it was observed that after completion of coagulation process the turbidity of the sample was
reduced up to range of 5.0, and this was accepted limits as per WHO standards.
TS &TDS
The initial TS was in range of 700-750 mg/l for lake water which was beyond the limits of WHO. In case of TDS,
initial range was 600-650 mg/l above permissible limit. After the treatment Moringa Oleifera seed powder, the total
solids and total dissolved solids were reduced from lake water. The range of total solids was found in between 200-
220 mg/l and for total dissolved solids range was 170-190 mg/l. These were present within the limit according to
WHO standards. Moringa Oleifera is known to be a natural cationic polyelectrolyte and flocculent with a chemical
composition of basic polypeptides with molecular weights ranging from 6000 to 16,000 daltons, containing up to
six aminoacids of mainly glutamic acid, methionine and arginine[2].
Chlorides
The Chlorides were present in the range of 120-130 mg/l in the lake water samples. It was observed that Moringa
seed treatment with chloride ions reduces the chloride level, because cations from the seed attract negatively
charged chloride ions present in lake water and neutralize the chlorides and therefore Chloride ions range between
110-115 mg/l
Alkalinity
Alkalinity was observed to be 170 mg/l for lake water. At dose of Moringa Oleifera seed powder, it was observed
that the alkalinity reduced after the treatment. The alkalinity was present in the range of 50-110 mg/l which was
within limits of WHO standards. The slight decrease in alkalinity and pH of all water samples may be due to
precipitation of insoluble products of the reaction between the Moringa Oleifera and the hardness-causing ions
similar to precipitation softening using lime/soda ash. The Moringa Oleifera seed extract appears to have natural
buffering capacity. The precipitates (solids / flocks) were light and did not settle easily. The chemical constituent of
the precipitate is however not known.
BOD
Biochemical Oxygen Demand is gives the presence of organic matter in the water/wastewater. Hence BOD has
been measured for Lake Sample and treated sample. The initial BOD was determined with a range of 1.5- 2.0 mg/l.
Then the same sample is treated with Moringa Oleifera, after treatment BOD is in the range of 1-1.5mg/l. As per
WHO standards the BOD for drinking water should be nil. But after comparison we can say that there is reduction
has been observed in BOD.
DO
The initial dissolved oxygen level of lake water sample is in the range of 2-2.2 mg/l. after the treatment of lake
water with Moringa Oleifera the dissolved oxygen measured was in the range of 2.0-2.5 mg/l. as per WHO
standards there has been no limiting values are given for dissolved oxygen in the drinking water, hence here we can
say that dissolved oxygen has very little effect of Moringa Oleifera on it.
Hardness
Hardness was 360-800 mg/l for lake water sample. It was observed that hardness of water is decreased with dose
of Moringa seed powder. Hardness range was 230-530 mg/l and within the limit of WHO standards. As a
polyelectrolyte, it may therefore be postulated that Moringa Oleifera removes hardness in water through adsorption
and inter particle bridging. According to reference [4] as a polyelectrolyte it may therefore be postulated that
Moringa Oleifera removes hardness in water through adsorption and inter-particle bridging. Secondly, with the
observation that light, slow-settling solids/flocks were formed and precipitation reaction lead to the conversion of
soluble hardness-causing ions to insoluble compounds would also be a good prediction of the reaction mechanism.
The higher value for the surface water sample is due to the fact that they contain hardness due to calcium,
magnesium and other hardness-causing substances[2].
CONCLUSION
Moringa Oleifera shows good coagulating properties& acts as flocculent, absorbent for the treatment of ground
water. It reduces the total hardness, Turbidity, acidity, alkalinity, chloride, BOD, DO. It also acts as a naturally
occurring antimicrobial active agent against the microorganisms which are present in the drinking water and
decrease the number of bacteria [2]. Moringa Oleifera seed is not giving toxic effect. It is eco-friendly and cheaper
method of water treatment. Moringa seeds can be used in the rural areas where no facilities are available for the
drinking water treatment. After the treatment the sludge settled at the bottom of tank, can be used as bio-fertilizers
is an added advantage of this method in rural areas[2]. Thus this method certainly can be considered as a good,
sustainable and cheap solution for smaller waterworks, if the supply Moringa seeds can be guaranteed.
REFERENCES
1. Use of Moringa Oleifera (Drumstick) seed as Natural Coagulant for Well & Bore well Water Treatment International
Journal of Engineering Research and Technology. ISSN 0974-3154 Volume 10, Number 1 (2017) as shown in the work
by Patil Rohan R.1 , JagadaleSuryakant S.2 , Gaikwad Aniket A.3 , Mane Aniket V.4 Anekar N. R.5 , Awasare S. D.6
2. “Use of Moringa Oleifera (Drumstick) Seed as Natural Absorbent andan Antimicrobial Agent for Ground Water
Treatment”, Research Journal of Recent Sciences, Vol. 1, No. 3, 2012. as shown in the work by MangaleSapana M.,
ChondeSonal G. And Raut P. D
3. Assessment of drinking water treatment using Moringa Oleifera natural coagulant A Minor Field Study in Maputo,
Mozambique
4. “Production of Natural Coagulant from Moringa Oleifera Seed for Application in Treatment of Low Turbidity Water”,
J. Water Resource and Protection, Vol. 2, 2010 as shown in the work by Eman N. Ali, Suleyman A. Muyibi, Hamzah
M. Salleh, MdZahangirAlam, MohdRamlan M. Salleh,
ATMOSPHERIC CHANGES DUE TO PHOTO CHEMICAL SMOG
M. Kavitha Yadav1 and K. Sai Pradeep2

1,2
Assistant Professor, Mahaveer Institute of Science and Technology, Hyderabad,
kavi.dhora@gmail.com, pradeepkarnati28@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Photo chemical smog is now a days it is a serious problem in Environment due to vehicular
pollution, ultraviolet light from the sun reacts with nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere. It is visible as a brown
haze, it is the main source of the photo chemical smog the peak time of photo chemical smog is between 6 a.m.
to 8 a.m. It's heavily affect the environment and historical monuments in Delhi the percentage of the photo
chemical smog is very high when compared to the other metro Politian cites and also create the human health
disorder like lung cancer ,and skin disorders the smog is very thick heavy in weight and due to dust particles it
cannot move upwards it form a layer like structure in atmosphere when the smoke particles like nitrogen oxide
unburned carbon monoxide and Sulphurdioxide particles come to react with sunlight in the early morning to
form the smoke the smoke present in atmosphere throughout the day and look like a dust form for controlling the
photo chemical smog formation the vehicle outlets are covered with special type mesh the mesh made with
chemicals having the capacity to observe or to attract the unburned carbon monoxide and sulphur dioxide and
the dust particles which are emitted through vehicle the mesh is different from based on the type of vehicle and
the life span of the mesh is different from capacity of the vehicle, the mesh is eco friendly in nature and cost is
easily available to all type of people for every 30 days are 45 days of period to clean the mesh with water or
dusting the attached carbon monoxide and sulphur dioxide substances dilute in the water that water can be enter
into water recycling process after that the recycling water is used for gardening for purpose.
Keywords: Special type mesh, carbon monoxide, sulphurmonoxide , water dilution, photo chemicals smog.
INTRODUCTION
Photo chemical smog is now a days it is a serious problem in Environment due to vehicular
pollution, ultraviolet light from the sun reacts with nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere. It is visible as a brown
haze, it is the main source of the photo chemical smog the peak time of photo chemical smog is between 6
a.m. to 8 a.m. It's heavily affect the environment and historical monuments haze in the atmosphere
accompanied by high levels of ozone and nitrogen oxides, caused by the action of sunlight on pollutants.
OBJECTIVES
1. To control the the emission of the pollutants into the environment from vehicular pollution.
2. To replace the plant production as previously.
3. To control the air pollution in urban areas and metropolyten cities
4. To avoid the smog formation in atmosphere due to vehicular pollution
5. To save the futile babies from pneumonia and blood changes.
FORMATION OF PHOTO CHEMICAL SMOG

A chemical reaction between solar ultraviolet radiation and an atmosphere polluted with hydrocarbons and oxides
of nitrogen causes photochemical smog. This is especially common from automobile exhaust. Smog can happen
both during the day and at night, but photochemical smog only happens in the presence of sunlight. Cities with a
geography that does not allow proper dispersal of emissions by wind and helps the smoke get trapped by extreme
weather conditions experience summer smog. The abundance of sunlight and high temperatures during the summer
speeds up chemical reactions in the atmosphere, which, mingled with humidity, creates dense smog. At times,
temperature inversions at higher altitudes lead to the formation of summer photochemical smog by trapping a
humid layer of air below a layer of warm air, which holds up the Winter smog is essentially created by the
excessive use of fossil fuels to heat up homes and buildings. Winter photochemical smog forms during extreme
weather conditions, particularly during the height of winter. This is because during extremely cold conditions,
populations of cities which have a large number of hearth-heated homes use coal or other combustibles that
178
nt & Society (N
NCWES-20188) 179
geenerate consiiderable amo ounts of smokke and polluttants. These air pollutantts appear at the t lower levvels in the
attmosphere. The cold and moist
m air retaiins the emissiions for a lonnger time throough the chem
mical reactionns that take
pllace at a slow
wer rate. Cities boxed in by
b surroundinng higher eleevations, whicch experiencee heavy snow wfalls, face
sm
mog regularlyy Pollutants. Coastal
C cities surrounded byb hills or moountains are prime
p candidaates for summ
mer smog.
R
REACTIONS
S
NO + O2 ---> NO2 + U V. ---> O + NO. …
…..(1)
Inn this first reaaction, we staart with Nitricc Oxide (NO)), which we already
a know is emitted froom various combustion
prrocesses. It combines with h oxygen in thhe atmospherre to form nitrrogen dioxidee ( NO2 ), whhich has a chaaracteristic
brrown color thhat should be familiar to anyone
a who has
h lived in a smoggy regioon. When thhe U V. rays of o sunlight
sttrike the NO2, it breaks offf a single oxxygen radical (O) that trigggers many subbsequent reacctions of phottochemical
smmog.
O + O2 ---> O3. …
…..(2)
In this secoond reaction, we
w see how thhe single oxygen radical heelps form ozoone ( O3 ).
A variety of
o molecules can
c act as cataalysts for this reaction.
O3 + NO ---> O2 + NO2. …
…..(3)
This third reaction
r is called a scavennging reactionn, and it happpens normallyy in the eveninng. Because it converts
ozzone to O2, thhe net result is
i a drop in thhe ozone conccentration in the
t evenings.
RC + O ---> RC
CO + O2 ---> RCO
R 3. …
…..(4)
The fourth reaction shift
fts our attentioon to the hydrocarbons (reepresented here as RC). When
W combineed with the
oxxygen free radical,
r it fo
orms RCO, whichw represents a varietty of aldehyydes and ketones. Somee of these
coonstituents caan combine with
w oxygen too form peroxide radicals ( RCO3 ).
O2 + RCO3 ---> O3 + RCO2. …
…..(5)
The fifth reeaction demon
nstrates the im
mportance of these peroxidde radicals ( RCO3
R ) -- it enhances the formation
off ozone.
NO + RCO3 --->
> NO2 + RCO
O2. …
…..(6)
The last reaaction shows a more subtlle role of thee peroxide raddicals -- by ennhancing the formation off nitrogen
diioxide, we knnow that the nitrogen
n dioxiide will go onn to form morre ozone.

EFFECT OF PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG
Health Effects
Photochemical smog is capable of inflicting irreversible damage on the lungs and heart. Even short-term exposure
to photochemical smog tends to have ill effects on both the young and the elderly. It causes painful irritation of the
respiratory system, reduced lung function and difficulty breathing; this is more evident while exercising or working
outdoors. High levels of smog also trigger asthma attacks because the smog causes increased sensitivity to
allergens, which are triggers for asthma.
Affected People
People with pre-existing health problems (such as respiratory diseases) are sensitive to ozone. Children, the elderly
and people with poor lung function carry a far greater risk of developing respiratory illness from photochemical
smog than healthy adults.
Effects on Environment
Photochemical smog has devastating effects on the environment. The collection of chemicals found in
photochemical smog causes problems for plants and animal life. Some plants such as tobacco, tomato and spinach
are highly responsive to ozone, so photochemical smog can decimate these sensitive crops, trees and other
vegetation. Ozone causes necrotic (dead) patterns on the upper surfaces of the leaves of trees. Ground-level ozone
also can interfere with the growth and productivity of trees. The effects of smog on animals are also similar to its
effect on humans; it decreases lung capacity and lung elasticity.
Vegetation damage
The effects observed are silvering and bronzing of underside of leaves followed by collapse of cells, and necrosis.
Growth retardation has also been reported. The three principal phytoxicants are ozone, nitrogen dioxide and PAN.
This has resulted in economic loss.
Precautions
Take precautionary steps to safeguard against the ill effects of photochemical smog. Generally, photochemical
smog is less concentrated in the early morning or evening; therefore, exercising and planning outdoor activities
during this part of the day limits smog exposure. Emissions from cars and other vehicles are the largest sources of
smog. Reduce your daily pollutant emissions by driving less, making use of carpools, and maintaining the car in
good condition. Other small actions, such as tightly sealing the lids of chemical products like garden chemicals,
solvents, and household cleaners, minimizes evaporation of the chemicals and helps reduce smog.
METHODOLOGY
For controlling the effects of photo chemical smog here we fallow the simple and eco friendly method ,in this
method we preparing the a special type mesh this mesh totally made with the chemicals which are having the
capacity to absorb the nitrogen and sulphur di oxides,
Preparation of mesh
1. The compos ion of preparation of mesh is 40 percent of copper.
2. 40 percent of stain less steel which having the capacity to absorb the dust particles which are emitting from
vehicular pollution .
3. The remaining 20% have the share between a special compounds which are having capacity to absorb
nitrogen and sulphur dioxides .
4. In the 20%, the 10% is nitrogen oxides then remaining 10% is sulphur oxides.
Usage of mesh
1. It is a special type of mesh having the capacity to absorb or catch the unburned carbon particles like nitrogen
dioxides and sulphur dioxides.
2. For each and every type of vehicles having special type of mesh based on the millage of the vehicle and life
time of the vehicle for example a new vehicle having the millage 55% and life time is below one year for
these vehicle the type of mesh is mesh -1
Mesh-1: The mesh-1 is a new simplified to absorb the pollutant particles from the new vehicle the life time is
below one year.The mesh valid up to the life time of vehicle below one year to three years
Mesh-2 : These is the another type of mesh in these particular mesh the composition of the nitrogen dioxides and
sulphur dioxide is high when compared to mesh-1 up to 5% .The mesh-2 is suitable for the vehicles life time
between 4 to 6 years .
Mesh-3 : These is the another type of mesh in these particular mesh the composition of the copper and stainless
steel is low upto 20% when compared to remaining 2 types of mesh . The mesh -3 have high efficiency to absorb
the unburned the carbon molecules which are emitted from the vehicles the life time between 6 to 8 years. For each
and every type of vehicles have different types of mesh based on the radius and perimeter of the silencer.
Based on the season change in summer for every 6 months to remove the mesh from the vehicle silencer and clean
the particular mesh in water and dry the mesh up to 30 to 40 min in sunlight .
In winter season for every 6 months to remove the mesh from the vehicle silencer and clean the particular mesh in
water and dry the mesh up to one hour to two hours in sunlight.After cleaning of mesh the water can be recycled
in simple manner by using charcoal and lime after recycling the water can be used for gardening purpose.
RESULTS
Ambient air quality standards in India:
Table 1
Concentration in Ambient Air

Time Weighted
Pollutant Industrial, Residential, Rural
Average
and Other Areas
Carbon monoxide 8 hours 02, 04
1 hour
Nitrogen dioxide Annual 40 ,80
24 hours
Photochemical 8 hours 100 ,180
oxidants 1 hour
Sulfur dioxide Annual 50, 80
24 hours
Table 2 Before the experiment
Concentration in Ambient Air

Pollutant Time Weighted Average Industrial, Residential, Rural
and Other Areas
Carbon monoxide 8 hours 0 6, 02
1 hour
Nitrogen dioxide Annual 50 , 70
24 hours
Photochemical 8 hours 120 , 210
oxidants 1 hou
24 hours
Table 3 After the experiment
Concentration in Ambient
Pollutant Time Weighted Average Air Industrial, Residential,
Rural and Other Areas
Carbon monoxide 8 hours 0 4, 04
1 hour
Nitrogen dioxide Annual 40 , 70
24 hours
Photochemical oxidants 8 hours 90 , 170
1 hou
24 hours
CONCLUSION
As per the above paper the air quality is increases as per the air quality stands and the formation of photo chemical
smog in atmosphere is controlled and we can control the emission of polluted particles in to our environment and
also chance to increase the plant production and decrease the formation of ozone molecules in the atmosphere due
to photo chemical smog reactions, due to control of the photo chemical smog we can save the historical
monuments.
REFERENCES
1. B. Everett, G. Boyle, S. Peake and J. Ramage, "," in "Penalties: Assessing the Environmental and Health Impacts of
Energy Use," in Energy Systems and Sustainability, 2nd ed., Oxford, UK: Oxford, 2013, ch.13, pp.543.
2. R. A. Hinrichs and M. Kleinbach, "Nitrogen oxides, photochemical smog and ozone," in Energy: Its Use and the
Environment, 5th ed. Toronto, Ont. Canada: Brooks/Cole, 2013, ch.8, sec.C, pp.250-252 .
3. G. Tyler Miller, Jr. and D. Hackett, "Photochemical and Industrial Smog," in Living in the Environment, 2nd ed. USA:
Nelson , 2011, ch.20, sec.3, pp.465-471 .
4. Adapted from Living In The Environment. See Reference 4b.
5. The University of Edinburgh: The London Smog Disaster of 1952.
6. Georgia Institute of Technology: . Classical and Photochemical Smog.
DEVELOPMENT OF ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK TO FORECAST AIR
POLLUTANTS IN PUNE CITY
Shreenivas N. Londhe1 and Priyanka P. Shinde2
1
Professor, 2PG Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Vishwakarma Institute of Information Technology, Pune.
shreenivas.londhe@viit.ac.in, priyanka_shinde15@yahoo.com .
ABSTRACT
Air pollution is a major problem in metro- cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Pune. Forecasting of air pollutants in
advance will help in controlling the air pollution which will in turn reduce the health issues of human being and
living organisms. In the present study, models are developed for Pune City to forecast air pollutants using
Artificial Neural Network. The Feed-Forward Back-Propagation Neural Network (FFBPNN) and Radial Basis
Function Neural Network (RBFNN) are used to forecast one day ahead concentration of air pollutants like
RSPM, NOX and SOX. Previous concentrations of air pollutants and meteorological parameters like rainfall (RF),
temperature difference (TD), relative humidity (RH), station level pressure & vapour pressure (SLP &VP), solar
radiation (SR) and wind speed (WS) are used as inputs. The results when analyzed using evaluator parameters
like correlation coefficient, root mean square error, mean absolute error etc. show that the RBF neural network
works better than FFBPNN.
Keywords: RSPM; NOX and SOX; Feed-Forward Back-Propogation Neural Network; Radial Basis Function
Neural Network.
INTRODUCTION
Air pollution is defined as a situation in which substances present at high concentration above their ambient levels
produces a harmful effect on living beings, weather, materials and environment. Urban air pollution is one of the
most important environmental problems and is the result of human activities. The main sources of air pollution are
industrial, commercial, agricultural and domestic activities (Chaudhari et al., 2011). The strength of air pollutants is
affected by various meteorological parameters like surface wind, solar radiation and temperature etc. (Elangasinghe
et al., 2014). Air pollution becomes a major problem in metro-cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Pune. There is a need to
timely inform the people about changes in the pollution level. Forecasting of air pollutants may help to reduce the
concentration of air pollution and to study the health effects caused by these pollutants during pollution periods
(Kumar and Goyal, 2011).
There are many techniques adopted for forecasting air pollutants including fixed box methods, linear regression
methods, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation, artificial intelligence etc. (Tikhe et al., 2013). Recently
the Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is becoming an effective and popular means as an alternative to the
conventional methods (Caselli, 2009).
LITERATURE REVIEW
There are many attempts made to forecast criterion air pollutents using ANN a few of which are only mentioned
here due to paucity of space. Moustris et al., (2012) developed ANN models as a tool to forecast daily
concentration levels of PM10 in five different regions within the greater Athens area (GAA). Chaudhari et al.,
(2011) developed a model to forecast 3 day ahead concentrations of different pollutants like respiratory suspended
particulate matter (RSPM), nitrogen oxide (NOx), and sulphur oxide (SOx) over Kolkata. The auto regressive (AR)
models with different orders and radial basis function network (RBFN) model were developed with RBFN model
working better than AR model. Caselli et al., (2008) developed ANN and multivariate linear regression models to
predict the daily PM10 concentration 1to 3 days early. ANN gave more accurate results than multivariate linear
regression model. Tikhe et al., (2013) developed ANN and GP models to predict the air quality parameters (SOx,
NOx, RSPM) a few time steps in advance for Pune City. It was found that GP models are robust and could work
well as compared to ANN.
183
The objective of present study is to forecast one day ahead concentration of criteria air pollutants like sulphur
dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and Respirable suspended particulate matter (RSPM) over the Pune city
(Maharashtra) using Feed Forward Neural and Radial Basis type of Artificial Neural Networks (ANN).
Artificial Neural Networks (ANN)
Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is an intelligent systems that have the capacity to learn, memorize and create
relationships among the data. ANN is made up by simple processing units, the neurons, which are connected in a
network by a large number of weighted links where the acquired knowledge is stored and over which signals or
information can pass. These interconnected neurons combine the input parameters, the strength of such
combination is determined by comparing with ‘bias’ and executing a result in proportion to such a strength. ANNs
learn by example hence it is trained first with examples by using various algorithms which converge the solution by
reducing the error between the network output and the target by distributing the performance error between the
weights and biases associated with each neuron. Then the network is tested for unseen inputs (ASCE, 2000).
Artificial Neural Networks map any random input with random output by self learning, without any fixed
mathematical form assumed beforehand and without necessarily having knowledge of the underlying physical
process. The typical ANN model is given in Figure 1. The input values are summed up, a bias is added to this sum
and then the result is passed through a nonlinear transfer function, like the sigmoidal function.
Fig. 1 A Typical Neural Network
Mathematically this is equivalent to,

……(1)
where,
……… ……(2)
where,
X1, X2, … = Inputs, W1, W2, … = Weights, β = Bias
Before its application, the network is required to be trained and this is done by using a variety of training
algorithms, like standard Backpropagation, Conjugate Gradient, Quasi-Newton and Levenberg- Marquardt etc. All
training algorithms are basically aimed at reducing the global error, E, between the network output and the actual
observation, as defined below:
E = β (On – Ot )2 ……(3)
where,
On is the network output at a given output node and Ot is the target output at the same node. The summation is
carried out over, all output nodes for a given training pattern and then for all patterns (Tikhe et al., 2013). There are
several types of ANNs like Feed forward back-propogation (FFBP), Radial Basis Function Neural Network
(RBFNN), Kohenon network, Hamming’s network, etc.
The present paper uses three layered Feed Forward Back Propagation network and radial basis function to predict
SO2, NO2 and RSPM levels in Pune (State:- Maharashtra of India) one day in advance using commercial software
MATLAB.
METHODOLOGY
Study Area and Data
Pune is one of the fastest developing metropolitan cities in India which generates about 181.957 tonne of toxic
waste daily (Tikhe et al., 2013). It is located on the Deccan Plateau at the confluence of Mula-Mutha Rivers and at
an elevation of about 560m above mean sea level at Karachi (Tikhe et al., 2014). Under National Ambient Air
Monitoring Program (NAMP) and also State Ambient Air Monitoring Program (SAMP), the upper limits set for
daily average concentration of SOx, NOx and RSPM by CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board, India) and MPCB
(Maharashtra Pollution Control Board) are 80, 80 and 100 μg/m3 respectively. The data used for the study had
measured concentrations of air quality parameters and meteorological parameters like relative humidity, solar
radiation, wind speed, rainfall, temperature difference, station level pressure and vapour pressure for the time
period 2005-2008. The concentrations of air quality parameters are collected from Maharashtra Pollution Control
Board (MPCB), Pune and meteorological data is collected from India Meteorological Department (IMD). The data
is pre-processed and used as input for model.
Model development
The feed forward neural network (FFBP) and radial basis function neural networks (RBFNN) were used to develop
the models by trial and error method.
The functionality of Cause Effect one day ahead forecasting models can be written as,
NO2(t + 1) = f(RH,VP,RF,WS,SLP,TD,SR,NO2)t ..…(4)
SO2(t + 1) = f(RH,VP,RF,WS,SLP,TD,SR,SO2)t ……(5)
RSPM(t + 1) = f(RH,VP,RF,WS,SLP,TD,SR,RSPM)t ……(6)
Figure 2 shows the architecture of FFBP-ANN model for SO2.
Fig. 2 Architecture of Cause Effect Model

Feed-forward Models
ANN architecture consisted of number of input neurons as the previous pollutant concentration and meteorological
parameters. Numbers of hidden neuron were decided by trial and error. For deciding the hidden neurons exercise is
carried out by varying the number of hidden neurons from 0 to 35, and selected the hidden neuron which gave
maximum value of correlation coefficient(r). Each network has ‘logsig’ and ‘purelin’ as transfer function and mean
squared error as a performance function. Training of the network is continued till a very low value of mean squared
error was achieved in each case. Network weights were uniformly distributed in the range of -1 to 1. Training
algorithm used in each case was Levernberg- Marquardt algorithm. For RBF network the inputs were same with
Gaussian transfer function in the first layer and linear transfer function in the second layer. The number of neurons
in the hidden layer was decided by the RBF algorithm itself.

In the current work one day ahead forecasting of air quality parameters was carried out using cause effect models
with four year data and Neural Networks. Performance evaluators like correlation coefficient (r), root mean square
error (RMSE), mean square relative error (MSRE), etc. were calculated between predicted and observed value
listed in table 1.
Table 1 One Day Ahead Cause Effect Model Results
NO2 SO2 RSPM

Error Parameters FFBP RBF FFBP RBF FFBP RBF
r 0.81 0.89 0.63 0.91 0.82 0.93
RMSE 6.40 4.97 3.57 1.88 26.71 17.54
For NO2, SO2 and RSPM FFBP models, scatter plots are shown in figure 3, 4 and 5 respectively. The scatter
plot for SO2 showed less correlation between observed and predicted values than NO2 and RSPM while for all
models few under predictions were noticed. The poor performance of SO2 models needs to be investigated further
Fig. 3 Scatter Plot for NO2 FFBP Model
Fig. 4 Scatter Plot for SO2 FFBP Model

Fig. 5 Scatter Plot for RSPM FFBP Model
Figures 6, 7 and 8 show the scatter plots between observed and predicted values of concentration of criteria air
pollutants NO2, SO2 and RSPM for RBF models which clearly indicated their better performance over FFBP
models. In this case though SO2 models results found to be at par with other two models.
Fig. 6 Scatter Plot for NO2 RBF Model
Fig. 7 Scatter Plot for SO2 RBF Model

Fig. 8 Scatter Plot for RSPM RBF Model
CONCLUSION
The cause effect models were developed for forecasting one day ahead criteria air pollutant by using Artificial
Neural Network. The models performed reasonably well in terms of prediction. The comparison between FFBP and
RBFNN showed that, RBF models worked better than FFBP models in terms of performance evaluators like
correlation coefficient, root mean square error
REFERENCES
1. Caselli, M., Trizio, L., Gennaro, G., and Ielpo, P., (2009). “A Simple Feed Forward Neural Network for the PM10
Forecasting: Comparison with a Radial Basis Function Network and a Multivariate Linear Regression Model,” Water
Air Soil Pollution, 201, 365-377.
2. Chaudhuri,S., Das,D., Middey,A., and Goswami,S.,(2011). “Forecasting the Concentration of Atmospheric Pollutants:
Skill Assessment of Autoregressive and Radial Basis Function Network Models,” International Journal of
Environmental Protection, 1(5), 41-47.
3. CPCB, A Manual on “Guidelines for the Measurement of Ambient Air Pollutants,” (2011).Central Pollution Control
Board (Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India), Delhi,1, pp. iii.
4. Elangasinghe, M., Singhal, N., Dirks, K., and Salmond, J., (2014). “Development of an ANN-based Air Pollution
Forecasting System with Explicit Knowledge through Sensitivity Analysis,” Atmospheric Pollution Research, 5, 696-
708.
5. Kumar, A., and Goyal, P., (2011). “Forecasting of air quality in Delhi using principal component regression
technique,”Atmospheric Pollution Research, 2, 436-444.
6. Moustris, K., Larissi, I., Nastos, P., Koukouletsos, K., and Paliatsos, A., (2012). “24-Hours Ahead Forecasting of PM
Concentrations Using Artificial Neural Networks in the Greater Athens Area, Greece”, Advances in Meteorology,
Climatology and Atmospheric Physics, Springer Atmospheric Sciences, 1121-1127.
7. The ASCE Task Committee on Application of Artificial Neural Networks in Hydrology “Artificial Neural Networks in
Hydrology. I: preliminary concepts,”(2000). Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, ASCE, 5(2), 115—123.
8. TikheS., Khare K., and Londhe S., (2013). “Forecasting of air pollutants using data driven approaches,” IOSR Journal
of Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food Technology, 3(5), 01-08.
9. Tikhe S., Khare K., and Londhe S.,(2014). “Short term air quality forecast using data driven approaches,” International
Journal of Engineering Research and Applications, 4 (1), 43-55.
APPLICATION OF GENETIC PROGRAMMING TO

RETRIEVE THE GROUND WATER LEVELS
P. R. Dixit1, Shrushti D. Lohi2 and P. S. Kulkarni3
1,2,3
Department of Civil Engineering, V.I.I.T, Pune,
pradnya.dixit@viit.ac.in, shrushti.lohi173@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Groundwater is one of the fundamental parameters of hydrologic cycle and thus plays a vital role while
estimating the overall water balance in hydrologic and hydrogeological processes. In India, near about 50 % of
the agricultural sector depends upon groundwater. However, during recent past, the groundwater resources face
acute shortage due to over exploitation, urbanization and population growth. The excessive pumping of
groundwater leads to several negative environmental consequences such as land subsidence, water quality issues,
less crop yield and many more. Hence, effective strategies should be developed for managing groundwater as
well as to maintain water balance in different water resources. Recent advancements in computer techniques
made it feasible to use soft computing approach for modeling groundwater and thus it is possible to concentrate
the efforts for development and conservation of groundwater. Present study aims in retrieving groundwater
levels in different wells of two Talukas namely Khed and Ambegoan in Pune district of Maharashtra. For this
Genetic Programming (GP), a data driven technique is used to develop the retrieving models for groundwater
levels. Different groups were prepared depending upon the geometrological conditions and previously measured
data of ground water levels in the surrounding wells was used to estimate the unknown groundwater level in the
next well in a group. Competency of genetic programming models for retrieving the water levels is judged by
different error measures with scatter plots. With the good values of correlation coefficient and low values of
error measures, it can be said that use of genetic programming is worth for groundwater modeling.
Keywords: Ground water, data driven approach, genetic programming, retrieving of groundwater levels.
INTRODUCTION
The water held underground by certain forces, replenished by nature according to the local geology and
consequently variable in both amount and quality. Ground water is the water that occurs beneath the surface of the
land and consequently invisible with relative inaccessibility and as a result became arcane. Thus it is hard to come
across with the actual positions of the groundwater (wells) to know about their existence in general and quantity
in particular. Ground water resources not only play an important role in water conservation system, drought
management and for domestic water supply but also useful for industries, agriculture and irrigation wherever
possible and in water-based recreational activities also. In the same order of context while designing ground water
resources systems for hands on and accurate information of ground water levels in different wells is of utmost
importance.
To model the groundwater in optimized way it is very necessary to have a consistent as well as accurate
knowledge of the present (daily/ monthly) water levels. Therefore it is very necessary to know the daily water
levels in groundwater wells to have a ‘update of data’ as to update various geological and geotechnical records.
As these wells are at different depths below the surface, finding out water levels inside these wells is a tedious and
hectic but a vital job. Additionally maintaining consistent record of these water levels is not possible at every
sight due to lack of advancement in measurement techniques. Though sophisticated instruments are available to
measure the groundwater levels, ‘data inconsistency' is a major impediment in the ground water system due to
which effective optimization techniques cannot be made feasible for all the time to manage water resources.
Ground water modeling, in general, is broadly classified into physics based modeling and data driven modeling.
Data driven techniques like Artificial Neural Network, Genetic Programming, Fuzzy Logic , Model Tree etc.
works with the available data and are less time consuming rather than the physics based complex traditional
methods and therefore are widely used in past few years. The detailed review of application of Genetic
Programming (GP) in water resources has been presented in ASCE Task Committee (2010)[1]. Though the
variety of data driven models have been employed for groundwater modeling by many researchers there is no
clear evidence which indicates a single best model, which out performs under different condition. Hence the
189
choice of particular model depends on the data used. (Kashivnathan et. al (2016))[2]. In this study, the GP based
models have been employed for retrieving groundwater level. The potential advantage of using GP lies in
optimizing the model structure and parameters simultaneously, whereas most of the other data driven models use
predefined model structure for optimizing the model parameters. Thus present paper aims in retrieving the ground
water levels in a particular well using the previously measured data of the surrounding wells. For the same ground
water levels from 30 different wells in the Pune district of Maharashtra were used to develop the models using
genetic programming as a data driven technique.
Present paper includes six subsequent sections. As this section is of ‘Introduction’, ‘Study Area and Data’ is
presented immediately after this followed by Methodology and Techniques Used’ which includes details of
models developed also. Result is discussed in ‘result and Discussion’ section and Conclusions are presented at the
end.
STUDY AREA AND DATA

For the present study ground water levels of 30 different ground water wells from two Talukas of Pune district
namely Khed & Ambegoan are considered. Previously measured data of these wells from the years 1990 to 2017
(27 years) is made available from Groundwater Survey and Development Agency,Pune office (Bhujal Vibhag,
Pune ) . The location and station details are given in table 1 along with figure 1 below.
Table 1 Details of stations

District Taluka Latitude Longitude
Pune Khed 17054’00” 73029’00”
Pune Ambegoan 19024’00” 75010’00”
Fig. 1 Khed & Ambegoan Talukas of Pune district (India-WRIS Ground Water Level)
METHODOLOGY AND TECHNIQUES USED

Genetic programming (GP): Genetic programming (GP) is an evolutionary algorithm based on Darwinian theories
of natural selection and survival to approximate the equation, in symbolic form, that best describes how the output
relates to the input variables (Sivapragasam et al. (2008))[3]. The solution of GP is a computer program or an
equation. To approach the equation or computer program that best describes relationship between output and input
variables, GP utilizes the parse trees. In GP, number of individuals reproduces with each other; the best (winner)
out of them will survive and fortunately evolve to do well. This competition is known as “tournament”. The two
winners copies itself and are modified into two new program by the way of crossover and mutation that means
winners will have children. Now, these children will be placed into population of programs which will replace the
loser programs from the tournament. Crossover and reproduction are primary operations. Crossover resembles with
organisms sexual reproduction process. In Crossover, two individuals are required to create two different
individuals for new population. In this process, genetic materials of two individuals are mixed with each other to
form progenies. Then these progenies are replaced by old population to form new population. Each individual is
then tested for fitness and the process can be continued for many generations. Best individual amongst these
generations of run will be the result. For further details readers are directed towards Koza (1992) [4].
Non linear Regression (NLR): In statistics, nonlinear regression is a form of regression analysis in which
observational data are modeled by a function which is a nonlinear combination of the model parameters and
depends on one or more independent variables.
Generally nonlinear functions include exponential functions, logarithmic functions, trigonometric
functions, power functions, Gaussian function, and Lorenz curves. Some functions, such as the exponential or
logarithmic functions, can be transformed so that they are linear. When so transformed, standard linear regression
can be performed but must be applied with caution. For further details readers are directed towards Bethea et al.
(1985) [5].
In general, there is no closed-form expression for the best-fitting parameters, as there is in linear regression.
Usually numerical optimization algorithms are applied to determine the best-fitting parameters. Again in contrast
to linear regression, there may be many local minima of the function to be optimized and even the global
minimum may produce a biased estimate. In practice, estimated values of the parameters are used, in conjunction
with the optimization algorithm, to attempt to find the global minimum of a sum of squares.
In the present paper following function is used for performing non linear regression to retrieve the
groundwater levels.
Y  Pr  Pr *W  Pr *W  Pr *W  Pr *W 2  Pr *W 2  Pr *W 2 …..(1)
1 2 1 3 2 4 3 5 1 6 2 7 3
Table 2 Values of parameter
Parameter Values Parameter Values

pr1 1.293 pr5 0.026
pr2 -0.215 pr6 0.010
pr3 0.142 pr7 -0.063
pr4 1.098
Where,
Pr1, pr2, pr3, pr4, pr5, pr6, pr7 are parameters of non linear regression.
For example: Equation of model for group-I (Khed) whereW1,W 2 ,W 3 are the inputs and
W4 is the output can be expressed as ,
W  1.293  0.215*W  0.142*W 1.098*W  0.026*W 2  0.010*W 2  0.063*W 2
4 1 2 3 1 2 3
…..(2)
Additionally combination of different groups in khed and Ambegoan Taluka a long with the input-output
combinations is done as follows.
1. The input to the model is monthly groundwater levels (four values per year: monsoon, post monsoon, post
monsoon and pre monsoon). The data is obtained from (Groundwater Survey and Development Agency). For
grouping ,
2. Sorting of the wells were done according to the geographical strata information and distance of the well
which are located in the nearby area.
3. The sorting of data is done 5 groups were formed for Khed Taluka & 3 groups were formed for Ambegoan
Talukas according to the available data of Groundwater levels containing pre monsoon and post monsoon.
4. In each village one central well is taken as the reference well and the distance of particular well from the
central well is calculated. Depending upon the farthest well from the central well, wells were distributed in
different groups as per the distance parameter: 1-10 km: Group No 1, 10-15 km: Group No 2, 15-20Km:
Group No 3, 20-25 Km: Group No.4, 25-40Km: GroupNo.5 in Khed taluka. Similar strategy was used to
decide the groups in Ambegoan taluka. These groups are presented in table 3 (a and b respectively )
Table 3(a) Details of stations Khed

Group Distance Between wells Name of villages
W1 (Input ) -Chakan
1(CCWA) 1-10 Km W2(Input ) - Chandus
W3(Input ) -Wasuli
W4(Output ) - Ambethan
W2 (Input -)Kadus
2(KKA) 10-15Km W3 (Input )-Kuruli
W4(Output )-Ambethan
W1 (Input )-Chas
W2 (Input )-Kadus
3(CKPRA) 15-20Km W3 (Input )-Pait
W4 (Input )-Rajgurunagar
W1 (Input )-Bahul
4(BSA) 20-25Km W2 (Input )-Solu
W1 (Input )-Ambhu
5(AGVA) 25-40Km W2 (Input )-Ghotovadi
W3 (Input )-Varude
W4(Output -)Ambethan
Table 3(b) Details of stations Ambegoan

Group Distance between wells Name of villages
W1 (Input ) -Girawali
1(GKRD) 15-40Km W2 (Input ) -Kalamb
W3 (Input ) -Ranjani
W4(Output )Dhakale
W1 (Input ) -Pimpalgaon
2(PTBD) 40-70Km W2 (Input ) -Talegaon
W3 (Input ) -Bhagadi
W4(Output )Dhakale
W1 (Input ) -Gohe
3(GKLD) 70 onwards W2 (Input ) -Khadki
W3(Input ) -Loni
W4(Output )Dhakale
5. General input output combinations for each group is expressed in table below
Table 4 Input and output of stations
Input (ground water levels in wells ) Output (ground water level in well )
W1 , W2 , W3 W4

As discussed above, different models to retrieve the ground water levels were developed using genetic
programming and Non linear regression. For GP, Each model was calibrated with 70% of data, 15% for validation
and remaining 15% for testing. By varying the parameters crossover, mutation and population, and considering
“time” as base parameter, various models were developed to retrieve the groundwater level for the decided groups
and then the best result giving model is finalized as winner. Table No.5 represents details of these different
models along with all the error measures (Correlation coefficient( r ) , Mean square error (MSE), Root mean
square error (RMSE), Mean absolute error MAE ) used. For group 1 Correlation coefficient value 0.80 by GP and
it is by NLR. Similarly all ‘r’ values of GP models are greater than that of NLR values in groups 2,3 and 4
respectively. All MSE and RMSE values of GP are lesser than that of NLR values in the respective groups. From
the results (table 5) it is clear that all the values ofcorrelation coefficient of GP are far better than that of NLR.
Along with this all error measures of GP are at lower side than that of NLR which proves the capability of GP
over standard statistical method of NLR.
Table 5 Details of Model development along with error measures

Group
CC (r) MSE RMSE MAE
1(Khed)
GP 0.801131 3.825922 1.95599 1.429967
NLR 0.560997 7.244827 2.691622 2.209818
Group
CC (r) MSE RMSE MAE
2(Khed)
GP 0.787278 4.5592 2.13522 1.549022
NLR 0.528859 7.685589 2.772289 2.294173
Group
CC (r) MSE RMSE MAE
3(Khed)
GP 0.747748 4.833094 2.19843 1.717212
NLR 0.438511 8.435169 2.904338 2.470165
Group
CC (r) MSE RMSE MAE
4(Khed)
GP 0.69468 6.021554 2.453885 1.810247
NLR 0.250263 10.00159 3.162529 2.849564
Group CC (r) MSE RMSE MAE

5(Khed)
GP 0.769565 4.505277 2.122564 1.535159
NLR 0.554463 7.362581 2.713408 2.246188
Group 1 CC (r) MSE RMSE MAE

(Ambegaon)
Gp 0.736699 8.237396 2.870026 2.191502
NLR 0.425053 14.50895 3.809062 3.240734

(Ambegoan)
Gp 0.685299 11.10687 3.332697 2.418185
NLR 0.518235 12.81682 3.580059 2.994403

(Ambegoan)
Gp 0.65558 9.936041 3.152149 2.600005
NLR 0.328811 15.48001 3.934464 3.495204
CONCLUSIONS
In this study, the genetic programming; a data driven approach is used to retrieve the groundwater levels. The
potential advantage of using GP of ‘optimizing the model structure and parameters simultaneously’ is efficiently
used in the present study. From all the above results the superiority of GP over the NLR is observed in retrieving
the ground water levels in all the groups. Lower values of error measures and higher values of correlation
coefficients prove the capability of GP as compared to the NLR. Thus by merely having values, water levels of
surrounding wells retrieving of the water level in the next well in any group is possible using GP. Thus it can be
concluded that genetic programming, a data driven technique, can be effectively used for retrieving the ground
water levels and in allied research works further wherever possible in future.
REFERENCES
1. ASCE Task Committee (2010). “State of the art for genetic algorithms and beyond in water resources planning and
management on evolutionary computation in environmental and water resources Engineering”, Journal of Water
Resour Planing and Management, 136:412–432
2. K. S. Kasiviswanathan et.al ((2016) “Genetic programming based monthly groundwater level forecast models with
uncertainty quantification” 2:27 DOI 10.1007/s40808-016-0083-0) Springer International Publishing Switzerland
2016
3. Sivapragasam C, Maheswaran R, Venkatesh V (2008) “Genetic programming approach for flood routing in natural
channels”. Hydrol Process 22:623–628
4. Koza J, (1992) “Genetic Programming: On the Programming of Computers by Means of Natural Selection”. A
Bradford Book. MIT Press.
5. Bethea, R. M.; Duran, B. S.; Boullion, T. L. (1985). “Statistical Methods for Engineers and Scientists”. New York:
Marcel Dekker. ISBN 0-8247-7227-X.
FLOOD ROUTING:
A COMPARISON OF THEORETICAL AND DATA DRIVEN TECHNIQUE
Pradnya Dixit1, Sneha Nikalje2 and S. N. Londhe3

1
Associate Professor, 2P.G. (WREE) Student, 3Professor, V. I. I. T, Pune, pradnya.dixit@viit.ac.in
ABSTRACT
Flood is a natural phenomenon which has become a crucial problem in recent days. Hence to avoid the heavy
damages caused by flood, it is very necessary to know precise and prior information of the discharges at
different downstream stations on any river. And thus ‘routing of the flow’ is of utmost important. Flow (flood)
Routing is the method by which discharge at downstream station is predicted (calculated) using the known
discharge at the upstream station and ultimately will be helpful to avoid flood disaster. It can be done using
physics based traditional methods like Muskingum, Muskingum-Cunge and Runge-Kutta method as well as
using various data driven techniques like Genetic Programming, Artificial neural network, Model tree etc.
Traditional methods require huge amount of measured data and complex calculations to give the results and
generally these are time consuming whereas data driven techniques can work with the available data within less
time to give more accurate results. Therefore in recent years, researchers tend towards the data driven techniques
rather than the traditional ones. In this paper, flood routing is done by using Genetic Programming as well as
Muskingum method for a reach namely Sangli to Ankli Bridge on Krishna river of Maharashtra, India. To judge
the performance of these two methods a comparison of results is done using different error measures and it can
be said from the results that genetic programming performed better than the traditional Muskingum method.
Keywords: Flood, Flood routing, Muskingum method, Genetic Programming.
INTRODUCTION
Flood is defined as high stage in river, level above which river will overflow its bank and will drown the adjoining
area. In different aspect – ‘Flood’ is basically a natural disaster which has caused and been causing a lot of
damages to properties, lives, animals etc residing in and nearby the flood prone areas. Generally these are major
damages which cannot be ignored. As sometimes these disastrous could not be avoided but the severity of these
damages can be reduced by giving a prior warning or an alert to the people residing over flood prone area. Exactly
this can be done if routing of the flood is done effectively and values of upcoming discharges on the downstream
side of river sections will be conveyed to the people in the flood prone area well before the upcoming flood. Flood
routing can be technically defined as a method of finding or determining flood hydrograph at any of the
downstream section of river by using the available flood data of one or more upstream sections. Routing is broadly
classified into two sub categories: Reservoir routing (study of effect of flood wave entering the reservoir) and
Channel routing (study of change in shape of hydrograph as it travels down the channel). Many traditional as well
as data driven techniques have been used up till now for routing the flow. Theoretical as well as Traditional
methods such as Muskingum-Cunge, Runge Kutta method, Muskingum method, etc require huge amount of
measured data and complex calculations to give the results and generally these are time consuming whereas data
driven techniques work with the available data within less time to give more accurate results.
Thus due to limitations of traditional methods, researchers all over the world are now approaching for new
techniques based on data driven approaches as alternative to the these traditional ones. Considering the same,
present paper aims in comparison a traditional as well as theoretical) method and a data driven technique for
routing of flow. Thus here flow routing is done by using Muskingum (a Traditional and theoretical) method and
Genetic Programming models (data driven technique). The results are compared to judge the performance of these
methods. Correlation coefficient, Root mean squared error, Coefficient of efficiency and Mean absolute error are
used as error measures to judge the accuracy of these models. Present paper includes six subsequent sections. As
this section is of ‘Introduction’, ‘Literature Review’ is presented immediately after this followed by Study Area and
Data’. Next to it ‘Methodology ‘is explained and which is followed by ‘result and Discussion’. Conclusions are
presented at the end.
195
L
LITERATUR
RE REVIEW
W
Recently Fevzzi O. et al. (20
R 017), has modeled Sutculeer flood evennt using Genettic Expressioon programmiing (GEP).
T method uses
This u few hydrological paraameters as infflow, outflow and time. Thhe results of thhe study are better
b than
thhe Muskinguum method an nd thus authhor concludedd that Genetiic Expressionn programmiing can be used u as an
allternative for Muskingum method. [3]
In 2015, Dixit P and Sh haikh A. (20115) had done a review woork of many applications
a o Flood Foreecasting in
of
which a compparison of different
w d methhods (such as a numerical method (MIIKE 11), phyysics based traditional
m
methods, data driven techniique’s methodds) of flood forecasting
fo is presented. Foorm this studyy once again limitations
l
off traditional and
a theoreticcal methods were
w noticed predominanttly and authoors have conccluded that foor fast and
acccurate resultts new advancced data driveen techniquess and numericcal methods area more suitaable than the traditional
onnes. [2]
Routing a flow
f in case of
o branched river is a compplex issue in river
r engineerring as it requuires lot of datta and also
riiver specificaations in case of hydraulic method. Oroouji et al. (20012) used gennetic program mming (GP) too route the
fllow and com mpared the ressults with Muuskingum meethod and nuumerical hydrraulic methodd (based on St. S Venant
eqquation) and proved
p that GP
G approach isi simple and effective rathher than two methods
m and therefore appplication of
G is worth foor flood routin
GP ng in general and in branchhed river probblem in particcular. [8]
Sivapragasaam et al. (20007) has speciffically appliedd genetic programming appproach to rouute the flow when
w flood
hyydrographs inn a particularr catchments are characterrized by multiple peaks and
a proved thhat GP workss far better
thhan the traditiional Musking
gum method. [1]
Consideringg all the literaature mentionned above, inn the present paper
p it was decided
d to deevelop the flood routing
models using Genetic Programming annd results wiill be compaared to the trraditional Muuskingum meethod in a
m
diifferent reachh namely San ngli to Ankli Bridge
B o Maharashtrra, India and applicability as well as
on Krrishna river of
caapability of genetic
g prograamming as a data
d driven technique can be b verified for flood routinng once again.
STUDY AREA AND DAT

TA
The present stuudy is done for
T f a reach off Sangli bypasss (upstream station) to Annkli Bridge (ddownstream station)
s on
K
Krishna River,, Maharashtraa, India. The distance
d ween two statiions is about 12 kilometerss having slope 0.00025.
betw
H
Hourly nd outflow inn m3/sec) from
discharrge (inflow an m 13/07/2009 to 31/10/2009 of monsoonn months (Jully, August,
September annd October) was madee available from hydroology data users groupp Nasik(HDU UG:Nasik,
w
www.hdug.org g.in) to route the flow. Thee pictorial vieew of locationn of stations is given in figgure 1 below and
a details
off upstream annd downstream m stations aree also enlistedd in Table 1.
Table 1 Details of stattions

GD sites Districtt Taluka Latituude Longitude
Saangli bypass Sangli Miraj 16052’01” 74033’21”
A
Ankli Bridge Sangli Miraj 16048’19” 74033’58”
Fig. 1 Map
M of Krishna river basin with Gauge dischharge stations (www.hdug.org
( g.in)
METHODOLOGY
A. Muskingum method (Traditional and Theoretical):
In case of channel routing storage is a function of outflow discharges as well as inflow discharges. The flow in the
river during flood is of gradually varied unsteady type. For Muskingum, in case of linear relationship for Storage
(S) in terms of Inflow (I) and Outflow (Q) can be stated as
S = K[x I + (1 – x) Q] .....(1)
The above equation is called as Muskingum equation. In this equation, K is noted as storage-time constant and x
can be noted as weighted factor which generally ranges between 0 to 0.5 (0 to 0.3 for natural channels). When x=0,
storage is function of discharge only which describes linear storage. [4]
The values of x and K can be estimated if inflow and outflow hydrograph set is available for given reach.
Different values of S at various time intervals for this reach can be decided. By choosing trail value of x, a graph is
plotted for various values of S at any time t against [x I + (1 – x) Q]. A straight line relationship can be obtained if
value of x is correctly chosen or else looped curve is formed. The inverse slope obtained of this straight line will
give the value of K. Once K and x are known, time interval ∆t should be selected. Then values of C0, C1 and C2 are
calculated. [4]
Q2 = C0I2 + C1I1 + C2Q1 .....(2)
Where
–Kx  0.5t
C0  .....(3)
K – Kx  0.5t
Kx  0.5t
C1  .....(4)
K – Kx  0.5t
K – Kx – 0.5t
C2  .....(5)
K – Kx  0.5t
Eq. (2) is known as Muskingum Routing equation which provides a simple linear equation for channel routing.
For obtaining best results, the routing interval ∆t should be so chosen that K > ∆t > 2Kx, the coefficient C will be
negative. From eq.2, the obtained Q2 acts as known initial outflow for the next step. The procedure should be
repeated for entire hydrograph. For further details readers are directed to K Subramanya (2013). [4]
B. Genetic Programming(GP)
Genetic Programming (GP) is an evolutionary technique. GP follows Darwin’s theory of “survival of fittest”. The
solution of GP is a computer program or an equation. To approach the equation or computer program that best
describes relationship between output and input variables, GP utilizes the parse trees. In GP, number of individuals
reproduces with each other; the best (winner) out of them will survive and fortunately evolve to do well. This
competition is known as “tournament”. The two winners copies itself and are modified into two new program by
the way of crossover and mutation that means winners will have children. Now, these children will be placed into
population of programs which will replace the loser programs from the tournament. Crossover and reproduction are
primary operations. Crossover resembles with organisms sexual reproduction process. In Crossover, two
individuals are required to create two different individuals for new population. In this process, genetic materials of
two individuals are mixed with each other to form progenies. Then these progenies are replaced by old population
to form new population. Each individual is then tested for fitness and the process can be continued for many
generations. Best individual amongst these generations of run will be the result. For further details readers are
directed towards Koza (1992). [5]
At current time t, on the upstream station, the measured discharge is input to obtain output as measured
discharge at time t on the downstream section of the reach. Total data set of 2650 values is divided into 70% and
30% to develop GP models. (70% - 1854 values and 30% - 796 values).

Muskingum method: In present paper, routing reach is Sangli bypass to Ankli Bridge. By using Hourly Inflow and
Outflow discharge, the estimated values of K and x are 526.31 and 0.1. From values of x, C0, C1 and C2 are
obtained. By using these values, outflow discharge is been predicted at the downstream of river Krishna.
Genetic Programming: In present paper, routing reach is Sangli bypass to Ankli Bridge. The data used is Hourly
Inflow an Outflow discharges. Each model was calibrated with 70% of data, 15% for validation and remaining 15%
for testing. By varying the parameters crossover, mutation and population, and considering “time” as base
parameter, various models were developed to route the flow for the decided reach and then the best result giving
model s finalized as winner. Output of each model is the discharge (m3/sec) on the downstream of river (at Ankli
Bridge). Table No.2 represents details of these different models along with all the error measures (Correlation
coefficient r, Root mean square error RMSE, Mean absolute error MAE and Coefficient of efficiency CE) used.
Table 2 Details of Model development along with error measures
R RMSE MAE CE
Parameters
Models Correlation Root mean Mean absolute Coefficient of
changed
Coefficient square error error efficiency
5 0.9579 45.5759 41.8511 0.6394
Time varied 10 0.9539 25.1896 18.3362 0.8989
(5,10,20,30) 20 0.9439 34.7990 24.4618 0.8071
30 0.9560 25.7282 16.7672 0.8945
0 0.9500 29.9692 20.0672 0.8569
Crossover varied 20 0.9547 25.4658 16.5034 0.8967
(0,20,50,80) 50 0.9330 36.6534 25.8647 0.7860
80 0.9006 39.7640 23.4951 0.7481
0 0.9590 24.0873 16.8522 0.9075
Mutation
20 0.8612 45.0507 22.5711 0.6767
varied
50 0.9663 33.7665 24.4694 0.8183
(0,20,50,80)
80 0.8643 80.255 36.2923 0
100 0.9664 29.4413 20.2923 0.8619
Population
400 0.9175 44.8327 31.2721 0.6798
varied
600 0.9576 29.3327 19.4811 0.8629
(100,400,600,800)
800 0.9636 25.2144 18.1785 0.8987
The highlighted models are the final models selected. The accuracy of prediction is judged by calculating
correlation coefficient, root mean square error, mean absolute error and coefficient of efficiency between observed
Fig. 2 Discharge hydrograph (Genetic Programming)

and predicted discharges by both the methods (Muskingum and Genetic Programming). The model selection is
based on low values of RMSE, MAE and high values of R , CE. The results obtained by using Muskingum
(Traditional) method as well as Genetic Programming (Data driven technique) are compared to choose the best out
of it. The discharge hydrograph of testing data by both the methods (Muskingum and Genetic Programming) is
represented below. Also comparison of errors analysis by both the methods (Muskingum and Genetic
Programming) is shown in the table 3.
Fig. 3 Discharge hydrograph (Muskingum)
Table 3 Comparison of Error Measures for the finalized model

Error Measures Genetic Programming Muskingum
r
0.966 0.661
Correlation coefficient
RMSE
29.441 13.896
Root mean square error
MAE
20.292 13.338
Mean absolute error
CE
0.861 -39.40
Coefficient of efficiency
From figure No. 2 and 3, it can be observed that predicted discharge obtained by using GP nearly matches the
observed discharge. The results for discharge hydrograph routed by using GP are quite satisfactory. On the other
hand, there is poor prediction done by Muskingum method. The correlation coefficient obtained for flood routing
by using Genetic programming is 0.9636 which is satisfactory result and that of by Muskingum is 0.661. Also CE
values of GP are far better than Muskingum. Therefore it can be said that GP performed better than the traditional
method. Poor values of ‘r’ and CE in Muskingum method can be attributed towards inappropriate data availability.
CONCLUSION
In the present paper a comparison two methods for routing the flow is done using Muskingum (traditional as well
as theoretical method) and Genetic Programming models (a data driven technique) in a reach Sangli to Ankli
Bridge on Krishna River. The results are compared to judge the performance of these methods. Correlation
coefficient, Root mean squared error, Coefficient of efficiency and Mean absolute error are used as error measures
to judge the accuracy of these models. In present study, GP gives satisfactory results as compared to Muskingum.
There is lot of tabulation work required in Muskingum method. There are lots of mathematical calculations
required for Muskingum method. But GP being a data driven technique, is soft towards data and hence gives quick
as well as more precise results. One of measure advantage in GP is parameters can be optimized according to user
requirement. As discharge at downstream of river is routed in better way by GP as compared to Muskingum it can
be concluded that Genetic programming works better than Muskingum method and can be further applied for
similar kind of work.
REFERENCES
1. C. Sivapragasam. et al. (2007). Genetic Programming approach for flood routing in Natural channels.
2. Dixit P and Shaikh A. (2015) Applications of MIKE 11 for Flood Forecasting (A Review), International Journal of
Modern Trends in Engineering and Research, IJMTER, 201-204.
3. Fevzi O. et al. (2017). Flood routing model using Genetic Expression programming, European Scientific Journal, ISSN
1857:7431.
4. K Subramanya, Engineering Hydrology, McGraw Hill Education (India) Pvt. Ltd, 2013.
5. Koza, J. R. 1992. Genetic Programming: On the Programming of Computers by means of Natural selection. The MIT
Press.
6. Londhe S. N and Dixit P. R. (2012).Genetic Programming: A Novel Computing Approach in Modeling Water Flows,
INTECH.
7. Oyebode O. K. and Adeyemo J. A. (2014). Genetic Programming: Principles, Applications and Opportunities for
Hydrological Modeling, International Journal of Environmental, Chemical, Ecological, Geological and Geophysical
Engineering Vol 8(6).
8. Orouji H et al. (2012). Flood routing in branched river using genetic programming, Water management, Vol 167.
9. Walker M. (2001). Introduction to Genetic Programming.
10. www.hdug.org.in
REMOVAL OF HEXAVALENT CHROMIUM (CR VI) IN WASTEWATER BY
USING MORINGA OLEFIERA (DRUMSTICKS)
Ajinkya Gadhave1 and A. S. Dharnaik2
1
PG-Student, 2Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering, VIIT-University of Pune
ajinkyagadhave2594@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Water is a resource that is essential for life. Water is becoming very limited in its pure state due to the
contamination which arises from the different industrial advancements made over the years. Water pollution is a
serious problem for the entire world. Water pollution has contributed to negative environmental and human
health impacts. This polluted water needs to be treated properly before let into any other source of water body
for dispersion. In this era, water treatment plant are not easy to install it requires many purification stages. There
are various methods to treat this industrial waste water containing heavy metals. Each method has its own
advantages and disadvantages in applications. One of the cost effective method to treat heavy metal is use of
Moringa oleifera (MO) seeds. Moringa oleifera, a cosmopolitan tropical, drought-tolerant tree, available
throughout the year. The powdered seed of the Moringa. oleifera has coagulating properties that have been used
for various aspects of water treatment such as turbidity, alkalinity, total dissolved solids and hardness. This study
is carried out to investigation, the performance of a laboratory-scale MO seed absorption column for removal of
hexavalent chromium from synthetic wastewater containing 40 mg/l of Cr(VI). In the adsorption column MO
seed activated carbon was used and Cr(VI) was fed at the rate of 8 ml/min.
Keywords: Moringa Olefiera , Chromium , Adsorption Column.
INTRODUCTION
Coagulants and bisorbents are used in wastewater treatment plants based on chemical characteristics and these are
classified as inorganic, synthetic organic and natural (Sasikala & Ramamarutham 2015). Heavy metals are the
metals which have high molecular weights greater than 20 and its density is more than 5 gm/cm3 are such as
Chromium, Arsenic, Mercury. All these metals are harmful and toxic for environment and also water contaminants.
Chromium has mainly 2 types which are Trivalent Chromium (Cr III) and Hexavalent Chromium (Cr VI). Trivalent
Chromium is essential nutrient and occurs naturally. Cr (VI) is occurred through various chemical processes such
as Mining, Leather Tanning.(Rutuja Joshi et.al.2014 Daud and Aroua 2008.). Long term exposure to Cr (VI) can
cause ulceration irritation to skin, neurological diseases also. There are some methods used to remove chromium
such as adsorption, bisorption, filtration, reverse osmosis, ion-exchange, foam flotation, electrolysis, (Abbas
et.al.2014).
Adsorption is the process in which molecules of adsorbate concentrated on surface of adsorbent. It is process
used for removal Cr from water and wastewater. It has some advantages such as low cost, availability, profitability
and efficiency (Sasikala,Ramamrutham 2015). The driving force required for adsorption is the ratio of the
concentration to the solubility in the compound. The most studied adsorbent in adsorption of chromium is found to
be the activated carbon derived from various sources. Moringa olefira is used mainly for turbidity removal from
ancient times. Moringa Olefiera is also used as coagulant it is used as alternative for process of coagulation and
flocculation process. It is best alternative for Aluminum sulphate. It contains benzyl isothiocynolate which has –ve
charge and Cr has +ve charge. Due to oppositely charged molecules attract each other it can form
precipitate.(Sasikala and Ramamarutham.2015).
Activated carbon adsorption seems to be an attractive choice for chromium removal both for its exceptionally
high surface areas which range from 500 to 1,500 m2 g−1,well-developed internal micro porosity structure as well as
the presence of a wide spectrum of surface functional groups like carboxylic group (Chingombe et al. 2005).
Adsorption column is used for removal of heavy metal which contains adsorbent which adsorbs heavy metals. In
the design of adsorption column it requires constant flow for removal of heavy metal which is 8ml/min which is
obtained from design of adsorption column.
MATERIALS AND METHODS 201

Moringa Olefiera
Moringa olefiera seed derived from local market. Dry seeds are obtained by removing husks of Moring olefiera
and then dry it in sunlight for 4-5 days after that crush it by using hammer to the specific size used in adsorption
column.
Activation of Moringa Olefiera
Dry seeds carbonized and impregnated with a boiling solution of 30 % H3PO4 for 2 hours and soaked in the same
solution for 24 hours. At the end of 24 hours, the solution decanted off and oven dried. Then the material was
carbonized in muffle furnace at 400°C. The dried material was powdered and activated in a muffle furnace at
800°C for a period of 10 minutes. Then the material was washed with plenty of water to remove residual acid,
dried.
Synthetic Chromium Waste water
All chemicals used were of analytical grade and supplied by Merck (purity >99%).Potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7)
with 99.9% purity was used to prepare synthetic chromium-containing wastewater. Stock solution chromium was
prepared by dissolving 142.2 mg of potassium dichromate in 100ml. of water and in second part dissolves 80 ml. of
stock solution in 1000 ml. of water for preparation of synthetic wastewater which contains 40mg/lit of Chromium.
The pH adjustments were made using 0.2 N H3PO4 and 0.2 N HCl .
Adsorption column
In the adsorption column, size of pipe which was used as adsorption column was 30 cm and diameter of pipe was
3.25cm.one end of pipe was attached with inlet tank of capacity 1000ml and other end has outlet was provided.
Inlet end was provided with motor which gives specific discharge of 8ml/min.
Experimental Setup
Experimental Setup of experiment is shown in the Figure No.1 given below in which waste water tank is connected
to peristaltic pump and pump is connected to inlet of adsorption column and outlet of adsorption column is directly
connected to treated water tank.
Fig. 1 Experimental Setup

Experimental Procedure
Pour wastewater in the storage tank. Allow wastewater to flow in adsorption column by using of peristaltic pump
of flow 8ml/min. Collect water in collection tank at the bottom of adsorption column at the interval of 15 min. for 6
hrs. Determine the absorbance of collected sample by using spectrophotometer. Note the readings of absorbance
and determine the concentration of Cr VI in water.
RESULTS & DISCUSSION

Effect of contact time
To find out effect of contact time, The Chromium metal concentration of, the metal adsorptions in 24 samples were
investigated under UV-VIS spectrometer.Fig.No.2 shows that Initial concentration of Chromium is 40 mg/lit. And
final concentration is 1.31mg/lit. After passing through adsorption column there was about 99% reduction in
concentration of Chromium was occurred.
45
40
35
30
Concentration in 25
mg/lit. 20
15 Series1
10
‐5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time in Hrs .
Fig. 2 Concentration (mg/l) vs Time (Hrs.)
It shows that with passing of time adsorption capacity of activated carbon was also decreases. Adsorption
capacity reduces rapidly after 4 hrs. This happened because there were more no.of active sites on the Moringa
Olefiera surface during the first period of 2 Hrs .After 2 Hrs., the active sites were saturated, as a result of the
accumulation of the chromium metal on the surface activated Carbon(Noppadol Sangiumsak, Pongsakorn
Punrattanasin 2014, Repo E.et.al.2011).The rate of Adsorption depends on the metal migrating from its bulk liquid
phase to the actual adsorption site (Jiang M.et.al.2010, Noppadol Sangiumsak, Pongsakorn Punrattanasin
2014).The adsorption activities of Chromium concentration was depend on patch charge mechanism(Muyibi
et.al.2002) It showed that seed have capacity to adsorb heavy metal and also toxic compound(Muyibi.et.al.2002).
Adsorption is process which effects on speciation, migration and biological activities elements in water.(Benes
and Steinnes.1995) Metal in coagulation react with proteins destroy (Gregoe et.al.1997)
CONCLUSION
Moringa olefiera is effective adsorbent for removal of Cr (VI) from water. In adsorption isotherm column,
adsorption of metal ion depends on time. As time passes adsorption gets reduced. Activated carbon of Moringa
Olefiera gives good result for removal of Cr (VI) ions it can remove about 99% of Chromium from wastewater.
Maximum removal of Chromium occurs in first one hour.
Chemical treatment used for removal Chromium produces secondary sludge but this is natural method and it
cannot produce sludge. Natural elements are environment friendly for removal of chromium form water. After
finishing the adsorption capacity the activated carbons of Moringa olefiera used as a fertiliser.
REFERENCES
1. Muyibi,S.A.,M.M.J.M.Noor and F.R.Ahmadum(2002a)”Bench scale study for pre-treatment of sanitary landfills
Leachate with Moringa Olefiera seed extract.” International Journal of Environmetal Studies,59(5):513-535
2. Muyibi,S.A.,E.S.M.J.M.Noor,T.K.Leong and L.H.Loon(2002b).Effects of Moringa Olefiera seed
3. S.Sasikala and G. Muthuraman(2015)”Chromium(VI) Removal Using Biosorbents Derived from Moringa
Oleifera”Journal of Industrial Chemistry.2015.
4. Rutuja Joshi, SonaliRaut, Sunil Kulkarni, Sonali Dhokpande “Wastewater Treatment for Chromium Removal- a
Review” International Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology Research (IJSETR), Volume 3, Issue 10,
October 2014.
5. Mohamed Kheireddine Aroua, Mojdeh Owlad's “Removal of Hexavalent Chromium-Contaminated Water and
Wastewater” A Review Article in Water Air and Soil Pollution • June 2008.
6. Salman H. Abbas, Ibrahim M. Ismail, Tarek M. Mostafa, Abbas H. Sulaymon “Biosorption of Heavy Metals: A
Review” Journal of Chemical Science and Technology. Oct. 2014, Vol. 3 Iss. 4, PP. 74-102
7. P.ChingombeB.SahaR.J.Wakeman “Surface modification and characterisation of a coal-based activated carbon” Carbon
Volume 43, Issue 15, December 2005, Pages 3132-3143
8. Benes, P., and E. Steinnes, (1995). Trace Chemistry Processes, in Steinnes, E. and Salbu, B. Trace Elements in Natural
Waters. CRC Press: Boca Raton: p. 21-40.
9. Gregor, J.E., C.J. Nokes, and Fenton, E., (1997). Optimising Natural Organic Matter Removal From low Turbidity
Waters by Controlled pH adjustment of Aluminium Coagulation. Water Research, 31(12): 2949-2958.
10. Noppadol Sangiumsak, Pongsakorn Punrattanasin. Adsorption Behavior of Heavy Metals on Various Soils. Pol. J.
Environ. Stud. Vol. 23, No. 3 (2014), 853-865.
HYDROGEOLOGY AND DRAINAGE MORPHOMERIC STUDY FOR GROUNDWATER
POTENTIAL ZONES IN JOYTIBA HILL AREA IN KOLHAPUR DISTRICT,
MAHARASHTRA, INDIA-USING REMOTE SENSING AND GIS.
1
Gurav Chandrakant and 2Md. Babar
1,2
Department of Geology, Dnyanopasak College, Parbhani, M.S., India
mdbabar2002@gmail.com, chandrakantgurav123@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The Hydrogeology and Groundwater Potential Zone (GPZ) study is carried out in 234.40 sq. km. area ofJoytiba
hill area using Remote Sensing and GIS techniques. Geologically, present area covered by two rock formations,
the Deccan Volcanic Basalt (DVB) of upper (late) Cretaceous to lower (early) Eocene age and another is Laterite
rock formation, which is belonging to Pleistocene age. In this study, we observed drainages are playing
important role for surface water movement and infiltration and recharge. The movement of groundwater depends
on the secondary porosities in the basalt rock such asjoints and fractures. The geomorphic units such as younger
alluvial plain and pediplain area found to be with good groundwater potential, while moderately dissected,
highly dissected plateau, denudational hill and lateritic upland areas show moderate to poor groundwater
potential.
Keywords: Joytiba hill, GIS, Groundwater, PanchagangaRiver, WarnaRiver.
INTRODUCTION
The Joytiba hill area is the part of water divide between two easterly flowing rivers Panchaganga and Warna in
Kolhapur district, Maharashtra. The area is hilly and hence surface water occurs in hill area is up to December.
Hence present area is selected for study the Hydrogeology characters and Groundwater Potential Zone (GPZ)
analysis in adequate ground truth of Geographical Information System (GIS) software’s techniques and Remote
Sensing imagery. The first stage of any terrain analysis is the drainage basin analysis. It is the ideal unit for
understanding the geomorphological and hydrological processes for evaluating the runoff pattern of the stream
(Horton, 1932). The morphometric analysis provide quantitative description of the basins geometry to understand
initial slope or inequalities in the rock hardness, structural control, recent diastrophism, geological and geomorphic
history of the drainage basin (Strahler, 1964). It is important in any hydrological investigation like assessment of
groundwater potential, groundwater management, basin management and environmental assessment. Recently
many researchers have used Remote Sensing data and GIS software’s for study the morphometric characteristics of
the basins (Pisal, 2013), for study the GPZ and Geomorphology by(Gurav et al., 2016; Gurav and Babar, 2016;
Gurav and Babar, 2017). The landslide zonation mapping is carried out in this area by (Gurav et al., 2017) based on
creep (mass wasting) movements observed during the rainy season,in hill and highly dissected part of the area.
The Joytiba hill range selected area for this study falls within the latitude 16042' 11.768" N to 160 55' 4.751" N
and longitude 740 07' 53.018" E to 74018' 21.598" E in Survey of India (SOI) toposheet numbers 47 L/1, 47 L/2 and
47 L/5, on the scale 1:50000, and geographically this hill is placed in SW fringe of Maharashtra. It is occupies area
of about 234.40 sq. km. in Panhalatahsil in Kolhapur district of Maharashtra. The climate of the study area is sub-
tropical. Temperature is very from 410c in summer to around 210 c in winter. Average rainfall is 2800 mm/ year.
METHODOLOGY
In present study, Geocoded “LANDSAT-5” satellite imagery, ASTER GLOBE DEM (download by USGS),
Google Earth and Survey of India (SOI) toposheets on 1:50000 scales were used to identify and delineated
drainage, slope, lineament and geomorphological maps with adequate ground truth in ArcGIS 10.1 environment.
The location map, sub-basin map, drainage map and lineament map (Fig. 1 a, b, c, and f) of the study area are
prepared by using Survey of India (SOI) toposheets on 1:50000 scale. Slope map (Fig. 1 d) is prepared using
ASTER GLOBE DEM and GIS techniques. The Geomorphological map (Fig.1 g) are prepared by using visual
interpretation and digitization technique of “LANDSAT-5” satellite imagery, ASTER GLOBE DEM and SOI
205
toposheets which are farther used to find out the hydrogeomorphological map and Groundwater Potential Zones
(GPZ)(Fig. 1 h and i) in the present study.
HYDROGEOLOGY
Geologically, the entire area is covered by DVB lava flows of fissure type origin (Watts and Cox 1989).
Lithostratigraphically, present Joytiba area comes under Mahabaleshwar formation of Upper Deccan Traps of Late
Cretaceous to Early Eocene age (Godbole et al. 1996). The compact basalts are highly jointed and both vertical and
horizontal sets of joints in columnar basalt are observed (Fig. 2a & b).The plateau Laterite occurs on the top of the
hill belongs to Pleistocene age. The contact between Columnar Basalt and Laterite on the top of Joytiba hill above
935 m mslis observed (Fig.2 c).The soil cover of the study area is reddish (Lateritic soil) occurs on the top of the
hill and black cotton soil in northern and southern part in low-lying area of the hill.It is important for agriculture
purpose.The ‘aa’ type lava flows are at some places separated by red bole beds (Tachylitic bands). Hence, DVB
terrain availability of groundwater is of limited extent. The basalt in the study area is mainly ‘aa’ type of compact
basalt formation. The joints and fractures in the basalt are controls the groundwater movements. For this reason
during the fieldwork, many seasonal springs are observed in between contacts of basaltic lava flows. In such area,
groundwater occurs in fractures/joints and weathered horizons (Babar 2003; Babar and Shah 2011; Babar and
Gurav, 2014).Based onAthavale and Natu (2004-05) reportand field study we prepared the geological map of the
Joytibahill (Fig. 1 j).

Morphometric Analysis: There are two types of drainage patterns observed based on nature of the streams (Fig. 1
c). In the sub-dendritic drainage is developed on the top of the hill and the commonly occurred drainage pattern i.e.
dendritic drainage in DVB. Dendritic and sub dendritic drainage pattern are governed by regional slope,
homogeneous lithology and relief (Babar and Kaplay, 1999). Based on morphometric analysis of Joytiba hill area
found that, the streams originating from this hill are up to 5th ordered (Strahler, 1957). The drainage density is
varies from 1.06 to 3.90 km/km2 (Horton, 1932), stream frequency is 1.12 to 5.12 streams/ km2 (Horton, 1945), and
textural ratio 0.75 to 5.77 km-1 (Horton, 1945) indicates very fine texture (Smith, 1950) (Table 2). The high
drainage density and high stream frequency indicates that the rapid runoff and impermeable lithology.
Table 1 Geological Characteristics and Drainage analysis of the Joytiba hill.

Group Litho. Characteristics Elevation Thickness
Laterite (Photo 1c) More than 935
VII ‘Aa’ flows (Photo 1a) 880 to 935 m.msl 45 m.
VI ‘Aa’ flows 850 to 880 m.msl 30 m.
V ‘Aa’ flows 751 to 850 m.msl 99 m.
Red bole bed 750 to 751 m. msl 01 m.
IV ‘Aa’ flows 670 to 750 m. msl 80 m.
III ‘Aa’ flows 615 to 670 m.msl. 55 m.
II ‘Aa’ flows (Photo 1b) 542 to 615 m.msl. 73 m.
Red bole bed 540 to 542 m. msl 2 m.
I ‘Aa’ flows 532 to 540 m. msl 8 m.
Unconformity
Kaladgi Sediments
Source: GSI Report, (Athavale and Natu, 2004-05), Field study.
Slope Analysis:In simple word, to study the terrain analysis slope is the inclination of the surface of the land. It is
most important parameter for study the GPZ because of it controls the surface runoff, permeability as well as
infiltration condition of the area. For study the slope of the hill, we classify the present study area based on
automatic classification tool in ArcGIS 10.1 software by using the ASTER DEM. The whole area is classified in to
four classes (Table 3) by using ArcGIS software 10.1 surface analysis tools (Percentage rise). In present study area,
steep slope is observed in south side of the hill as compared to north side and steep slope of the hill(Gurav et al.,
2017). For study the GPZ analysis the steep slope is indication of surface runoff and infiltration condition of the
area. In this case the movement of surface water is faster in the area 11,155,100 to 656,182.353 and slower below
the 656,182.353 percentage rise unit in the map (Fig. 1 d).
Lineament Analysis:It plays an important role for groundwater prospecting because it surficial linear features of
joint/ fracture surfaces of land straight course of river, land, terrain, vegetation alignments which is directly linked
with the sub-surface formation of the area. They play an important role in identifying suitable sites for artificial
recharge of groundwater because they reflect rock structures through which water can percolate and travel up to
several meters (Krishnamurty et al. 2000; Babar 2001). For study of the GPZ we carried out lineament analysis
with the help of the straight course of the streams except first and second order because of most of the first and
second ordered streams are straight because of steep slope of the hill. The lineament (Fig. 1f) is demarcated on the
satellite imagery and SOI topographic maps on 1:50000 scale in conjunction with ground based observations.
Table 2 Sub-Basin Morphometric analysis of Joytiba hill area.

Sub-Basin Numbers
Parameters SB SB SB SB SB SB SB SB SB SB SB
01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11
(u) 05 04 03 05 03 03 03 05 03 03 04
(Nu) 197 45 17 46 19 25 14 99 10 17 38
(Lu) 163 29.8 12.8 61.8 14.5 20.4 14.4 64.3 12.0 13.1 28.9
(A) 61.5 12.3 5.72 58.4 3.71 6.08 6.82 20.0 8.06 4.24 9.13
(P) 34.1 15.5 9.29 39.0 8.96 10.6 13.4 23.0 12.0 9.93 15.6
(LB) 10.8 4.90 3.17 13.9 3.64 3.71 5.51 8.39 4.50 2.26 5.22
(Fs) 3.20 3.67 3.23 3.27 5.12 4.11 2.05 4.94 1.12 4.01 4.16
(Rt) 5.77 2.91 1.83 4.92 2.12 2.36 1.05 0.83 0.75 1.71 2.43
(Dd) 2.66 2.43 2.23 1.06 3.90 3.35 2.12 3.21 1.49 3.09 3.17
(Re) 0.82 0.81 0.85 0.62 0.60 0.75 0.54 0.60 0.71 0.64 0.65
(HE) 957 657 604 848 810 789 786 956 579 775 950
(LE) 539 542 545 537 532 534 536 534 543 541 540
(H) 418 115 59 316 276 255 250 422 36 234 410
(Rh) 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.08 0.07 0.05 0.05 0.01 0.10 0.08
Where, Stream Order (u) (Strahler, 1957),Number of streams (Nu), Length of the streams (Lu), Area (A) in sq.
km., Perimeter (P) in km, Stream Frequency (Fs) in streams/ km2 (Horton, 1945), Textural ratio(Rt) in km-1 (Smith,
1950), Drainage Density in km/km2 (Dd)( Horton, 1945), Basin elongation ratio (Re)Schumm (1956),Highest
Elevation in the area (HE), Lowest elevation in the area (LE), Relief of the area (H) in meters, Relief ratio (Rh)
Schumm (1956).
Table 3 Slope analysis of Joytiba hill area.
Slope Unit Slope GPZ

11,155,100-3,762,112.158 Steep Poor
3,762,112.157-1,837,310.589 Moderate to Steep Poor
1,837,310.588-665,182.353 Moderate Moderate to Good
665,182.352-0.00 Gentle Good
Land Use Land Cover (LULC) Analysis: The LULC in the area is directly linked with water (surface water as
well as groundwater). Similarly, it also gives information related to hydrogeology, slope, thickness of soil cover,
climatic condition and availability of surface and groundwater. In this study, LULC (Fig. 1 e) is carried out with
the help of “LANDSAT-5” satellite imagery (download by USGS), after downloading, it is processed under Stack
in ERDAS (2014) software. In present study, five units are used for study the land use condition and its relationship
with hydrogeology and hydrogeomorphology of the area. These units are agricultural land, dense vegetation,
settlement, barren land and water bodies. (Table 4)
Hydrogemorphology: The hydrogeomorphological study is carried out using drainage, lineament, slope, LULC,
geological and geomorphological maps of the area. By combined these maps, with hydrogeological field work and
open well inventory study, hydrogeomorphic map (Fig. 1 h) is obtained which is further used for preparing
groundwater potential zone map (Fig. 1 i). There are seven geomorphic surfaces in the study area have been
classified into denudational hill, highly dissected plateau, moderately dissected plateau, lateritic plateau, pediplain,
mesa and younger alluvial plain (Fig. 1 g) described in Table 5. In this study, the Dd, Fs, Rt, slope of the area,
lineament, LULC analysis, geology and open well inventory study gives idea about groundwater prospect map
(Fig. 1 i). The area of Lateritic plateau, denudational hill, highly dissected plateau and moderately dissected
plateau area is steep to moderately sloping, high drainage density and stream frequency, course to fine textural
ratio gives information about fast surface runoff , low water infiltrate in the ground. Hence availability of
groundwater is very short time in this area. The area of pediplain and younger alluvial plain is low Dd, Fs, Rt value
gentle slope, covered by agriculture land, thick soil cover and open well inventory study find that this area is very
good for groundwater prospecting.
Fig. 1 Hydrogeomorphological Maps of Joytiba Hill range area. (a) Location map, (b) Sub-basins Map, (c) Drainage map, (d)
Slope map, (e) Land use land cover map, (f) Lineament map, (g) Geomorphological Map, (h) Hydro geomorphological
map, (i) Groundwater Potential Zone map, (j) Geological Cross sectional map of the study area
Fig. 2 Hydrogeological Structures in Basalt rock formation in Joytiba Hill area. (a) Vertical Joints on the top of the hill (near
Yamai temple) in Columnar Basalt at 915 m. msl. (b) Horizontal Joints in Basalt near Wadnage village (foot hill area
of the hill) at 544m. msl. and (c) Contact between Columnar Basalt and Laterite on the top of Joytiba hill above
935 m msl.
Table 4 Land use/ Land cover analysis of study area
Type of Land Covered Area Description

Agricultural Land 160.1 sq. km i.e. Agricultural part occurs in gentle sloping surface of both the
68.3% sides of the hill
Dense vegetation 0.50 sq. km On the top of the hill dense
i.e. 0.21% vegetation is observed
Settlement 15.7 sq. km Most of the human settlement is in gentle sloping surface
i.e. 6.70% occurs in this area
Barren Land 57.6 sq. km. i.e. Highly resistance rocks, steep slope without soil cover.
24.6%
Water Bodies 0.73 sq. km. i.e. artificial water storage tanks area occurs in contact between the
0.31 %. lava flows
Table 5 Hydrogeomorphology of the Joytiba hill area.

Units (A) Dd Fs Ts Slope OOW Litho. Characters GPZ
LP 0.44 i.e. 0.23 2.27 0.24 gentle 2 Lateritic P
0.19% plateau
DH 6.26 i.e. 8.87 8.31 3.38 Steep Compact P
2.67% 0 Basalt
HDP 40.8 i.e. 3.17 8.53 3.74 Steep Basalt without soil P
17.4% 1 cover
MDP 41.6 i.e. 3.21 7.31 2.27 Steep to 1 Weathered undulating P to M
17.8% Moderate terrain
P 140.3i.e. 1.97 2.26 3.24 Gentle 8 Weathered rock VG
59.9% covered by soil
YAP 4.52 i.e. - - - Very Gentle 2 Sediments transported VG
1.93% by the river
Mesa 0.42 i.e. - - - Steep 0 Compact basalt P

0.18%
Where, Area (A) sq. km, Younger Alluvial Plain (YAP), Pediplain (P), Moderately Dissected Plateau (MDP),
Highly Dissected Plateau (HDP), Denudational Hills (DH) and Lateritic Plateau (LP), Observed Open Wells
(OOW), Very Good (VG), Poor to Moderate (P to M), Poor (P).
CONCLUSIONS
The Remote sensing and GIS techniques are useful tools to study the groundwater potential zone in very short time
span. In this study, we found that, the movement of groundwater is restricted in to the secondary porosity
developed in the Basalt such as joints/fractures and lineaments. In the present study, alluvial plain and pediplain are
good for groundwater potential while moderately dissected, highly dissected plateau, denudational hill and lateritic
plateau area are with moderate to poor groundwater potential.
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Lendi River, Maharashtra, India”. First Indian National Groundwater conference on Sustainable Development and
Management of Groundwater Resources in Arid and Semiarid Regions. - ISBN: 978-93-5230-149-2 (PB) pp .90-100.
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Analysis of Tulshi Sub-basin of Bhogavati River, Kolhapur District, Maharashtra, India.” International conference on
Technical Advices in Climate-Smart Agriculture and Sustainability (TACSAS-2017) ISBN: 978-93-86256-35-5- pp.
119-122
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NON-REVENUE-WATER ASSESSMENT AND

REDUCTION STRATEGY IN URBAN WATER DISTRIBUTION
B. Rajasekhar1, G. Venkata Ramana2 and G. K. Viswanadh³

1
PhD Research Scholar, JNTUH, Hyderabad, 2Prof. & HOD, IARE, Hyderabad, ³Prof. & Director, UGC, HRDC, JNTUH, Hyderabad,
rsbellapu@gmail.com ramanagedela@gmail.com, kasi.gorthi@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Supplying safe and adequate drinking water has become crucial in India. Water losses in water distribution
network is an important issue and challenge for water utilities in urban water supply. In India 50 to 60
percentage of treated and supplied water is lost during transmission from water service reservoir to customer
service connections. Non-Revenue-Water (NRW) is the portion of water placed by a water utility into the
distribution system but could not generate revenue for utility. It consists of sum of Un-Billed Metered, Un-Billed
Un-Metered consumption, Real Losses and Apparent Losses. Water utilities are losing revenue because of these
high levels of NRW and in turn affecting their financial viability. The overall objective of any water utility is to
deliver wholesome water to consumers in sufficient quantity at adequate pressure, continuity and maximum
coverage by reducing losses. In this regard a study was conducted at Kapra Municipality water utility by using
water audit software Water Balance developed by International Water Association (IWA). This study
implemented District Metered Area approach by isolating a small area of water distribution network and
conducted Minimum Night Flow Analysis to determine the flows of water. This paper provides a review on
assessment of present levels of NRW and a strategy to be implemented for reducing NRW. This paper also
discusses about the necessity of targeting appropriate performance indicator which is a benchmark for any water
utility.
Keywords: Non-Revenue-Water; Apparent Losses; Real Losses; Water Balance; District Metered Area;
Minimum Night Flow Analysis; performance indicator.
INTRODUCTION
Water demand is getting increased rapidly due to urbanization, increase in population and industrialization whereas
water resources are diminishing. Problems in providing satisfactory water supply to the rapidly growing population
especially that of the developing countries is increasing from time to time. Water supply systems in urban areas are
often unable to meet existing demands and are not available to everyone rather some consumers take
disproportionate amounts of water and the poor is the first victim to the problem (Bereket, 2006). Moreover,
managing and reducing losses of water at all levels of a distribution system remains one of the major challenges
facing many water utilities in most developing countries including India.
Kapra Municipality is one of the municipalities around the twin cities of Hyderabad and Secunderabad and it is
in Medchal district at a distance of 11 kms from Secunderabad. It is located at 170 29’ 24” N and 780 34’ 12” E. The
average temperatures of the region vary from a maximum of 42 degrees centigrade to a minimum of 15 degree
centigrade. The average rainfall of the area is about 820 mm per year. The town has different types of land use with
Residential, Institutional, Commercial, Recreational activities. This municipality has reputed industries like
Electronic Corporation of India Ltd., Nuclear Fuel Complex, Hindustan Cables Limited etc. Cherlapalli Central Jail
is situated in this Municipality. The residential areas cover maximum extent due to rapid urbanization and
development of IT and other infrastructure, the open areas are under high pressure to be converted into Residential,
Commercial and Institutional at a faster rate. Total area is 45 square km with a population of 3,20,000.
Kapra is one of the towns that has been providing potable water supply to the residents with the available water.
The present water demand is 60 MLD. The source of water supply is from Manjeera, Krishna and Godavari rivers.
Present water distribution covers 80 percentage area and water is supplied once in every two days. Approximate
total water supply pipe length is 250 km with water supply service connections of 9500 numbers. The Kapra water
211
utility is facing high NRW due to a severe water loss from the pipe network in the form of leakages on account of
the poor & aged infrastructure, intermittent water supply without proper pressure management, water misuse &
theft, inadequate metering polices and low tariff structures which are forcing the water utility to augment the
requirement of treated water in an attempt to satisfy the water demand. Although the water utility distribution
system components were built decades ago the issues related to the water loss are not investigated yet which is
currently in need of attention to develop the strategies for the future is more urgent than ever.
The objectives of this study are the assessment of the existing water losses, identifying the strategies to reduce
the water losses in Kapra Municipality and fixing the target of performance indicator for the water utility.
METHODOLOGY
The Water Audit Method recommended by International Water Association and American Water Works
Association (IWA/AWWA) is implemented for quantifying volume of water supplied from service reservoir
throughout the distribution system, customer consumption and volumes of real and apparent losses.
The auditing process was involved at three levels, each adding increasing refinement.
1. Top-down approach – the initial desktop process of gathering information from existing records,
procedures, data and other information systems.
2. Leakage component analysis – a technique that models leakage volumes based on the nature of leak
occurrences, durations and various occurrences of apparent losses by looking at the nature and duration
of the occurrence.
3. Bottom-up approach – validating the top-down results with actual field measurements such as leakage
losses calculated from integrated zonal District Metered Area night flows. Similarly, physical inspections
of customer properties to uncover apparent losses.
A preliminary assessment of water loss is obtained by gathering available records and placing data into the
water audit worksheet. The data from the water audit was entered in the water balance, which compared the
distribution system input volume with the sum of customer consumption and losses of estimate or known. The sum
of all components in each column of the water balance are equal, and therefore in balance, as shown in Figure 1.
Water
Billed Water Exported
Exported
Billed Authorized Revenue

Billed Metered Consumption
Consumption Water
Authorized Billed Unmetered Consumption
Volume
Consumption Unbilled
From Own Unbilled Metered Consumption
Sources Authorized
System Consumption Unbilled Unmetered Consumption
Input Customer Metering Inaccuries
Volume Water Apparent Losses Unauthorized Consumption
Supplied Systematic Data Handling Errors Non
Leakage on Transmission and Revenue
Distribution Mains Water
Water Losses
Leakage and Overflows at
Real Losses Utility's Storage Tanks
Water
Leakage on Service Connections
Imported
up to the Point of Customer
Meeting
Source: AWWA
Fig. 1 Water Balance

The top-down approach was conducted in the following sequence as recommended by AWWA
Task 1 – Quantify the volume of water supplied to the distribution system: The water supplied volume was
calculated automatically by the Audit Software after the individual inputs of volume from own sources, water
imported, water exported and their respective master meter error adjustments are quantified and input by the
auditor. This task demonstrates how much water enters the treated retail water distribution system and where it
originates.
Task 2 – Quantify Authorized Consumption: Authorized consumption is any water delivered for consumptive
purposes that are authorized or approved by the water utility, thereby providing a benefit to the community. The
Authorized Consumption volume is calculated by the Audit Software as the sum of the four subcomponents of
Billed Metered Consumption, Billed Unmetered Consumption, Unbilled Metered Consumption and Unbilled
Unmetered Consumption.
Task 3 – Calculate water losses and quantify Apparent and Real Losses: Water losses are made up of apparent
losses and real losses. Apparent Losses are comprised of systematic data handling errors, customer metering
inaccuracies and unauthorized consumption. The audit software calculates Current Annual Real Losses simply as
total water losses minus apparent losses.
Task 4 – Calculate Non-Revenue Water: NRW consists of the sum of Unbilled Metered and Unbilled
Unmetered Consumption, Apparent Losses and Real Losses. NRW can also be calculated as the water supplied
minus the sum of Billed Metered and Billed Unmetered Consumption.
Task 5 – Collect Distribution System and Cost Data: In this task length of mains, the number of active and
inactive service connections, average length of customer service line, average operating pressure, total annual cost
of operating water system and customer retail unit cost to be calculated.
Task 6 – Determine System Attributes: In this task Unavoidable Annual Real Losses (UARL) which represents
the minimum level of leakage that could be achieved in a system that is well managed and in good condition, at a
given average pressure level and cost impact of apparent and real losses are to be calculated.
UARL (gal) = (5.4Lm + 0.15Nc + 7.5Lc) x P x 365 d/year .....(1)
Where:
Lm = length of water mains
Nc = number of customer service connections
Lc = total length of customer service connection line (miles)
P = average operating pressure in the system (psi)
Task 7 – Performance Indicators: The IWA/AWWA Audit Method published in Performance Indicators for
Water Supply Services (Alegre et al. 2000) includes a highly useful array of performance indicators, which
represent one of the greatest strengths of the method. With this methodology, multiple indicators of varying detail
became available to water utilities, allowing a realistic assessment of water loss standing.
IWA suggested two types of performance indicators like Financial Performance Indicators comprises non-
revenue water by volume and non-revenue water by cost and Operational Performance Indicators comprise
apparent losses and real losses performance indicators in which ILI is the best real losses performance indicator for
comparisons among systems
ILI = CARL/UARL .....(2)
Where:
ILI = Infrastructure Leakage Index
CARL = Current Annual Real Losses in gallons
UARL = Unavoidable Annual Real Losses in gallons
Task 8 – Compile the Water Balance: After all data was entered into the audit software quantities from the key
consumption and loss components can be shown on the water balance.
Task 9 – Assess the Data Validity Score: After all the data was entered into the audit software and performance
indicators were reviewed, the data validity score was reviewed which was calculated for the water audit. A small
discrete area in Osmania University Teachers colony of Kapra municipality identified with 750 service connections
as Sub-DMA and MNF analysis was implemented to find out the Real Losses in WDN.
The first level of water audit top-down approach was largely a desktop exercise, with minimal field testing or
investigations required. To refine the top-down water audit and formulate strategies to cut losses, work then was
shifted to the bottom-up approach. In bottom-up approach a temporary DMA was constructed to conduct minimum
night flow analysis. A DMA is a small zone of the distribution system, typically encompassing between 500 and
3000 customer service connections and a Sub-DMA is between 500 and 1000 customer service connections with
measured supply input flow of sufficiently small volume that individual leakage events can be quantified, thereby
guiding leak detection deployment decisions.
Flow and Pressure Meter
DMA Boundary
Chamber
Closed Valves
Distribution pipe
N t k
Fig. 2 District Metered Area
The MNF is the time typically between 12:00 a.m. and 04:00 a.m. when the consumption by the residents within
DMA is at its lowest. Apparent losses were quantified by taking the density of service connections and the base
demand per service connection since the O.U.T. colony is not fully metered.
RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS

Water Balance (Figure 5) generated by water audit software reflects that the summation of the component volumes
in each column moving left to right is 21900 MLD which fulfilled the balance sheet concept.
As the most of the area was not having meters the billed-unmetered consumption 9811 MLD was registered
which was higher side compared to the billed-metered consumption. Because of insufficient metering water utility
has been charging monthly for a predetermined quantity irrespective of the actual consumption resulting in higher
quantities of Apparent Losses.
Components of System Input Components of NRW
Volume
9%
36%
18.90%
8.10%
64%
Real Losses
Apparent Losses
Revenue Water Non‐Revenue Water Un‐Billed Authorized Consumption
Fig. 3 Components of SIV Fig. 4 Components of NRW
Fig. 5 Water Balance


Fig. 6 Water Audit Reporting Worksheet
The Financial Performance Indicators NRW as percentage by volume and NRW as percentage by cost were
calculated and found as 36% (Figure 1) and 48% (Figure 6) respectively which are very high. The acceptable
NRW as percentage by volume for any water utility is 15%. As the water supply of O.U.T. colony is by gravity
with average pressure of 15 meters head the UARL and ILI Operational Performance Indicators are not suitable for
this utility. The other Operational Performance Indicators apparent losses per service connection per day was found
511.61litres and real losses per service connection per day 1193.94 litres (Figure 6) were very high.
CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS

Conclusions and strategy for NRW reductions are as follows
1. Present water supply of water utility is intermittent and proper pressure management is not in place. For any
water utility ILI performance indicator is the benchmark for their efficiency for which minimum pressure of
26 meters is to be maintained.
2. Because of the intermittent and irregular timings in water supply people are habituated to draw and store
excess water and throwing away the previously stored water at the time of next water supply on account of
which lot of water and revenue is being lost by utility. Intermittent supply is causing damages to the pipe
network due to abnormal fluctuations of pressure inside the pipe network and utilities are facing difficulties
to upkeep the pipe network. So, continuous water supply with proper pressure management is recommended
to address the above issues.
3. ILI of 4 is to be targeted in the course of five years time period for which proper leakage management is to
be in place.
4. It is found unauthorized consumption more because of intentional vandalism of meters by residents and
collusion of utility personnel with residents in preparation of bills. Water utility should conduct awareness
programs for public and utility personnel to instill the importance of water resource and stringent actions are
to be implemented in case of noncompliance.
5. Presently meters are fixed only for some connections and charging fixed amounts to the remaining
connections. These charges are disproportionate with the occupancy and usage of water by the particular
residence on account of which utility is losing heavy revenue. Utility should take immediate action to fix
meters for all service connections. Existing vandalized, non-functional meters to be replaced and calibration
of meters is to be done without fail in regular manner.
6. Automatic Meter Reading (AMR) system for reading meters and logging the data in regular manner is to be
implemented.
7. Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition System (SCADA) is to be implemented for online monitoring of
levels of storage tanks, water flow in mains, leakages at fittings and pressure at various nodes.
8. The second step of water audit Leakage Component Analysis is not in place presently. The exhaustive data
of occurrence of leakages, their duration and repair done time, expenditure details are not recorded. Proper
documentation of leakage components like Reported Leakage, Unreported Leakage and Background
Leakage is recommended which helps the utility to effectively plan the budget, fixing the NRW reduction
target and to meet public satisfaction.
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of Benchmarking for the Improvement of the Operation of the Drinking Water Supply Systems
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8. Finn Motensen & Ilse Korsvang (2016), “Striving for Water Efficiency”, The Source, Q1 2016 IWA, PP:54-57
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NEGLECTED REALITY OF MANUAL SCAVENGING - PROHIBITED YET
PRACTICED, A CASE OF HYDERABAD
Sumskrutha Talupula,
Urban Planner, Consultant
sumskrutha.kutti@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
It has been 25 years of prohibition through commencement of legal framework, yet scourge of manual
scavenging in India continues. The manual scavenging is still a prevailing practice managing and maintaining
our sanitation solutions. The objective of this paper is to act as an advocacy article to strengthen the policy
dialogue and advocacy activities leading to local innovations in abolishing manual scavenging. Through this
paper, an attempt has been made to understand manual scavenging scenario in today’s context. The study is
carried out with exploratory approach with primary data obtained through informal semi-structured interviews
with stakeholders related to manual scavenging practice in distinct levels, clubbed with secondary information
from published market research reports and government publications. Exploring the facts against the existing
law, presence of manual scavenging is evident in Hyderabad and is observed to spread in new avenues of
sanitation systems in addition to already established bases like pit latrines, sceptic tanks, toilet cleaning etc. In
conclusion, the paper reflects on the factors that can enable the city government to achieve the goal of
eradication of manual scavenging, balancing the city needs in the purview of existing policy and legislative
environment.
Keywords: Scavenging practices, socio-economic aspects, hazards, eradication.
INTRODUCTION
Even after 67 years of independence and 25 years of prohibition of manual scavenging, the country is still
struggling against inhuman practice of manual scavenging in different forms and types. Manual scavenging is
ideally defined as the process of human being manually cleaning or otherwise handling in any manner human
excreta. In India, manual scavenging is linked to caste system. These communities are lowest in their designated
cast and are most vulnerable and victim of untouchability and social discrimination till date. The need of manual
scavenging has emerged with introduction of toilet to human. It started from Indus valley civilization for
maintenance of drainage system and developed in to a classified group during vedic civilization, where poor and
obedient people were forced in to cleaning of human waste, due to lack O&M technologies. In mughal period,
‘Pardh’ system lead to private spaces for human discharge, which were structured as toilets, where the poor or war
prisoners were forced into manual scavenging. During the British times the army, railways, courts, industries and
major towns were equipped with dry toilets and official posts for manual scavengers were created. Efforts of
Mahatma Gandhi and B.R Ambedkar could abolish untouchability to a greater extend, but manual scavenging is
still prevailing in India, due to societal needs and is neglected under the blanket of cast system, poverty, illiteracy
etc. Indian government is making continues efforts to abolish this practice in India, through legislation, policies and
programmes since independence.
ABOLITION OF MANUAL SCAVENGING IN INDIA – EFFORTS & RESULTS

Manual scavenging was always priority since first five-year plans. In 1993, India has taken a major step in putting a
stop to manual scavenging through “Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines
(Prohibition) Act, 1993’’. The definition of manual scavenger as per this act is “a person engaged in or employed
for manually carrying human excreta”. After the commencement of the said act, there was not much impact
observed on ground. As per census 2011, there are more than 2.6 million dry latrines and 13, 14,652 toilets flushing
raw sludge in open drains, where people are involved in crud from of cleaning the drains and pits leading to direct
contact to human excreta. Thus, understandable that manual scavenging existed in different form. In 2013 new
legislation was formed called “The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation
Act”, which defines manual scavenging as “a person engaged or employed, at the commencement of this Act or at
any time thereafter, by an individual or a local authority or an agency or a contractor, for manually cleaning,
219
2220 Proceeedings of 5th N
National Confeerence on Watter, Environm
caarrying, dispoosing of, or otherwise

o hanndling in any manner, hum man excreta inn an insanitarry latrine or in i an open
drrain or pit intto which the human
h excretaa from the inssanitary latrinnes is disposeed of, or on a railway
r trackk or in such
otther spaces oro premises, as a the Centrall Governmennt or a State Government
G m notify, before
may b the exxcreta fully
deecomposes inn such manner as may bee prescribed, and the exprression “mannual scavengiing” shall be construed
acccordingly’’. The key feaatures of the Act are proohibits the coonstruction orr maintenancce of insanitaary toilets;
Prohibits the engagement
e or
o employmeent of anyonee as a manuaal scavenger; Violations could c result in
i a years’
immprisonment or a fine of INR I 50,000 or
o both; Prohiibits a personn from being engaged or employed
e for hazardous
clleaning of a sewer
s or a sep
ptic tank; Thee act also has provisions foor measures for f the rehabillitation of thee identified
m
manual scavenngers; The deefinition of manual
m scaveenging is made flexible too incorporatee all kinds off forms of
m
manual scavennging, based on the grounnd realities. In I addition too the existingg law in placce, there weree different
scchemes mobillized at centraal and state leevel, which innclude self – employment Scheme for rehabilitation
r of manual
sccavenging; National
N schemme of liberatioon and rehabiilitation of sccavengers; Pree-matric schoolarship for thhe children
off those engagged in unclearr occupation; National safaai karmachariis finance andd developmennt corporationn. Consider
thhe case of Sellf Employmeent Scheme foor Rehabilitattion of Manuaal Scavengerss (SRMS) schheme under ministry m of
Social Justice ,it is evident from the figuure 1 extracted from articlee namely mannual scavengiing in India (22015, May
100), in-spite off availability opportunity thhe governmennt failed in opptimum or miinimum utilizzing the allocaated funds.
C
Coming to Anndhra Pradesh h (erstwhile), table 1 demoonstrates the scandalous
s unnderutilizationn of availablee funds, as
peer Question No. 2519,An nswerd on 044.08.2015 unnstarred question, Lok Saabha. The 1224 scavenger’s number
(ttable1) is arriived from thee self-declarattion of HHs during
d the immplementationn of the rehabbilitation scheeme. There
arre no efforts in identifyin ng the existing manual scaavengers in thheir jurisdiction or strict enforcement of law by
loocal level respponsible agen ncies.
Fig. 1 Fund
F Allocatioon and expendiiture under SRM
MS
Ta
able 1 Fund Allocation
A and expenditure
e unnder SRMS forr AP in lakhs
N of
No. 2013-144 2014--15 2015-16 (uptto- 30.06.2015)
scaavengers
ideentified Ex
xpenditure B
Beneficiaries Expenditure Beneficiaries Expenditure Beneficiariess
124 0 0 18 45 0 0
M
MANUAL SC
CAVENGING
G IN HYDER
RABAD
Hyderabad is the capital city
H c of southhern state Teelangana. It is
i one of thee metropolitaan cities in Inndia, with
poopulation of about 8 milllion. As per the authoritiies of the Hyderabad cityy i.e. greaterr Hyderabad municipal
coorporation (G
GHMC), Hydeerabad metroppolitan waterr supply and sewerage
s Boaard (HMWSS SB), manual scavenging
s
dooes not exist in the city. On
O the contraary, currentlyy 30% to 40% % of the city still relays ono onsite saniitation like
seeptic tanks and
a pit latrin nes. In additiion to this thhere are abouut 2,30,000 manholes avvailable in thhe city for
m
maintenance o existing sewer lines. Buut, there is noo official stattistics availabble on the nuumber of hum
of man beings
innvolved in cleeaning and maintenance
m o these existiing sewer nettwork and on--site sanitatioon technologies. SECC-
of
20011 data of manual scav vengers releassed by the ‘M Ministry of Rural
R Develoopment confiirms’ also deeclared the
exxistence of a total of 165 5 in Telangaana. This num mber is arrived from the self-declaration and the number is
exxpected to bee more. Stren ngthening thee fact of exisstence of maanual scavengging, in Hydeerabad about 8 manual
scavengers dies in the span of 6 months in year 2016. This statistic is captured based on the statistics covered by
media, thus the deaths or accidents could be much more than identified, which is a horrifying reality of manual
scavenging today. Back in history manual scavengers locally known as ‘Mehtars’ were fundamentally solder
communities hailed from the villages at the borders of the kingdoms, who were also involved in taking care of
animals. Some of them were convinced to clean women toilets (because of pardha system) and few of them were
forced. With the evolution of the city, backward casts and urban poor got involved in operation and maintenance of
these sanitation technologies. An attempt is made to deeply understand the existing manual scavenging in
Hyderabad through exploratory approach with primary data obtained through informal semi-structured interviews
with communities, stakeholders related to manual scavenging practice in distinct levels, clubbed with secondary
information from published market research reports and government publications. As per the study manual
scavenging is categorized in to manholes and septage cleaners, manual toilet cleaners and a new category
recognized called solid waste management (SWM) labor.
Fig. 2 Manhole cleaning in secunderabad, skin problems observed in the workers, septic tank cleaning at Alwal slum,
Hyderabad.
Table 2 Overview of manhole and septage cleaners
Manhole and Septage cleaners

Definition Statistics Risk Occupational hazards
Manhole cleaners - No authentic

Manually cleaning or in any statistics available.
manner handling human 30% to 40% of the city relays on Direct contact with the human
waste directly from septic onsite sanitation like septic tanks faecal matter. Alcohol consumption, chewing
tanks, insanitary toilets, pit and drains. Majority of deaths and ‘gutka’, body cuts and vomiting are
latrines, sewer lines and 2,30,000 manholes available in the accidents are found in this most common issues.
railway track before the city for maintenance of existing category of manual
human fecal matter is fully sewer lines, establish the fact of scavenging.
decomposed existence of this type of manual
scavenging
Health hazards Social hazards Others Driving factors

Employed directly by GHMC
Fetching them good income,
On discussion with the and SCB or are hired under
especially in case of permanent
TB/ Malaria and other such communities and HH members contract.
government employees. In case of
diseases, with a ratio of 2 out especially women, it is understood Provided with long rods,
contractual employees, a hope of
of 50 workers observed, as that domestic violence is part and ropes and buckets to clean the
getting permanent in government
per the working groups. parcel of marriage or family life sewer lines.
setup dragging them in to this
Neck, upper back lower back and the men squander their There is large disparity among
profession. Septage cleaning
pain, skin irritations and skin earnings on alcohol. They permanent and contractual
emerged as a business model where
infections, respiratory unflinchingly describe how they workers in terms salary with a
they are charging Rs 1500 to 2000
problems are commonly have been dragged by their hair, difference of Rs. 10,000 to
per household with demand of 3 to
found. pulled, pushed and beaten up 20,000, heath cards and
4 households per day, which comes
mercilessly by their husbands. equipment training only for
up to Rs 6000 per day as income.
permanent workers.
F 3 Existing
Fig. g situation of public toilets beefore cleaning, toilet in privatte hotels at Seccunderabad
Taable 3 Overvieew of manual tooilet cleaners
Manu
ual toilet cleanerrs
Definition Statistics Riisk Occupationaal hazards
Considering the
t behaviour
Peersons involved in aspect of the citizens w.r.t
clleaning of pubblic As per thhe FGDs there to public space
s usage, Exposed to cleeaning agents likke acids. Sometim mes cleaning
tooilets, communnity are about 10,000(aprox.) especially in public toilet, agents or, pow
wder or brooms are a not made avaailable to the
tooilets, toilets in people innvolved. Still the job of maaintenance and cleaners, especcially in case of private toilets liike in hotels,
goovernment there is no reliable clearing of toilets in public schools, hosppitals etc., leaading to unethhical labour
buuildings, hospittals source. spaces is hazardous
h in employment.
ettc. today’s conntext. (Refer
Figure 2)
Health hazardss Socia

al hazards Oth
hers Driving factors
f
Fetching goodd income-The average incom me of this
Contractual employees
e by
Victims of social category of workers
w earn about
a Rs 150000/month, as
the GHMC,, HMWSSB
exclusion and social compared to Rs R 5000/monthh in the professsion of gate
and SCB.
stigma duee to which they keepers in Hydderabad city. Maajority of the woorkers during
These workeers are also
Skkin infections and
a are not
n given FGDs have nott shown interest to shift from thhis profession
privately involved in
stomach problem ms opportunitties in other due to lack off opportunity inn other fields anda scope of
cleaning off household
arre majoorly professionns. This better income in manual sccavenging. Som me of these
toilets and other private
obbserved. category of workers workers are alsso involved in PPP
P models at BOT B models,
properties like hotels,
evolved from poverty, but they are suuffering with povverty as the pubblic toilet are
hospitals, education
lack of othher skill set and not located bassed on the demaand and they havve invested a
institutes etc.
illiteracy. lot in construcction of these toilets
t structuress in form of
loans.

Figg. 4 Working conditions
c of SWM workers
Table 4 Overview of SWM workers
SWM workers
Definition Statistics Risk Occupational hazards
There is no protective equipment used by this

Persons who are Deaths and saviour injuries. category of workers. These workers are directly in
There are about 40,000
part of the process There are no safety equipment’s contact not only on fecal matter while sweeping in
workers of this category
of SWM value available, in few cases the open defection areas, prone to dog bites, prone to
working in the
chain of the city available equipment is neither deep cuts as mentioned earlier. (refer figure 4)
Hyderabad city.
from collection to adequate nor up to required As per FGDs, it was informed that there were 2
disposal of waste. standards. deaths at transfer station while handling the bulk
waste collected.
Health hazards Social hazards Others Driving factors
These workers are directly

There is large disparity employed by GHMC and SCB
among permanent and either directly or through contract.
contractual workers in There are no facilities like Majority of the workers during FGDs have not
terms salary with a washroom, changing room, shown interest to shift from this profession due to
NA difference of Rs. 10,000 especially for women during Lack of opportunity in other fields, Better income
to 20,000, heath cards working hours. They get shirts and in this profession, Lack skills to do any other
and equipment training clothes on their own to wrap them work, Illiteracy.
only for permanent self from the pollution during their
workers. working hours. The transfer station
is not designed worker friendly.
In addition to the occupational conditions of manual scavengers discussed in Hyderabad, an attempt was made
to investigate the living conditions of the existing manual scavengers. For this, two communities of manual
scavengers namely Cantonment quarters (55 HH) and banjara basti (34 HH) were surveyed using random sampling
method with sample size of 10% in both the communities. As per the survey it is observed that these communities
are in similar conditions found in most of the slums conditions in India cities in terms of housing and basic
services. There are no medical facilities easily accessible hence people must travel at least 10 km to a government
hospital as they cannot afford private hospitals. The average monthly income ranges from Rs. 5000 to 6000, which
is not stuffiest to have a standard quality of life. About 50-52% of the children from the communities are not going
to schools. The good news is that some of the youngsters are taking up jobs in sectors hitherto inaccessible for
them. The health hazards faced by the manual scavengers are manifold and intense. Of those surveyed, 41% in
Cantonment Quarters and a whopping 90% in Valmiki Nagar suffer from skin ailments which can be directly
traced to the dangerous and unhygienic nature of work without safety gear. About 67% of those surveyed in
Valmiki Nagar suffer or have suffered from TB/ Malaria and other such diseases. Fever and stomach pain seems to
be rampant especially among the manual scavengers surveyed in Valmiki Nagar as 86% of them complain of fever
and stomach pain. Alcoholism is prevailing in this occupation as workers feel necessary to consume alcohol to dull
their sense before commencing manual scavenging. Alcohol induced domestic violence is the bane of the
communities surveyed. Women of community unflinchingly describe how they have been dragged by their hair,
pulled, pushed and beaten up mercilessly by their husbands. This explains that in addition to the occupational
issues the living conditions of manual scavengers along with their family is pathetic.
While interviewing some of the officials of HMWSSB, GHMC and SCB, it is observed that officially only
sewage workers are considered as manual scavenging, who come under the purview of HMWSSB. HMWSSB have
conducted a training programem for their permanent workers on he usage of the safety, but this equipment is not
provided to the workers, as observed on ground. In addition to the training programmes, there few cases of
compensation to the dead sewer workers families are been made, but there are also case where the families are still
waiting for their compensation since more than 2 to 3 years. This gives an impression that the city government is
negligent about the issue. Thus, there is need for immediate attention and action for this this inhuman practice of
manual scavenging in the city.
CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS

Even though multiple government schemes have been implemented and, various anti-scavenging legislations exist,
the practice continues. Intervention by the legislative and judiciary have not seen much success in eliminating the
problem, which is major due to lack of efforts on ground/local level. This is merely due to ignorance and rejections
of its existence at local level. Today, in addition to social discrimination, there are other sufferings added to a
manual scavenger like social hazards, occupational hazards (discussed earlier) and life risks. Still he is continuing
his struggle due to lack of awareness, lack of alternative way of livelihood and improper implementation of laws
and. The need of the hour is not just a law that prohibits manual scavenging but also a tangible and solid action
plan at local level to help those who are trapped. There is need to create a balance between abolition of manual
scavenging and the O& needs of the sanitation modes in the city. Following are the key recommendations based
on the observation and discussions with separate set of people related to manual scavenging in Hyderabad i.e. from
manual scavenger to policy experts.
Immediate
 Defining manual scavenging/scavenger w.r.t local context in preview of act 2013, which gives an
opportunity to incorporate all forms of manual scavenging in the city.
 Prioritizing manual scavenging at city level and create awareness on “The Prohibition of Employment as
Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act” among municipal officials, sewerage and sanitation
workers, city police and public. This will enable in monitoring on ground, towards preventing manual
scavenging and other related inhuman activities.
Short term
 Introducing existing and available technology to existing sewer workers and sanitary workers on priority
basis. There are lot of funds available in the from Swachh bharat, AMRUTH and smart cities, through which
there is possibility to meet the financial requirement.
 Health facilities in terms of regular checkups for the existing and identified sanitary workers along with
monthly health cards. It should be mandated to supply basic medicines and vaccinations to the workers by
the authorized authorities.
 Work place facilities in terms free access to public toilets, rest rooms should be made available for the
workers. In terms of shelter or rest room the existing community hall in the cities should be made accessible
for the workers especially the SWM workers.
Long term
 Rehabilitation of the existing manual scavenging through, improving their skill sent and knowledge in the
areas of their expertise like plumbing (as identified during group discussing with communities). Similarly,
most of the manual scavengers are working as cleaners of public toilets, community toilets, school toilets,
HH toilets. These workers can be equipped with technologies which help to improve their performance in a
scientific way, instead of getting in direct contact with human excreta.
 Mainstreaming of fecal sludge management by bringing in to play, strict rules and regulation in place for
O&M of existing and growing on -site sanitation facilities.
 Identifying and developing viable PPP /contractual models in sanitation, which will follow scientific
methods of O&M and play as a business avenue, preventing the growth of manual scavenging in future.
 The O&M cost w.r.t to any sanitation project should incorporate the scientific practices and methods, which
doesn’t give scope for manual scavenging.
Way Forward
Manual scavenging always evolved with the sanitation conditions and sanitation technology of the city. There is
need for identifying financially, technologically and environmentally viable option, which can create a balance
between abolition of manual scavenging and fulfilling the O&M needs of existing and upcoming sanitation system.
REFERENCES
1. Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act, 1993.
2. Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and Their Rehabilitation Act, 2013.
3. Cities, sewers and poverty: India’s politics of sanitation, Susan E. Chaplin, Environment and Urbanization, Vol. 11,
No. 1, April 1999
4. Scavengers and scavenging in Andhra Pradesh, B. Devi Prasad, The Indian journal of social work, Volume 68, issue 2,
April 2007.
FLOW CHARACTERISTICS OVER BROAD CRESTED WEIR

AND DAM SPILLWAY
Bhukya Ramakrishna1, CH. Shivakumargoud2, SK.Vaheed3

Jallewar Praveenkumar4 and Myakala Prasad5
1
Assistant Professor, 2345Student, Civil Engineering Department, RGUKT Basara, Telangana.
1
bhukyaramakrishna@gmail.com,2shivakumargoudce430@gmail.com,
3
myakal aprasad02@gmail.com, 4pk88114@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
A control section is defined as a section in which a fixed relationship exist between the discharge and depth
of flow broad crested weirs, spillways are some typical examples of structures which give rise to control
sections. The critical depth is also a control point. However when the flow changes from supercritical flow
to subcritical flow, A hydraulic jump is usually formed by passing the critical depth as a control point. So in
this context laboratory flume experiments are carried out in the hydraulics laboratory to investigate the head-
discharge Relationships and computation of coefficient of discharge for different hydraulic structures with
different slopes. In additionally our study also carried out on energy dissipation and specific energy
computations between upstream and downstream of hydraulic structures. Results of experiment shows that
this average value of coefficient of discharge for different types of broad crested weirs(i.e stream lined
broad crested weir, sharp cornered broad crested weir, broad crested weir with raised crest) and dam
spillway with toe, ski jump and Baffle blocks are 0.38, 0.35, 0.37, 0.80, 0.70 and 0.80 Respectively. The
variation of Cd with h/a was linearly Related and there was power Relationship between discharge and head
with R2ranging from 0.70 to 0.99 for all structures under study. On the other hand, the classification of
jumps based on froude number, and sequent depths is studied and favorable conditions for different
hydraulic structures are proposed for energy dissipation.
Keywords: Broad crested weir, Dam Spillway, Coefficient of discharge, toe, ski jump, baffle blocks.
INTRODUCTION
Weirs are generally divided into two broad groups, namely, sharp crested weirs and weirs of finite crest length
have been used in hydraulic engineering to control flow in open channels and also for flow measurement, For
convenience, we shall refer to these weirs simply as broad crested weirs. Rectangular broad-crested weirs,
with either a sharp square edged or rounded entrance, are not as easily submerged as sharp- crested weirs.
Considerable amount of case with curvilinear flow existing over the entire weir is referred to as a short-crested
weir. Flow over a weir of finite crest length with a square upstream edge where the crest length and head are
such that the flow separates from the upstream edge and does not reattach to the weir before the flow leaves
the weir. In such a case, the finite crest length weir is acting as a sharp-crested weir. Hence finite crest width
weirs could be classified as a broad crested, short- crested, or sharp crested weir. Furthermore, in the case of
the broad crested weir, if the crest length is much larger than that required to have a short reach of parallel flow
then, based on the variation of the discharge coefficient, we have to add another class of weirs known as long
crested weirs. These treatments, as we show later, are not as complete as the treatment for sharp-crested weirs
and this work attempts to present a reasonably complete treatment of the discharge characteristics of weirs of
finite crest length, using as complete a set of reliable data as possible, for free-flow conditions. Dam spillways
are also good energy dissipaters, which includes accessories like toe, ski jump and energy dissipating pegs.
Therefore, a laboratory study was planned to establish following results.
1. To determine coefficient of discharge, and develop head-discharge relationships for Broad Crested Weir
and Dam Spillway etc. with varied slopes of channel.
2. To determine effective energy dissipater and jump characteristics over different hydraulic structures.
226
Brief Summary of Significant Experimental Investigations

P. P. Dabral et.al.(2014) work includes a glass sided tilting flow channel based laboratory study was carried
out to determine the discharge coefficient and head- discharge relationships for hydraulic structures i.e .Broad
Crested Weir, Crump Weir, Sluice gate, Radial Gate and Dam Spillway. The average value of Coefficient of
Discharge for Broad Crested Weir, Crump Weir, Sluice Gate, Radial Gate and Dam Spillway was found to be
0.44, 0.85, 0.76, 0.82 and 1.03 respectively. Furthermore, the with h/a was linearly related and there was
power relationship between Discharge and Head with ranging from 0.80 to 0.99 for all the structures under
study. Willi H. Hager.et.al. (1994) study talks about the flow features over the broad crested weir with vertical
upstream wall and sharp crested corner are analysed experimentally. Only the long crested weir is considered,
for which the discharge coefficient remains practically constant. The broad crested weir is characterized by
insensitivity to tail water submergence. Amruthur S. Ramamurthy.et.al.worked on the characteristics of
square-edged and round-nosed, rectangular, broad-crested weirs are studied under free-flow and submerged
flow conditions. For the square-edged weir, the effect of non hydrostatic distribution of pressure is taken into
account in the formulation of the momentum equation. In addition, for the round-nosed weir, new relations
are developed to supplement the existing results for square-edged weirs.The flow- reduction factor for a given
submergence is dependent on the degree of rounding of the upstream top corner. Gafsi Mostefa.et.al.(2015)
on experimental research of hydraulic characteristics of the flow over the dam spillway. It is in this context
they have studied the effect of flow rate and the slope of channel on the energy dissipation.
Sadegh Dehdar-behbahani.et.al.(2016) studied the effect of geometries of guide walls on the flow pattern
and rating curve of Balaroud dam spillway’s (Iran) was simulated using numerical and physical simulation.
Gamal M. Abdel Aal.et.al.(2017) study aims to investigate the over-flow with breakers in dam spillways and to
evaluate their effect on energy dissipation. Amir Hossein Azimi.et.al. (2009) work presents a critical analysis of
free flow over weirs of finite crest length, with square-edged or rounded entrance. They have confirmed the
classification of finite crest length weirs and developed empirical correlations for the discharge coefficient.
Experimental Setup and Laboratory accessories
The laboratory experiments were conducted on a glass sided tilting flume with length 5m, width 30cm and
height of 45cm which is depicted in Fig.1. It consist of sloping set up ranging from negative 1 in 200 to
positive 1 in 200. This entire set up is connected with sensors and the values are recorded through armfield
software.
Fig. 1 Tilting flume channel
Our study includes on hydraulic structures i.e broad crested weirs and dam spillway. These two structures
further divided into three more cases individually, those are streamlined, sharp cornered and weir with raised
crest height. Again in dam spillway experiments were conducted on dam spillway toe, ski jump and buffle
blocks.. respectively and their dimensions are tabulated in the table 1.
Experimental work
Experiments were conducted on broad crested weir with three types and for three different positive slopes, those
are 1 in 200, 1 in 500 and zero slope. In the case of dam spillway, experiments were conducted in the same
way and for two different slopes i.e. 1 in 500 and zero slope. The computations of Cd are and results were
shown in graphs(see fig 2 to 4
Table 1 Dimensions of hydraulic structures
Dimensions of
S. No Hydraulic structure
structures(cm)
Length = 40
1 Streamlined Broad Crested weir Height = 12
Breadth = 30
Length = 40
2 Sharp cornered Broad Crested weir Height = 6
Breadth = 30
Length = 40
3 Broad Crested Weir with raised crest Height =18
Breadth =30
Dam spillway with Height = 23

4
Toe, Ski jump and Baffle blocks Breadth = 30
The coefficient of discharge of broad crested weir was calculated by using the following formula.
Q
Cd 
b  f 2g  H3/2

3 Discharge(Streamlined
)
y =
Discharge (l/s)
3
0 435x1.5649
Discharge (raised crest
2
Power

2 Power (Discharge
0 (sharpcornered))
Power (Discharge (raised
y =
0 3993x1.593
1
5 y =
0 401x1.6008
0
0 2 4 6 8 1 1 1 1
Head
Fig. 2 Discharge Head Curve for 3 Broad Crested Weirs for horizontal slope
0.395
Cd (Streamlined)
y = 0.088x + 0.3573
0.39 Cd (sharpcornered) R² = 0.9308
Cd (raised crest height)
0.385
Linear (Cd
(Streamlined))
Cd
0.38
0.375 y = 0.328x + 0.2854
R² = 0.9633
0.37
y = 0.232x + 0.3255
0.365
R² = 0.9043
0.36
0.355
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
H/a
Fig. 3 Variation of Cd with H/a for 3 Broad Crested Weir with horizontal slope
25
Discharge(toe)
Discharge (skijump)
20 y =0.3905x1.7866
Discharge (buffle blocks) R² = 0.9986
Power (Discharge(toe))
15
Discharge (l/s)
Power (Discharge (skijump))
y = 0.356x1.8305
R² = 0.9996
Power (Discharge (buffle blocks ))
10
5
y =0.2731x1.9624
R² = 0.9667
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Head (cm)
Fig. 4 Discharge Head curve for Dam spillway 3 types for horizontal slope
The coefficient of discharge of daam spillway was calculated by using the following formula.
Q
Cd 
b  f 2g  H3/2
Cd = Coefficient of discharge, Q = rate of discharge in Litre/sec, B = width of channel in cm, g = gravitational

acceleration in cm/s2, H = head over the weir/spillway.

Coefficient of discharge broad crested weir
The experimental data presents the average values of coefficient of discharge for broad crested weirs of three
types with different slopes. It varies in all the cases, the average values of coefficient of discharge for broad
crested weir with streamlined body, sharp crested weir and weir with raised crest for horizontal slope are
0.369, 0.370 and 0.387 respectively with R2 value ranging from 0.75 to 0.99. It is observed that Cd value is nearly
same for both streamlined body and sharp cornered weir. This is applicable to only low discharges. For high
discharges sharp cornered weir will have less Cd because there may be formation of boundary layer at the
upstream edge.
The variation of discharge with head follows power relationship of order ranges from 1.5 to 1.6 for three
models for zero slope condition. The variation of Cd with H/a ratio observed to be linear of slope ranging from
0.232 to 0.39(from graphs). Among all three cases sharp cornered weir observed to be having more slope i.e
0.39 that means it requires low head comparing to remaining two cases to produce same amount of discharge.
Slopes also effects the Cd, it is observed that Cd is increasing with increase in positive slope.
Coefficient of discharge for dam spillway
The experimental data presents the average values of coefficient of discharge for dam spillway of three types with
different slopes. It varies in all the cases, the average values of coefficient of discharge for dam spillway with toe,
ski jump and with baffle blocks for horizontal slope are 0.787, 0.760 and 0.775 respectively with R2 value
ranging from 0.75 to 0.99. As slope increases Cd value also increases.
The variation of discharge with head follows power relationship of order ranges from 1.78 to 1.96 for three
models for zero slope condition. Among all three cases dam spillway with toe that means it requires low head
comparing to remaining two cases to produce same amount of discharge.
Specific Energy Computation for broad crested weir
Broad crested weir not only used as a control section but also it is used for energy dissipation. Energy
dissipated through the formation of jump. The classification is purely based on Froude number of supercritical
flow. Every type of broad crested weir has produced individual type of jumps. For the case of streamlined
body, the Froude numbers are in the range of 4.5 to 9 for low heads hence it is classified as steady jump and it
is in the range of 2.5 to 4.5 for high discharged hence it is classified as oscillating jump. In the case of weir
with sharp cornered edge, the Froude numbers are in the range of 2.5 to 4.5 for low discharges hence it is
classified as oscillating jump and it is in the range of 1.7 to 2.5 for high discharges hence it is classified as
weak jump. In the case of weir with raised crest height, the Froude numbers are in the range of 4.5 to 9 for low
discharges hence it is classified as steady jump and it is in the range of 2.5 to 4.5 for high discharges hence it
is classified as oscillating jump.
The jump efficiency is calculated and it was found that for broad crested weir with streamlined body was
70% on an average and for remaining two cases it was very less about 50%.Hence among these three weirs,
weir with streamlined body is efficient. Slope also effect the energy dissipation, i.e. as the slope increases the
energy dissipation will be more.
Specific energy computations of dam spillway
For the case of spillway with toe, Froude numbers are varying with discharge. In this work for four discharges
four different jumps are formed those are oscillating, weak, undular, weak jump. Where as in the case of ski
jump mostly the jump formed is weak jump. In the case of spillway with baffle blocks the jump formed is
undular jump. This indicates that spillways are weak in dissipation of energy compared to weirs. It is
observed that dissipation of energy is entirely depends on head over structure and downstream flow depth.
The jump efficiency of spillway with toe was found to be 65% and remaining all are worst in the purpose of
dissipation because their flow Froude numbers are less than 1.7.
CONCLUSIONS
 The average values of coefficient of discharge for broad crested weir with streamlined body, sharp
cornered body and weir with raised crest height are found to be 0.369, 0.370 and 0.387.
 The average values of coefficient of discharge for dam spillway with toe, ski jump and with baffle
blocks are found to be 0.787, 0.760 and 0.775
 For broad crested weir Cd vs H/a plot shows that the variation of Cd with H/a is linear.
 The plot between head and discharge is always follows power relation for both broad crested weir and
dam spillway.
 Among the three cases of broad crested weir streamlined body was found to be efficient energy dissipater.
 Among the three types of dam spillway, spillway with toe found to be efficient energy dissipater
 On whole comparison between broad crested weir and dam spillway, broad crested weir found to be
good energy dissipater.
REFERENCES
1. Bos, M. G. 1985. Long throated flumes and broad crested weirs, Martinus Nijhoff/Dr W. Junk Publishers,
Dordrecht, The Netherlands
2. Chanson, H. (2006). “Minimum specific energy and critical flow conditions in open channels.” J. Irrig. Drain. Eng.,
132(5), 498–502.
3. Chanson, H., 1995. Discharge measurement of Broad Crested Weir- Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
(ASCE), 121(2):222-224.
4. Gogus, M. and Defne, Z., 2006. Broad-Crested Weirs with Rectangular Compound Cross Sections- J. Irrigation and
Drainage Engineering, 132(3):272-280.
5. Hager, W. H., 1992. Broad Crusted Weir. J. Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 120(1) Paper no.4385.
6. Hall, G. W.1962. “Analytical determination of the discharge characteristics of broad crested weirs using boundary
layer theory.” Proc , Institute of Civil Engineers, Vol. 22, Paper No. 6607, ICE, London,177–190.
7. Harrison, A. J. M. 1967. “The streamlined broad-crested weir.” Proc.-Inst. Civ. Eng., 38, 657–678.
8. Johnson, M. C. _2000_. “Discharge coefficient analysis for flat-topped and sharp-crested weirs.” J. Irrig. Sci., 19.3,
133–137.
9. Johnson, M. C. 2000. “Discharge coefficient analysis for flat-topped and sharp-crested weirs.” Irrig. Sci., 19,
133–137.
10. Ramamurthy, A. S., Tim, U. S., and Rao, M. V. J. 1988. “Characteristics of square-edged and round-nosed broad-
crested weirs.” J. Irrig.Drain. Eng., 114.2, 61–73.
11. Ranga Raju, K. G. 1981_. Flow through open channels, McGraw-Hill,New York.
12. Rao, S. S., and Shukla, M. K. 1971. “Characteristics of flow over weirs of finite crest width.” J. Hydraul. Div., Am.
Soc. Civ. Eng., 97_11_,1807–1816.
13. Smith, C. D. 1958. “Open channel water measurement with the broadcrested weir.” Bull. Int. Commn Irrig. Drain.,
46–51.
TREND ANALYSIS OF EXTREME TEMPERATURE DATA OF INDIA USING
NON-PARAMETRIC METHODS AND EMPIRICAL MODE DECOMPOSITION
Anand Vishnu1*, Drisya S Dharan1, Adarsh S2, Anuja PK1 and Govindan Unnithan1
2
Assistant Professor, 1Undergarduate student, Department of Civil Engg.,
TKM College of Engineering Kollam-691005, Kerala, India.
1
* mailtoanand1997@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
This paper performs the in-depth trend analysis of All India extreme temperature datasets (Tmax and Tmin)
considering the updated long-term data of 1901-201 period. First, the overall trend of monthly, seasonal and
annual Tmax and Tmin datasets are determined using Mann-Kendall (MK) test. All of the monthly, seasonal and
annual maximum temperature series and three of the seasonal (monsoon, post and pre-monsoon) Tmin series
displayed a significantly increasing trend. Then the sequential change in trend of seasonal Tmax series determined
by Sequential MK test (SQMK test) showed an early commencement of significant increase in trend with
differences in commencing year. Similar analysis of Tmin series showed a consistent significant trend only in the
recent past (since 2000). The non-linear trend analysis by Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD) method
showed a monotonically increasing trend in annual and different seasonal Tmax series, the nature of which is in
line with the linear trend of respective series. The EMD analysis portrayed a non-linear asymmetric variation of
different Tmin series with differences in transformation year. The non-linear trend analysis captured the ‘true’
decreasing trend of minimum temperature series of May which is masked by the linear trend analysis.
Keywords: Temperature(T),Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD), Non-Linear Trend, Mann-Kendall (MK)
INTRODUCTION
Temperature is an important meteorological variable, which directly influence the hydrological processes of the
geographical domain of interest. The changes in maximum temperature may lead to drought conditions, damage of
crops; while changes in minimum temperature can affect the yield of cereal crops. A large number of studies have
been conducted on the changes in temperature regime of India, out of which some studies focused on extreme
temperature. Rupakumar et al., (1994) performed linear trend analysis of maximum and minimum temperature data
of 121 stations over India for the period 1901–1987 and it was found that mean temperature trends over India were
similar to the global and hemispheric trends. They showed that the increase in the mean temperatures over India is
mainly contributed by the maximum temperatures, while the minimum temperatures were practically trendless.
Krishnakumar et al., (1997) found the association of extreme temperatures in the pre-monsoon season with Indian
summer monsoon rainfall. Kothawale and Rupakumar (2005) reported a significant warming trend of 0.05oC per
decade during the period 1901–2003, and for 1971–2003 the study noted a relatively accelerated warming of
0.22oC per decade. Kumari et al., (2007) analyzed the relation between solar radiation and extreme temperature for
twelve different locations in India for the period of 1981-2004 and found that spatial averaged surface extreme air
temperatures of India have been increasing, and the change in minimum temperature has been doubled while
change in maximum temperature is marginal. Kothawale et al., (2010) found trends in extreme temperature events
for the pre-monsoon season using daily data on maximum and minimum temperatures from all the seven
temperature homogenous regions in India. Pal and Al Tabbaa (2011) performed a detailed trend analysis study of
extreme temperature dataset from different temperature homogeneous regions in India, at monthly and seasonal
scales. It was found that monthly maximum temperature increased over the last century and minimum temperature
changes have high variability than maximum temperature changes (both temporally and spatially) with lesser
degree of significance. Jain et al., (2012) presented a review of studies on temperature changes in India and
performed a trend analysis of mean maximum and minimum temperature over river basins in India using non-
parametric tests like Mann-Kendall (MK) method and Sen’s slope estimator. Sonali and Nagesh Kumar (2013)
performed trend analysis of temperature records from the seven temperature homogeneous regions of India during
1901-2003 using thirteen different methods.
Even though Mann-Kendall (MK) and Sen’s slope estimators are still the most popular trend detection methods,
due to the changing climate and the induced non- stationarity, it is important to extract the inherent non-linear trend
232
in the datasets (Franske et al., 2014). For the extraction of inherent non linear trend, the techniques like singular
spectrum analysis, empirical mode decomposition (EMD) or its variants, wavelet transform etc. have been used by
the researchers (Wu et al., 2007; Sang et al., 2014; Carmona and Poveda 2013; Unnikrishnan and Jothiprakash
2015; Sang et al. 2017). This paper performs the a comprehensive trend analysis of annual, seasonal and series of
different months of All India Tmax and Tmin using the MK, sequential MK, linear fitting and EMD methods.

Mann-Kendall Test
Mann-Kendall (MK) test (Mann 1945; Kendall 1975) is one popular non-parametric test used for the trend analysis
and its statistical significance. In this test, MK statistics is computed as
 S 1
 if S  0
 Var ( S )
Z  0 if S  0
 S 1
 if S  0
 Var ( S )
n
N 1 N
N '( N ' 1)(2 N ' 5)   tk (tk  1)(2tk  5)
in which S    sgn( x j  xi ) and Var ( S )  k 1
i 1 j i 1 18
where N is the number of data points, xj and xi are data values at time j and i (j>i), respectively. Sgn (  ) will be
giving 1 for positive, 0 for zero and – for negative value of  . For large samples (N>10), the sampling distribution
of S is assumed to be normally distributed with zero mean and variance; N’ is the number of tied (zero difference
between compared values) groups and tk the number of data points in the kth tied group. A positive value of Z
indicates an increasing trend and a negative value of Z indicates a decreasing trend and the values are compared with
standard values at specified significance level.
Sequential Mann- Kendall Test
The Mann–Kendall test helps to find monotonic trend in a time series. However, in hydro-meteorological time series
data, the identification of starting time period of the significant trends is also of great interest. Here the original
series is replaced by their ranks and a pair wise comparison of ranks is performed. The sequential value of ranks is
u(ti ) 
t  E(t )
i i
Var(t )
estimated as i
i(i – 1) i(i – 1)( 2i + 5 )

in which E(ti )= and Var(ti )= where ti   ni
4 72
and the number of cases ri> rj are counted and denoted by ni. Similarly the retrograde series (u' (t)) is also computed
by proceeding from the tail of the series. More details on the test can be found elsewhere (Sneyers 1990;
Gerstengarbe and Werner 1999; Adarsh and Janga Reddy 2015; Adarsh 2017).
Empirical Mode Decomposition
Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD) is a signal decomposition method proposed by Huang et al., (1998), which
decomposes a time series signal X(t) into different oscillatory modes in purely empirical and data adaptive manner.
The different steps involved in the method in the flow chart given in Figure 1.
The final component (of lowest frequency) extracted from the series indicate the inherent non-linear trend in the
series.
DATA BASE
In this study, the extreme temperature data of whole India (All India) are used. The maximum and minimum
temperature (Tmax and Tmin) data for the period 1901-2016 collected from https://data.gov.in/catalog/all-india-
seasonal-and-annual-mean-temperature-series are used in the study.
Fig. 1 Flowchart of Empirical Mode Decomposition (Source : Adarsh 2017)

First, the trend analysis of annual and seasonal All India Tmax and Tmin temperature datasets are performed using MK
test by considering significance level of 5 %. The results are presented in Table 1.
Table 1 Results of MK test of different temperature time series (A-Annual; M-Monsoon; PoM-Post Monsoon; W-Winter;
PrM-Pre Monsoon). The bold values show that the trend is statistically significant at 5 % level
Z Value Z Value
Month/Season Month
Tmax Tmin Tmax Tmin
A 4.81 1.157 May 4.288 0.122

M 3.493 2.641 June 3.493 0.792
PoM 6.662 3.825 July 5.082 1.39
W 7.299 -0.007 August 7.48 1.792
PrM 4.417 3.276 September 7.688 2.641
January 6.304 -0.005 October 6.662 1.825
February 7.34 2.959 November 8.194 4.018
March 5.767 3.276 December 8.9 3.825
April 5.521 1.145
From Table 1 it is noticed that all the Tmax time series show significantly increasing trend and none of the series
show a significant reduction. Among the Tmin series of different months, the temperature of the two post-monsoon
months (November and December), two pre-monsoon months (February and March) and the September month show
significantly increasing trend. In order to capture the sequential change in trend, the SQMK method is applied for
both of the annual extreme temperature series and all the eight seasonal extreme temperature series. The results of
SQMK analysis are presented in Figure 2. Different SQMK plots of annual and seasonal series of Tmax series show
that there is an increasing trend throughout the century and the trend was consistent throughout the past century. It is
further noted that trend of different Tmax series becomes significant at different time instants (year) and maintains that
significant trend thereafter. In other words the commencement year of significant trend is different for different Tmax
series. The linear trend fitting is done for all the 20 time series and the non-linear trend of different series is
determined by EMD method. The plots of trend analysis of annual/seasonal maximum and minimum temperature
are presented in Figure 3 and Figure 4 respectively.
(a) Annual (b) Monsoon (c) Post Monsoon (d) Winter (e) Pre Monsoon
4 10 6
10
4
5
2 5 5 2
MK value
MK value
MK value
MK value 0
0 0
MK value
0 0
-2
-5 -2 -5 -5 -4
-6
-4 -10 -10 1901 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001
1901 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 1901 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 1901 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 1901 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 Year
Year Year Year Year
4 6 6
6 6
4 4
4 4
2
2 2
MK value
2
MK value
2
MK value
MK value
MK value
0 0 0
0 0
-2 -2
-2 -2
-2
-4 -4
-4 -4
-4 -6 -6
-6 -6 1901 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 1901 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 1901 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001
1901 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 1901 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001
Year Year Year
Year Year
u(t)
Zero Line
u(t)
Upper Bound (UB) (+1.96)
Lower Bound (LB)(-1.96)
Fig. 2 Results of SQMK test of annual and seasonal series. Upper panels show the results of Tmax series and lower panels show
the results of Tmin series
(a) Annual (b) Monsoon (c) Post Monsoon

Temperature( C)
Temperature( C)
Temperature( C)
36 30 36
0
0
0
y=0.008x+33.144 y=0.006x+32.37 y=0.011x+29.07

34
34 25
32
32
20 30
1901 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 1901 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 1901 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001
Year Year Year
Temperature( C)
Temperature( C)
Temperature( C)
27
34
0
34
26
25 33.5
33.5
24 33
1901 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 1901 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 1901 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001
Year Year Year
(d) Winter (e) Pre Monsoon

Temperature( C)
35
Temperature( C)
0
y=0.02x+24.36 y=0.008x+33.07
32
0
30
28
30
1901 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 1901 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001
Year Year
33.2 31
Temperature( C)
Temperature( C)
33
0
32.8
30
32.6
32.4
32.2 29
1901 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 1901 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001
Year Year
Fig. 3 Linear fitting and EMD of annual and seasonal Tmax series
Figure 3 show that the non-linear trend captured by EMD matches well with the linear trend in different seasonal
Tmax series with identical nature of trend (i.e., increasing). But on examining the Tmin series, it is noticed that the
EMD based trend displayed some asymmetric character about some specific year in different series, which varies
from series to series (~1950 in annual series, ~1960 in monsoon series and ~1980s in pre-monsoon series). It is
worth mentioning that the non-linear trend in different series are statistically significant, as it is verified by the
statistical significance test proposed by Wu and Huang (2005) and the plots of the same are not presented here, for
brevity. Then the linear and non-linear trend of Tmax and Tmin series of different months are estimated and the results
are presented in Figure 5 and Figure 6 respectively.
(a) Annual (c) Post-Monsoon
(b) Monsoon
Temperature( C)
Temperature( C)
Temperature( C)
0
16 16
0
0
y=0.002x+12.9 y=0.0028x+22.04
20 y=0.007x+13.29
14 14 18
12 12 16
1901 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 1901 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 1901 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001
Year Year Year
Temperature( C)
Temperature( C)
Temperature( C)
13.5 19
0
0
13.2
18
13
13 17
1901 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 1901 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 1901 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001
Year Year Year
(d) Winter
(e) Pre-Monsoon
Temperature( C)
0
Temperature( C)
24 16
y=0.0007x+13.1
0
y=0.006x+17.38
23
14
22
21 12
1901 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 1901 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001
Year Year
14.5
Temperature( C)
Temperature( C)
0
22.4
14
22.2 13.5
22 13
1901 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 1901 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001
Year Year
Fig. 4 Linear fitting and EMD of annual and seasonal Tmin series
The plots in different panels of Figure 5 show a clear increase in linear as well as non-linear trend which agrees
well with the results presented in Figure 5. On examining the trends of Tmin series presented in different panels of
Figure 6 shows an asymmetric change in many of the series (apparent in the series of January and October months).
Also for many of the series (April-October in particular) June, the linear trend is practically trendless, for which
non-linear trend displayed definite pattern. It is also noticed that for Tmin series of May, the linear trend is
practically absent (MK of 0.122) while the non-linear trend is decreasing. Hence overall it can be concluded that
the actual inherent trend which is often masked in the temperature series can be captured by the method line EMD
and tests like MK cannot give information on the true shape of the inherent trend. The analysis performed in this
study presents a broad overview of temperature variations of the country which may eventually help in non-
stationary modeling of hydrological variables under the changing climate scenario.
(a) January (b) February (c) March (e) May (f) June
(d) April
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
o
o
35
o
32 y=0.007x+33.08 34
o
y=0.013x+31.17 y=0.0066x+32.37
o
26 y=0.013x+22.88 28 y=0.02x+24.34 y=0.016x+28.08

34
34 33
30 33
26
24 32 32
24 28 31 32
1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001
22 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001
1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 Year
1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 Year
Year Year Year
Year
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
33
o
o
o
o
34
o
26.5 29.5 32
24.5 32.8
26
24 29
25.5 33.5 32.6
23.5 25 28.5
31.5
24.5 19211941 196119812001 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001
1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 19211941196119812001 19211941196119812001
1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 Year Year
Year Year Year
Year
(g) July (k) November (l) December

(h) August (i) September (j) October
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
y=0.0064x+30.65 31.5 30 28
o
o
o
y=0.0101x+29.87 y=0.016x+23.63
o
32 31.5 y=0.008x+29.97 31 y=0.011x+29.07 y=0.014x+26.44

31 30.5 28 26
30
31 30.5 30
30 29.5 26 24
30 28
29.5 19211941196119812001 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001
1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 19211941196119812001
1921 1941 1961 1981 2001
Year Year
Year Year Year Year
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
31.1 31
o
31
o
o
30.8 30.5 28 25.5

31 30.8
30.6 30.6 25
30 27.5
30.9 30.4 30.4 24.5
30.2 29.5 27
30.8
30.2 24
19211941196119812001
1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 19211941196119812001 19211941196119812001 1921
1941
1961
1981
2001
Year Year Year Year
Year Year
Fig. 5 Linear fitting and EMD of Tmax series of different months

(a) January (c) March (d) April (e) May (f) June
(b) February
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
y=0.0006x+13.116
o
14.5 17
o
20 25 y=0.001x+23.75
o
y=0.006x+14.24 y=0.0063x+17.38 23 y=0.003x+20.85 y=-0.00001x+23.21
14 16
13.5 19 22
15 24
13 18 21 24
12.5 14
17 20
13 22
1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 23
1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001
Year Year Year Year Year
Year
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
o
18.5 23.88
o
15
o
o
13.3 21.1 23.3 23.86
o
23.25 23.84
14.8 21.05
13.2 18 23.82
23.2
21 23.8
13.1 14.6 23.15 23.78
17.5 20.95 23.76
1921 1941 1961 1981 2001
1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 19211941 196119812001
1921 1941 1961 1981 2001
1921 1941 1961 1981 2001
Year Year
Year Year Year
Year
(g) July (h) August (i) September (j) October (k) November (l) December
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
24.5 24.5
o
Temperature ( C)
y=0.0014x+23.29
o
o
y=0.0014x+23.62
o
24 23.5 y=0.0028x+22.04 y=0.003x+19.53 y=0.008x+15.74
21
o
24 15
y=0.007x+13.29
23 17
23.5 23.5
22.5 20 14
16
23 23 22
19 13
21.5 15
1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001
1921 1941 1961 1981 2001
Year Year Year Year 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001
Year
Year
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
16.8
Temperature ( C)
o
14.2
o
23.8 22.4
o
20
o
16.6
o
23.6 14
23.75 16.4
22.3 19.8 16.2 13.8
23.5
23.7 19.6 16 13.6
22.2 15.8
23.4 13.4
23.65 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001
1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001
1921 1941 1961 1981 2001 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001
Year Year Year Year
Year Year
Fig. 6 Linear fitting and EMD of different Tmin series of different months
CONCLUSIONS
This paper performed the trend analysis of extreme temperature (Tmax and Tmin) datasets of annual, monthly and
seasonal temperature of All India for the period 1901-2016. The major conclusions of the study are :
 The results of Mann-Kendall (MK) test showed that all of the Tmax series of India are significantly increasing
while only three of the seasonal (monsoon, post and pre-monsoon) Tmin series displayed a significantly
increasing trend.
 Sequential Mann-Kendall (SQMK) test showed an early commencement (since 1940s) of significant
increase in trend with differences in commencing year in different Tmax series and late (after 2000) in
different seasonal Tmin series.
 The Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD) analysis portrayed a non-linear asymmetric variation of
different Tmin series with differences in transformation year, while for most of the Tmax series the trend is
monotonically increasing .
 For the Tmin series of May month the true trend is found to be decreasing while linear and MK method
couldn’t capture it.
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Indian Institute of Technology Bombay.
2. Adarsh S., Janga Reddy M. (2015) Trend analysis of rainfall in four meteorological subdivisions of southern India
using non-parametric methods and wavelet analysis. International Journal of Climatology 35(6):1107-1124.
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Empirical Mode Decomposition. Climatic Chang., vol. 123.4, pp. 301-31, 2013
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regime. Climate Research 11: 97–107.
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empirical mode decomposition and the Hilbert spectrum for nonlinear and non-stationary time series analysis.
Proceedings of Royal Society London, Series A.454. 903–995
7. Jain S.K., Kumar V. (2012) Trend analysis of rainfall and temperature data for India Current Science, 102(1): 37-49
8. Kendall M.G. Rank Correlation Methods. 4th Ed., Charles Griffin, London, UK, 1975.
9. Kothawale D.R., Revadekar J.V, Rupa Kumar K. (2010) Recent trends in pre-monsoon daily temperature extremes
over India. Journal of Earth Systems Science 119: 51–65
10. Kothawale D.R, Rupa Kumar K. (2005) On the recent changes in surface temperature trends over India. Geophysical
Research. Letters, vol. 32 L18714, DOI: 10.1029/2005GL023528
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relation to the summer monsoon rainfall. International Journal of Climatology, 17: 1115-1127
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13. Mann H.B (1945) Non-parametric tests against trend. Econometrica, 13.3: 245–259
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Geophysical Research Letters 21: 677-680
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Environmental Research Letters 10(5), 10.054006, doi:10.1088/1748-9326/10/5/054006
17. Sang Y-F, Wang Z., Liu C. (2014) Comparison of the MK test and EMD method for trend identification in
hydrological time series. Journal of Hydrology 510: 293–298
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monotonic trend pattern of hydro-climate data. Hydrology and Earth Systems Science Discussion doi:10.5194/hess-
2017-6,
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103, Geneva, World Meteorological Organization, p.192.
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change in India. Journal of Hydrology 476: 212–227
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10.1061/(ASCE)HE.1943-5584.0001237, 05015007
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stationary time series. Proceedings National Academy of Science USA. 104(38): 14889-14894
23. Wu Z., Huang N.E. (2005b). Statistical significance test of intrinsic mode functions. In Hilbert-Huang Transform and
its Applications. Edited by: Norden E Huang (NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, USA), Samuel S P Shen
(University of Alberta, Canada). World Scientific Publishing Singapore.
ESTIMATION OF PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PARAMETERS OF GROUNDWATER
IN APRUPA WATERSHED, SANGOLA TALUKA, SOLAPUR DISTRICT,
MAHARASHTRA -A CASE STUDY
Karim C Mujawar and Abhishek Gadade, Ravi Kshetri, Abhay Birajdar,

Sham Pawar, Suhas Shingade and Suryakant Patil
Department of Civil Engineering, NBNSCOE, Solapur, Kcmujawar.Nbnscoe@Gmail.Com
ABSTRACT
In the State, 90% of rural population draws its water from the ground water assets. The amount of ground water
utilized for the agricultural purpose is 85%. Out of the total water available for irrigation purpose, 69% comes
from ground water sources. Some 10% of the ground water is utilized for industrial purpose and only 5% is used
up for drinking. With the present population of India, there is an increasing demand for food, fiber and fuel,
resulting in tremendous pressure on our finite land resources, especially soil and water. India is blessed with
monsoon for rains and that we can do little to alter the nature’s gift. The study area shows the basaltic lava flows
which represent the peripheral portions of the Deccan traps. They occupy the western, central and southern
India. In the present study various parameters determined are pH, electrical conductivity, solids, total alkalinity,
carbonate, bicarbonate, chloride. The water quality assessment may give clear information about the subsurface
geologic environments in which the water is presents (Raju et al, 2011). The present study was carried out for
quality analysis based on physico-chemical parameters of groundwater. Hydrogeochemical data was analyzed to
understand the relationship of groundwater chemistry to soil and rock composition and further to decipher its
quality to safeguard the human health. For most of the parameters it has been observed that their value exceeds
WHO (2004) and ISI (1983) tolerance limit.
Keywords: Hydrogeology, Groundwater, Physiochemical parameter, Watershed
INTRODUCTION
Recently there has been overall development in various fields such as agriculture, industry and urbanization in the
Asian countries particularly in India. This has been lead to increase in the demand of water supply which is met
mostly from exploitation of groundwater resources. In hard rock semi-arid terrain that occupies almost two third of
India, groundwater is the largest fresh water resource. The groundwater potentiality in such region is largely
limited to shallow weathered and fractured zones. In order to meet demand, there has been indiscriminate
exploitation of groundwater resources. In the absence of any planned groundwater withdrawal approach, many
times random drilling of bore wells results into failure. Most human activities involve the use of water in one way
or other such as food production, nutrition etc. Which are dependent on water availability in sufficient quantities
and good quality (Howari, 2005). It is estimated that approximately one third of the world's population uses
groundwater for drinking purposes and today more than half the world's population depends on groundwater for
survival (Mohrir, 2002). Groundwater is used for domestic and industrial water supply and also for irrigation
purposes in the world. In the last few decades, there has been a tremendous increase in the demand for fresh water
due to rapid growth of population and the accelerated pace of industrialisation.
239
STUDY AREA
Fig. 1 Shows the location map of Aprupa watershed basin
The study area covered 230 sq. km. the upper aprupa watershed Basin basin is in sangola, taluka of Solapur,
district 450 km SE of Mumbai , 260 km S of Pune , 180 km from Kolhapur , 100 km from Solapur city . Part of
S.O.I. Toposheet 51 O/10 &13, 53 C/1 & 2, Bounded by N Latitude 17o10’-17o 24’, E Longitude 75o12’-75o20’.
Covering the villages Alegaon, Digewadi, Ambewadi, Medsinghgi, Waghma, Shirshi, Shindewadi, Gheradi,
Waki, Dikhsal, Pare, Sutarwadi, Chavanwadi which is found almost to be dry throughout the year, excepting for
surface water flow for few days in a year during rainy season.
METHODOLOGY
Material and Methodology
The field work included collection of water samples from bore wells, collection of soil samples and the study of
geological and geomorphological features of the area in general.
Sample preparation and analysis of Water
The field work included collection of water samples from bore wells from 20 locations.The samples are collected
in pre-cleaned polyethylene bottles of one litre capacity. The groundwater samples are analysed as described by
American Public Health Association (APHA, 1995) procedure, and suggested precautions are taken to avoid
contamination. The various parameters determined are pH, electrical conductivity, total hardness, total alkalinity,
chloride,. pH and EC are determined by pH meter and conductivity meter, Total Hardness and. Carbonate (CO32-)
and Bicarbonate (HCO3-) were estimated by titrating with H2SO4. Chloride (Cl-) was estimated by standard AgNO3
titration.
The water quality assessment may give clear information about the subsurface geologic environments in which
the water is presents (Raju et al, 2011). The present study was carried out for quality analysis based on physico-
chemical parameters of groundwater.
Table 1 illustrates the quality of groundwater samples with reference to WHO (2004) and ISI (1983)
Sr. No. Parameter WHO Limits (ppm) IS Limits (ppm)

H
1 P 8.5 8.5
2 EC 1500(mhos/cm) ---
3 Alkanity 200 200
5 Cl 250 250
8 TH 300 300

Distribution of pH in groundwater of Aprupa watershed basin
Fig 2 Illustrates the Distribution of ph in groundwater of Aprupa watershed basin
The pH of groundwater indicates the strength of water to react with acidic or alkaline material present in contact
with groundwater. The pH of water is a critical indicator of its quality and provides information in many types of
geochemical equilibrium (Hem, 1991).The figure 2 illustrates the distribution of pH values of groundwater in the
aprupa watershed. Lower pH values (< 8) persist in the entire area of aprupa watershed basin. However, the higher
pH values (>8) are noticed at east of gheradi shrinks to smaller region. The pH values 7.02 indicate smaller areas of
lower pH values. The higher pH values of groundwater are noticed in the –aprupa basinis 8.71.
It is an indication that the quality of groundwater in terms of pH seems to have improved. According to Todd
1984, Davis and Dewist 1970, Hanson 1984 the groundwater pH range from 5.0 to 6.5 is critically influenced by
the lithology surrounding the groundwater. In the present study the basaltic rocks, their types, the clayey and loamy
soil, entisols and inceptisols govern the pH of groundwater in aprupa watershed basin.
Distribution of EC in groundwater of Aprupa watershed basin
Fig. 3 Illustrates the Distribution of EC in groundwater of Aprupa watershed basin
The electrical conductivity of ground water reflects the solubility of salts present in the soil. The Electrical
conductivity of water is a critical indicator of its quality. The electrical conductivity ranges in aprupa watershed
is646-1475 micro-ohm-second. The figure 3 shows the distribution of EC values of groundwater in Aprupa
watershed basin. On observations of the figure 3 reflects the high EC contours forming a ridge between Digewadi
Ambewadi and medsingi, The rest of the Aprupa watershed basin for the said season have Electrical Conductivity
values close to the background of 700 micro-ohm-second. The remaining part of the basin shows average and
below average values. The range of EC during the said season is between 646 and 1475 micro-ohm-sec. The
average value is 700 micro-ohm-sec. It may be stated that in all the three seasons the EC is within the prescribed
units of World Health Organization (WHO) 2004.
Distribution of Alkalinity in groundwater of Aprupa watershed basin
The Alkalinity in groundwater is due to carbonate alkalinity, bicarbonate alkalinity and hydroxyl alkalinity. Among
the mentioned three types, hydroxyl alkalinity is rare. Alkalinity of the samples from Aprupa watershed basin has
been determined by a standard GSI (1983) method.
The results of the determination are given in tables no-2 respectively. The figures 4 shows the distribution of
alkalinity in the groundwater of Aprupa watershed basin for the above mentioned seasons. The ranges of alkalinity
in the groundwater of the study area are 60-116 ppm ,It may be noted that all the samples not exceed the WHO
(2004) and ISI (1983) limits prescribed for human consumption.
Fig. 4 Illustrates the Distribution ofAlkalinity in groundwater of Aprupa watershed basin
Distribution of Total Hardness in groundwater of Aprupa watershed basin
Fig. 5 Illustrates the Distribution of Hardness in groundwater of Aprupa watershed basin
As mentioned earlier hardness results from the presence of divalent cations of which Ca2+ and Mg2+ are the most
abundant in groundwater from basaltic terrain. These ions react with soap to form precipitates and with certain
anions present in the water to form scales (Todd 1980). The hardness in water is due to the solution of CO2,
released by bacterial action in the soil, in percolating rain water. Insoluble carbonates are converted to soluble
bicarbonates in low pH conditions that develop in some soils due to bacterial metabolism (William Deutsch, 1997).
Temporary hardness is due to carbonate and bicarbonates in solution that can be removed / precipitated by boiling.
However, non-carbonate hardness are caused by association of hardness causing cations, with sulphate, chloride or
nitrate and is referred to as permanent hardness because it cannot be removed by boiling. The total hardness in
groundwater from Aprupa watershed basin varies 400-520ppm. The total hardness ranges from 400-520 ppm.The
distribution of total hardness in the investigated basin is shows in the figure no 5. The locations of higher
concentration contours of Total Hardness are at higher ridge and mouth of the basin.
Distribution of Chloride in groundwater of Aprupa watershed basin
Fig. 6 Illustrates the Distribution of Chloride in groundwater of Aprupa watershed basin

The range for chloride in groundwater from Aprupa watershed basin are as 71-280 ppm. The figures 6 illustrates
the distribution pattern of chloride in the groundwater from Aprupa watershed basin. The chloride tolerance limit
for drinking purpose has been fixed at 250 ppm by WHO (2004) and ISI. It is observed that digewadi and gheradi
region exceed the tolerance limits prescribed for drinking purpose. The higher chloride concentration in the study
basin could be due to salts in basaltic terrain.
The chloride ion has no adverse effect on physical properties of soil and also because all chlorides of alkali and
alkaline earth groups are readily soluble in water chloride hazards as such have not entered irrigation water
classification system. However, in some specific crops such as that of citrus varieties it may play a sensitive role
(Aggrawal et al. 1982).
Table 2 Illustrates the water quality parameters from study area
Sr. Sample
pH EC Cl Alkalinity Hardness
no no
1 A1 7.02 1265 280 92 520
2 A9 7.32 1320 62.48 72 510
3 B3 7.24 1475 122.12 108 400
4 B9 7.12 1270 71 84 450
5 B13 7.09 1300 255.6 88 470
6 B16 7.07 840 96.56 104 460
7 C7 8.71 1100 266.96 84 580
Table 2 contd…
Sr. Sample
pH EC Cl Alkalinity Hardness
no no
8 C9 7.73 1400 127.8 84 480
9 C8 7.49 950 164.72 89 490
10 C4 7.45 646 107.92 116 560
11 C12 7.52 1300 93.73 92 590
12 C13 7.2 1350 142 60 470
13 C14 7.08 1200 187.44 80 410
14 A11 7.33 676 275 112 470
15 B5 7.38 1150 256 89 420
16 B6 7.72 1050 113.8 87 470
17 B15 7.89 740 178.3 106 450
18 A4 7.08 1250 128.34 75 480
19 A5 7.49 1300 240 94 470
20 A13 7.62 1450 148.92 108 520
CONCLUSION
Quality if water has become a cause of concern as fresh water resources are stretched thin. Overall growth has led
to the problems of water poverty and war for water.In the present investigation an attempt has been made to study
the distribution of various hydrogeochemical parameters from the study area. The physico-chemical parameters
analyzed were pH, EC, Cl, TH, Alkalinity, using standard methods of analysis. Hydrogeochemical data was
analyzed to understand the relationship of groundwater chemistry to soil and rock composition and further to
decipher its quality to safeguard the human health. For most of the parameters it has been observed that their value
exceeds WHO (2004) and ISI (1983) tolerance limit.
From the above study due to the clayey and loamy soil in the basin, to reduce the concentration and improve the
water quality suggested hydro fracturing in the basaltic terrain of watershed basin.
Acknowledgement
The successful completion of any work involves knowledge, efforts, interest and hard work of many peoples. So
we are thankful to all those people who helped us. We would like to express our sincere gratitude towards ou HOD
CED for his support. We are also thankful to Mr. Prashant Unhale (Pawar) Sir, Assistant prof. School of Earth
sciences, Solapur University for his continuous help in GIS work.
REFERENCES
1. Ravikumar, P., Mohammad Aneesul Mehmood and R. K. Somashekar (2013). Water quality index to determine the
surface water quality of Sankey tank and Mallathahalli Lake, Bangalore urban district, Karnataka, India. Appl Water
Sci, DOI 10.1007/s13201-013-0077-2.
2. Vasanthavigar, M., K. Srinivasamoorthy, K. Vijayaragavan, R. Ganthi, S. Chidambaram, P. Anandhan, R. Manivannan
& S. Vasudevan, (2010). Application of water quality index for groundwater quality assessment: Thirumanimuttar sub-
basin, Tamil Nadu, India. Environ Monitoring Assess, DOI 10.1007/s10661-009-1302-1.
3. Mohrir A. Ramteke D.S.,Moghe C.A., Wate S.R. and Sarin R. 2002. Surface and Groundwater Quality Assessment in
Bina region", IJEP.Vol.22(9).
4. Shrivastava, K.B.L., Mishra, S.P. and Mallick, N. (2014). Ground Water Quality Assessment of Birsinghpur Area,
Satna District, Madhya Pradesh, India. Journal of Innovative trends in Science, Pharmacy & Technology, 1(1):
125-133.
5. Giriyappanavar, B.S. and Patil, R.R. (2013) – Monitoring water quality of two lake of Belgaum district (Karnataka)
with special reference to phytoplankton’s
6. Jena, V., Dixit, S. and Gupta, S., (2013), Assessment of Water Quality Index of Industrial Area Surface Water Samples,
International Journal of Chemical Technology and Research, 5(1), pp 278-283.
7. Horton, R.K., “An index number system for rating water quality”, J. Water Pollu. Cont. Fed., 37(3). 300-305. 1965.
8. Raju, N.J. and Reddy, T.V.K. (2007) Environmental and Urbanization Affect on Groundwater Resources in a Pilgrim
Town of Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, South India. Applied Geochemistry, 9, 212-223.
9. Ramesh, K. (2008). Hydrochemical studies and effect of irrigation on groundwater quality in Tondiar basin, Tamil
Nadu. PhD thesis (Unpublished), Anna University, Chennai, India.
10. Subba Rao, N. (1993). Environmental impact of industrial effluents in groundwater regions of Visakhapatnam
Industrial Complex. Indian Journal of Geology, 65, pp.35–43.
11. WHO (2004). Guidelines for drinking-water quality volume 1:recommendations, 3rd edn. WHO, Geneva.
12. WHO. (1989). Health guidelines for the use of wastewater in agriculture and aquaculture. In: Report of a WHO
Scientific Group: Technical report series 778, WHO, Geneva, 74.
RESERVOIR SEDIMENTATION ANALYSIS: A CASE STUDY
Zeenat Ara* and Mohammad Zakwan
Assistant Professor, MANUU, Hyderabad
zeenatiitd@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACT
Sedimentation in reservoirs across the world has led to loss of reservoir storage capacity thereby reducing the
useful life of dams. Storage reservoirs built across rivers or streams tend to lose their capacity progressively with
the passage of time because of sedimentation. After the designated life of a reservoir, sediment affects the
regulating capacity of reservoir / dam as the water intake capacity may get affected. It is therefore necessary to
make an assessment of reservoir sedimentation and plan for a specified full-service time of the reservoir. In the
present study sedimentation analysis has been done for Dab reservoir which is primarily a part of hydropower
project in Kunar basin. The Full-Service Time and Feasible Service Time are considered as 50 and 100 years
respectively as per BIS 12182-1987 which is based on international practices. A suitable rate of sedimentation
based on siltation rate observed on river Kunar has been considered for assessing the area/capacity for the
reservoirs after their Full and Feasible service time. The revised areas and capacities were used for assessing the
Minimum Drawdown level of the dam, to meet the desired objectives. Based on m factor Dab reservoir was
classified as Type-III. The annual sediment rate inflow works out to 0.051 Ha-m/sq km/yr. Sediment inflow, trap
efficiency obtained sediment deposition rates have also been calculated for the reservoirs.
Key words: Reservoir Sedimentation, reservoir capacity, sediment inflow, trap efficiency.
INTRODUCTION
Reservoir sedimentation is filling of the reservoir over a period of time with sediment carried into the reservoir by
the flowing water (Brune 1953). Understanding the reservoir sedimentation process is of fundamental significance
in water resources engineering (Zakwan et al. 2018; Pandey et al. 2018). Sediment inflow and deposition may
affect the performances of dams and reservoirs (Chow et al. 1988). Therefore, it is critically important to estimate
the sedimentation rate and the time period before sediment accumulation could interfere with the functioning of the
reservoir. When designing a reservoir, sufficient sediment storage capacity should be considered so that sediment
accumulation will not impair the functioning of the reservoir during the useful operational life of the project.
Sedimentation process in a reservoir is quite complex because it is often influenced by several factors including
hydrological fluctuations in water and sediment inflow, variation in sediment particle size, reservoir operation
cycle and physical controls such as size and shape of the reservoir (Zakwan et al. 2017). Other factors that may be
important for some reservoirs are vegetation cover in upper reaches, turbulence and density currents, erosion of
deposited sediments and sluicing of sediment through the dam (Zakwan and Muzzammil 2016). The purpose of this
paper is to provide planning level guidance to determine the types and level of sediment for Dab reservoir on Kunar
river.
DATA
Data was obtained from Hydrological Year Book 1965-75, Part 1-1A, Lower Kabul River Basin prepared by Water
and Soil Survey Department, Ministry of Water and Power watershed atlas (2004) and Hydrological Year Book
1979-80, Part I and II, Rivers of Indus and Helmand Basin prepared by Institute of Water Resources and
Development, General Directorate of Hydrology, Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources as a part of Kunar
Hydropower Project.
METHODOLOGY
The elevation-area-capacity relationship at proposed dam location was developed based on survey carried out by
the consultant and use of GIS Map of Scale 1,00,000 of Cartography Department, Government of Afghanistan. The
Empirical–Area–Reduction Method has been used to obtain the sediment distribution pattern at various depths of
reservoir. Reservoirs are classified into four types, namely Lake (Type I), Flood plain-foothill (Type II), Hill (Type
247
III), Gorge (Type IV). Plot of capacity v/s depth on Log-Log paper was made and slope measured with the linear
scale. Inverse of slope m determine the classification of Reservoir type suggested by Borland and Millar (1960) of
USBR is as under. (Table 1)
Table 1 Type of Reservoir based on Sediment Classification
M Reservoir Type Sediment Classification

1 - 1.5 Gorge Type IV
1.5 - 2.5 Hill Type III
2.5 – 3.5 Flood plain foot hill Type II
3.5 – 4.5 Lake Type I
New Zero Elevation

Moody’s method has been used to determine the new zero elevation. The parameters to be evaluated are
f(p) = [ 1 – V (p)]/[a(p)], …..(1)
f’(p) = [S – V (pH)]/[H A (pH)]. …..(2)
Where,
f(p) = function of relative depth of reservoir for the theoretical design curve corresponding to the type of
reservoir.
V(p) = relative volume at a given elevation.
a(p) = relative area at a given elevation.
f’(p) = function of the relative depth of reservoir.
S = total sediment of reservoir in Ha-m.
V (pH) = reservoir capacity at a given elevation (Ha-m).
H = Total depth of reservoir (m).
A(pH) = Reservoir area at a given elevation (Ha).
Area design curves (Figure 1) for various type of reservoir show percentage of sediment deposited versus
percentage of reservoir depth developed based on Borland and Millar (1960).
Fig. 1 Area Design Curve


The Elevation Area Capacity curve is as in shown in Figure 2. The water spread area of Dab at FRL El (elevation)
1005 m is 17.070 sq km and the Gross capacity is 863.864 M cu m. with deepest bed level at elevation 903 m.
Fig. 2 Elevation Area Capacity Curve for Dab Reservoir: Kunar
Based on m factor as shown in Figure 3, Dab reservoir is classified as Type-III-Hill.
2000
200
Depth‐H(m)
20
m = 1.0 to 1.5 Type IV (Gorge)
Y
m = 1.5 to 2.5 Type III (Hill)
2 X m = 2.5 to 3.5 Type II (Flood plain foothill)

m = 3.5 to 4.5 Type I (Lake)
0.2
0.2 2 20 200 2000
Capacity‐ C (MCM)
Fig. 3 Plot of Depth Vs. Capacity: Dab (Type of Reservoir- Type III (Hill)
New Zero Elevation

Using Moody’s method, New Zero Elevation has been calculated for Full and Feasible Service time of Dab
reservoir. For the time 75 years the New Zero Elevation (m) El 979.50m which is in figure 4.
Revised Reservoir Elevation Area Capacity Curve

Computations for sedimentation for reservoir after 75 years of sedimentation based on Empirical–Area–Reduction
Method were made. (Refer Figure 4. and Tables 2).
Fig. 4 New Zero Elevation After 75 Year3
Table 2 Revised Elevation Area Capacity by Empirical Area Reduction Method after 75 Years: Dab
Sediment Rate (Ham/km2/yr) 0.051

C/I 0.067
Trap efficiency 83.26%
Period of sedimentation (Year) 75
Catchment Area (km2) 19015.00
Sediment Volume (Ham) 60557.49
Height (H) 102
S  V ( pH )
Elevation Relative h'  p 
Depth (p) H  A pH 
903 0.000 0.000
905 0.020 5.115
910 0.069 3.004
915 0.118 2.136
920 0.167 1.510
925 0.216 1.275
930 0.265 1.073
935 0.314 0.910
940 0.363 0.770
945 0.412 0.661
950 0.461 0.546
955 0.510 0.449
960 0.559 0.349
Contd…
965 0.608 0.277

970 0.657 0.210
975 0.706 0.145
980 0.755 0.085
985 0.804 0.033
990 0.853 -0.017
995 0.902 -0.063
1000 0.951 -0.107
1005 1.000 -0.148
FRL 1005.00
Relative Depth Corresponding the Intersection 0.75
Height Above the bottom (m) 76.50
New zero Elevation After 75 Yrs, EL 979.50
Total depth available after 75 yrs (m) 25.50
The trap efficiency of the reservoir was calculated based on Brune’s (1953) reservoir sedimentation trap
efficiency curve. Revised reservoir sediment capacity at different elevation was calculated as shown in Table 3
and Figure 4.
Table 3 Revised area and capacity calculation after 75 years
Relative Ap Accumulated
Elevat Revised
Distance above (Type Sediment Area Volume Sediment Revised Area
ion Capacity
the stream bed III) Volume
m Ha Ha-m Ha-m Ha Ha-m
1005 1.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 59551.1 1707.0 26835.3
1000 0.95 0.0 39.6 66.0 59485.0 1568.4 18615.2
995 0.90 0.1 186.2 519.5 58965.5 1322.8 11343.5
990 0.85 0.2 447.2 1536.6 57428.9 979.8 5541.0
985 0.80 0.3 814.4 3108.6 54320.3 535.6 1708.0
980 0.75 0.5 1271.3 5172.1 49148.2 3.7 318.5
979.5 0.75 0.5 1263.4 633.7 48858.4 0.0 0.0
975 0.71 0.7 1159.0 5448.7 43384.0 0.0 0.0
970 0.66 0.9 1063.0 5553.3 37830.7 0.0 0.0
965 0.61 1.1 985.0 5118.8 32712.0 0.0 0.0
960 0.56 1.3 916.0 4751.5 27960.5 0.0 0.0
955 0.51 1.5 805.0 4299.5 23661.0 0.0 0.0
950 0.46 1.7 731 3838.5 19822.5 0.0 0.0
945 0.41 1.8 656.0 3465.8 16356.7 0.0 0.0
940 0.36 1.9 603.0 3146.6 13210.1 0.0 0.0
935 0.31 1.9 541.0 2858.6 10351.5 0.0 0.0
930 0.26 1.8 482.0 2556.1 7795.4 0.0 0.0
925 0.22 1.7 423.0 2260.9 5534.5 0.0 0.0
920 0.17 1.4 370.0 1981.0 3553.5 0.0 0.0
915 0.12 1.1 269.0 1590.8 1962.7 0.0 0.0
910 0.07 0.7 195.0 1155.1 807.7 0.0 0.0
905 0.02 0.2 116.0 769.0 38.7 0.0 0.0
903 0.00 0.0 0.0 77.3 0.0 0.0 0.0
Total sediment volume accumulated in the Reservoir = 59551.1error = 1.66 %

(OriginalArea) newzeroElevb
K
( A p ) newZeroElev …..(3)
S
K1 = K …..(4)
S1
Where K = Proportionality co-efficient;
S = Actual accumulated sediment volume
S1 = Calculated accumulated sediment volume
Using the above equations after number of trials proportionality constants were calculated as
K =2526.8, K1 =2569.50
Fig. 4 Revised area and capacity curves after 75 years
CONCLUSION
Sediment accumulated in reservoirs creates problem in dam operation and ultimately results in its
decommissioning. In the present study sedimentation analysis has been done for Dab reservoir which is primarily a
part of hydropower project in Kunar basin. The Full-Service Time and Feasible Service Time are considered as 50
and 100 years respectively based on international practices. A suitable rate of sedimentation based on siltation rate
observed on river Kunar has been considered for assessing the area/capacity for the reservoirs after their full and
feasible service time. The revised areas and capacities were used for assessing the minimum drawdown level of the
dam, to meet the desired objectives. Based on m factor Dab reservoir was classified as Type-III. The annual
sediment rate inflow works out to 0.051 Ha-m/km2/y,trap efficiency is 83.26%., New zero Elevation After 75 years
was found to be 979.5.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work is a part of Kunar Hydro power project on which Mrs. Zeenat Ara worked during her service at
Consulting Engineering Services (India) Private Limited. We are very thankful to Consulting Engineering Services
(India) Private Limited for providing the data.
REFERENCES
1. BIS 12182. (1987). Guidelines for determination of effects of sedimentation in planning and performance of reservoirs,
Bureau of Indian Standards, India.
2. Borland, W.M. and Miller, K.R. (1960). Distribution of sediment in large reservoirs. Trans. ASCE 125, 160-180.
3. Brune, G.M. (1953). Trap efficiency of reservoirs. Transactions of the American Geophysical Union.
4. Chow, V.T., Maidment, D.R. and Mays, L.W. (1988). Applied Hydrology. McGraw-Hill Book Co. New York.
5. Ministry of Water and Power (2004). Watershed ATLAS of Afghanistan.
6. Pandey, M., Zakwan, M., Sharma, P. K., & Ahmad, Z. (2018). Multiple linear regression and genetic algorithm
approaches to predict temporal scour depth near circular pier in non-cohesive sediment. ISH J. Hydraul. Engg,
doi.org/10.1080/09715010 .2018.1457455.
7. Zakwan, M. and Muzzammil, M. (2016). Optimization Approach for Hydrologic Channel Routing. Water Energy
International, 59(3), 66-69.
8. Zakwan, M., Muzzammil, M., & Alam, J. (2017a). Application of Data Driven Techniques in Discharge Rating Curve-
An Overview. Aquademia: Water, Environment and Technology, 1(1), 02.
9. Zakwan, M., Muzzammil, M., & Alam, J. (2017). Developing Stage-Discharge Relations using Optimization
Techniques. Aquademia: Water, Environment and Technology, 1(2), 05.
10. Zakwan, M., Ahmad, Z., Sharief, S. M. V. (2018). Magnitude-Frequency Analysis for Suspended Sediment Transport
in Ganga River. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering. 23 (7), 10.1061/(ASCE)HE.1943-5584.0001671
APPLICATIONS OF GREEN MATERIALS FOR THE

PREPARATION OF ECO-FRIENDLY BRICKS AND PAVERS
J. Kruthika Mehar1, K.Pushpa2, G.Pushpa3, D.Shravya4 and B. Vamsi Krishna5

1234
B.Tech Scholars, Civil Department, 5Associate Professor, Civil Department,
Malla Reddy Engineering College (Autonomous), Secunderabad-500100
Localvamsi1987@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
This project presents an experimental study on the utilization of waste materials which replaces clay with
(Plastic covers, Ceramic Powder, Egg Shell Powder, GGBS, Silica Fume, Rice Husk Ash and Lime Powder) and
Fine Aggregate with (Recycled glass, Dry Grass, Dead Leaves, Tree barks powder, Sugar cane powder, crumbed
rubber) to produce eco-friendly Bricks. This project is an attempt to fill the gap of the past studies and suggest
more sustainable and sophisticated methods of brick manufacturing in the future. 40% replacement of fine
aggregate with crumbled rubber and dry grass in mortar bricks have given encouraging results, also the
replacement of cement by egg shell powder at 20% has given a considerable result.
Keywords: Eco Friendly Materials, Waste Plastic, Ceramic Powder, crumbed rubber, sugar cane powder, Dry
Grass, Dead Leaves etc.
INTRODUCTION
Since the large demand has been placed on building material industry especially in the last decade owing to the
increasing population which causes a chronic shortage of building materials [1]. The civil engineers have been
challenged to convert the organic wastes to useful building and construction materials. The conventional method of
bricks making has caused serious environmental contamination represented by the enormous emissions of green
house gases (GHG) resulted in unusual climate changes as smog, acid rain and global warming. Furthermore,
energy as fuel and electricity showed a drastic consumption during the traditional manufacturing of bricks led to
highly economical expenditures
Fig. 1 Waste tires from vehicles
Fig. 2 Sugarcane waste Fig. 3 Tree bark
254
nt & Society (N
NCWES-20188) 255
Fig
g. 4 Egg shell waste
w F 5 Dry grasss waste
Fig.
O
OBJECTIVE OF STUDY
Y
T understand the possibilitty of using waaste materialss such as
To
 Sugarcanee waste as a replacement
r o fine aggreggate in cemennt mortar bricck in various proportions and to test
of
the strenggth of the bricck against variious tests
 Dry grasss waste as a replacement of o fine aggreggate in cemennt mortar bricck and to checck the possibilities of it
for variouus applicationns.
 Crumbledd rubber geneerated from tyre t waste as a replacemeent of fine agggregate in thhe cement moortar brick
making annd identify vaarious applicaations
 Tree barkk waste replaccement of finne aggregate in cement mortar
m brick and
a to check its strength for
f various
strengths
 Egg shell powder replaacement of cement in cem
ment mortar brick
b making, and recomm
mend those maaterials for
various appplications an
nd as alternatiive eco-frienddly materials for
f constructiion purpose.
M
METHODOL
LOGY
Crumbled Ru
C ubber: Wastee rubber obtained from ussed and abanddoned tyres have h been colllected. Thesee tyres are
crrumbled in machine.
m The rubber
r that paasses throughh 2.36 mm sieeve is being used.
u The rubbber should bee free from
deeleterious maaterials such as
a stones, andd other debris [6].
Fig. 6 Crumbled rubbber
Dry grass: Drry grass obtain

D ned from yardd waste is beiing collected. It is made grround into finne matter. It shhould pass
thhrough 2.36m
mm sieve and should be free from deleteerious substannces.
Fig. 7 Dry
D grass powder
Sugarcane waste: Bagasse waste is being collected and made into fine particles free from deleterious substances.
The material should be homogeneous and pass through 2.36mm sieve.
Fig. 8 Sugarcane waste
Tree bark: Tree bark waste is collected from trees and ground into fine powder that passes through 2.36mm
sieve. It should be free from debris and deleterious material
Fig. 9 Tree bark aggregate
Egg shells: Egg shells are collected from various sources such as domestic and commercial sources. These are
neatly washed and air dried for two days. They are ground into fine powder in a mixer. The egg shell should pass
80 micron sieve [1].
Fig. 10 Egg shell powder
TEST ON BRICKS
Compression strength test
The bricks should be tested in accordance with the procedure laid in IS: 3495 (Part-2): 1976.Crushing strength of
bricks is determined by placing brick in compression testing machine. After placing the brick in compression
testing machine, apply load on it until brick breaks. Note down the value of failure load and find out the crushing
strength value of brick.
Efflorescence Test on Bricks
The bricks should be tested in accordance with the procedure laid in IS: 3495 (Part-2): 1976. A good quality brick
should not contain any soluble salts in it. If soluble salts are there, then it will cause efflorescence on brick surfaces.
To know the presence of soluble salts in a brick, placed it in a water bath for 24 hours and dry it in shade. After
drying, observe the brick surface thoroughly. If there is any white or grey color deposits, then it contains soluble
salts and not useful for construction.
nt & Society (N
NCWES-20188) 257
W
Water absorp
ption test
The bricks shoould be tested
T d in accordannce with the procedure laiid in IS: 34995 (Part-2): 19976 after immmersion in
coold water for 24 hours, shaall have waterr absorption not
n more thann one-sixth off the dry weighht of brick.
Cement Brick
C k Specificatio
ons
 The brricks shall be of first class,, regular in shhape, size andd color.
 The brricks should be
b free from flaws,
f cracks and lumps off any kind.
 Shall have
h minimum m Compressiive Strength of 10.5N/mm m2.
 The brricks shall nott absorb the water
w more thhan one sixth of o the weightt of the brick.
 The saand used shalll be medium coarse,
c clean,, sharp, free from
f clay, micca and other organic
o matteer.
R
RESULTS AN
ND DISCUSS
SION
Table & Graaph 1 Test resuults of crumbleed rubber
Density Compressivve Weight Waterr
S. No Description Efforeescence Crrack
KG/m3 strength MP
Pa KG Absorption
n (%)
1 Fine Aggregate 1450 17.8 3.37 3.91 N
No H
High
Crumbled Rubber
a. 200% Replacemen
nt 393 10.97 3.315 0.91 No
N High
H
b. 400% Replacemen
nt 393 14.64 3.19 0.92 N
No Modderate
c. 600% Replacemen
nt 393 7.56 3.225 0.65 N
No Modderate
d. 800% Replacemen
nt 393 6.9 2.73 0.74 N
No L
Low
e. 1000% Replacemeent 393 3.14 2.62 3.03 liittle L
Low
Taable & Graph 2 Test results of

o Dry Grass
Denssity Comprressive Wateer

S. No. Descriptiion m3
kg/m strengtth MPa Weeight absorpttion Effloresscence Crack
k
kg (%))
Dry Grasss
a. 20% Replacemeent 555 9.664 3.26 5.744 Noo Modeerate
b. 40% Replacemeent 555 12..39 3.08 4.033 Noo Modeerate
c. 60% Replacemeent 555 0.778 2.64 16.377 Noo Higgh
d. 80% Replacemeent 555 0.889 1.99 - - -
d. 100% Replacem
ment 555 _ 1.66 - - -
Table & Graph 3 Test

T results of Sugarcane
S Wasste
Waterr
Denssity Comprressive
S. No Descriptiion Weig
ght absorptio
on Effloresscence Cracck
m3
kg/m strengtth MPa
kg
g (%)
Sugarca
ane
a. 20% Replacem
ment 47.2
24 2..6 3.19
9 4.5 No o Hig
gh
b. 40% Replacem
ment 47.2
24 1.0
05 2.9
9 13.53 No o Moderate
c. 60% Replacem
ment 47.2
24 1.1
19 2.57
7 11.34 littlle Low
w
d. 80% Replacem
ment 47.2
24 1.5
56 2.15
5 13.72 littlle Low
w
Taable & Graph 4 Test results of

o Tree Bark
Den nsity Com mpressive Wateer

S. No Descrip
ption
kgg/m3 strength MPa Weeight absorp
ption Efflorescence Cracck
Tree baark
1 20% replaccement 347 55.17 22.79 14.13 Noo Higgh
2 40% replaccement 347 - - - Noo Higgh
nt & Society (N
NCWES-20188) 259
Table & Graph 5 Teest results of Egg

E Shell Powdder
Density Compreessive Waater
S. No Description
kg/m3 strength MPa Weeight absorrption Effloorescence C
Crack
Egg shell
a. 220% replacemen
nt 1150 8.944 3..26 0..89 No Mooderate
d. 4
40% replacemen
nt 1150 5.177 2..76 3..12 Little
L H
High
Graph 6 Coomparison of conventional brrick strength with

w compressivve strength of various
v compossitions of all thhe bricks
Graph 7 Comparison of conventionaal brick strengtth with maximuum compressivve strength of different
d materrials
C
CONCLUSIO
ON
Tests Perform
T med: Compressive Strengthh, Absorptionn Test, Efflorrescence Test,, Falling weigght Test was performed
onn Eco-Friendly Bricks.
From this study
s the effeective utilizatiion of eco-friiendly waste materials
m havve been identiified and werre replaced
inn the cement brick mixturee as fine aggrregate and cem ment. At pressent Crumbleed rubber, Dryy Grass, Dry sugarcane
puulp, Tree barkk were used in i replacing fine
f aggregatee in various proportions
p likke 20%, 40% %, 60%, 80% and a 100%.
E shell pow
Egg wder was used d in replacingg cement withh 20% and 400%. On the Basis B of the teest results the following
coonclusions arre drawn. Theese conclusioons also incluude structural applications of secondaryy type from medium m to
loow strength reequirements, benefiting
b froom other featuures of this tyype of brick and pavers.
1. The commpressive streength of crum mbled rubber brick with 40% replacem ment of fine aggregate
a withh crumbed
rubber is 14.64 N/mm m2. It is almosst equal to thee strength of conventional cement brickk (17.8 N/mmm2) on 28th
day.
2. The commpressive streength of Dry grass g w 40% replaacement of fiine aggregate with dry grass is 12.39
brick with
N/mm2. It is almost equale ment brick (17.8 N/mm2) on
to the sttrength of connventional cem o 28th day.
3. The commpressive streength of sugarr cane brick inn various prooportions weree not at all enncouraging. Soo, using of
sugarcanne pulp in briick manufactuuring is not reecommendablle.
4. The commpressive streength of Tree bark brick inn various propportions weree not at all enncouraging. Soo, using of
tree barkk in brick man nufacturing iss not recomm mendable.
5. The com mpressive strength of Eggg Shell brick with 20% reeplacement of o cement with egg shell powder is
2
11.00 N/mm
N . It is a recommendab
r ble value.
From the teest results, it is found thatt the compresssive strengthhs of eco-frienndly bricks, Crumbled
C rubbber brick,
Dry grass bricck, Egg Shell brick showedd acceptable aesthetics. Thhe use of theese eco frienddly materials resulted
D r in
ann appreciablee reduction off block unit weight
w from 3.37
3 kg/m3 to 2.7 kg/m3, which
w mmended for using as a
is recom
coonstruction material
m like brick and paveers.
F
FUTURE SCO
OPE OF STU
UDY
Only a few number
O n of enngineering prooperties of eco-friendly bricks
b have been
b examineed in this stuudy, Other
prroperties suchh as skid resisstance, abrasiion resistancee, deformationn, volume chaange, fatigue resistance,
r Fllexural test
annd environmeental impact must
m be exam mined for com mprehensive evvaluation of thhis new eco-ffriendly materrials.
Overall, Ecco-friendly brricks have beeen observed too show a morre inferior perrformance thaan conventionnal cement
brricks in comppression, watter absorptionn, Falling weeight and effllorescence, buut showed ann encouragingg result in
coompression. Thus,
T crumblled rubber briicks have a grreat potentiall to be used foor pedestrian pavements, flooring
f of
indoor games. The replacement of fine aggregate with crumbled rubber which is produced from waste tires will
reduce the consumption of primary aggregates and produce a high value use for the wastes
REFERENCES
1. A Review Study of Egg Shell Powder As A Cement Replacing Material in Concrete, International Journal of Latest
Research In Engineering and Computing (IJLREC) Volume 5, Issue 4, Page No. 6- 9 July-August 2017, Amarnath
Yerramala.
2. Manufacturing of Bricks in the Past, in the Present and in the Future: A state of the Art Review, International Journal of
Advances in Applied Sciences (IJAAS) Vol. 2, No. 3, September 2013, pp. 145~156, Alonso.
3. Utilization of Waste Materials in Preparation of Eco Friendly Brick, IJSRD - International Journal for Scientific Research
& Development| Vol. 5, Issue 03, 2017 | ISSN (online): 2321-0613.
4. Development Of Bricks From Waste Material: A Review Paper, Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 7(8):
812-818, 2013, Edward Allen, Robert Hallon. Fundamental of residential construction (3rd edition), 672 pages. John Wiley
&Sons, San Francisco, USA, 2011.
5. Roy chudley, Roger Greeno. Construction Technology (4thedition), 634 pages. Prentice Hill, New Jersey, USA, 2000.
6. Jeorge J. Venta, P.Eng. “Life cycle analysis of brick and mortar products”, the ATHENATM Sustainable Material Institute,
Canada, Ottawa, 1998.Institute, Canada, Ottawa, 1998.
7. Studies on Properties of Egg Shell and Fish Bone Powder Filled Polypropylene ì, American Journal of Polymer Science
2012, 2(4): 56-61. 5. Praveen Kumar R.
8. Experimental Study on Partial Replacement of Cement with Egg Shell Powderî, International journal of innovations
9. D.G. Roy, S.P. Mehrotra and P.C. Kapur, “lightweight masonry blocks from fly ash pellets”, October, Elsevier, 63-64, 11
(1984).
10. Dr.R.Vasudevean and S.Rajasekaran “utilization of waste plastics modified bitumen”(2007).
11. Er. Rinku kumar, er. Naveen hooda “an experimental study on properties Of fly ash bricks”, international journal of
research in aeronautical and mechanicalEngineering,volume:2, page 56-57,9 September(2014).
12. Guidelines for The use Of Waste plastic in hot Bituminous mixes(dry process)In wearing courses IRC:SP:98:2013
JitingXie , Obada Kayali,
13. Effect of superplasticiser on workability enhancement of Class F and Class C fly ash-based geopolymers, Elsevier,
Construction and Building Materials 122 (2016) 36–42.Edward Allen, Robert Hallon. Fundamental of residential
construction (3rd edition), 672 pages. John Wiley &Sons, San Francisco, USA, 2011.
ENVIRONMENTAL-FRIENDLY CONCRETE FOR SUSTAINABLE
CONSTRUCTION OF THE BUILDING
C. Lakshmi1, G. Sai Ram2, K. Sravya Sri3, Shravan Manda4 and B. Vamsi Krishna5
1234
B.Tech Scholars, Civil Department, 5Associate Professor, Civil Department
Malla Reddy Engineering College (Autonomous)), Secunderabad
Localvamsi1987@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
There has been a considerable imbalance between availability of conventional building materials and their
demand in the recent past. For environmental protection and sustainable development, extensive research has
been conducted on production of eco-friendly products from waste materials [1]. This paper presents an
experimental study on the utilization of waste materials which replaces Fine Aggregate with Glass Powder and
Coarse Aggregate with (Paper Wax Aggregates, Plastic Papers Aggregates, Plastic Coal Aggregates to produce
ecofriendly concrete. So, this concrete is eco-friendly were it can be used waste materials as their filler materials.
At present glass bottles, paper plastic, coal plastic, paper wax was used in replacing coarse aggregate in various
proportions like 50% and 100%. Glass powder was used in replacing fine aggregate with 50% and 100%. Based
on the test results the following conclusions were made. The compressive strength of concrete with 50%
replacement of fine aggregate with glass powder is 43.44 N/mm2. It is almost equal to the strength of
conventional concrete (45.63 N/mm2) on 28th day. The compressive strength of concrete with 50% replacement
of coarse aggregate with glass aggregate is 37.15 N/mm2. It is almost equal to the strength of conventional
concrete (45.63 N/mm2) on 28th day. From the test results, it is found that the compressive strengths of eco-
friendly concrete are applicable for Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) works for slabs, beams, columns and so
on as M-20 normal grade of concrete is suitable.
Keywords: Eco Friendly Materials, GHG, GPC, PPA, PWA, PCA, Compression Strength.
INTRODUCTION
Today many people that are building or remodelling their houses choose to use eco-friendly building materials. An
eco-friendly building material is one that increases the efficiency of energy used and reduces impact on human
well-being and the environment [2,3].There are many different materials that can be used that are eco-friendly, here
we are going with Glass (Beer bottles), Coal, Wax (Candle), Plastic, Paper.
Glass
Glass is a transparent material produced by melting a mixture of materials such as silica, soda ash, and CaCO3at
high temperature followed by cooling where solidification occurs without crystallization. Glass is widely used in
our lives through manufactured products such as sheet glass, bottles, glassware, and vacuum tubing.
Fig. 1 Glass Bottles
262
Coal
Coal is a naturally occurring combustible material consisting primarily of the element carbon, but with low
percentages of solid, liquid, and gaseous hydrocarbons and other materials, such as compounds of nitrogen and
sulphur. Coal is usually classified into the sub-groups known as anthracite, bituminous, lignite, and peat. The
physical, chemical, and other properties of coal vary considerably from sample to sample [4], [5].
Fig. 2 Coal
Candle wax
These early candles were most likely developed from tapers that were made of fibrous materials mixed with wax or
tallow (the white, nearly tasteless fat of cattle or sheep that was also used to make soap, margarine, and lubricants).
As far back as 3000 B.C., dish-shaped candles were used on the island of Crete.
Fig. 3 Wax (Candles)
Paper
Paper is a thin material produced by pressing together moist fibers of cellulose pulp derived from wood, rags or
grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets. It is a versatile material with many uses, including writing, printing,
packaging, cleaning, and a number of industrial and construction processes [10], [11]. The pulp papermaking
process is said to have been developed in China during the early 2nd century CE, possibly as early as the year 105
CE, by the Han court eunuch Cai Lun, although the earliest archaeological fragments of paper derive from the 2nd
century BCE in China. The modern pulp and paper industry is global, with China leading its production and the
United States right behind it.
Fig. 4 Newspaper waste

Plastic
Plastics are used on a daily basis throughout the world. The word plastic is a common term that is used for many
materials of a synthetic or semi-synthetic nature. The term was derived from the Greek plastics, which means “fit
for molding.” Plastics are a wide variety of combinations of properties when viewed as a whole. They are used for
shellac, cellulose, rubber, and asphalt. We also synthetically manufacture items such as clothing, packaging,
automobiles, electronics, aircrafts, medical supplies, and recreational items. The list could go on and on and it is
obvious that much of what we have today would not be possible without plastics [12].
Fig. 5 Waste Plastic bottles
OBJECTIVE OF STUDY
To understand the possibility of using waste materials such as
 Glass waste as a replacement of coarse and fine aggregate in concrete by various proportions and to test the
strength of the concrete against various tests
 Coal with Wax and Plastic coating as a replacement of coarse aggregate in concrete by various proportions
and to test the strength of the concrete against various tests
 Paper with Wax and Plastic coating as a replacement of coarse aggregate in concrete by various proportions
and to test the strength of the concrete against various tests
EXPERIMETAL PROCEDURE
Making of Glass Aggregate and powder:
 Take 20 glass bottles (beer bottles) and wash it gently remove the stickers attached to it.
 Then by using hammer 10 blows are given after that the obtained pieces of glass bottles are transferred to
LOS-ANGLES abrasion machine.
 for every 20 bottles, we have to use 11 steel balls and 250 revolutions
 Then the obtained powder is sieved through the IS-sieve 90µ
 same steps are to be followed to obtain required amount of glass powder
Fig. 6 Glass aggregate 6.3 mm to 10 mm

Fig. 7 Glass aggregate <4.75 mm
Making of Paper Aggregate with Plastic and Wax coating:

 Take a required amount of paper (newspaper), soak it in water for 4-5hrs
 Then make into shape of angular paper balls of 20mm
 Dry it for 2-3 days under sunlight, there should not be any moisture content present in the paper balls
 After drying, the paper balls are coated with plastic which is heated until the plastic is melted to coat the paper
ball
 Proper care should be taken, it should coat the total paper ball and again it is dried for 1-2 days
Fig. 8 Paper Plastic Aggregate (PPA)
 Take a required amount of paper(newspaper), soak it in water for 4-5 hrs.

 Then make in to shape of angular and of size 20mm
 Dry it for 2-3 days under sunlight, there should not be any moisture content present in the paper balls
 Then heat the wax until it can be coated to paper ball full without any gaps.
 Proper care should be taken because it should be coated fully and it is dried for 2 days
 Same steps are to be followed for the required amount of wax paper aggregates.
Fig. 9 Paper Wax Aggregate (PWA)

Making of Coal Aggregate with Plastic and Wax coating:

1. Take a required amount of coal, make into required size and shape
2. Clean the coal aggregates if any unnecessary compounds are present
3. Heat the plastic bottles until it melts and it should be in the form of liquid
4. Coal aggregates should be coated with plastic without any gaps and it is dried for 2 days
5. Same procedure to be followed to obtain the required amount of coal aggregates
Fig. 10 Coal Plastic Aggregate (CPA)

Tests Performed: Workability of fresh concrete and Compressive Strength of hardened concrete of grade M-20
Replacement of Fine aggregate with glass powder
Table 1 Replacement of fine aggregate (50%&100%) with glass powder

S. No. Description Compressive strength Workability
1 Conventional concrete 45.63 MPa 90 mm
2 Glass powder-50% 43.44 MPa 80 mm
3 Glass powder-100% 39.08 MPa 80 mm
Graph 1 Compressive strength of GC with (50% & 100%) replacement of FA

Replacement of Coarse Aggregate with Glass Aggregate
Table 2 Replacement of Coarse aggregate (50%&100%) with glass Aggregate

2 Glass aggregate-50% 37.15 MPa 70 mm
3 Glass aggregate-100% 32.83 MPa 95 mm
Graph 2 Compressive strength of GC with (50%&100%) replacement of CA
Replacement of CA & fine FA with glass aggregate
Table 3 Replacement of FA & CA (50% & 100%) with glass Aggregate

1 Conventionalconcrete 45.63 MPa 90 mm
2 GP&GA-50% 21.89 MPa 80 mm
3 GP&GA-100% 29.19 MPa 90 mm
Graph 3 Compressive strength of GC with (50%&100%) replacement of CA & FA

R
Replacement of coarse agg
gregate with paper plastiic aggregate
Table 4 Replacem
ment of CA wiith paper plastic aggregate (500% & 100%)
S. No. Desscription Comprressive strength Workabiility
m
2 Paper Plastic aggreagte-50%
% 19.24 MPa 65 mm
m
3 Paper Plastic aggregate-100
0% 9
9.63 MPa 40 mm
m
Graph
h 4 Compressivve strength of PPAC
P with (500%&100%) repplacement of CA
C
R
gregate with coal plastic aggregate
Table 5 Replacement
R o CA with Coaal plastic aggreegate
of
S. No. Desscription Compreessive strength
h Workabillity
1 Conventionaal concrete 455.63MPa 90mm
2 Coal plastic aggregate-50%
% 11.8 MPa 45mm
3 Coal plastic aggregate-100% 8 MPa 30mm
Graph
h 5 Compressivve strength of CPAC
C with (500%&100%) repplacement of CA
C
nt & Society (N
NCWES-20188) 269
R
gregate with paper wax aggregate
a
Table 6 Replaceement of CA with
w paper wax aggregate (50%
% & 100%)
S. No. Deescription Comprressive strength
h Workabiliity
1 C.C 455.63 MPa 90 mmm
2 Paper wax aggregate-50%
% 177.29 MPa 65 mmm
3 Paper wax aggregate-100
0% 233.86 MPa 45 mmm
Graph
h 6 Compressivve strength of PWAC
P with (500%&100%) repplacement of CA
C
C
Compression Strength Co
omparison off Convention
nal Concrete to the Eco-Friendly Conccrete
Graph 7 Co
ompressive streength of all Ecco-friendly matterials with repplacement of CA
A& FA
C
CONCLUSIO
ON
From this studdy the effectivve utilization of eco-frienddly waste materials has beeen choose annd it made to use in the
cooncrete mixtuure as fine ag
ggregate and coarse
c aggreggate. At preseent glass bottlles, paper plaastic, coal plaastic, paper
w was used in replacing coarse aggreggate in variouus proportionns like 50% annd 100%. Glaass powder was
wax w used in
reeplacing fine aggregate witth 50% and 100%. Based on o the test ressults the folloowing conclussions were maade.
1. The commpressive streength of conccrete with 500% replacemeent of fine agggregate withh glass powdeer is 43.44
N/mm2. It is almost equal
e to the sttrength of connventional conncrete (45.63 N/mm2) on 28 2 th day.
2. The commpressive strength of conncrete with 500% replacem ment of coarsee aggregate with
w glass agggregate is
2
37.15 N/mm
N . It is alm
most equal too the strength of conventionnal concrete (45.63
( N/mm m2) on 28th dayy
3. The commpressive strrength of conncrete with 100% 1 replaceement of finee aggregate with
w glass poowder and
2
coarse aggregate
a withh glass aggreggate is 29.19 N/mm
N . It is a recommenddable value.
4. The compressive strength of concrete with 50% replacement of coarse aggregate with paper plastic aggregate
is 19.24 N/mm2.
5. The compressive strength of concrete with 50% replacement of coarse aggregate with paper wax aggregate is
17.29 N/mm2.
From the test results, it is found that the compressive strengths of eco-friendly concrete is applicable for
Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) works for slabs, beams, columns and so on as M-20 normal grade of concrete
is suitable. So this concrete is eco-friendly were it can be used waste materials as their filler materials
FUTURE SCOPE OF STUDY

Only a few numbers of engineering properties of eco-friendly concrete have been examined in this study, other
properties such as Flexural tests on PCC & RCC Beams, split tensile test pull out test, durability tests and
environmental impact must be examined for comprehensive evaluation of this new ecofriendly materials.
Overall, Eco-friendly concrete have been observed to show a more inferior performance than conventional
concrete in workability and compression strength but showed an encouraging result in compression strength. Thus,
glass aggregates have a great potential to be used in concrete for various
PCC & RCC Works. Replacing fine aggregate and coarse aggregate with glass aggregates will reduce the
consumption of natural aggregates which disintegrates nature rocks and minerals
REFERENCES
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In: Malhotra VM, editor. Proceedings of the second international congress on fly ash, silica fume, slag and national
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Concretes, Melbourne, 1992.
3. Ahmed E. Ahmed and Ahmed A. E. kourd.1989. Properties of concrete incorporating natural and crushed stone very fine
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manufacture new concrete, L’Industria Italian del Cemento705: 715-728.
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recycled-aggregate concrete. InV.M. Malhotra (ed.), Fly ash, silica fume, slag and natural pozzolans in concrete.
7. Dhir, R.K., Henderson, N.A., &Limbachiya, M.C.1998. Use of recycled concrete aggregate. London, UK: Thomas
Telford Publishing. European Commission 2000. Directorate-general environment, DG ENV.E.3, Management of
Construction and Demolition Waste.
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construction materials, In Advanced materials and technologies for resources and recycling; Proc.seminar by Sfax
University, Tunisia &Akita University, Akita, Japan. Malhotra, V. M. 1997.
9. Malhotra, V.M. 2004. Role of supplementary cementing materials and super plasticizers in reducing greenhouse gas
emissions. In Fiber composites, high-performance concrete, and smart materials; Proc. ICFRC intern. conf.,Chennai,
India, January 2004: 489 - 499.
10. McDonough, W. et al. 1992. The Hannover principles: Design for sustainability. EXPO 2000, The world’s fair.
Hannover, Germany. McKay, D. T. 2004. Sustainability in the Corps of Engineers. A
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Washington, D.C., USA, March 2004.
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In Concrete technology for sustainable development; Proc. second intern. symp., Hyderabad, India, 27February - 3
March, 2005.
13. Madam Mohan Reddy, K, Ajitha .B, and Bhavani .R, “Melt-Densified Post Consumer Recycled Plastic Bags Used as
Light Weight Aggregate in Concrete”,” International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN:
2248-9622 Vol. 2, Issue4, July-August 2012, pp.1097- 1101
RECONNOITERING HYDROCHEMICAL BACKGROUND USING LOG-
PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION IN A CHANNEL ISLAND, ANDHRA PRADESH
N. C. Mondal
Earth Process Modeling Group, CSIR-National Geophysical Research Institute, Uppal Road, Hyderabad,
Telangana, India mondal@ngri.res.in;ncmngri@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
It is hypothesized that hydrochemical parameter can be employed to reconnoitre its background value in any
hydrogeological set up. This hypothesis was tested using log-probability distribution on a Channel Island of
Andhra Pradesh. From analytical data collected during dry period, it was found that the cumulative probability
distribution of hydrochemical parameter did not form a linear distribution. This parameter was considered to be
affected by more than one process. For such a case, each process was differentiated by the intersection point(s)
of two neighboring linear population (s) as well the first segment of the intersection point had been assumed to
be the hydrochemical background value. The background values of EC, Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl-, HCO3-,
CO3-, SO42-, NO3- and F- in the study area were estimated and their ranges were from 652 to 2000µS/cm, 31 to
95, 2 to 15, 26 to 119, 10 to 56, 52 to 260, 108 to 296, 12 to 40, 3 to 60, 0.9 to 40.0 and 0.12 to 0.20 mg/l,
respectively. This information helps to demarcate the occurrence of pollutant and assign background level for the
mass transport modeling.
Keywords: Groundwater, Major ions, Probability distribution, Intersection, Hydrochemical background,
Channel Island, Andhra Pradesh.
INTRODUCTION
Groundwaters from aquifers that are part of the active water cycle have been influenced for decades by human
activities. Water changes chemistry from the moment water enters the system through rainfall infiltration, river
water, later flow or other sources, until it leaves through runoff, evaporation or withdrawal (Vázquez-Suñé et al.,
2005). Consequently, superficial aquifers rarely reflect true natural concentration levels, whereas deep aquifers can
be free from anthropogenic impacts (Müller et al., 2006). Groundwater status in highly urbanized and
irrigation/farm areas is especially imposed by anthropogenic influence due to diffuse pollution from agricultural
practices and wastewaters (Appelo and Postma, 1994; Mondal and Singh, 2010). This makes difficult to determine
whether the observed groundwater condition reflects a natural chemical status or not (Wendland et al., 2005).
As we know that groundwater pollution refers to the phenomenon of progressive deterioration in water quality
under the influence of human activities (Mondal and Singh 2011; Li et al., 2016). However, in addition to human
activities, natural factors can also contribute to changes in groundwater quality (Guo et al. 2015; Mondal et al.,
2010, 2011, 2016, Mondal and Singh, 2011, Prabhakar et al., 2017). This complicates the ability to determine the
background state of groundwater quality in the presence of large-scale human activities (Peng et al., 2018). The
results of water quality evaluations often include effects from natural factors that may bias the evaluation results
and are not necessarily useful in defining effective measures for groundwater pollution prevention. Although the
concerns and studies on groundwater pollution began long ago (Nakanishi 1920; Welsch and Lieber 1955),
research into anthropogenic influences on groundwater developed overall in around the early 1990s (Zhang et al.,
1992).
But the background of hydrochemical parameters is defined as the “range of concentrations of examined
substances or range of values of hydrochemical parameters characteristic for the investigated domain, unit or
fragment of hydrogeological unit of homogeneous hydrogeochemistry (Dowgiałło et al., 2002). Identification of
the hydrogeochemical background cannot be fully objective as the results depend strongly on the amount of
collected data, their verification and method used for background assessment. Research articles by Matschullat et
al. (2000), Reimann and Garret (2005), Gałuszka and Migaszewski (2011), Szczucinska (2017), Peng et al. (2018)
and others broadly discuss the issue of identification of hydrogeochemical backgrounds in the environmental
studies.
271
There are several approaches utilized to derive natural background levels (Matschullat et al., 2000). Some
parametric approaches use the statistics via a normal or log-normal distribution (Reimann and Filzmoser, 2000) and
mode analysis (Carral et al., 1995) from the normal data distribution. Other statistical methods, such as the
Component Separation (CS) method (Wendland et al., 2005), relative cumulative frequency analysis (Bauer and
Bor, 1995) or the Pre-Selection (PS) approach (Müller et al., 2006) are also available. Of course, it was suggested
the use of PS or CS approaches based on the knowledge about geochemical processes and abundance of monitoring
data (Müller et al., 2006, Caro et al., 2017). Thus, the main objectives of this research paper are to (1) undertake a
hydrochemical analysis for assessing groundwater quality in a Channel Island from Krishna delta, and (2)
reconnoiter its background level using log-probability distribution for demarcating the occurrence of pollutant and
supporting background level for preparation of the pollutant migration model in future.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF CHANNEL ISLAND

The study area is about 50 km2, in a Channel Island of Krishna delta, Southern India (Figure 1), mostly covered
with deltaic soil. This deltaic soil is covered with alluvium, clay, slit, sand, etc. This Channel Island consists of a
bar and is also stabilized with vegetation growth in the course of a Krishna river (Marth et al., 2018). The western
side of this area is an upper deltaic plain (Mondal, 2018), with an elevation of about 13.0 m above mean sea level
(amsl). The quaternary formation in the deltaic area is comprised of clay, silt, and sand. The channel deposits of
this area are of fine medium quartz sand (Saxena et al., 2003; Mondal et al., 2008). Most of its water comes from
precipitation; however, a canal is also available which is connected to Krishna river. The average annual rainfall of
this region is about 1011 mm, and the rains come from the southwest monsoon, usually in June-October and some
rains also occur during the month of February. The rainfall was about 581.0 mm in September, preceded 407.2 mm
rainfall in July and followed by rainfall of 421.8 mm during the groundwater sampling period.
METHODOLOGY
Groundwater sampling and analysis

In total 22 water samples were collected from the selective hand pump (depth range: 6.1-41.1 m) and bore (depth:
20.0 m) wells, which are distributed throughout the area. Methods of collection and analysis of the collected
samples were followed are essentially the same as given by APHA (1985). The analytical precision for the
measurements of cations and anions, indicated by the ionic balance error (IBE) was computed by ions expressed in
meq/l. The value of IBE was observed to be within a limit of ±5% (Mandel and Shiftan, 1980).
The precise locations of these sampling points were also determined in the field through the development of
GARMIN 12 Channel Instrument, based on the principles of Global Positioning System (GPS), and the exact
longitudes and latitudes of sampling points. The locations of sampling points are shown in Figure 1.
Log-probability approach
Probability distributions are considered to be of great importance in dealing with the analytical data (Sinclair,
1974). In order to discriminate the anomalous population whose chemistry was affected locally by salinization
and/or anthropogenic pollution from a background population, cumulative probability distributions of
hydrochemical parameters were constructed and differentiated by the intersection points of two neighboring linear
populations (Tennant and White, 1959; Lepeltier, 1969). Thus the log-probability plots were adapted to interpret
hydrochemical levels of individual parameters and discussed in this paper.

Hydrochemical investigation
For identification of hydrochemical background through hydrochemical signatures, 22 water samples were
collected from the hand pump and bore wells (depth: 6.1 to 41.1 m) in a Channel Island of Krishna delta
16.19
16.185
0 1.1 2.2 km
16.18
16.175
INDIA
16.17 Channel Island
16.17
16.165
16.16
16.155
16.15
3
Potharlanka
80.775 80.78 80.785 80.79 80.795 80.8 80.805
2
16.15 1
4
Gollapalem
5
6
16.13
9 10
7 8
22
12 11
Kishkindapalem
14 13
16.11
15
16
18
17
Pesarlanka
16.09
19
20
Location of samplings
21
16.07
80.83 80.85 80.87

Longitude (in degree)
Fig. 1 Location map of a Channel Island in a part of Krishna delta along with the sampling points
and analysed. Statistical parameters, including minimum, maximum, mean and standard deviation, of different
constituents of analysed for the samples were estimated, as presented in Table 1. Comparison of hydrochemical
data with the World Health Organization (WHO, 1984) drinking water standards showed that 81% (N= 17), 67%
(N=14), 29% (N= 6), 5% (N= 1), and 71% (N= 15) of the samples exceeded the guideline values for Total
dissolved solids (TDS: 500 mg/l), Chloride (Cl-: 200 mg/l), Sodium (Na+: 200 mg/l), Sulphate (SO42-: 200 mg/l),
and Nitrate (NO3-: 45 mg/l), respectively. This indicated that water quality had deteriorated significantly according
to total dissolved solids (TDS) in this island. The degree of salinization in a well or a given area can be indicated by
an increase in the TDS values. In particular, the TDS value had a wide range between 443 and 3717 mg/l (mean:
1690 mg/l). Out of total 22 well stations, 81% of the well area has TDS value more than 500 mg/l. The TDS value
in the northern part and along the bank of Krishna river was within permissible limit, but in the central part
(village: Kishkindapalem, sample no.: 12) and the southern part (Village: Pesarlanka (C), sample no. 19)
groundwater quality had been deteriorated. The ranges of Na+ and Cl- ions were from 35 to 365 mg/l (mean: 171
mg/l), and 52 to 1220 mg/l (mean: 416 mg/l), respectively. The maximum concentration of SO42- observed 305 mg/l
with an average of 80 mg/l. The concentration of NO3- varied from 0.9 to 287.0 mg/l (mean: 140.4 mg/l). It was
within permissible limit at the well nos. 1, 5, 8, 9, 17 and 18, but the maximum 287 mg/l was estimated at the well
no. 16 located in the south-central part of the Island. The fluoride concentration was observed in the range of 0.12
to 0.45 mg/l which is within the permissible limit. While most fresh waters were enriched with calcium and
bicarbonate ions. Table 1 shows that groundwaters in the Island, compared with the average composition of
worldwide groundwater, were enriched in Na+, Mg2+, Cl- and SO42- concentrations. Therefore, it is suggested that
hydrochemistry in this area was controlled by several processes.
Table 1 Statistical hydrochemical parameters of groundwater samples in a Channel Island of Krishna delta, Andhra Pradesh in
comparison with the worldwide average surface water and groundwater
Parameters Statistical parameters Standards for

Minimum Maximum Mean S.D. LDW SW GW
pH 7.0 8.2 7.5 0.32 6.5-8.5 --- ---
EC 652 5310 2450 1367 750 --- ---
TDS 443 3417 1690 980 500 --- ---
TH 63 515 263 133 --- --- ---
Na+ 35 365 171 96 200 5.20 30.00
K+ 3 40 11 9 100 1.30 3.00
Ca++ 35 326 145 84 75 13.40 50.00
Mg++ 10 251 94 70 30 3.40 7.00
Cl- 52 1220 416 349 200 5.80 20.00
SO4-- 3 305 80 74 200 8.30 30.00
HCO3- 108 556 347 142 200 --- ---
CO3- 12 76 29 15 --- --- ---
NO3- 0.9 287.0 140.4 83.5 45 --- ---
F- 0.12 0.45 0.19 0.09 1.5 --- ---
All Ions in mg/l except EC in µS/cm at 270C, S.D.: Standard Deviation, pH: -log10H+; collected 22 water
samples from hand pump and bore wells; PLDW: Permissible limit for drinking water (WHO, 1984); SW: average
surface water after Meybeck (1979) and GW: average groundwater after Turekian (1977)
Estimation backgrounds and their distribution

Most of the hydrochemical parameters obtained in this Channel Island generally exhibited log-normal density
distributions. The cumulative probability distributions of EC, Na+, Ca2+, and Mg2+ are shown two individual
intersection points in the cumulative probability plots, which can be considered as regional threshold values and
highly impacted threshold values for differentiating the samples with the effects of geogenic, anthropogenic and
saline water mixing. The first approximate regional threshold values obtained were 2000 µS/cm for EC, 95 mg/l for
Na+, 119 mg/l for Ca2+, and 56 mg/l for Mg2+. Similarly, the first approximate regional threshold values obtained
were 260 mg/l for Cl-, 60 mg/l for SO42- , 40.0 mg/l for NO3- and 0.20 mg/l for F-. The sample having more than the
threshold values in groundwater were highly affected by anthropogenic activities and other processes. The typical
cumulative probability distributions for EC, Na+, Cl- and NO3- are shown in Figures 2a-d. The spatial distribution
of pollutant along with the background level had been plotted individual constituent on the same plate. This
information helps to demarcate the occurrence of pollutant and assign background level for the preparation of mass
transport modelling in future. As a typical example, the sodium concentration was observed more than its
background value (range: 50-75 mg/l) in between Kishkindapalem and Pesarlank villages, and also in the western
part of Golapalem village as shown in Figure 3a. An actual chloride concentration at all the sampling locations was
more than the permissible limit (WHO, 1984) as well its background, and the maximum occurrence was also
obtained in between Kishkindapalem and Pesarlanka villages as shown in Figure 3b.
4.00 3.00
(a) (b)
Log EC (mg/l)
Log Na (mg/l)
2.00
3.00 Inflection point Inflection point

(2000 mg/l) (95 mg/l)
1.00
2.00 0.00
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Cumulative Probability (%) Cumulative Probability (%)
4.00 3.00
(c) (d)
3.00 2.00
Log NO3 (mg/l)

Log Cl (mg/l)
2.00 1.00 Inflection point

Inflection point (40 mg/l)
(260 mg/l)
1.00 0.00
0.00 -1.00
0 20 40 60 80 100 -1 19 39 59 79 99
Cumulative Probability (%) Cumulative Probability (%)
Fig. 2 Showing the cumulative probability distributions for (a) EC, (b) Na+, (c) Cl- and (d) NO3- concentrations in the Island,
Andhra Pradesh.
(a) (b)
Fig. 3 Showing (a) Na+ contours and (b) Cl- of groundwater along with background values in a Channel Island of
Krishna delta.
CONCLUSIONS
The objectives of this paper was to assess groundwater quality for drinking purpose and identify the
hydrogeochemical background using log-probability distribution in a Channel Island of Krishna delta, Andhra
Pradesh, an area affected by the saline water intrusion as well irrigation practices. The results show that all the
parameters do not fall within the World Health Organisation acceptable limits for drinking use during the
experimental period. Nitrate (NO3-) concentration varied from 0.9 to 287.0 mg/l (mean: 140.4 mg/l) whereas
fluoride (F-) concentration varied from 0.12 to 0.45 mg/l (mean: 0.20mg/l).
The estimated background value ranges from 652 to 2000µS/cm, 31 to 95, 2 to 15, 26 to 119, 10 to 56, 52 to
260, 108 to 296, 12 to 40, 3 to 60, 0.9 to 40.0 and 0.12 to 0.20 mg/l for EC, Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl-, HCO3-, CO3-,
SO42-, NO3- and F- concentration, respectively. The spatial distributions of pollutant and its background show that
the sodium and chloride concentrations are more than their background values in between Kishkindapalem and
Pesarlank villages (in middle part of the Island). The initial information obtained in this research work helps to
delineate the occurrence of pollutant and attribute background level for mass transport modelling in future.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Dr. V.M. Tiwari, Director of CSIR-NGRI, Hyderabad, India has encouraged to present this article (Ref. No.:
NGRI/Lib/2018/Pre-33). The members of Groundwater Group helped for the collection and analysis of the water
samples. The CSIR-New Delhi (Ref. No.: MLP 6407-28) has also funded partially for this work. The author is
thankful to them.
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34. Welsch, W.F. and Lieber, M. (1955). Ground water pollution from industrial wastes [with discussion]. Sewage Ind
Wastes 27(9):1065–1072.
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groundwater conditions of groundwater bodies in Germany. Water Sci. Technol. 51 (3–4), 249–257.
36. World Health Organization (WHO) (1984). Guideline of drinking quality. Washington, DC, World Health
Organization, pp. 333-335.
37. Zhang, Z.H., Shi, D.H., Shen, Z.L. and Zhong, Z.S. (1992). Research on the evolution and development of groundwater
environment under the influence of human activities. Hydrogeol Eng Geol 19(5), 1–2.
STUDY ON GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
IN AND AROUND VISAKHAPATNAM INDUSTRIAL AREA
P. Trinadha Rao
Department of Physics, B.V.K. Degree College,Visakhapatnam
ABSTRACT
The city of destiny Visakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh has been undergoing tremendous development
in the form of industrialisation and consequent urbanisation. An amount of ground water has been
contaminated due to industrial effluents making it miserable for the habitants. In most of the industrial
regions, the ground water has been polluted due to the industrial effluents. These effluents in the
course of reaching their sites of destination become hazardous not only to the surface soil but also to
the surface and ground water régimes. As a result, the quality conditions of water resources in the
region are subjected to rapid deterioration and have become a threat for the health of the human
beings. Hence, in this context, a detailed survey has taken up on ground water contamination in and
around industrial area of Visakhapatnam.
Keywords: Ground Water, Industrial effluents, Surface water.
INTRODUCTION
The city of Visakhapatnam, located along the East Coast of India, forms the northern part of Andhra Pradesh
(Fig.1). The city has been undergoing tremendous development in the form of industrialisation. Many major
industries like Bharat Heavy Plates & Vessels Ltd., Hindustan Zinc Ltd., Coromandel Fertilizers Ltd., Hindustan
Petroleum Corporation Ltd., and few medium industries processing Seafood, Alum industry etc., are clustered
towards West of Visakhapatnam. Prior to build up of these industries, the entire area was enjoying agricultural
based rural atmosphere. With the industrialisation though the economic standards have been raised, its impact on
the water resources and the environment has created severe problems in day-to-day life of the habitants. In most of
the regions the ground water has been contaminated due to the industrial effluents. Many of these industries use
chemical compounds either as a products or in their process ultimately leaving huge quantities of their wastes as
effluents. These effluents in the course of reaching their sites of destination become hazardous not only to the
surface soil but also to the surface and ground water regimes. As a result, the quality conditions of water resources
in the region are subjected to rapid deterioration and have become a threat for the health of the human beings.
It is in this context, this paper presents a detailed survey of the ground water quality of contamination and the
responsible sources has been carried out in Visakhapatnam industrial area.
GEOLOGY AND GEOMORPHOLOGY OF THE AREA

The prominent geological formations in the area belong to Archaean and Quaternary Periods (Fig.2). The Archaean
system mainly comprises of Khondalitic suit of rocks, Leptynites, Charnockites, Granites, Pegmatites and
Quartzites, while the Quaternary system includes Laterites and other surficial deposits like Piedmont fan,
Colluvium, Red sediments, Coastal sands etc. The area is studded with hills of varying elevations and plains
(Fig.3). The Yarada hill range in the south extends about 8 km in the east-west direction reaching heights of about
355mm above mean sea level. (Pruthvi Raju and Vaidyanadhan, 1978). Narava Gedda is the only large stream
which drains the north-western part of the study area. It flows across the marshy plain and empties its waters into
the sea through the Harbour Channel (Fig.4). The mean monthly temperatures in the area range from 22.5oC to
30.9o C. Normally lowest temperatures of the order of 17.3oC are recorded in the month of January, while
maximum as high as 34oC are observed in the month of May. Relative humidity is very high ranging from 80% to
84% from April to September on account of monsoon rains. An average rainfall of 960 mm in an year is recorded
in the area which was computed on the basis of data for a period of 50 years (Prasad, 1980). It is also observed that
rainfall as high as 260 mm occurs in November due to the cyclonic storms originating in the Bay of Bengal (Eliot,
1900; Austin Miller, 1959; Rao et al., 1970).
278
Fig. 1 Location Map of Visakhapatnam
Fig. 2 Geological map of Visakhapatnam

Fig. 3 Physiographic Map of Visakhapatnam Industrial Area

Fig. 4 Drainage Map of Visakhapatnam Industrial Area

GEOHYDRO CHEMISTRY
Water samples were collected from 100 observation wells in the field in two seasons, winter and summer are
analysed for the major anions of Chloride, bicarbonate and sulphate and for the major cations of Sodium,
Potassium, Calcium and Magnesium using the standard methods (Taylor 1958, Vogel 1979). The pH, electrical
conductivity and temperatures were also measured in situ to avoid any changes due to time lapse. The water quality
varies widely from place to place and the factors affecting the quality are numerous caused by natural and man
made effects. Mostly urbanisation and industrialisation and to some extent agriculture have altered the quality of
water bodies in many regions. A systematic study of quality of ground water may provide information regarding
the quality of ground water and its variations, if any with time. These studies would also project information
regarding contamination, if any, resulting from the industrial effluents and sea water intrusion and its behaviour.
Distribution and variations of pH, electrical conductivity, anions, cations, and total dissolved solids were
studied in two seasons of the study area. Relationship between specific conductance and various ionic
concentrations were studied. Relationship between total dissolved solids and specific electrical conductance were
also studied.
EQUILIBRIUM STUDIES
The equilibrium status of the ionic constituents of the natural waters and the saturation of many chemical and
mineral species that may be derived from conceptual thermodynamic models are expected to reflect a number of
Physical and Chemical Processes existing in area (Garrels and Christ, 1967; Walters & Wolery, 1975; Hem, 1978).
Though the general concentrations of various ions and distribution patterns have proved to be of considerable
importance to describe the general ground water quality conditions in the region and also to delineate specific areas
of contamination due to external and in situ influences a number of chemical and mineral species are observed to
be useful indicators of chemical stability and the behaviour of ground water, explaining the general quality trends
and the contaminant influences. In a bid to delineate and identify the sources and the dynamic behaviour of the
industrial effluents in the study area a total of 36 samples collected from selected locations have been subjected to
thermo-dynamic model studies and the data on some of the mineral species has been presented in Table 1. To
discuss the influence of some of the local industries and their effluents on the ground water regime, the saturation
indices (Log IAP/KT) have been discussed along three profiles in the study area. These Profiles run across three
conspicuous area of industrial influences (Fig.5). However, some of the areas lie on the high hydraulic gradient.
Variation of saturation indices along Profile A (Fig.6), Profile B (Fig.7), Profile C (Fig.8) were also discussed.
Fig. 5 Location Map

Fig. 6 Variation of Mineral Saturation Indices Along Profile A
Fig. 7 Variation of Mineral Saturation Indices Along Profile B

Fig. 8 Variation of Mineral Saturation Indices Along Profile C

Table 1 Mineral Saturation Indices of Groundwaters
QUALITY CRITERIA FOR VARIOUS USES

Many workers and organisations have studied the limits of ionic concentrations for different purposes. Richard
(1954), Mckee (1957), Hem (1978), U.S. Department of Health-Education and Welfare (1962), Taylor (1963) and
Mckee and Wolf (1963) reviewed the limits of different ionic contents for specific purposes like drinking,
irrigation, food processing and industrial aspects. Davis and De-Wiest (1970) have reviewed all these works and
prepared a list of general limits (Table 2) that can be adopted in determining the suitability of waters for different
purposes.
Table 2 Quality Criteria For Various Uses

Boiler water
Drinking (ppm) Food Processing (ppm)
High Pressure (ppm) Low pressure (ppm)
Bicarbonate 500 300 5 50
Calcium 200 80 1 40
Chloride 250 300 - -
Magnesium 125 40 1 20
Sodium 200 300 - 50
Sulphate 250 - - -
TDS 1500 1000 100 2000
CONCLUSIONS
The area under study is an industrial area comprising of industries like Hindustan Zinc Ltd., Bharat Heavy Plates &
Vessels Ltd.; Coromandel Fertilisers Ltd., and other ancillary units.
In the study area, higher concentrations of bicarbonate, sulphate, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium and
the electrical conductivity are observed near Mindi and Chukkavanipalem, while lower concentrations of chloride
ion are observed in the same area.
The chemical equilibrium studies in this region indicate that calcium and magnesium carbonates are
supersaturated, while the sulphates of sodium and calcium and sodium chloride are under saturated. The relative
and absolute values for the saturation indices in the area clearly indicate contamination of ground water due to
industrial effluents of many small industries in general and Hindustan Zinc Limited Plant near Mindi are in
particular.
Higher concentrations of Chloride and bicarbonate are observed near Sheelanagar while lower concentrations of
sulphate and calcium are observed in the same area. In the area around Reddy Tunglam and Kapu Tunglam higher
concentrations of electrical conductivity, chloride and calcium ions and lower concentrations of sulphate ions are
reported. In and around Natayyapalem, higher concentration of chloride and lower concentrations of sulphate,
calcium and potassium are observed.
The relatively higher saturation indices around Natayyapalem are attributed to the effluents of Bharat Heavy
Plates & Vessels. The higher values of electrical conductivity, chloride and calcium around Kapu Tunglam and
Reddy Tunglam and a sharp increase in the saturation indices is due to a thick weathered column of Khondalite.
The higher concentrations of chloride, bicarbonate and lower concentrations of sulphate, calcium and electrical
conductivity observed near Sheelanagar are attributed to high kaolinisation and the presence of a thick weathered
zone.
Lower concentrations of calcium, potassium and sulphate ions are observed near Natayyapalem and Ramnagar,
while higher concentrations of Sodium and Chloride are observed in this area.
The Chemical equilibrium studies in the area indicates that calcium, magnesium carbonates exhibit super
saturation while sulphate and chloride exhibit under saturation. The saturation indices conform to the higher
concentrations in groundwaters and is due to the local geohydrological conditions and the related base exchange
phenomenon.
It is observed from the relationship between specific electrical conductance and various ionic concentrations
that except bicarbonate all the ions exhibit positive linear relationship with electrical conductivity.
Based on the quality criteria reviewed by Davis and De-Wiest (1970), it is observed that except the well waters
in the villages of Mindi, Chukkavanipalem, the well waters in other areas of the study area are suitable for
drinking. So, ground water in the villages of Mindi, Chukkavanipalem has been contaminated due to industrial
effluents.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author expresses his deep sense of gratitude to Prof. P. Rajendra Prasad, Prof. N.V.B.S.S. Prasad, Department
of Geophysics, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam for their invaluable guidance and encouragement throughout
the progress of this work.
The author wishes to express his sincere thanks to the Present and Previous head(s) of the Geophysics
Department, Andhra University for their constant encouragement and for providing departmental facilities in the
course of this work.
Finally, the author wishes to place on record his sincere thanks to Sri K. Baburao Prasad, Principal,
B.V.K. Degree College, Visakhapatnam for permitting him to complete the work in spite of the busy academic
schedules of the College.
REFERENCES
1. Austin Miller, A., 1959 - Climatology. Metten & Co. Ltd., London, pp.152.
2. Davis, N.S. and De-Wiest, R.J.M., 1979 - Hydrogeology. John Wiley & Sons. Inc, New York, pp.121.
3. Eliot, J., 1900 - Handbook of Cyclonic storms in the Bay of Bengal for the use of the Sailors. Abridged, 1944,I.M.D.
4. Garrels, R.M. and Christ, C.L., 1967 - Solutions, minerals and equilibria, Cal. Freeman Harper & Row, New York,
450p.
5. Hem JohN, D., 1978. - Study and interpretation of the Chemical Characteristics of Natural water. Second edition. Geol.
Surv. Water Supply Paper 1473.
6. Mckee, J.E., 1957 - Water quality criteria. California Water Pollution Control Board Pub. No.312p and 164p in
abundum.
7. Mckee, J.E., and Wolf, H.W., 1963 - Water quality criteria, California State Water Quality Control Board Publ., 3-A,
548p.
8. Prasad, N.V.B.S.S., 1980 - Geohydrological and Geophysical investigations Along Visakhapatnam – Bhimilipatnam
Coast, Doctoral thesis, Andhra University.
9. Pruthvi Raju, K.N. and Vaidyanadhan, R., 1978 - Geomorphology of Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh. Jour. Geol.
Soc. India. Vol.19, No.1, Pp 26-34.
10. Rao, D.V.L.N., Abbi, S.D.S. and Gupta, P.F., 1970 - A study of heavy rainstorms over coastal Andhra Pradesh in
relation to water resources development of the region. Seminar on incidence of aridity and drought in Andhra
Pradesh, Andhra University, Waltair and Indian Meteorological Society, Visakhapatnam branch.
11. Richards, L.A., 1954 - Diagnosis and improvement of Saline and alkali soils. Agricultural Handbook.
12. Taylor, E.W., 1958 - The examination of Water and Water supplies. J & A Churchill Ltd., London.
13. Taylor, F.B., 1963 - Significance of trace elements in Public finished water Supplies. Am. Water Works Assoc. Jour.,
Vol.55. pp.619-623.
14. U.S.Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1962 - Public Health Services Drinking Water Standards. U.S.
Public Health Services Pub. P.956.
15. Vogel, I., 1979. A textbook of quantitative inorganic analyses, ELBS, New York.
16. Walters, L.J., and Wolery. T.J., 1975 - A monotone-sequences algorithm and Fortran IV Programme for calculation
and equilibrium distribution of Chemical species. Comp. GeoSci., Vol.1, p.57-63.
IMPACTS OF SOLID WASTE DUMP SITE ON GROUND WATER QUALITY
(LEACHATE)
K. Syamala Devi and K. Venkateswara Rao

G. Narayanamma Institute of Technology & Science, Shaikpet, Hyderabad
Andhra Pradesh Pollution Control Board, Vijayawada
ABSTRACT
Land filling is the preferred method of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) disposal. However, poorly designed land
fill leads to contamination of ground water, soil and air. Leachate is generated in a landfill as a consequence of
the contact of water with solid waste. Leachate tend to migrate in surrounding soil may result in contamination
of underlying ground water and soil. The peri-urban areas face severe problem of ground water contamination
from MSW dumpsites. Owing to the importance of the topic, the present work has been carried near
Kapuluppada dumpsite in Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh. Visakhapatnam is the largest city in Andhra Pradesh
with a population of 20 lakhs. An area of 100 acres at Kapuluppada village was selected as the dumpsite in 2004
for Landfilling located 15 Km away from the city. Visakhapatnam city generates 980 tonnes of garbage every
day. The landfill site is located at a distance of 15 km to the west of the city, spread across 100 acres of land
having an elevation of 45 m. The leachate from the dump is likely to contaminate the ground water table. In
order to examine whether the ground water is contaminated in the nearby areas, the present study has been taken
up in the vicinity. The water quality was tested in six stations, the parameters studied were: pH, Total Dissolved
Solids, Chlorides, Total Hardness, nitrates, sulphates, phenols, cyanide, lead, Iron, zinc, nickel, copper,
chromium and cadmium. The values of the parameters were expressed as mg/l except where specifically stated.
Standard methods were used for analysis of various parameters. The results of the present study revealed that the
total dissolved solids, total hardness and chlorides were in very concentrations. These parameters, though not
directly affect the human health, indicate the increase of ions in the ground water through leachate
contamination. The Kapuluppada dumpsite is a landfill and not scientifically designed. Hence, to prevent future
contamination of heavy metals and organic and inorganic materials, few following recommendations are made in
this paper.
Keywords: Dumpsite, MSW, Parameters
INTRODUCTION
Rapid urbanization and economic development in India have led to faster industrialization. The proportion of
population living urban areas has been increased from 17.35% in 1951 to 27.8% in 2001 and 31.30 in 2011. The
average growth of urban population India is 2.4%. As the urban population increased, the generation of waste also
increased. The excessive consumerism in 21st century has lead to increase of generation of solid wastes in town
and cities. The increased per capita income in cities also contributed to increased diversity of solid waste. The
solid waste handling has become a burden on the economy of the Municipalities and corporations. Hence, in all the
developing countries, open dumping of solid waste is the common practice. Solid Waste includes all the discarded
solid materials from commercial, municipal, industrial and agricultural activities.
The present study on the “Impact of Municipal Solid Waste Dumpsite on the ground water quality near
Kapuluppada at Visakhapatnam, A.P., India” has been carried out at Visakhapatnam from 2011-12 to 2014-15
(March, 2011 to January 2015). Kapuluppada was the landfill site with an area of 100 acres and in operation since
2004 in Visakhapatnam. Dumping is still actively going on. The rapid urban sprawl has been encircling the
dumpsite area. Several residential colonies have come up in the area in which 80% of the housing was in the form
of apartments and only 20% of the houses were independent. As result, the exploitation of ground water has
increased manifold since 2010. Though there is no scarcity of ground water, the ground water quality has been
deteriorating with excess of TDS, Total Hardness, Chlorides etc., affecting the potability of water. No systematic
studies were taken up in these areas about the impact of MSW dumpsite on the ground water. The present study
was taken up to assess the impact of MSW dumpsite on the quality of ground water at six stations viz. (i) Outskirts
of Paradesipalem village (ii) Residential area of Paradesipalem village (iii) Kamalanagar colony (iv) Kothapalem
287
village (v) a bore well in the midst of the Kapuluppada MSW dumpsite (vi) a bore well located at a distance of 100
m from the distance. The selected stations were located at a distance ranging from 1 km to 2.9 km from the MSW
dumpsite. Stations V and VI were located in the dumpsite itself, but in the present research paper discuss about
only Station – V, that is major dumpsite of Vishakapatanam.
STATION - V
This station is located between Longitude 17o 50” 41.78’ N and Latitude 83o 21” 57.48’ E. A bore well within the
MSW dumpsite at Kapuluppada was selected as Station V. From this point water samples were collected monthly.
The bore well was not in use for two reasons: (i) it is located aid the MSW dump (ii) Residential areas were located
at 1km and above distance. Needless to say the place in unaesthetic and unhygienic.
Fig. 1 Google earth image of study earth.
Study Area of all Six Stations

The physico-chemical analysis was done for four years at all the three stations selected for the present study. Six
samples were collected in alternate months in a year. A total of 144 samples were collected during the study period
from these six stations. The parameters studied were: pH, total dissolved solids, total hardness, chlorides, nitrates,
sulphates, phosphates, phenols, cyanide, iron, zinc, nickel, copper, chromium and cadmium. Standard procedures
of Bureau of Indian Standards (2012) were adopted for analyses of the parameters. The samples were collected in
one litre polyethylene bottles. All the parameters were analyzed within 24 h after collection of samples. The
estimated values of the parameters were expressed in mg/l, except where specifically stated. The monthly and
annual means and standard deviations were calculated for each parameter and were mentioned in the respective
tables. The water quality was assessed in the six stations. The parameters studied were: pH, Total Dissolved Solids,
Chlorides, Total Hardness, nitrates, sulphates, phenols, cyanide, lead, Iron, zinc, nickel, copper, chromium and
cadmium. The values of the parameters were expressed as mg/l except where specifically stated.
pH of Ground Water
The pH of ground water at Kapuluppada near municipal solid waste dump site was on the alkaline side. The lowest
pH recorded was 6.86 (November, 2011-12) and the highest was 7.6 (September, 2012-13). The annual mean
values of 7.1, 7.4, 7.3, and 7.2 were recorded during 2011-12, 2012-13, 2013-14 and 2014-15, respectively. Marked
seasonal variation of pH was not observed during any of the years of study. The lowest and highest annual means
as well as values of individual samples pH did never exceed the permissible limits specified by WHO and BIS.
nt & Society (N
NCWES-20188) 289

T
Table 1 pH off ground water at Kapuluppadda MSW dumppsite (Station V)
V during the stuudy Period
Sa
ampling Month
h 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15
March 6.76 6.88 6.92 7.12
May 6.82 6.90 6.96 6.88
July 6.66 6.94 7.12 7.26
September 6.94 6.82 7.04 7.18
November 7.12 7.16 7.22 7.28
January 6.86 6.82 7.34 7.24
MEAN±SD 6.86±0.1588 6.92±0.126 7.1±0.16 7.16±0.149
MEEAN
p 7.2
H
7
V
a 6.8
l
6.6
u
e 20
011‐12 2012
2‐13 2013‐14 2014‐15
s Sam
mpling Month
h
Fig. 1 Graph showing the annual means of pH of grounnd water at Kaapuluppada MS

SW dumpsite during
d the studyy period
T
Total Dissolveed Solids (mg
g/L):
The Total Dissolved Solidss (mg/L) in ground
T g water at Kapulupppada MSW duumpsite rangeed between 1345 1 mg/L
annd 1675 mg/L L with the ann nual means of 1506+92.2666 mg/L, 1490+77.902, 15550+79.722 annd 1538+69.1172 during
20011-12, 20122-13, 2013-14 4 and 2014-155, respectivelly. During thee four year sttudy, no singlle sample waas found to
haave TDS lesss than accepttable limit off 500 mg/L. November
N m
month has recorded lowestt values durinng all four
yeears of study.. The values then
t a decreasedd during rainyy season. This indicates
increasedd from winterr to summer and
thhat during rainny season thee leachate from the dumpssite gets diluteed by additionn of rain wateer and hence the values
coontinued to decrease
d m July to Noovember whiich corresponnds to the peeriod of soutth west and north east
from
m
monsoons. Thee values howwever less thann the maximuum permissiblle limit of 2000 mg/L. Thee maximum differences
d
beetween the loowest and hig ghest mean vaalues of TDS were only 600 mg/L. The bore well froom which sam mples were
udy was not in use by thee public. Theere is a clear indication off infiltration of
coollected for thhe present stu o leachate
frrom the dumppsite into the ground
g waterr.
Table 2 Total Dissolv

ved Solids (mg//l) in ground water
w at Kapuluuppada MSW dumpsite
d durinng the study perriod
Sampling
g
20111-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014--15
Month
March 1582 1523 1566 16077
May 1568 1545 1588 15566
July 14495 1476 1538 15633
Septembeer 14471 1453 1480 14722
Novembeer 1345 1362 1453 14355
January 1575 1581 1675 15955
MEAN±S
SD 1506±992.266 14490±77.902 1550±79.7222 1538±699.172
M
MEAN
1560
T 1540
D 1520
S 1500
(mg/l) 1480
1460
201
11‐12 2012‐13 2013‐14 2014‐15
Samppling Monthh
F 2 Graph shhowing the ann
Fig. nual means of Total Dissolveed Solids (mg/ll) in the groundd water at Kapuuluppada MSW
W dumpsite
during the study periood
C
Chlorides (mgg/L)
The abandoneed bore well in the Kapulluppada dum
T mpsite showedd concentrations of chloriides almost double d the
peermissible limmits, during all the 4-yeaar years of sttudy. The cooncentrations of chloridess in individuaal samples
raanged from a lowest of 45 50mg/L to a highest of 5448mg/L. The annual meanns of chloridee concentratioons ranged
beetween 495+ +34.117 to 520+26.145 inn the years 2011-12 andd 2012-13, respectively.
r The concenttrations of
chhlorides startted decreasinng with the onset
o of souuth west monnsoons continnued till the ceasure of north east
m
monsoon. Thee concentratioons started inncreasing trennd from winteer which conntinued till thhe end of sum mmer. The
hiighest concenntrations weree reported duuring summer and lowest in rainy seasoons during alll the 4 – years of study.
T decrease of
The o concentratiions is attribuuted to the raain water diluting the leachhate and as thhe infiltrationn decreases
frrom winter too summer, thee increase of chloride
c conccentrations weere witnessedd in the presennt study. Therre were no
innstances of puublic using this bore well water
w for dom
mestic use.
Table 3 Concentrations
C of Chlorides (m
mg/l) in groundd water at Kapuluppada MSW
W dumpsite duuring the study period
Sam
mpling Month 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15
March 522 540 528 536
May 536 548 532 529
July 485 496 481 493
September
S 464 481 469 476
November
N 450 524 512 516
January 513 531 514 522
MEAN±SD
M 495±34.117 520±26.145 506±25.517 512±22.969
M
MEAN
520
C
hl
o 500
ri
d
e 480
s 20
011‐12 201
12‐13 2013
3‐14 2014‐15
Samppling Monthh
Fig. 3 Graphh showing the annual
a means of
o Concentratioons of Chloridees (mg/l) in thee ground waterr at Kapuluppaada MSW
dumpsite duuring the studyy period
nt & Society (N
NCWES-20188) 291

T
Total Hardneess as CaCO3 (mg/L):
The total harddness in the bore
T b well loccated amid thhe MSW dum mp site of Kaapuluppada hash shown values much
hiigher the maxximum permiissible limit inn the absencee of alternate source i. e. 600mg/L.
6 Thee annual meaans of total
haardness rangeed between 785+51.772 annd 814+16.7992 mg/L. Thee monthly sam mples have shhown a lowesst value of
684 mg/L andd a highest vaalue of 834mgg/L recorded in the monthhs of Novembber (2011-12)) and March (2012-13),
reespectively. The
T hardness has shown a decreasing trend t from Juuly-Novemberr (rainy seasoon) thereafterr increased
frrom January to May duriing the studyy period. Thhe decrease during d rainy season was also marginaal. This is
atttributed to thhe addition off rain water ass well as mixxing of leachaate from the dumpsite,
d afteer that as the addition
a of
raain water ceassed, the total hardness conttinued to incrrease.
Table 4 Total Hardness as CaCO3 (mg/ll) in the groundd water at Kapuuluppada MSW
W dumpsite duuring the studyy period
Sam
mpling Month 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15
Marcch 821 834 821 828
May 826 829 812 821
July 797 808 796 801
Septeember 789 796 793 786
Noveember 684 795 776 784
Januaary 793 822 814 816
MEA
AN±SD 785±51.772 814±16.792 802±16.721 806±18.536
M
MEAN
820
8
T 800
8
H
780
7
760
7
2011‐1
12 2012‐13
3 2013‐14 2014‐15
Samplinng Month
Fig. nual means of Total Hardnesss (mg/l) in the ground water at Kapuluppadda MSW dumppsite during
the study period
N
Nitrates Nitroogen (as NO3-
3 N) (mg/L)
The concentraations of nitraate nitrogen in the bore well

T w located at the Kapuluuppada MSW W dump site were well
beelow the permmissible limitts of BIS, WHHO and EPA. The concenntrations varieed between a minimum off 9.34mg/L
annd 13.74mg//L recorded in the monnths of Novvember, 20111-12 and March, M 2013-114. The annnual mean
cooncentrationss varied betwween 10.86+00.683 and 12..22+1.017 mg/L. The winnter concentrrations were more than
raainy seasons.. The concen ntrations in the summer season werre also slighttly higher thhan rainy season. The
cooncentrationss, though variied slightly have
h increaseed during rainny –summer-winter in thaat order. A little higher
vaalues than staation-I – IV at station – V is due to thhe contributioon of nitrogenn by bacteriaa degrading thhe organic
m
matter present in the municipal solid wasste.
T
Table 5 Conceentrations of Nitrate
N Nitrogenn as NO3.N (mg/l) in the grouund water at thhe Kapuluppadda MSW dumpsite during
the study period
Sampliing
20111-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-115
Month
March
h 1
11.9 12.81 13.74 11.8
May 1
11.6 11.9 11.86 11.222
July 1
10.8 11.51 11.72 11.344
Septemb
ber 1
10.4 11.2 12.9 10.4
Novemb
ber 9
9.34 10.4 10.8 10.266
Januarry 1
11.6 11.9 12.3 10.144
MEAN±
±SD 10.944±0.965 11.62±0.806 12.22±1.017 10.86±0.6683
MEA
AN
13
N
i 12
t
r 11
a
t 10
e 2011‐12 2012‐13 2013‐14 2014‐15
Samppling Monthh

a means of
o Concentratioons of Nitrate Nitrogen
N (mg/ll) in the groundd water at Kapuuluppada
M
MSW dumpsitee during the stuudy period
Sulphates (mgg/L)
The concentraations of sulph
T hates in grouund water at Kapuluppada
K dump site were
w less than the acceptabble limit of
2000mg/L. The concentratio ons ranged between a miniimum of 103m mg/L and a maximum
m of 162mg/L in the
t months
off November (2011-12)
( andd March (20112-13). The annnual means varied betweeen 135+17.3008mg/L and 152+8.579
m
mg/L. The sulpphate concen ntration at preesent levels does not affectt the quality of drinking water
w and shaall not give
anny colour or odour. Sincce this bore well w is locateed amid the MSW M dump site and locaated far awayy from the
reesidential areaa, the bore weell water is noot in use for domestic
d purppose.
Table 6 Conncentrations off Sulphates (mgg/l) in the grouund water at Kaapuluppada MS

SW dumpsite during
d the studdy period
Sam
mpling Month 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15
Marrch 152 154 162 161
May
y 143 151 159 156
July
y 141 148 147 144
Sep
ptember 129 136 149 146
Nov
vember 103 129 139 120
Janu
uary 142 146 156 149
ME
EAN±SD 135±17.308 144±9.570 152±8.579 146±14.240
nt & Society (N
NCWES-20188) 293

MEEAN
155
S 150
u
l 145
p 140
h
135
a
t 130
e 125
s 2011‐1
12 2012‐13
3 2013‐14 2014‐15
Samplingg Month

a means of
o Concentratioons of Sulphatees (mg/l) in thee ground waterr at Kapuluppadda MSW
Irron (mg/l) in the Ground

d Water
The ground water
T w at Kapu
uluppada dum
mpsite showedd far less conncentrations of Iron comppared to the acceptable
limit of 3.0 mgg/l specified for
f drinking water.
w Not evven a single saample in any of the monthhs showed vallues higher
thhan the accepptable limit. The
T annual means
m of all the
t four yearss of study, thee concentratioon of iron waas far less.
T concentrattions of iron were
The w lowest during
d rainy season
s than winter
w and sum
mmer. Summ mer concentraations were
coomparatively higher than winter
w seasonn. Though thhis station is located
l amid the MSW duump site, conttamination
off iron is not inn vogue.
C s of Iron (mg/l)) in the ground water at Kapuuluppada MSW
W dumpsite during the study period
p
Sampliing
20111-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-115
Month
March
h 0..098 0.071 0.088 0.0699
May 0..072 0.068 0.068 0.0677
July 0..069 0.057 0.058 0.0499
Septemb
ber 0..061 0.058 0.062 0.0499
Novemb
ber 0..042 0.053 0.047 0.053
Januarry 0..054 0.059 0.061 0.061
MEAN±
±SD 0.0666±0.019 0
0.061±0.006 0.064±0.013 0.058±0.0008
M
MEAN
0.07
I 0.065
r
o 0.06
n 0.055
0.05
2011
1‐12 2012‐1
13 2013‐14 2014‐15
Samplling Month
Fig. nual means of Concentrations
C s of Iron (mg/l)) in the groundd water at Kapuluppada MSW
W dumpsite
during the study periood
Z
Zinc (mg/l) in
n the Ground
d Water
The concentraations of Zincc in the grounnd water at thhe MSW dum
T mpsite at Kappuluppada were very low and a all the
m
monthly valuees were < 0.05 mg/l wheree as the accepptable limit specified
s by BIS
B (2012) was
w 5 mg/l. The T lowest
cooncentration of Zinc recorrded among all the monthss was 0.009 mg/lm and the highest
h was 0..045 mg/l. Thhere was a
naarrow differeence in the annnual mean concentrations
c s of Zinc witth a minimum m of 0.024 mg/l
m and a maaximum of
0.032. The cooncentration of Zinc in thhe ground waater of this staation is not harmful
h and cannot
c bring about any
chhange in the taste
t of waterr and hence pootability of grround water iss not affectedd.
C of Zinc (mg/l) in the groundd water at Kapuuluppada MSW
W dumpsite durring the study period
Samplin
ng
2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-115
Monthh
March
h 0.0045 0.042 0.019 0.0366
May 0.0038 0.037 0.028 0.0344
July 0.0031 0.038 0.031 0.0288
Septemb
ber 0.0029 0.031 0.029 0.031
Novemb
ber 0.0009 0.018 0.011 0.0222
January
y 0.0016 0.026 0.026 0.0299
MEAN±S
SD ±0.013
0.028± 0.032±0.008 0.024±0.00755 0.030±0.004
MEEAN
0.04
z 0.03
i
0.02
n
c 0.01
0
201
11‐12 2012‐13 2013‐14 2014‐15
Samplinng Month
Fig. 8 Grapph showing thee annual meanss of Concentraations of Zinc (mg/l)
( in the ground
g water at Kapuluppadaa MSW
P
PHENOLS
The phenols inn the water saamples at all the
T t six stationns were preseent only “Beloow Detectablle Limit” (BD
DL). None
off the monthlyy samples had
d phenols duriing the periodd of study.
C
Cyanide, Lead
d, Nickel, Co
opper, Chrom
mium and Caadmium
The concentraations of cyaanide in the water samples at all thhe six stationns were “Bellow Detectabble Limit”
T
(B
BDL).The meetals and metaalloids such as a Lead, Nickeel, Copper, Chromium
C andd Cadmium were
w “not Deteectable” in
anny of the six stations,
s durin
ng the entire study
s period.
A
Annual Mean
ns of the Grou
und Water Quality
Q Param
meters at Kaapuluppada MSW
M dumpsite
Station V was a bore well located
l withinn the dumpsiite at Kapulupppada. Dumpping was starrted in 2004 at a this site.
Inn order to esttablish the fo
ormation andd dispersion of
o leachate, anda its impact on ground water, this sttation was
seelected. The bore well waater is not in use
u by publicc. The qualitty of ground water
w is assesssed. The pH of ground
w
water ranged between
b 7.1 and
a 7.4 with a combined meanm of 7.4. The
T water at this
t station was
w slightly allkaline and
thhe pH was within the perm missible range of 6.5 – 8.5 (BIS-2012)
( sppecified for drinking
d waterr.
Total Dissoolved Solids (TDS)
( have exxceeded the acceptable
a mit of 500 mgg/l but within the permissibble limit of
lim
20000 mg/l. Thhe lowest con ncentration of TDS were recorded
r duriing 2012-13 (1490 mg/l) and
a highest wasw during

2013-14 (1550 mg/l) with a combined mean of 1532 mg/l during the 4 year study period. The TDS will affect the
palatability beyond 500 mg/l and may cause gastrointestinal irritation. The water at this site at the reported levels
of TDS is not fit for drinking.
The concentrations of Chlorides have exceeded the acceptable limit of 250 mg/l. The lowest annual mean
recorded in the study was 495 mg/l and highest was 520 mg/l with a combined mean for the study period of 509
mg/l. The chlorides beyond 250 mg/l will interfere with taste, palatability and cause corrosion. However a
maximum permissible limit upto 1000 mg/l under no alternate source was given by BIS (2012). Though the
ground water at Kapullupada dumpsite has high chloride concentration than the acceptable limit, the values were
lesser when compared to the maximum permissible limit of 1000 mg/l. Hence the ground water at this station can
be used only in the absence of alternate source.
The total hardness was very high at Station V when compared with the acceptable limit of 200 mg/l. The
hardness recorded in this station varied between a minimum annual mean of 785 mg/l and a maximum of 814 mg/l
with a combined mean of 810 mg/l. The hardness at this station not only exceeded the acceptable limit but also
has exceeded the maximum permissible limit (600 mg/l). When hardness is considered, the water is unfit for
drinking and other domestic uses. The nitrate concentration were within the acceptable limit of 45 mg/l and fairly
low. The annual means during the study period ranged from a minimum of 10.86 mg/l and a maximum of 12.22
mg/l with a combined mean of 11.65 mg/l. At these levels, the nitrates in ground water at this station does not
interfere with potability of water. However, this bore well has not been in use for a long time.
The concentrations of sulphates were within the permissible limit of 200 mg/l (BIS, 2012). The lowest annual
mean recorded during the 4 year study period was 135 mg/l (2011-12) and the highest was 152 (2013-14) with a
combined mean of 146 mg/l. Sulphates generally cause gastrointestinal irritation when magnesium or sodium was
present. Though presently the ground water has lesser sulphates there is a chance of sulphate concentrations
exceeding the acceptable limit in near future as the current mean is about 75% of the acceptable limit.
The iron concentrations were far below the acceptable limit of 0.3 mg/l (BIS, 2012). The annual means of the
study period varied between 0.058 mg/l and 0.066 mg/l in 2014-15 and 2011-12 respectively, with a combined
mean of 0.062 mg/l. The currently there is not chance of contamination of ground water by iron, unless a specific
source of iron were added at the dump and leached into ground water.
The concentrations of zinc were fairly low in the bore well at dumpsite. The Zinc concentration was always
below 0.05. The lowest annual mean recorded was 0.024 mg/l and 0.032 mg/l in 2013-14 and 2012-13,
respectively, with a combined mean of 0.027. This shows that the MSW does not bear any source of Zinc and the
zinc at the recorded concentrations does not cause any astringent taste to ground water. The phenols and cyanides
were present in below detectable limits while lead, copper, Nickel, Chromium and cadmium were not detected in
any of the samples. The Total Dissolved Solids, Chlorides and total hardness were higher than the acceptable
limits. The TDS was higher than acceptable limit but lesser than maximum permissible limits, while total hardness
was higher than the maximum permissible limits. All other parameters were within the permissible limits in the
ground water at Kapuluppada Municipal Dump site.
Table 9 Annual Mean Concentrations of different water quality parameters compared with BIS Standards
Sl. No. Parameter` 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 Mean BIS STANDARD
1 pH 7.1 7.4 7.3 7.2 7.4 6.5-8.5
2 Total Dissolved Solids 1506 1490 1550 1538 1532 500 mg/l
3 Chlorides 495 520 506 512 509 250 mg/l
4 Total hardness as CaCO3 785 814 802 806 810 200 mg/l
5 Nitrates Nitrogen (as NO3-N) 10.94 11.62 12.22 10.86 11.65 45 mg/l
6 Sulphates 135 144 152 146 146 200 mg/l
7 Phenols BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL 0.001 mg/l
8 Cyanide BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL 0.05 mg/l
9 Lead as Pb ND ND ND ND ND 0.05 mg/l
10 Iron as Fe 0.066 0.061 0.064 0.058 0.062 0.3 mg/l
Table 9 contd…
Sl. No. Parameter` 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 Mean BIS STANDARD
11 Zinc 0.028 0.032 0.024 0.030 0.027 5 mg/l
12 Nickel ND ND ND ND ND -
13 Copper ND ND ND ND ND 0.05 mg/l
14 Chromium ND ND ND ND ND 0.05 mg/l
15 Cadmium as Cd ND ND ND ND ND 0.01 mg/l
The phenols and cyanides were present in below detectable limits where as Lead, Nickel, Copper, Chromium
and Cadmium were not detected in any of the samples at all the six stations.
DISCUSSION
The ground water at Visakhapatnam occurs in all the geological formation. Ground water occurs under unconfined
and semi confined conditions in the hard rock formations while it occurs under unconfined to confined conditions
in soft formations.
The composition of MSW and leachate change from place to place and a seasonal change of composition was
also reported. The dumped solid wastes gradually release its initial interstitial water and some of its decomposition
by products gets into water moving through the waste deposit. This complex liquid is known as leachate. This
leachate accumulates at the bottom of the landfill and percolates through the Soil. Areas near to landfill have a
greater possibility of ground water contamination. Such contaminations of ground water contamination pose a
substantial risk to local resource user to the environment (Zhu et al., 2008).
Open dumps are generally smelly and unsightly. These dumpsites attract the animals, rats, pigs, insects and
other pests. In the solid waste many different type of chemicals present like detergents, inorganic chemicals, toxics,
complex organic chemicals and metals. These components are themselves very much toxic for the environment and
additionally uncontrolled microbial action may result in release of more toxic elements which were not present in a
free or reactive form in the waste. During the season of rainfall the infiltration of water slightly occurs, and the
water also available in waste and that water find its way to the ground water and cause the contamination. In India
more than 60 million populations suffer from fluorides by drinking flouride contaminated water.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The results of the present study revealed that the total dissolved solids, total hardness and chlorides were in very
concentrations. These parameters, though not directly affect the human health, indicate the increase of ions in the
ground water through leachate contamination. The Kapuluppada dumpsite is a landfill and not scientifically
designed. Hence, to prevent future contamination of heavy metals and organic and inorganic materials, the
following recommendations are made:
1. A sanitary landfill site shall be planned, designed and developed with proper documentation of construction
plan as well as closure plan in a phased manner.
2. Waste processing units should be permitted in the vicinity.
3. A state of the art incineration plant shall be established to minimize solid waste problem.
4. A buffer zone of no development shall be maintained around solid waste dumping and disposal facility.
5. Special attention must be paid not to allow the biomedical waste to mix with MSW.
6. Steps must be taken to segregate e-waste from MSW.
7. A proper leachate collection system should be installed with immediate effect.
8. Approach roads must be either concretized or black topped to minimize the fugitive dust.
9. The Landfilling must be compacted using heavy compactors
10. A vermicomposting unit must be developed as an integral part at the edge of the dump site.
11. Steps must be taken to prevent entry of stray cattle which feed on the vegetable waste and paper/cellulose
material packed in polythene bags.
12. Proper drainage system shall be provided to divert run-off away from the active cell of the landfill.
13. A monitoring system should be established at the dump for analysis of landfill gases and leachate quality.

14. Preferably a land fill gas recovery system be established.
15. Care must be taken not to permit open dug wells in the surrounding villages, as the shallow waters are prone
early for contamination.
16. A Permeable Reactive Barriers (PRB) Technology for in situ ground water remediation shall also be
considered, that passively capture a plume of contaminants and removes or breakdowns the contaminants,
finally releasing uncontaminated water.
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SPATIAL VARIATION OF ONSET AND WITHDRAWAL OF MONSOON IN
AKOLA DISTRICT OF WESTERN VIDHARBHA REGION
G. U. Satpute1, Shivakumar Anna2, S. M. Apturkar3 and N. G. Patil4

1
Department of Soil and Water Conservation Engg., Dr. P. D. K. V., Akola
gusatpute@gmail.com
2
M. Tech. Student, Department of Soil & Water Conser. Engg., Dr. PDKV., Akola
Anna.shivakumar@gmail.com
3
Associate Scientist, Maharashtra Remote Sensing Application Centre, Nagpur
Sanjay.apturkar@mrsac.maharashtra.gov.in
4-Principle Scientist, NBSS&LUP, Nagpur
Patil44minakshi@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The knowledge of onset of effective monsoon (OEM), its withdrawal and distribution of seasonal rainfall during
monsoon months are essential for better crop planning and management of farming in rainfed area. Daily rainfall
data for the period 1998 to 2015 were analyzed for different talukas of Akola district according to Ashok Raj
(1979) for the study of OEM, withdrawal of monsoon and spatial variation maps for both of these parameters
were developed. The average monsoon seasonal rainfall in different taluka of Akola district varied from 713.91
mm to 852.26 mm with the coefficient of variation of 26 to 38 per cent. The mean dates of onset and withdrawal
of effective monsoon varied from 20th to 30th June and 20th September to 1st October respectively at different
taluka places in Akola district. Spatial variation maps for mean dates of onset and withdrawal of effective
monsoon in Akola district were prepared which can be used for crop planning of the region. The mean date of
starting of different category critical dry spells (CDS) varied in different monsoon months from 18 to 22 June,
16 to 22 July, 15 to 17 August and 12 to 16 September at different taluka places in Akola district. This
information regarding OEM, withdrawal of monsoon and dry spells can be very much useful for selection of
crop varieties in different villages of various talukas of the district.
Keywords: Onset of effective monsoon, Withdrawal of monsoon, Spatial variation, Critical dry spells
INTRODUCTION
Agriculture plays a dominant role in life of majority of the rural population. In Indian situation, spatial and
temporal variation of monsoon rainfall adversely affects the crop production. The greatest risk in agriculture
production is attributed to the variability of seasonal rainfall, uncertainty in the amount of rainfall and its
distribution in a given rainfed region. Among the various soil tracks in India, dry farming region face the greatest
drought hazard and characterized by low and uncertain crop yields. Occurrence of drought is a recurring
phenomenon in different parts of Vidharbha region in Maharashtra state. In the recent years with large scale
utilization of water resources, there is a need for judicious use of available rainwater for better crop management
and to minimize drought risk in rainfed agriculture.
The important characteristics of rainfall influencing agricultural production from rainfed areas are the date of
onset of effective monsoon, duration of dry spells, time of occurrence of dry spells, and number of rainy days
(Abuj et al., 2011). Knowledge of dry spells is important for crop planning in the given area and for planning of
drought mitigation measures. Due to erratic and irregular rainfall pattern, crops suffer seriously and there is also a
risk of crop failure under aberrant weather situation (Satpute and Singh, 2007). There is a need for identifying onset
of effective monsoon as the commencement of crop sowing rains in the district which is different from the
premonsoon showers. Premonsoon rains cannot be considered as effective monsoon for agricultural operations,
particularly for sowing of kharif crops because these rains if followed by a long dry spell, may affect the
germination of seeds resulting in crop failure when sowings are undertaken immediately after premonsoon
showers. This study was conducted to generate information on spatial variation of onset and withdrawal of
monsoon at taluka level and to study occurrence of dry spells in the district.
299
MATERIAL AND METHODS

The study of determination of OEM and its withdrawal at taluka level was undertaken in Akola district which is
situated between north latitude 20.17° to 21.16°, east longitude 76.70° to 77.40° and at an altitude of 307 m above
MSL. The district has a geographical area of 5428 sq. km in western Vidharbha region of Maharashtra state. The
daily rainfall data from 1998 to 2015 recorded at 7 taluka stations in Akola district and for different taluka stations
surrounding to Akola district from Amaravati, Buldhana and Washim districts were obtained from the website of
Maharashtra State Government (http://www.mahaagri.gov.in/raifall). Daily pan evaporation data available for
Akola station for study period was obtained from Agro-Meteorological, Observatory, Department of Agronomy,
Dr. P.D.K.V., Akola.
Onset of effective monsoon
The date of onset and end of effective monsoon was estimated by using daily rainfall data of different taluka places
and the concept developed by Ashok Raj (1979) for onset of effective monsoon and for dry spells was adopted.
According to this concept, the date of commencement of a seven days spell satisfying following three criteria was
taken as the date of onset of effective monsoon.
i. The first day’s rain in the seven day spell should be more than the average daily evaporation (e) of the place.
ii. The total rain during the seven days spell should be at least 5e + 10 mm.
iii. At least four out of these seven days should be rainy day(s) having rainfall more than or equal to 2.5 mm.
Withdrawal of monsoon
The withdrawal of monsoon was decided as the end of last wet spell in the last week of September, which may
sometimes extend upto middle of October depending upon the delayed pattern of withdrawal of Northwest winds in
respective years.
Determination of dry spells
The dry spells were determined using the criteria suggested by Ashok Raj (1979). The interval between the end of
onset of effective monsoon which begins with the days without rainfall and another rainy day with 5e mm or more
of rain or the commencement of another 7 days spell satisfying the third criteria stated earlier, with a total rainfall
of 5e mm or more during this spell is called as the first dry spell. If the duration of such dry spell exceeds a certain
value depending on the crop-soil complex of the region, this dry spell is called as the first critical dry spell;
otherwise this spell is included in the first wet spell with the beginning of OEM. Likewise subsequent critical dry
spells were determined by considering the minimum duration limit of dry spell as 11 days for this region according
to Pawade (1982).

Seasonal rainfall analysis
The monsoon seasonal rainfall during kharif season was estimated by taking the total of daily rainfall received from
June to September or October considering the withdrawal of monsoon. The seasonal rainfall for different taluka
places in Akola district for 18 years from 1998 to 2015 is presented in Table 1.
Table 1 Seasonal rainfall (mm) at different talukas in Akola district
Taluka places in Akola district

Years
Akola Akot Telhara Balapur Patur Barshitakli Murtizapur
1998 933 1109.8 1008.9 1316 998 977.5 702.16
1999 1081.7 1271.5 936.2 1402.6 945 874.7 617.3
2000 667.8 616 659.8 801.1 645 685.3 621
2001 915 1113.2 1227.4 854.3 759.7 914.2 758
2002 726.2 593.4 690.5 772.5 1304.1 1011 745
2003 422.1 721.2 789.4 463.3 1211 661.5 515.5
2004 460.4 408 329.1 448.6 883.3 501.6 483.1
Table 1 contd…
Years Taluka places in Akola district

Akola Akot Telhara Balapur Patur Barshitakli Murtizapur
2006 1087.8 838.2 865.1 837.3 1170.2 1207.5 991.9
2007 753.6 934.2 963.6 610.6 932.1 928 1012.9
2008 630.7 584.7 510.3 535.4 546 568.8 499.3
2009 692.7 811.6 751.8 567 873 746.9 535
2010 1014.3 958.7 775.1 669.8 731 966.1 975.8
2011 661 728.8 521.1 483 454 614.2 881.7
2012 783.3 1021 812.9 649.6 744.1 893.8 894.3
2013 891.3 919.5 1030.9 862.3 1102.7 897.7 930.7
2014 566.2 634 496.7 478.1 592.3 418.8 557.3
2015 570.7 521.3 481.6 602.8 585.7 524.3 570.8
Average 752.93 805.82 755.35 713.91 852.26 784.58 729.48
C.V 26 29 31 38 29 27 26
It is revealed from Table 1 that the average seasonal rainfall in different talukas of the Akola district ranges
from 713.91 to 852.26 mm with coefficient of variation in the range of 26 to 38 per cent. Akola experiences highest
seasonal rainfall (1087.8 mm) during 2006. The highest average seasonal rainfall was observed at Patur (852.26
mm) followed by Akot (805.82 mm). Amongst different talukas, Balapur shows highest coefficient of variation of
38 per cent. The dates of onset and withdrawal of monsoon during the study period at Akola taluka is presented in
Table 2. The onset of effective monsoon varies from 9th June to 19th July. The mean date of onset of effective
monsoon for Akola taluka was found to be 20th June with a standard deviation of 12 days. The earliest and delayed
probable OEM date (at 68 % probability) is 8th June and 20th June respectively. The withdrawal date of effective
monsoon in Akola taluka was observed in between 27th August to 22th October. The earliest and delayed probable
date of withdrawal of monsoon at 68 % probability varies from 12th Sept. to 14th October. The mean date of
withdrawal of monsoon is 28th September.
Table 2 Dates of onset and withdrawal of effective monsoon for Akola taluka
Year Effective monsoon date

Onset Withdrawal
1998 14-June 27-Sept.
1999 12-June 08-Oct.
2000 30-June 27-Aug.
2001 09-June 11-Oct.
2002 19-June 17-Oct.
2003 17-June 17-Oct.
2004 10-June 22-Sept.
2005 19-July 15-Oct.
2006 16-June 22-Sept.
2007 14-June 08-Sept.
2008 21-June 21-Sept.
2009 28-June 07-Oct.
2010 16-June 22-Oct.
2011 07- July 15-Sept.
Table 2 contd…
Year Effective monsoon date

Onset Withdrawal
2012 16-June 04-Oct.
2013 10-June 04-Oct.
2014 16-Jule 08-Sept.
2015 12-June 19-Sept.
Mean 20-June 28-Sept.
The results from the analyzed daily rainfall data for remaining talukas of Akola district (Table 3) revealed that,
the onset of effective monsoon in Akot taluka varies from 8th June to 29th July with mean date of onset of effective
monsoon as 25th June (SD = 15 days). The earliest and delayed probable date (P = 68 %) of OEM is 10th June and
10th July respectively and the withdrawal date of monsoon varies in between 14th September and 12th October. The
mean date of withdrawal of monsoon is 28th September. Similar results can be observed for remaining talukas of
Akola distrct.
Table 3 Average date of onset and withdrawal of effective monsoon at different taluka places in Akola district
Date of withdrawal of effective

Date of onset of effective monsoon
Taluka place monsoon
Earliest Mean Delayed Earliest Mean Delayed

Akola 08-Jun 20-Jun 02-Jul 12-Sep 28-Sep 14-Oct
Akot 10-Jun 25-Jun 10-Jul 14-Sep 28-Sep 12-Oct
Balapur 12-Jun 26-Jun 10-Jul 10-Sep 25-Sep 10-Oct
Barshitakli 12-Jun 23-Jun 04-Jul 16-Sep 01-Oct 16-Oct
Murtizapur 14-Jun 30-Jun 16-Jul 12-Sep 27-Sep 12-Oct
Patur 10-Jun 26-Jun 12-Jul 09-Sep 26-Sep 13-Oct
Telhara 14-Jun 28-Jun 12-Jul 02-Sep 20-Sep 08-Oct
The variation in average dates of onset of effective monsoon and withdrawal of monsoon at different taluka
places of Akola district as presented in Table 3 indicated 10 days and 11 days respectively.
Critical dry spell analysis
The duration of dry spells in Akola taluka as presented in Table 4, revealed that it varied from 10 to 49 days in
different monsoon months. The total number of dry spells in Akola taluka varied from one to four during different
years of the study period. The average number of critical dry spells (CDS) at Akola taluka is 2. The average CDS in
different monsoon months starts from June, 19 with duration of 24 days, July, 18 with duration of 19 days, August,
16 with duration of 22 days and September, 21 with duration of 20 days. Similarly, the critical dry spells in
different taluka places in Akola district also varies from 1 to 4 in number with an average of 2 CDS, which are in
confirmation with the results of Kolhe (1988). The mean critical dry spells dates during different monsoon months
at different talukas of Akola district are presented in Table 5.
Table 4 Critical dry spell distribution during different years in Akola taluka
Year Critical dry spells (CDS) in different monsoon months

No. of
June July August September
CDS
Date Days Date Days Date Days Date Days
Aug-05 21
1998 Jul-13 14 Sep-28 42 4
Aug-27 12
1999 Jun-25 11 Aug-15 24 Sep-23 15 3
Table 4 contd…
Year
Critical dry spells (CDS) in different monsoon months No. of
CDS
2001 Jun-16 49 Aug-25 37 2
Jul-02 17
2002 Sep-07 40 3
Jul-20 19
Jul-01 14
2003 Aug-30 25 Sep-30 17 4
Jul-21 32
2004 Jun-20 34 Aug-15 24 Sep-10 12 3
2005 Aug-10 36 Sep-23 22 2
2006 Jul-06 12 Aug-18 17 2
2007 Jul-12 13 Aug-12 10 2
2008 Aug-15 16 1
2009 Jul-29 22 Aug-26 34 2
Sep-09 15
2010 Aug-03 10 3
Sep-26 21
2011 Jul-28 27 1
Sep-12 10
2012 Jun-20 10 3
Sep-23 10
Aug-04 17
2013 Sep-23 11 3
Aug-30 17
2014 Jul-29 22 1
2015 Jun-24 27 Aug-10 28 2
Mean Jun-19 24 Jul-18 19 Aug-16 22 Sep-21 20 2
The results presented in Table 5 revealed that, the number of critical dry spells at Akot station varies from 1 to 3
during different years. The average number of CDS comes out to be 2. At Balapur station, the number of critical
dry spells varies from 1 to 4 during different years. The average number of CDS comes out to be 2 and the CDS
during different monsoon months starts from June, 20 having mean duration of 24 days, July, 16 having mean
duration of 19 days, August, 13 having mean duration of 24 days and September, 14 having mean duration of 22
days.
Table 5 Mean starting date and duration (days) of critical dry spells during monsoon months in different talukas of
Akola district
Mean critical dry spells(CDS) during monsoon months

Taluka No. of
places CDS
Akola Jun-19 24 Jul-18 19 Aug-16 22 Sept-21 20 2
Akot Jun-20 16 Jul-16 19 Aug-16 20 Sept-14 26 2
Balapur Jun-20 24 Jul-16 19 Aug-13 24 Sept-14 22 2
Barshitakli Jun-19 18 Jul-18 18 Aug-16 22 Sept-16 23 3
Murtizapur Jun-22 23 Jul-22 17 Aug-13 23 Sept-15 22 2
Patur Jun-22 18 Jul-18 16 Aug-15 19 Sept-15 31 2
Telhara Jun-18 17 Jul-19 18 Aug-17 24 Sept-12 24 2
Spatial variation in date of onset of effective monsoon

The spatial variation of mean date of onset of effective monsoon at different taluka places in Akola district is
shown in Figure 1.
Fig. 1 Spatial variation in mean date of onset of effective monsoon in different talukas of Akola district
The pattern of average starting dates of onset of effective monsoon in different talukas of Akola district as
depicted in Figure 1, clearly indicates a common pattern of early start of onset of monsoon in central part of the
Akola district i.e. Akola taluka between 18th to 22nd June and later it moves toward both side covering remaining
talukas of Akola district between 23rd June to 1st July. Such spatial information on variation in starting of rainy
season can be useful for planning of land preparation work, seed material availability and rainfed crop sowing
operations and crop planning in general in different talukas of Akola district.
Spatial variation in withdrawal dates of monsoon
The variation in mean date of withdrawal of monsoon at different taluka places in Akola district is shown in Figure
2. The pattern of mean withdrawal of monsoon dates in different talukas of Akola district as depicted in Figure 2,
clearly indicates a trend of early withdrawal of monsoon from central part of Akola district consisting of Telhara
and northern part of Balapur talukas between 19th to 23rd September and later it withdraws from eastward side
covering remaining talukas between 24th September to 1st October and lately in Barshitakli taluka after 1st October.
The information on end of monsoon season can be used for deciding the need of protective irrigation required for
Kharif crops and pre sowing irrigation to Rabi crops during early withdrawal years while the area under delayed
withdrawal of monsoon can be suitably used for sowing of Rabi rainfed crops on residual soil moisture.
Fig. 2 Spatial variation in mean date of withdrawal of monsoon in different talukas of Akola district
Spatial variation in average monsoon duration

The spatial variation of average monsoon duration in Akola district is depicted in Figure 3.
Fig. 3 Spatial variation in average monsoon duration at different talukas in Akola district
The duration of monsoon is the period between onset of effective monsoon and withdrawal of monsoon for
corresponding years. From Figure 3, it is revealed that average monsoon duration (in days) at different talukas of
Akola district ranges from 85 days to more than 105 days and smallest duration of less than 85 days was mostly
observed in northern part of Balapur taluka. On an average the monsoon duration was found to be more than 105
days only in Barshitakli taluka of Akola district.
CONCLUSIONS
The mean dates of onset and withdrawal of effective monsoon varied from 20th to 30th June and 20th September to
1st October respectively at different taluka places in Akola district. The spatial variation maps for mean dates of
onset of effective monsoon and mean dates of withdrawal of effective monsoon in Akola district were prepared
which can be used for crop planning of the region. The mean date of starting of different category critical dry spells
(CDS) varied in different monsoon months from 18 to 22 June, 16 to 22 July, 13 to 17 August and 12 to 21
September at different taluka places in Akola district. The average monsoon duration at different talukas of Akola
district ranges from 85 days to more than 105 days. This information regarding monsoon duration and critical dry
spell can be very much useful for selection of crop varieties in different villages of various talukas of the district.
REFERENCES
1. Abuj M. D., A.P. Magar, V.T. Bombale, P.G. Popale and S.A. Birajdar, (2011). Rainfall and dry spell analysis for beed
district, Engineering & Technology in India, Volume 2 (1& 2); April & October, 2011: 37-42.
2. Ashok Raj P.C. (1979). Onset of effective monsoon and critical dry spells. A computer based forecasting technique:
IARI Bulletin No. II, WTC, IARI, New Delhi:8-12 .
3. Kolhe, N. R. (1988). Dry spell probability analysis and its application to crop development stages. M. Tech. Thesis.
Unpublished submitted to PGI, Dr. PDKV, Akola: 45-55.
4. Pawade, M. N. (1982). Optimum utilization of water resources in Agriculture Watersheds. An unpublished Ph. D. thesis
submitted to the faculty of the Post Graduate School, IARI, New-Delhi: 145.
5. Satpute G. U. and R. V. Singh, (2007). Dry spell analysis and crop planning for Nagpur region. Proceedings of 41st
Annual convection and symposium of ISAE held at Junagadh, January 29-31, 2007: 2.9.
OPTIMAL WATER MANAGEMENT MODELLING FOR WATER SUPPLY
AND HYDROPOWER
Shahbaz Sida1 and Geeta S. Joshi2

1
Post Graduate Research Scholar, 2Associate Professor,
Civil Engineering Department Faculty of Technology and Engineering, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara.
ABSTRACT
This paper presents the reservoir operation study using simulation model for the reservoir operation under two
operational strategies for the multipurpose single reservoir project namely, Sardar Sarovar Project, Gujarat.
Sardar Sarovar Project is to be operated as per the guidelines given in NWDT award and is to be operated under
integrated operation with upstream reservoirs. However, in this paper, the case is assumed as considering Sardar
Sarovar dam to be operated as a single reservoir with the inflows as per historical data. The monthly inflows
data from the year 1948 to 2017 have been analysed. There are two strategies considered for the reservoir
operation. Strategy 1 considers the releases for riparian rights at priority than the releases for water supply and
then after surplus water be diverted for hydropower generation. While strategy 2 considers the riparian rights at
priority then water supply releases into the canal and then after firm power releases for firm power generation
and consequently surplus water be diverted for hydropower generation.
The performance indicator parameters evaluated over the operational horizon/period of the simulation are:
1. Reliability to fulfill the water supply demand, 2. Annual Hydropower energy produced, 3. Firm power.
The results are obtained for strategy 1 considering historical monthly inflows data series of 70 years i.e.
1948-2017 and monthly inflows data series of 15 years i.e. 2002-2017. Strategy 2 is evaluated for historical
monthly data series of 15 years i.e. 2002-2017. The trade-offs have been generated between total energy
produced through riverbed power house and water supply reliabilities for various values of firm power releases
for strategy 2, and the optimal value of the firm power releases have been obtained for strategy 2. It is found that
the firm power produced through riverbed power house increases significantly under strategy 2 in comparison to
strategy 1, without compromising the water supply reliability. The model so developed for these strategies and
their results under each strategy may be useful for the similar project for planning and decision-making process
for releases for various purposes, while operating as single reservoir.
Keywords: Simulation model, canal, Hydropower energy.
INTRODUCTION
Reservoir operation is one of the challenging task for water resources planners and managers. For optimal
utilization of the available resources, it is necessary to employ a scientific approach to plan and operate the existing
reservoir (Jothiprakash, V. and Ganesans, S. 2005). There is significant variability in the temporal and spatial
distribution of rainfall in India, resulting in a high variation of runoff in the rivers. This causes the challenges for
the efficient operation of the multipurpose single reservoir in India (Jain et al. 1998). There is an immense need to
formulate strategies to utilize the available resources effectively and efficiently. The necessity for proper
management and optimum utilization of available water is gaining importance with the increase in population,
industrialization and rapid urbanization. An optimum operation procedure is needed for the purpose of planning
and management of a complex water resources system. (Jothiprakash, V. and Ganesans, S. 2005).
Simulation models for reservoir operation studies generally permit detailed and realistic representation of the
complex characteristics of the reservoir system. Concepts of Simulation are easier to understand and communicate
than other modelling concepts (Chang, J. et al. 2005). The simulation models associated with reservoir operation
are usually based on mass-balance and tracking the movement of water through a reservoir-stream system. These
models are often used with historical stream-flow records (Jain et al. 1998). The first publications documenting
research in developing reservoir system simulation were produced by the Harvard Water Program (Mass et al.
1962). A widely used reservoir simulation model is the HEC-5 model, developed by the Hydrologic Engineering
Centre of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (HEC 1991).
306
Chang J. et al. (2005) developed a simulation model for the Yellow River upstream project in china to train the
neural network model to derive reservoir operation rules. Jain et al. (1998) carried out a reservoir operation study
for the Sabarmati River System, India, using the historical observed flows, and developed a judicious operation
policy for conservation and flood control using simulation techniques. Rosbjerg D et al. (2007) set up control
strategies in MIKE 11 simulation model to guide the releases for of reservoir system based on the current storage
level, the hydro-meteorological conditions, and the time of the year to optimise control strategies for the Hoa Binh
reservoir operation. Hu T. et al (2014) developed a simulation-optimization model for a multi-reservoir system,
including a water transfer-supply project, located in northern China.
In this study simulation model is developed for the multipurpose single reservoir of Sardar Sarovar Project on
river Narmada in Gujarat under two reservoir operation strategies to evaluate the performance of the system under
different operational constraint for available historical inflow data and to set up the reservoir operation strategy for
optimal water management for water supply and hydropower generation. The performance of the system under
simulation over operation horizon is evaluated by using the performance indicator parameters i.e. water supply
reliability, annually energy produced and available firm power at different percentage time reliability.
DESCRIPTION OF SARDAR SAROVAR PROJECT

The Sardar Sarovar Project (SSP) is an interstate, multipurpose joint venture of four states, viz., Gujarat, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra and Rajasthan, with a terminal dam on river Narmada in the state of Gujarat. It is the largest
water resources development project in India (SSNNL, 2000). The project consists of a concrete gravity dam across
the Narmada River at 5.6 km u/s of Navagam village of Bharuch District, in the state of Gujarat, India. The dam
facilitates for hydropower generation from River Bed Power House and Canal Head Power House and an extensive
canal system network. The project provides irrigation benefits to about 2 million ha of cultivable command area out
of 3.5 million ha of gross command area enveloping about 3400 drought prone villages in Gujarat State (SSNNL,
2017).
The River Bed Power House (RBPH) has an installed capacity of 1200 MW which is an underground power
house stationed on the right bank of the river located about 165 meters downstream of the dam. It has six number
of Francis type reversible turbine generators each of 200 MW installed capacity. The Canal Head Power House
(CHPH) is a surface power station in a saddle dam on the right bank of the reservoir with a total installed capacity
of 250 MW (5 x 50 MW). These units can be operated with minimum reservoir water level of EL 110.64 meters
(SSNNL, 2017).
WATER SUPPLY RELIABILITY

The parameter Water Supply Reliability have been introduced as a measure of the volume of water that can be
provided for industrial, domestic, and irrigation purposes from the reservoir for a trial(known) decision policy and
it can be defined as:
Water Supply Reliability is the ratio of average annual volume of water released for industrial, domestic, and
irrigation purposes from a reservoir within a planning period to the demand of water for industrial, domestic, and
irrigation requirements for reservoirs in a system (Joshi G. S. and Gupta K. 2009)
SIMULATION MODEL
In the present study, simulation model is developed using Mass Balance Equation. Mass balance is the simply the
change in the storage of water into the reservoir due to inflow of water into reservoir and releases and losses from
the reservoir (Sharma V. and Joshi G.S., 2016). Mass balance equation used in this study for reservoir system is as
below.
St+1 = St + It – Rpt – Dt – Et – Ot …..(1)
where, St+1 is the Final storage at the end of month t in MCM, St is the Initial storage at the starting of month t in
MCM, It is the Inflow during the month t in MCM, Rpt is the River releases for riparian rights on d/s during
month t in MCM, Dt is the demands for various purposes during month t in MCM, Et is the Evaporation loss
in the reservoir during month t in MCM, Ot is the Surplus from the reservoir if any during month t in MCM.
In the reservoir system inflow of water is as inflow from the upstream, precipitation into the reservoir etc. and
the outflow of water is as release of water for various purposes i.e. domestic, industrial, irrigation, hydropower
generation etc. and losses in evaporation into the atmosphere and seepage of water into the ground from the
reservoir etc.
In this study, for simulating the behaviour of the reservoir under a known strategy of operation, mass balance
equation is used under constraints as shown below.
1. Storage Constraint i.e. the storage of the reservoir in any month should not be more than the allowable
maximum storage capacity of the reservoir termed as full reservoir level (FRL) and also should not be less
than the dead storage capacity (MDDL) for corresponding time period and it is given by,
Smin ≤ St ≤ Smax …..(2)
where, Smin is the storage capacity of reservoir at Minimum Draw Down Level (MDDL) in MCM and
Smax is the storage capacity of reservoir at FRL in MCM.
2. Release constraint i.e. the releases for various purposes (Rt) should not exceed to the actual demand for
corresponding time period and it is shown by equation as given below,
Rt ≤ Dt ….. (3)
Where, Dt is the actual demand of water for various purposes from the reservoir.
3. Overflow constraint i.e. overflow or spill should not exceed to the difference of month -end storage of
reservoir after receiving the inflow and releasing water from it to the allowable maximum water storage
capacity of the reservoir for corresponding time period and it is given by,
Ot = St+1 – Smax and Ot ≥ 0 …..(4)
The time step for simulation is considered as monthly time period because the inflows are available in monthly
time period on other side demand is available on 15 days time period.
STRATEGIES FOR RESERVOIR OPERATION

In the present study, two strategies are incorporated for the simulation of reservoir operation, namely Strategy 1 &
Strategy 2. Strategy 1 considers the releases for riparian rights at priority, then the releases for water supply, and
then after surplus water be diverted for hydropower generation. While strategy 2, considers the riparian rights at
priority, then water supply releases into the canal, and then after firm power releases for firm power generation and
consequently surplus water be diverted for hydropower generation. At present, the reservoir is operated with
consideration of strategy 1. The aim of this study is to compare the results of strategy 1 and 2 and to check that
what is the improvement possible, while following strategy 2; so that optimal value of the firm power can be
obtained, without compromising releases for water supply.
INFLOW PATTERN ANALYSIS

The monthly inflow data are available from the year 1948 to 2017 and is as shown in Fig. 1. Simulation model for
strategy 1 is simulated for inflow series 1948 to2017. It is analysed from Fig. 1 of the inflow pattern that the peak
value of inflow and low value (Rise and Fall) of inflows during the year is extreme up to 70s and then onwards the
extreme value of peak and the trough is moderated. This may be due to the inflows at the reservoir resulting from
the regulated releases from upstream reservoirs in the basin, which may have been developed after year 1970.
Simulation model for strategy 1 is also simulated separately for inflow series 1970 to 2017. Further, it is analysed
from Fig.1 that the extreme flow values have been still moderated from year 2002. This may be due to the
regulated releases in the river Narmada from the reservoir Indirasagar, which is at the immediate upstream of the
Sardar Sarovar project. And, thus the simulation model is also run for strategy 1 from year 2002 to 2017. As the
strategy 2 emphasis on maximum optimal utilisation of available volume of water and to find the optimal releases
for firm hydropower generation, the simulation model for this strategy is simulated for inflow series 2002 to 2017
only, because it seems that this pattern will continue now onwards.
Energy Produced
in GWh
Fig. 1 The monthly inflow data from the year 1948 to 2017
RESULTS OF SIMULATION
Results of simulation for strategy 1 and 2 are evaluated for parameters 1) Reliability to fulfil the water supply
demand, 2) Annual Hydropower energy produced, 3) Firm power. It is analysed that for strategy 1 water supply
reliability and annual energy produced are more in the simulation period, for which the inflow series is moderated
due to controlled release from u/s reservoir i.e. for 2002 to 2017, in comparison to early years (i.e. before 2002).
Water supply reliability for simulation of strategy 1 for inflow data series 1948 to 2017 is 96.03 %, for data series
1970 to 2017 is 98.268 %, for data series 2002 to 2017 is 100%. Hence higher value of water supply reliability and
total energy produced is obtained for inflow series from year 2002 to 2017 for strategy 1.
Strategy 2 evaluates the parameter water supply reliability and annual energy produced for different values of
constant monthly releases (firm power releases) into RBPH for hydropower generation. It is analysed that as the
releases for firm power production increases, the energy production increases but on another side, the Water
Supply reliability decrease. The results of obtained from the simulation model in the form trade-off between water
supply reliability, annual energy produced and firm power releases for hydropower generation from RBPH is as
shown in Fig. 2. The optimum value of firm power releases for hydropower production can be obtain from the
graph as shown in Fig. 2, for which the Irrigation Reliability is 100% with maximum energy production.
Power duration curves are obtained for strategies 1 and 2 for simulation period of 2002 to 2017 as shown in Fig.
3 and 4. It can be seen that the firm power produced at different percentage of time dependability through river bed
power house increases significantly under strategy 2 in comparison to strategy 1, without compromising the water
supply reliability.
1200
1000
Power in MW 800
600
400
200
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
% of Time
Fig. 2 Trade-off between water supply reliability annual energy produced and
constant monthly releases for hydropower generation
Water Supply Reliability Energy Produced

1.001 3250.00
1
3240.00
0.999
Irrigation Reliability
3230.00
0.998
0.997 3220.00
0.996
3210.00
0.995
3200.00
0.994
0.993 3190.00
180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320
Releases for Firm Power Production in MCM

Fig.3 Power Duration Curve for Strategy 1
1200
1000
Power in MW 800
600
400
200
0
40
0 20 % of Time60 80 100
Fig. 4 Power Duration Curve for Strategy 2

CONCLUSION
The project Sardar Sarovar Dam is to be operated with under the guidelines laid down in NWDT award under
integrated operation, an attempts has been made to simulate model for the multipurpose single reservoir of Sardar
Sarovar Project under two operational strategies of reservoir to evaluate the performance of the system for
available historical inflows data and to decide the reservoir operation strategy for optimal water management for
water supply and hydropower generation. The performance of the system under simulation over operation horizon
is evaluated by using the performance indicator parameters i.e. water supply reliability, annually energy produced
and available firm power at different percentage time reliability.
Results of simulation for strategy 1 and 2 are evaluated for parameters 1) Reliability to fulfil the water supply
demand; 2) Annual Hydropower energy produced, and 3) Firm power. It is analysed that for strategy 1, water
supply reliability and annual energy produced are more in the simulation period, for which the inflow series is
moderated due to regulated release in the Narmada river from u/s reservoirs i.e. for 2002 to 2017, in comparison to
early years (i.e. before 2002).
This study aims at evaluating water supply reliability, hydropower energy produced, and firm power for strategy
1 and 2. And consequently, to check that what is the improvement possible in the performance of reservoir through
implementing strategy 2. It is analysed that strategy 2 is resulting into improvement in hydropower energy (GWh),
firm power (MW) at different % of time reliability without compromising water supply reliability (%).
These results will help the simillar project authorities for planning and decision-making process for releases for
various purposes, while considering single reservoir mode.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors are thankful to the Sardar Sarovar Narmada Nigam Limited. (SSNNL) for providing the necessary data,
however any interpretation from these studies is not the responsibility of SSNNL.
REFERENCES
1. Narmada Planning Group, Sardar Sarovar Narmada Nigam Ltd. (1989). Planning for Prosperity- Sardar Sarovar
Development Plan. Narmada Development Department. Government of Gujarat.
2. Sardar Sarovar Narmada Nigam Ltd. Sardar Sarovar Project – Engineering Marvel. SSNNL. Government of Gujarat.
http://www.sardarsarovardam.org (July 23, 2017)
3. Acharya, K. D, Sanfilipo, Sau, J. (2002). Narmada Project – Controlled Volume Concept. The Canal Company
Provence (SCP).
4. Joshi, G. S, and Gupta, K. (2009). A simulation model for the operation of multipurpose multireservoir for River
Narmada, India. Journal of Hydro-environment Research (2009) 3: 96- 108.
5. Jain, S. K., Goel, K.M., Agrawal, P.K. (1998). Reservoir operation studies of Sabarmati system, India. Journal of Water
Resources Planning and Management (1998) 124 (1): 31-38.
6. Jothiprakash, V. and Ganesan S. (2005). Single Reservoir Operating Policy Using Genatic Algorithm. Water Resource
Management (2006) 20:917-929.
7. Chang, J, Wang, Y., Huang Q. (2005). Reservoir Systems Operation Model Using Simulation and Neural Network. In:
Li D., Wang B. Artificial Intelligence Applications and Innovations. AIAI 2005. IFIP — The International Federation
for Information Processing, volume 187.
8. Rosbjerg D, Madsen H, Ngo L. L (2007). Simulation and Optimisation Modelling approach for
9. operation of the Hoa Binh reservoir, Vietnam. Journal of Hydrology (2007) 336: 269-281.
10. Hu T, Fang H. B, Zeng X, Wu F (2014). Simulation - Optimization model of reservoir operation based on target
storage curve. Water Science and Engineering (2014) 7(4):433-455.
11. Zhou Y, Li Y. P, Zhang G. H, Zhuang Y. (2013). Development of Optimal Water Resource Management Strategies for
Kaidu-Kongque Watershed under multiple uncertainties. A thematical Problems in Engineering Volume
2013:1-14,1-13.
12. Sharma, V., Joshi, G. S. (2016). ―Simulation Model for Reservoir Operation For Sukhi Dam.ԡ Proc., Water
Resources and Flood Management with special reference to Flood Modelling, WRFM – 2016, SVNIT, Surat.
CHANGES IN LAND USE LAND COVER USING GEOSPATIAL TECHNIQUES:

A CASE STUDY OF KOYNA RIVER BASIN, MAHARASHTRA, INDIA
Amarsinh B. Landage1 and Ashok K. Keshari2

1
Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India
2
Professor,Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India
cez168334@iitd.ac.in, akeshari@iitd.ac.in
ABSTRACT
The Earth’s land cover characteristics and its use are key variables that influence hydrology and global change.
Over the last few decades, there has been a significant change in land use and land cover (LULC) across the
globe due to the climatic changes and over demand of the growing inhabitants. Now a day, remote sensing data
with increased spatial resolution from satellite platforms enables geospatial technologies to monitor LULC
mapping and change detection at varying spatial ranges, which helps in better management of land and water
resources. As the demand for quantity and quality of geospatial information and technology continues to
improve, remote sensing is becoming more significant for the future. In this study, it is aimed to explore the
temporal and spatial characteristics of the Koyna river basin by using Remote Sensing (RS) integrated with
Geographical Information System (GIS). The present study has been carried out to detect land use and land
cover changes of the Koyna river basin between 1985 and 1995 by using Landsat 5 satellite. Results obtained
reveals that the built-up area has increased double fold in the study area. The increases in cropland and
vegetation areas may be attributed to the enhancement of water bodies in the study area. The shrubland and
barren land have decreased during the same duration. The study would be useful in land and water resources
management and carrying global change that can have significant effect on climate change and precipitation
pattern.
Keywords: Land Use, Land Cover, Koyna River Basin, Landsat 5, Remote Sensing, GIS
INTRODUCTION
Mapping of LULC and change detection using remote sensing and GIS techniques is a cost effective method of
obtaining a clear understanding of the land cover alteration processes due to land use change and their
consequences (Olokeogun, Iyiola and Iyiola, 2014). Remotely sensed data together with GIS increase the capability
to analyze the human impact on the environment in quantitative, qualitative and spatial form. Land use/land cover
(LULC) change has become a global concern because of its diverse environmental impacts (Gashaw et al., 2018).
Land use/cover change is one of the most sensitive factors that show the interactions between human activities
and the ecological environment. The timely information about the land use changing pattern assumes a critical part
in land use planning and sustainable land and water resources development (Mishra, Kar and Singh, 2007). The
knowledge of land use land cover is instrument in understanding the positive and negative aspects of change,
controlling haphazard growth and degradation of environment (Vishwa, Kaur and Simrit, 2013). Land use mapping
is important for evaluation, management and conservation of natural resources of an area and the knowledge on the
existing land use is one of the prime pre-requisites for suggesting better use of land. Therefore, the proper
utilization of land according to is capability should be prime concern of people and governing institutes (Golmehr,
2009 and Singh et al., 2011).
This research focused on assessing land use land cover transformation in Koyna River Basin, over a 10-year
period during 1985 to 1995. Combinations of supervised and unsupervised classifications were conducted to define
land cover and land use changes of the study area. The resulting products of the exploratory analyses and
classification were used to assess spatial patterns of land cover and land use change for the area.
LOCATION AND EXTENT OF STUDY AREA

The area selected for the present study is Koyna watershed, situated on the West-Coast of Maharashtra, India, lies
between the latitude of 17007’25’’ N to 17058’10” N and longitude of 73033’00’’ E to ‘‘74011’30’’ E. The area
313
presents a basaltic and alluvial pattern of high mountain ranges, hills and valleys with altitude ranging from 500 to
1500 m above MSL.
The Koyna River is a tributary of the Krishna River, which originates in Mahableshwar, Satara district, western
Maharashtra, India. It rises near Mahableshwar, a famous hill station in the Western Ghats. Unlike most of
the other rivers in Maharashtra, which flow East-West direction, the Koyna river flows in North-South direction.
The Koyna Dam is situated 65 km below the origin of the river. The main purpose of dam is hydroelectricity with
some irrigation in neighboring areas. Koyna River joins to Krishna River at Karad after running 56 km downstream
of Koyna dam.
The Koyna River basin with a geographical area of 1938 km2 represents a typical physiographic setting
characteristic of the Deccan Plateau. The Koyna dam divides the Koyna River basin into two parts upstream and
downstream of the dam respectively. The upstream side of dam have an aerial extent of 892 km2, covers the entire
catchment area of the Koyna dam and is mostly hilly. The downstream side of dam have an aerial extent 1,046 km2
and has a broad valley oriented in an east–west direction (Naik et al., 2001; Naik and Awasthi, 2003). The
watersheds covers four block of Satara district viz. Mahabaleshwar, Javali, Patan and Karad. Mean maximum and
minimum temperature ranges between 38°C and 10 °C. Average annual rainfall in the study area is about 1450 mm
with average of 100 rainy days.
Fig. 1 Location of Koyna River Basin

METHODOLOGY
The proposed methodology adopted to assess the changes in land use land cover of Koyna river catchment using
satellite imagery of LandSAT-5 TM (30 m spatial resolution) for a year 1985 and 1995. The supervised and
unsupervised land cover classification carried out using ERDAS Imagine and correcting by ground truthing. The
mapping and land use land cover matrices developed to evaluate component wise changes. The following sections
will provide details about the overall approach and materials has to be utilized.
Land Cover Classification and Change Detection
In order to process this large amount of data (1938 Km2) visual image processing was used. Various traditional
classification schemes incorporate one or two parameters in order to classify the image (e.g. spectral
differentiation, texture etc.) and therefore the focus is the physical property of the image. The traditional approach
nt & Society (N
NCWES-20188) 315
off visual imaage interpretaation is far successful inn classifyingg moderate to t high-resolution satellitte images.
T
Traditional vissual image in
nterpretation focus
f on usinng multiple properties
p witth a focus on extracting innformation
baased on shapee, size, conneectivity, assocciation etc. Chhange detection was achievved by post classification
c land cover
mage subtraction. This prrocess is straaightforward, however moodified to proovide result for Koyna riiver basin.
im
Further, conveersion matrix was generated for the Laand cover of 1985 and 19995. The convversion matriix helps to
unnderstand thee land cover conversion
c onn other land coover type.
D
Data Collectioon
Moderate resoolution satellitte imagery i.ee. LandSAT-55 TM for a yeear 1985 and 1995 (Fig. 1) from U.S. Geological
M G
Survey have been used. Sattellite images were acquireed covering thhe extent an arrea of Koynaa river basin inn Table 1.
Tablee 1 Acquiring Agency,
A Satelllite Sensor
Acquiring Aggency Sateellite Sensor
USGS / NASA
A LaandSAT-5 T (30 m)
TM
(a) 19
985 (b) 1995
F 2 LandSAT-5 TM Satellite Imagery
Fig.
D
Data Processiing Overview
w
The image proocessing donee to classify thhe land coverr of Koyna Riiver watersheed for LandSA
T AT-5 TM (300 m Spatial
R
Resolution) for a year 19855 and 1995. Immages were sttacked and prrepared for lannd cover proccessing. Wateershed area
exxtracted fromm ASTER - DEM D of 30 m (Fig. 2) resolution
r annd the same used for imaage subset crreation for
hiighlighting area
a of intereest. The landd cover classification havve been carrieed out by suupervised claassification
m
method and visual image in nterpretation for
f making acccurate assesssment of landd cover. The change
c in land use after
poost classificaation evaluateed by implem menting convversion matrixx. In this meethod imagess of two vinttages were
cllassified baseed upon an agree land cover classification scheeme. Conversion matrix was createdd to better
unnderstand thee changes in laand cover in terms
t of direcction of change.
Image Processing Work Flow

The steps involved in processing the LandSAT-TM satellite images are shown by the flowchart provided in the
figure below (Fig. 3). ERDAS Imagine 16 and ArcGIS-10.3 are the two software solutions have employed for
processing and analysis of the imagery.
Fig. 3 Land Cover Classification Process

Land Cover Classification
In this study, an attempt has been made to detect change in land use land cover. In order to understand physical
change in Koyna River basin, land cover classification scheme was decided (Table 2) and classification was
performed using LandSAT-5 satellite images.
Table 2 Land Use Classification Scheme
LULC Classes
Barren Land Fallow Land
Built-up Land Mixed Forest
Cropland Plantations
Deciduous Broadleaf Forest Shrubland
Evergreen Broadleaf Forest Water Bodies
In present work, two traditional methods were used to classify satellite images that are digital classification
(supervised / unsupervised) and manual classification (visual interpretation). The first method include the use of
clustering algorithms using spectral, textural or contextual measures to perform classification. Visual interpretation
on the other hands needs a human interpreter to identify and classify the image into objects. Before embarking on
classification, a detailed land cover classification scheme was prepared (Table 1). Visual interpretation key
corresponding to the land cover classification scheme was also created to assist the process of classification.
In order to understand the degree of uncertainty in a land cover classification accuracy assessment is performed.
Accuracy assessment was performed applying independent field reference data that considered one image object as
one reference point. Accuracy statistics including user accuracy, producer accuracy and total accuracy were
calculated.
nt & Society (N
NCWES-20188) 317
V
Visual Image Interpretation
The visual inteerpretation off satellite imaages is a com
T mplex process. Satellite im
mage interpretaation goes weell beyond
immage object recognition to decipher image to understand sppatial and lanndscape pattterns. Domaiin specific
knnowledge is critical
c to succcess in true interpretation
i n of satellite images.
i A truue interpretatiion, which is fine-tuned
byy virtue of past experiencce, used to reecognize imagge objects suuch as built-uup, forest landd and water bodies
b etc.
U
Using visual innterpretation approach waater bodies iddentified and digitized. Fuurther, forest features weree extracted
frrom the imagge. Lastly, thee built-up classs was digitizzed and attribbuted (Fig. 4 (a) & (b)). Table
T 3, show
ws the final
laand cover classsification ressults in terms of area and percentage
p areea.
Table 3 Land
L Cover Claassification for Year 1985 andd 1995
1985 1
1995
LULC Classes
Km2 % Km2 %
Decciduous Broadleaaf Forest 131.00 6.76 93.83 4.84
Cropland 683.27 355.27 719.633 37.15
Built-up Lannd 2.35 0.12 6.93 0.36
Mixed Foresst 84.01 4.34 82.18 4.24
Shrubland 655.36 333.83 590.488 30.48
Barren Landd 12.08 0.62 11.22 0.58
Fallow Landd 2.34 0.12 0.98 0.05
Water Bodiees 152.00 7.85 188.388 9.73
Plantations 0.17 0.01 0.35 0.02
Eveergreen Broadleaaf Forest 214.42 111.07 243.01 12.55
Total 1936.99 1
100 1936.999 100
(a) 1985 (b) 1995

Fig. 4 Land Use
U & Land Coover Map
80
0
70
0
60
0
50
0
LULC 198 LULC 199
Fig. 5 Relative Change in Land Use & Land Cover (in sq.km)
Accuracy Assessment
Accuracy of land cover classification for year 1995 was performed using random sampling (Lillisand, 2000). The
samples was established inside the boundary of Koyna River basin. The land cover of watershed was estimated
with a sample footprint of 30 m by 30 m. Based on the reference and map land cover classes a confusion matrix
was created. The total accuracy of the land cover map was estimated.
Change Detection
Multi-temporal satellite images provide a basis to record land cover changes in time. It is important to understand
what type of land use change recording over a time; it is perhaps one of the most important applications of
moderate resolution satellite images (Christeriser et al., 1988). Land cover classification changes the reflectance
classes into information classes. Change detection methods have been divided into either pre-classifications
(Nelson, 1983; Singh, 1989) where changes in the reflectance classes is measured while in the post classification
change detection changes in the information classes is measured (Howarth and Wikcware, 1981). The advantage of
post classification change detection is the representation of change in terms of information classes, which are more
relevant than the digital numbers on an image. However, this method is dependent on the classification accuracies.
In order to measure change in the built up cover from 1985 to 1995 change detection was applied. The change
detection statistics were used to create land cover conversion matrix. A conversion matrix display changes in each
land cover class and also give information regarding direction of change.
200
150 105.8
100 195.3
50 5.32 23.94 13.3
0 - - -
-50 -
-58.23
100
Fig. 6 Changes in Land Use Land Cover for 1985 to 1995 (in percentage)
Post Classification Change Detection

This method of change detection requires the comparison of independently produced classified images. ArcGIS
platform was used to perform post classification change detection analysis. The result of the visual interpretation
used to view the built-up expansion. In this study, the results of visual interpretation of the land use and land cover
map of 1985 and 1995 are used to produce change maps. The land cover conversion matrix from 1985 to 1995 is
showing in Table 4.
Table 4 Land Cover Conversion Matrix (1985 to 1995)
1995
Broadleaf
LULC wise area for 1985

Deciduous Broadleaf
Built-up Land
Land Cover Change Matrix
Water Bodies
Mixed Forest
Fallow Land
Barren Land
Plantations
Shrubland
from 1985 to 1995 Cropland
Forest
Evergreen
Deciduous Broadleaf
Forest 92.45 2.31 0.44 0.47 4.50 30.84 131.00
Cropland 0.26 667.38 2.18 6.23 7.23 683.27
Built-up Land 2.35 0.00 0.00 2.35
Mixed Forest 1.51 79.38 0.39 2.73 84.01
Shrubland 0.24 40.28 0.05 575.76 0.19 38.68 0.16 655.36
1985
Barren Land 1.05 11.03 0.00 12.08
Fallow Land 0.08 1.27 0.98 0.01 2.34
Water Bodies 0.02 8.08 0.11 2.30 6.39 133.82 1.28 152.00
Plantations 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.17 0.17
Evergreen Broadleaf
Forest 0.87 1.03 0.01 0.19 1.41 0.18 210.74 214.42
LULC wise area for 1995 93.83 719.63 6.93 82.18 590.48 11.22 0.98 188.38 0.35 243.01 1936.99
CONCLUSION
Based on the image classification of Koyna River basin 1985 to 1995, the changes in land use have detected in
alignment with the increase in development in basin area. After analyzing the cause and effect relationship between
changes in land cover classes, it has observed that maximum increase in built-up area, plantations and water
bodies. The built-up area has increased two times and plantations and water bodies increased considerably. While
on the other hand fallow land, forest and barren land decreases about 10% to 50% from 1985 to 1995.
Remote sensing data can be used for land-cover classification to monitor the built-up area expansion at large
scale. In terms of image classification and information extraction is concerned, visual interpretation was
satisfactory to use. The only and major drawback was that this approach is very time consuming and labor
intensive. Therefore, approaches to apply object oriented classifications should be implemented. This study
explores the applications of remote sensing and Geographical Information Systems (GIS), in the collection of
information and analysis of data, in order to support the development of effective critical watershed management
strategies. The study has revealed that remotely sensed data are important and extremely useful in mapping and
monitoring the dynamics of land use/ land cover in this region. GIS analysis has shown the capabilities of GIS
solving spatial problems and providing information that aid critical analysis of change in land use pattern. The
study would be useful in land and water resources management and carrying global change that can have
significant effect on climate change and precipitation pattern.
REFERENCES
1. Gashaw, T., Tulu, T., Argaw, M. and Worqlul, A. W. (2018) ‘Science of the Total Environment Modeling the
hydrological impacts of land use / land cover changes in the Andassa Watershed
2. , Blue Nile Basin , Ethiopia’, Science of the Total Environment. Elsevier B.V., 619–620, pp. 1394–1408. doi:
10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.11.191.
3. Golmehr, E. (2009) ‘Current Application of Remote Sensing Techniques in Land Use Mapping: A Case Study of
Northern Parts of Kolhapur District, India’, Bulletin of Geography. Socio-economic Series, 12(1), pp. 5–15. doi:
10.2478/v10089-009-0001-6.
4. Mishra, A., Kar, S. and Singh, V. P. (2007) ‘Prioritizing structural management by quantifying the effect of land use and
land cover on watershed runoff and sediment yield’, Water Resources Management, 21, pp. 1899–1913. doi:
10.1007/s11269-006-9136-x.
5. Naik, P. K. and Awasthi, A. K. (2003) ‘Groundwater resources assessment of the Koyna River basin, India’,
Hydrogeology Journal, 11(5), pp. 582–594. doi: 10.1007/s10040-003-0273-5.
6. Naik, P. K., Awasthi, A. K., Anand, A. V. S. S. and Mohan, P. C. (2001) ‘Hydrogeologic framework of the Deccan
terrain of the Koyna River basin, India’, Hydrogeology Journal, 9(3), pp. 243–264. doi: 10.1007/s100400100123.
7. Nelson, R. F. (1983) ‘Detecting forest canopy change due to insect activity using Landsat MSS’, Photogrammetric
Engineering & Remote Sensing, 49(9), pp. 1303–1314.
8. Olokeogun, O. S., Iyiola, O. F. and Iyiola, K. (2014) ‘Application of remote sensing and GIS in land use/land cover
mapping and change detection in Shasha Forest Reserve, Nigeria’, International Archives of the Photogrammetry,
Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences - ISPRS Archives, 40(8), pp. 613–616. doi: 10.5194/isprsarchives-
XL-8-613-2014.
9. Singh, A. (1989) ‘Review Articlel: Digital change detection techniques using remotely-sensed data’, International
Journal of Remote Sensing, 10(6), pp. 989–1003. doi: 10.1080/01431168908903939.
10. Singh, P., Thakur, J. K., Kumar, S., & Singh, U. C. (2011). Assessment of land use/land cover using geospatial
techniques in a semi-arid region of Madhya Pradesh, India. In Geospatial Techniques for Managing Environmental
Resources (pp. 152-163). Springer, Dordrecht.
11. Vishwa, B., Kaur, B. and Simrit, K. (2013) ‘Land use/cover change and its implications for Kullu district of Himachal
Pradesh, India’, International Journal of …, 3(3). Available at:
http://www.indianjournals.com/ijor.aspx?target=ijor:ijggs&volume=3&issue=3&article=013.

GROUNDWATER DEVELOPMENT THROUGH DRAINAGE LINE

TREATMENTS IN VIDARBHA REGION OF MAHARASHTRA
M. B. Nagdeve, R. S. Patode, C. B. Pande and R. S. Mali
Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola (M.S.)
ABSTRACT
Availability and storage of water in reservoirs and lakes depends ultimately on yearly rainfall. Natural
conservation of water and efficient use of this natural storage and at the same time making arrangements for
additional recharge of groundwater aquifer by one way or other, to replenish the used groundwater becomes our
responsibility. Thus on drainage line networks the rainwater harvesting is possible by constructing suitable
structures. The project CRP on Water was initiated at Kajaleshwar - Warkhed watershed which is situated in
Barshitakli taluka of Akola district in Maharashtra state between 20°13′59”N latitude and 77° 13’23’’ E
longitude and at an altitude of 337m above M.S.L. with an average annual rainfall of 815mm. The work of nala
widening and deepening has been done under this project and the existing CNB was repaired. The surrounding
35 wells along the vicinity of the widened and deepened nala were monitored for groundwater levels. Based on
the observed data it was inferred that the average groundwater levels in the 35 wells during the year 2017 was
increased by 1.12m as compared to the groundwater levels of the year 2015. This is due to the storage of
rainwater in the widened and deepened nala for longer duration. It was also possible to utilize the recharged
water for protective irrigations to different crops.
Keywords: Crop, CNB, groundwater, recharge.
INTRODUCTION
Many regions in the country are characterized by variable and low rainfall and the soils have low productivity. The
fragile ecosystems in the dry areas are prone to degradation. Groundwater is one of the major resources necessary for the
overall socio-economic development and management of any area and it requires careful development and proper
investigation of groundwater level. Groundwater resources evaluation in many areas of the country is important for the
developmental strategies of integrated watershed development and management. The extensive spatial-temporal changes
in the occurrence of ground water resources warrant scientific exploration to locate best sites for tapping this valuable
resource. It has many other advantages over surface water. Fast industrial growth, urbanization and rise in agricultural
manufacture have led to freshwater lacks in many parts of the world. For suitable supply of water for various purposes
like agronomic, domestic and industrial, a greater importance is being laid for a planned and optimal utilization of water
resources. The water intake for agriculture, municipal and industries is higher than the yearly recharge. This may lead to
reduction of ground water (Magesh et al., 2011; Thomas et al., 2012; Selvam et. al. 2012, Rangarajan 2009). The remote
sensing technology can be combined within a GIS environment for a successful description and management of
watershed functions and conditions (Khadri and Kanak Moharir 2015 and Khadri and Chaitanya Pande 2016). Minor et.
al. (1994) has developed an integrated analysis plan to describe groundwater resources and groundwater management for
monitoring and identification of observation well locations in Ghana with the help of remote sensing, GPS and GIS
technology. With increased population and higher water demand for industrialization, water availability becomes a
major constraint to agriculture including aquaculture and animal husbandry. The further scarcity of water for different
agricultural production systems should be checked for sustaining the food security through efficient water conservation
and management practices. There is a need for adoption of advanced agricultural and water management
practices to produce more per drop of water. Moreover, the policy decisions on water management are more important
for water resource development and effective adoption of water efficient techniques in country level.
STUDY AREA
The Kajaleshwar and Warkhed watershed is situated in Barshitakali Taluka, Akola district of Maharashtra between
20°13′59” N latitude and 77° 13’23’’ E longitude and at an altitude of 337m above M.S.L. with an average annual
321
rainfall of 845mm. The important aquifers in the area are basalt rock. Basalt, when weathered and fractured contain
considerable amount of groundwater. Location of Kajaleshwar - Warkhed watershed is depicted in Fig 1.
Fig. 1 Location map of Kajaleshwar -Warkhed Watershed
The SRTM (30m) data set of Space Shuttle Endeavor satellite has been used to create Digital Elevation Model.
The DEM data is very effective tool for terrain analysis, many terrain attributes (such as slope, aspect, relief, and
watershed hill shade and flow direction) can be used for location of rain water structure. The following
methodology has been used to derive the contour maps from the said dataset, which are used as layers in GIS
domain for further analysis. The one meter interval contour map was generated from digital elevation model
using surface analysis tools in Arc GIS software 10.1. The contour map is very useful for survey of rain water
harvesting structure work. In demonstration site topographic analysis is most important for suitable location of
artificial recharge work and also the lowest and highest elevation ranges was observed such as 325 to 337 meters
(Fig. 2). The contour map of the area is given in Fig.3.
Fig. 2 Digital Elevation Model map of Kajaleshwar -Warkhed Watershed

Fig. 3 Contour map of Kajaleshwar - Warkhed Watershed
SOIL SLOPE
Soil slope is considered as an important factor in soil genesis and land use. In demonstration site soil slope ranges
of 1-3% and 3-5% was observed with the help of multispectral satellite image. The soil slope map is prepared from
LISS-III satellite images and ground checking with the help of visual interpretation techniques in GIS environment
software and is depicted in Fig.4.
Fig. 4 Soil slope map of Kajaleshwar -Warkhed Watershed

RAINWATER HARVESTING AND IMPACT ANALYSIS

Fig. 5 Map of depth of groundwater levels during December, 2015
The work of nala widening and deepening has been done under this project and the existing CNB was repaired.
Due to this work the rainwater was stored in the nala. In the vicinity of the deepened and widened nala / CNB, 35
wells have been monitored for ground water levels. Groundwater level fluctuation analysis is mainly depends on
the variation of water level data during post-monsoon periods which can be directly related to recharge and
discharge of groundwater regime. Two years of groundwater level data has been analysed for impact assessment of
rainwater harvesting on groundwater regime using IDW method. During post-monsoon period of 2015 and 2017
water level ranges between 3.65 to 9.1 m and 2.2 to 8.3 m. (Fig.5 and Fig.6). The groundwater level fluctuations
during these years were in the range of -1.25 and 6.9 m observed from groundwater level maps (Fig.7).

Fig. 6 Map of depth of groundwater levels during December 2017

Fig. 7 Groundwater Levels Fluctuation Map during Post-Monsoon (2015 - 2017)
IMPACT
Based on the observed data it was inferred that the average groundwater levels in the 35 wells during the year 2017
was increased by 1.12m as compared to the groundwater levels of the year 2015. This is due to the storage of
rainwater in the widened and deepened nala for longer duration. It was also possible to utilize the recharged water
for protective irrigations to different crops.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are thankful to Director, ICAR-Indian Institute of Water Management, Bhubaneswar, Government of
India for their financial support under Consortia Research Platform (CRP) on Water Project.
REFERENCES
1. Khadri, S. F. R. and Kanak N. Moharir (2015) Hydrogeology Investigation and Water Level Fluctuation in Hard Rock
of the Man River Basin, Akola and Buldhana Districts, Maharashtra, India, Vol. 1, No. 3, 2015, pp. 92-99 American
Journal of Geophysics, Geochemistry and Geo-system.
2. Rangarajan, R. Mondal, N,C, Singh, V.S. Singh, S.V.(2009) Estimation of natural recharge and its relation with aquifer
parameters in and around Tuticorin town, Tamil Nadu. India, Curr Sci, 97, 217–226.
3. R. S. Patode M. B. Nagdeve and C. B. Pande (2016), Groundwater Level Monitoring of Kajaleshwar-Warkhed
Watershed, Tq. Barshitakli, Dist. Akola, India Through GIS Approach, Advances in Life Sciences 5(24), pp. 11207-
11210.
4. Selvam, S. Sivasubramanian, P. (2012) Groundwater potential zone identification using geoelectrical survey: A case
study from Medak district, Andhra Pradesh, India, International Journal of Geomatics and Geosciences, 3, 55-62.
5. Minor, T., Carter, J., Chesley, M., Knowles, B., and Gustafsson, P. (1994) The use of GIS and remote sensing in
groundwater exploration for developing countries. Proceedings of the10th ERIM Thematic Conference on Geologic
Remote Sensing held in San Antonio, USA, on May 9-12 1994, pp. 168-179.
6. Moukana, J.A.; Koike, K. (2008) Geostatistical model for correlating declining groundwater levels with changes in land
cover detected from analyses of satellite images. Computer Geosciences, 34, 1527–1540.

IMPACT OF CONSERVATION AGRICULTURE TREATMENTS ON RUNOFF AND SOIL
LOSS IN SOYBEAN CROP UNDER RAINFED CONDITION
R. S. Patode, M. B. Nagdeve, V. V. Gabhane, A. B. Turkhede, N. R. Palaspagar and R. S. Mali

Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola (M.S.)
ABSTRACT
Conservation agriculture is normally based on soil tillage as the main operation. Mechanization of soil tillage,
allowing higher working depths and speeds and the use of certain implements like ploughs, disk harrows and
rotary cultivators have particularly detrimental effects on soil structure. Excessive tillage of agricultural soils
may result in short term increases in fertility, but will degrade soils in the medium term. Soil erosion resulting
from soil tillage has forced us to look for alternatives and to reverse the process of soil degradation. The logical
approach to this has been to reduce tillage. The experiment on Conservation Agriculture was undertaken during
2016-17 at AICRP for Dryland Agriculture, Dr. PDKV, Akola. The results obtained are presented in this paper.
The highest total runoff of 36.29 mm was observed in conventional tillage treatment (T1) and lowest total runoff
of 22.62mm was observed in zero tillage with herbicide treatment (T3). The total runoff of 29.68mm was
observed in reduced tillage with herbicides treatment (T2). Increase in runoff was observed to be 60.43% in
conventional tillage treatment (T1) over zero tillage with herbicide treatment (T3). Also the treatment zero tillage
with herbicide (T3) has less soil loss (1.18tons ha-1) as compared to conventional tillage treatment (T1) and
reduced tillage with herbicide treatment (T2).
Keywords: Conservation, tillage, treatment, soil loss.
INTRODUCTION
In recent years, decline and deterioration of natural resources (NRs) has emerged as a serious concern for
sustainable food production in our country. Optimization of NRs, inputs, and diversification/intensification of
cropping system through optimized use of lands are the major issues for conservation agriculture and sustainable
agriculture development. Many regions in the country are characterized by variable and low rainfall and the soils
have low productivity. The fragile ecosystems in the dry areas are prone to degradation. Tillage is one of the
important components to improve soil conditions and conserve water. Sub-optimal soil conditions have significant
impact on soil-water and nutrient regime, gaseous exchange between soil and atmosphere and crop growth.
Minimum tillage is an ecological and science-based approach for resource conservation and sustainable production.
The magnitude of soil disturbance and its susceptibility to soil degradation processes depends on several factors
including frequency and intensity of tillage, type of implements, source of power and antecedent soil moisture. The
term minimum tillage is often used synonymously with conservation tillage which retains productive amount of
mulch on the surface. Minimum tillage includes reduced frequency and intensity of tillage operation, use of those
implements that loosen the soil without turning over and do not excessively pulverize it and perform the needed
tillage operations when soil conditions are within the optimum soil condition range to produce the desired tilth. It
facilitates intensive cultivation with minimum risk of degradation. Conservation Agriculture is a concept for
resource-saving agricultural crop production that strives to achieve acceptable profits together with high and
sustained production levels while concurrently conserving the environment and maintaining soil health. It is based
on enhancing natural biological processes above and below the ground. Interventions such as mechanical soil
tillage are reduced to an absolute minimum, and the use of external inputs such as agrochemicals and nutrients of
mineral or organic origin are applied at an optimum level and in a way and quantity that does not interfere with, or
disrupt, the biological processes.
METHODS
In Kharif- Soybean
Main Treatments
T1 - Conventional tillage (CT)- Ploughing once in 3 years + 2 pre sowing harrowing + One hand weeding +
Opening of furrow with hoe in each row at 30-35 DAS
326
T2 - Reduced tillage (RT) – One pre sowing harrowing + Pre emergence herbicide application + Opening of
furrow with hoe in each row at 30-35 DAS
T3 - Zero-tillage (ZT) - Pre emergence herbicide application
Sub Treatments
S1 – Crop residue mulch
S2 – Without crop residue mulch
In Rabi –Chickpea
Main Treatments
T1 - Conventional tillage (CT)- Two pre sowing harrowing + One hand weeding
T2 - Reduced tillage (RT) – One pre sowing harrowing + Pre emergence herbicide application
T3 - Zero-tillage (ZT)- Pre emergence herbicide application
Sub Treatments
S1 – Crop residue mulch
S2 – Without crop residue mulch
Operations
• Sowing of soybean (JS-335) and RDF application was done on 29/06/2016 in all treatment plots.
• Pre emergence herbicide application was applied in required treatments.
• Runoff and soil loss monitoring Gadgets were installed and monitoring was done.
• Treatment wise hand weeding was done.
• Treatment wise opening of furrow in each row has been done.
• Insecticide (Trizophos) spraying was undertaken.
RESULTS
The experiment on Conservation Agriculture was undertaken during 2016-17 at AICRP for Dryland Agriculture,
Dr. PDKV, Akola. The results obtained are presented here.
Runoff and soil loss
The runoff and soil loss observed in different treatments are given in Table 1. During the season total 10 runoff
events occurred. The highest total runoff of 36.29 mm was observed in conventional tillage treatment (T1) and
lowest total runoff of 22.62mm was observed in zero tillage with herbicide treatment (T3). The total runoff of
29.68mm was observed in reduced tillage with herbicides treatment (T2). Increase in runoff was observed to be
60.43% in conventional tillage treatment (T1) over zero tillage with herbicide treatment (T3).
Table 1 Runoff and soil loss during the season 2016

Runoff, mm Soil loss, tons ha-1
Date Rainfall, mm
T1 T2 T3 T1 T2 T3
27-07-2016 38.20 3.64 3.82 2.86 0.31 0.28 0.23
02-08-2016 21.00 3.90 - - 0.06 - -
03-08-2016 22.50 4.24 3.36 - 0.25 0.21 -
06-08-2016 7.80 1.72 1.32 - 0.06 0.04 -
16-09-2016 30.00 4.80 4.32 3.90 0.28 0.26 0.21
17-09-2016 23.50 3.30 3.32 2.60 0.21 0.17 0.14
01-10-2016 20.50 3.28 3.16 2.84 0.19 0.14 0.12
02-10-2016 17.40 2.95 2.61 2.26 0.20 0.17 0.13
04-10-2016 20.20 3.82 3.42 3.24 0.24 0.19 0.16
08-10-2016 29.00 4.64 4.35 4.92 0.29 0.26 0.19
Total 230.10 36.29 29.68 22.62 2.09 1.72 1.18
The conventional tillage treatment (T1) has recorded 22.27% more runoff compared to reduced tillage with
herbicide (T2). The runoff in the treatment zero tillage with herbicide (T3) was less as compared to conventional
tillage treatment (T1) and reduced tillage with herbicide treatment (T2), and therefore it can be inferred that the
treatment zero tillage with herbicide (T3) has conserved more water as compared to other treatments. Also the
treatment zero tillage with herbicide (T3) has less soil loss (1.18tons ha-1) as compared to conventional tillage
treatment (T1) and reduced tillage with herbicide treatment (T2).
Soil Moisture
The soil moisture at the depths 0-15 and 15-30cm is given in Table 2 and presented in Fig.1.
Table 2 Soil moisture content at different crop growth stages recorded at 0-15 and 15-30cm depth
Soil moisture content (%) at stage
Treatments Depth (cm)
Vegetative (05/08/16) Flowering (02/09/16) Maturity (14/10/16)
T1S1 0-15 19.43 16.63 18.02
15-30 19.10 17.20 18.28
T1S2 0-15 18.41 16.30 17.70
15-30 18.10 16.84 17.90
T2S1 0-15 19.17 16.15 18.26
15-30 18.74 16.64 18.35
T2S2 0-15 19.25 17.00 18.22
15-30 18.44 16.44 18.15
T3S1 0-15 18.80 15.80 17.21
15-30 18.50 16.00 17.56
T3S2 0-15 18.75 15.95 17.14
15-30 17.57 16.10 17.16
Fig. 1 The soil moisture at 0-15 and 15-30cm depth in different treatment combination during Kharif season
The soil moisture status observed was less during flowering stages of crop growth, it was better in all treatment
combinations during vegetative stages of crop growth at the depths 0-15 and 15-30cm.
Yield of soybean
From 1st June to 20th October, 2016 total 832.3mm rainfall was received in 45 rainy days. There was a dry spell
between 8th to 3oth August 2016 which influenced the crop growth. Treatment wise data in respect of crop growth
and productivity was given in Table 3. It was observed that the treatment effects on growth and yield attributes was
non-significant. The interaction effect of different treatments was also observed to be non-significant. The
rainwater use efficiency as influenced by different treatments is given in Table 4. The rainwater use efficiency was
observed to be higher in conventional tillage as compared to other treatments.
Table 3 Growth, yield attributes and productivity of soybean as influenced by different treatment combinations
Plant height Number of Grain weight Grain yield Fodder yield
Treatment
(cm) pods/plant (g plant-1) (kg ha-1) (kg ha-1)
A) Main
T1 36.4 29.3 5.70 1798.7 1324.8
T2 35.08 28.3 5.60 1714.2 1169.0
T3 30.69 27.0 5.45 1597.4 1097.5
S. E. + 1.42 3.03 0.089 71.84 93.51
C. D. at 5% NS NS NS NS NS
B) Sub
S1 36.43 27.86 5.56 1666.6 1177.6
S2 31.68 28.73 5.6 1740.2 1216.6
S. E. (m) + 1.53 2.163 0.051 74.69 50.48
C.D. at 5% 4.76 NS NS NS NS
C) Interaction
C.D at 5% NS NS NS NS NS
Table 4 Rain water use efficiency as influenced by different treatments

Treatment Grain yield (kg ha-1) Rain water use efficiency (kg ha-1mm-1)
A) Main
T1 1798.7 2.46
T2 1714.2 2.34
T3 1597.4 2.18
B) Sub
S1 1666.6 2.28
S2 1740.2 2.38
INFERENCES
The highest runoff was observed in conventional tillage treatment (T1) and lowest total runoff was observed in zero
tillage with herbicide treatment (T3). Increase in runoff was observed to be 60.43% in conventional tillage
treatment (T1) over zero tillage with herbicide treatment (T3). Also the treatment zero tillage with herbicide (T3) has
less soil loss as compared to conventional tillage treatment (T1) and reduced tillage with herbicide treatment (T2).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are thankful to the Director and Principal Investigators, ICAR-CRIDA, Hyderabad, Government of
India for their financial support under Consortia Research Platform (CRP) on Conservation Agriculture Project.
REFERENCES
1. Biamah, E.K., F.N. Gichuki and P.G. Kaumbutho. 1993. Tillage methods and soil and water conservation in Eastern
Africa. Soil and Tillage Research, 27(1-4), pp. 105-123.
2. Ghazanfar, M., M.A. Asoodar and K.A. Saeed. 2010. The effect of conservation tillage, planting and irrigation methods
on water use efficiency and wheat grain yield in North of Ahwaz. Journal of Engineering Apllied Science, 5(2),
pp. 101-105.
3. Gilley, J.E. and L.M. Risse. 2000. Runoff and soil loss as affected by application of manure. Trans ASAE 43(6),
pp. 1583 -1588
4. Goamez, J.A., J.V. Giraldez, M. Pastor and E. Ferere. 1999. Effect of tillage method on physical properties, infiltration
and yield in an olive orchard. Soil & Tillage Research, 52:167-175.
5. Iftikhar, F. and Safdar Ali. 2004. Impact of different types of mulches on soil moisture. Sarhad J. Agric., 20(4): 571-573.
6. Saha, S., D. Chakraborty, A.R. Sharma, R.K. Tomar, S. Bhadraray, U. Sen, U.K. Behera, T.J. Purakayastha, R.N. Garg
and N. Kalra. 2010. Effect of tillage and residue management on soil physical properties and crop productivity in maize
(Zea mays) Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) system. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 80 (8): 679-685.
7. Wang, X.B., D.X. Cai, W. B. Hoogmoed , O. Oenema, U.D. Perdok. 2007. Development in conservation tillage in
rainfed regions of north china. Soil & Tillage Research, (93), pp. 239-250.
8. Wiedenfeld, B. 2006. Conservation vs conventional tillage, fall double cropping and cover crop effects on crop water use
in subtropical south texas. Conservation Systems Conference, Amarillo TX, June 26-28.
9. Yao, Y. 2004. Influence of tillage practices on yield, water conservation and soil loss results of field experiments in the
Eastern Loess Plateau. International Conserving Soil and Water for Society.
HYDROLOGICAL WATER BALANCE ASSESSMENT OF A
MICRO-CATCHMENT USING PHYSICALLY BASED MODEL
R. S. Patode, M. B. Nagdeve, K. Ramamohan Reddy1 and G. Ravindra Chary2
All India Coordinated Research Project for Dryland Agriculture, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola (M.S.)
1
Centre for Water Resources, IST, Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad, (Telangana)
2
Project Coordinator, AICRPDA, CRIDA, Hyderabad
ABSTRACT
Water balance techniques are a means of solution of important theoretical and practical hydrological problems.
On the basis of the water balance approach it is possible to make a quantitative evaluation of water resources and
their change under the influence of man's activities. Knowledge of the water balance assists the prediction of the
consequences of artificial changes in the regime of streams, lakes, and ground-water basins. An understanding of
the water balance is also extremely important for studies of the hydrological cycle. With water balance data it is
possible to compare individual sources of water in a system, over different periods of time, and to establish the
degree of their effect on variations in the water regime. Due to its multiple benefits and the problems created by
its excesses, shortages and quality deterioration, water as a resource requires special attention. For this purpose
every piece of land should be treated as a micro-catchment and in-situ rainwater conservation techniques should
be adopted and actual assessment in terms of water balance has to be done for accurate planning. Hydrological
models are useful tools for quantification of water balance components. MIKE SHE model set up was developed
and used for simulation of hydrological components in treated as well as untreated micro-catchment at the
experimental field of AICRP for Dryland Agriculture, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola in
Vidarbha region of Maharashtra state. The results of the hydrological water balance of treated and untreated
catchment are presented here. During 2017, the annual rainfall was 518mm out of which 49mm (9.46%) surface
runoff + losses were occurred in untreated micro-catchment. The evapotranspiration losses of 303mm and
276mm were occurred in treated and untreated micro-catchments respectively. Around 180mm and 162mm
recharge was observed in treated and untreated micro-catchments.
Keywords: Micro-catchment, model, water balance.
INTRODUCTION
The increasing demand for water resources also challenges our ability to understand and describe the underlying
hydrologic processes. For example, the simple fact is that the spatial scales of the processes involved range over
many orders of magnitude (e.g. from the size of soil pores to regional groundwater aquifers of many 1000's of
square kilometers). The inherent heterogeneity of natural systems makes it difficult to represent these processes
accurately. The impacts of human induced changes due to agriculture, urban development, and water pollution are
by no means fully understood. Furthermore, the growing focus on climate change has provoked increased research
into understanding the complex feedback between the atmosphere and the terrestrial hydrological cycle. In the
hydrological cycle, water evaporates from the oceans, lakes and rivers, from the soil and is transpired by plants.
This water vapor is transported in the atmosphere and falls back to the earth as rain and snow. It infiltrates to the
groundwater and discharges to streams and rivers as baseflow. It also runs off directly to streams and rivers that
flow back to the ocean. The hydrologic cycle is a closed loop and our interventions do not remove water; rather
they affect the movement and transfer of water within the hydrologic cycle.
Today, MIKE SHE is an advanced, flexible framework for hydrologic modeling. It includes a full suite of pre-
and post-processing tools, plus a flexible mix of advanced and simple solution techniques for each of the
hydrologic processes. MIKE SHE covers the major processes in the hydrologic cycle and includes process models
for evapotranspiration, overland flow, unsaturated flow, groundwater flow, and channel flow and their interactions.
Each of these processes can be represented at different levels of spatial distribution and complexity, according to
the goals of the modeling study, the availability of field data and the modeler's choices. The MIKE SHE user
interface allows the user to intuitively build the model description based on the user's conceptual model of the
watershed. The model data is specified in a variety of formats independent of the model domain and grid, including
331
native GIS formats. At run time, the spatial data is mapped onto the numerical grid, which makes it easy to change
the spatial discretisation. (Graham and Butts, 2005).
STUDY AREA
The study was conducted at the experimental field of All India Coordinated Research Project for Dryland
Agriculture, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola (M.S.), India. The site is situated between latitude
of 20° 43’ 05.8” to 20° 43’ 09.3” North and Longitude of 77° 02’ 43.1” to 77° 02’ 46.0” East with the altitude of
307m above MSL. It is located in the Western Vidarbha Zone, a part of the Central Maharashtra Plateau Agro-
climatic zone. In the present study three types of soils were identified in the micro-catchment viz. Inceptisol,
Entisol and Vertisol. The infiltration rate was determined by double ring infiltrometer. The infiltration rates for the
soils under study were found to be 3.77, 4.4 and 1.2 cm hr-1 for Inceptisol, Entisol and Vertisol, respectively (Sarda
Tariku, 2012).
METHODOLOGY
The experimental area of 1.0 ha was divided into two micro-catchments. The micro-catchment-1 (MC-1) is treated
with Continuous Contour Trenches (CCTs) and has horticultural plantations of Atemoya (Anona atemoya) and
Custard apple (Anona squamosa). The intercrop has been practiced along the continuous contour trenches in
between plantation rows. The adjacent micro-catchment-2 (MC-2) has been kept without continuous contour
trenches. This untreated micro-catchment also has horticultural plantations of Atemoya (Anona atemoya) and
Custard apple (Anona squamosa). The intercrop of green gram has been sown in between the plantation rows of
Custard apple and Atemoya in MC-1 and MC-2 during kharif season in every year. Model setup of MIKE SHE for
treated as well as control (untreated) micro-catchment was prepared. For water movement model set up, different
components were considered. Performance of the CCTs existing in the treated micro-catchment was evaluated by
comparing the relevant components of the hydrological cycle. The results were used for the impact assessment
purpose (Shinde, 2006 and Pendke, 2009). Other than hydrological monitoring, the physical observations and
analysis of fruit production was also used for assessing CCT performance. Model setup of MIKE SHE for treated
as well as control micro-catchment was prepared. For water movement model set up, saturated zone, unsaturated
zone, evapotranspiration and overland flow were included.

The treated and untreated micro-catchments were monitored and impact assessment was done based on the results
obtained as below.
Soil Moisture
The soil moisture at the depths 0-15, 15-30 and 30-45cm is given in Table 1 and presented in Fig. 1. The soil
moisture status in CCT treated catchment (T2) was observed to be better as compared to the untreated catchment
(T1) at 0-15, 15-30 and 30-45cm depth in every recorded month. The prolonged moisture in the CCT treated
catchment have enhanced the growth of perennial plantation of Custard Apple (Annona squamosa) and
Hanumanphal (Annona atemoya).
Table 1 Soil moisture content (%) recorded at 0-15, 15-30 and 30-45cm depths in different months.
Depth Soil moisture content (%)
Treatments
(cm) 10/07/2017 10/08/2017 10/09/2017 19/10/2017
Untreated catchment, 0-15 22.1 22.4 21.1 18.0
T1 15-30 22.6 22.8 21.6 18.4
30-45 23.0 22.9 21.3 18.2
CCT treated 0-15 22.8 22.6 22.3 18.7
catchment, T2 15-30 23.2 23.5 23.0 19.2
30-45 23.7 23.6 23.8 20.7
Fig. 1 The soil moisture content at different depths in untreated and CCT treated micro-catchment recorded in
different months.
Monitoring of ground water levels

The experimental area (1.0ha) was divided into two small catchments. One catchment was treated by constructing
continuous contour trenches (CCTs) and other was without continuous contour trenches. The small catchments
were again divided into two parts, thus in entire area there are four parts. In each part the observation wells were
prepared for monitoring the ground water levels. The observation wells in all the four parts were monitored and the
readings during the season are presented in the Table 2. From the table, it is observed that the percentage
fluctuations in groundwater levels of CCT treated catchment over non treated catchment was more in the month of
June (18.18%) followed by May (13.85%) and April (13.75%). It was also observed that the groundwater levels
were more in CCT treated catchment compared to non treated catchment in all the months and this effect was
depicted in figure 2 and 3. On an average during the twelve months the observed ground water recharge in the CCT
treated catchment was more by 11.16% compared to the non treated catchment and this will clearly indicate the
benefits of continuous contour trenches for groundwater recharge in small catchment.
Table 2 Average monthly ground water levels (m) in the observation wells at AICRPDA, Dr. PDKV, Akola
during 2017
Average ground water levels, m Increase in GW
CCT treated Untreated levels of CCT
S.
Month catchment (T2) catchment (T1) Average of CCT Average of untreated treated over
N.
treated catch-ment catchment untreated
OW-1 OW-3 OW-2 OW-4 catchment (%)
1 January 1.68 1.79 1.54 1.58 1.74 1.56 11.22
2 February 1.48 1.56 1.34 1.41 1.52 1.38 10.55
3 March 1.14 1.22 1.04 1.10 1.18 1.07 10.28
4 April 0.86 0.96 0.76 0.84 0.91 0.80 13.75
5 May 0.35 0.39 0.31 0.34 0.37 0.33 13.85
6 June 0.42 0.49 0.36 0.41 0.46 0.39 18.18
7 July 1.32 1.40 1.19 1.26 1.36 1.23 11.02
8 August 2.28 2.37 2.06 2.16 2.33 2.11 10.19
9 September 2.15 2.24 1.94 2.04 2.20 1.99 10.30
10 October 2.02 2.12 1.81 1.96 2.07 1.89 9.81
11 November 1.54 1.64 1.44 1.55 1.59 1.50 6.35
12 December 1.38 1.44 1.27 1.33 1.41 1.30 8.46
Water Balance estimation through CCT treated and untreated micro-catchments

For knowing the CCT performance, the rainfall was main hydrological process thus the rainfall data during year
2017 were collected. Other data in respect of runoff, evaporation, soil moisture, LAI and ground water levels were
monitored throughout the year. This year wise data was simulated with calibrated and validated MIKE SHE model.
Performance of the CCTs existing in the treated micro-catchment was evaluated by comparing the appropriate
components of the hydrological processes of the CCT treated and untreated micro-catchments. The results of water
balance obtained with MIKE SHE model for the two micro-catchments, viz., treated and untreated for the year
2017 are depicted in Fig. 4. The annual rainfall was 518mm out of which 49mm (9.46%) surface runoff + losses
were occurred in untreated micro-catchment. The evapo-transpiration losses of 303mm and 276mm were occurred
in treated and untreated catchments respectively. Around 180mm and 162mm recharge was observed in treated and
untreated micro-catchments respectively.
Fig. 2 Ground water levels in different months in the micro-catchment
Fig. 3 Increase in groundwater levels in CCT treated micro-catchment

Fig. 4 Hydrological water balance components for CCT treated and untreated micro-catchment during 2017
INFERENCES
¾ The soil moisture status in CCT treated catchment (T2) was observed to be better as compared to the
untreated catchment (T1) at 0-15, 15-30 and 30-45cm depth in every recorded month.
¾ On an average during the twelve months (2017) the observed ground water recharge in the CCT treated
catchment was more by 11.16% compared to the non treated catchment.
REFERENCES
1. Graham, D.N. and M. B. Butts 2005. Flexible, integrated watershed modelling with MIKE SHE. In Watershed Models,
Eds. V.P. Singh & D.K. Frevert Pages 245-272,
2. Pendke, M. S. 2009. “Qualitative evaluation of soil and water conservation structures in Daregaon watershed.” Journal
of Soil and Water Conservation, 8(1), 9-13.
3. Pramana, K.E.R. 2007. “The Design of contour trenches in Vietnam.” Master Thesis, Technische Universiteit, Delft,
The Netherlands, 1-87.
4. Sadgir, P. A., Patil, G. K. and Takalkar, V. G. 2006. “Sustainable watershed development by refilled continuous
contour trenching technology.” National seminar on rainwater harvesting and water management, Nagpur (M.S.), 331-
338.
5. Sarda Tariku 2012. “Modelling one dimensional water flow in Vadose zone using HYDRUS.” M.Tech Thesis
(Unpublished) submitted to Deptt. of Soil and Water Conservation Engg., Dr. P.D.K.V., Akola.
6. Shinde, M., Smout, I. and Gorantiwar, S. 2006. “Assessment of water harvesting and groundwater recharge through
continuous contour trenches.” Recharge systems for protecting and enhancing groundwater resources, UNESCO, IHP-
VI, series on Groundwater, 13, 229-235.
7. Sussman, D. 2007. “Design manual- Contour trenches.” Bren school of environmental science and management,
University of California Santa Barbara, U.S.A, 1-7.
8. Thomas, C. George 2010. “Land husbandry and watershed management.” 1st Eds. Kalyani publishers, New-Delhi,
India, 324-352.
CROP RESIDUE CUTTING MECHANISMS FOR DIRECT DRILLING IN
AGRICULTURE CONSERVATION
A. K. Kamble1*, S. H. Thakare2, U. R. Badegaonkar3 and M. B. Nagdeve
1*
Corresponding Author and Assistant Scientist, All India Coordinated Research Project on Energy in Agriculture and
Agro-based Industries, College of Agricultural Engineering & Technology, Dr Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola (MS)
2
Head, Department of Farm Power and Machinery, Dr. PDKV, Akola, INDIA
3
Senior Scientist, AMD, Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Bhopal (MP)
4
Dean, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, Dr. PDKV, Akola (M.S.), INDIA.
anilkumar_kamble@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
Conservation Agriculture involves practices such as minimum or zero mechanical disturbance, crop residues
retention and permanent organic soil cover. The major problem in direct drilling under no-tillage condition is the
high amount of residues of previous crop, which hinder operation of no-till machine. The crop residue cuttingt
devices were developed and evaluated for rice crop residue cutting ability in the soil bin. The crop residue
cutting mechanisms were operated on a wide range of straw densities from 3000 to 5000 kg/ha at forward speed
of carriage 2.5 km/h and at rotational speed of straw cutting mechanisms of 150 to 250 rpm and speed ratios
from 5.20 to 8.67 and evaluated their performance in the soil bin laboratory of Central Institute of Agricultural
Engineering, Bhopal. The relative effect of the variables of speed ratio, pair of press wheels, straw density and
type of disc blades on the responses of horizontal force (Fh), vertical force (Fv), power consumption and straw
cutting percentage were studied. The horizontal force (Fh) requirement of toothed blade was observed to be
higher by 19% than that for the plain blade disc at all speed ratios and straw density levels. On an average 34%
higher vertical force (Fv) was found for straw cutting by toothed blade disc than that for the plain blade. The
power requirement of plain blade with a pair of twin press wheel assembly was estimated to be 192.66, 280.23
and 356.33 W at 3000, 4000 and 5000 kg/ha straw density, respectively at 5.20 speed ratio, whereas it was found
to be 262.82, 396.00 and 585.83 W for toothed blade disc for the same straw density and speed ratio. The
quantity of straw cut with plain blade was 100% for all straw densities and speed ratio however, it was found to
be 91.00, 90.33 and 92.00% for toothed blade at 3000, 4000 and 5000 kg/ha straw density level, respectively.
The developed crop residue cutting mechanism performed better under no-till conditions and recommended for
no-till sowing under heavy crop residue conditions.
Keywords: Conservation agriculture, no-till, crop residue and straw cutting mechanism
INTRODUCTION
Conservation Agriculture (CA) technologies have the potential to contribute to increased productivity in a
sustainable way. The term CA refers to a set of agricultural practices and is based on three fundamental principles
namely, no-tillage, permanent soil cover and diversified crop rotations. Conservation Agriculture involves practices
such as minimum or zero mechanical disturbance, crop residues retention, permanent organic soil cover, diversified
crop rotations, precise placement of agro chemicals, in-field traffic control and application of animal manure and
crop residues. The benefits of CA are lower farm traffic, reduction in use of mechanical power, labour inputs thus
resulting in timely field operations, lower risk of crop failure and ultimately resulting in higher yields, lower costs
and reduction in environmental pollution. Late sowing of wheat is a major problem in paddy-wheat cultivated areas,
which results into decreased yield by 1 to 1.5 % per day when planted after November. Sowing of wheat with
traditional method requires 7 to 8 days for field preparation that also delays sowing of wheat resulting in decreased
yield (Tandon, 2007).
Rice - wheat is an important crop rotation and covers an area of 72 Mha in the world and 10 to 12 Mha in India.
The total area under no-tillage in the world is 90 Mha and in India it is about 3.43 Mha (Saunders et al., 2012, and
Tandon, 2007). Due to increase in demand for food production, the farmers have started growing more than one
crop a year resulting in land degradation, unsound agricultural practices and increase in use of different inputs such
336
as seed, fertilizer, chemicals and agricultural machinery. In North-Western India, combine harvesting of rice and
wheat is now a common practice leaving large amount of crop residues in the fields. the conservation tillage
systems, besides the high levels of crop residues do present a constraint for adopting conservation tillage, because
the residues mechanically interfere with crop residues on the soil surface pose difficulty for uniform seedling
establishment in seeding operations. Improved seeding equipment or residue removal may be necessary for
successful direct drilling practices. The main operational problem in direct drilling of paddy straw residue is the
accumulation and wrapping of loose straw on the tines and frame of no-till drills and traction problems with the
ground wheel (Hegazy and Dhaliwal, 2011; Graham et al. 1986).
Proper seed placement is very important component of the crop production system. No-till seeding requires
drills capable of cutting through large quantities of crop residue, penetrating untilled soil, and depositing the seed
25 to 50 mm deep. Problem associated with seed placement under no-till and minimum tillage practices are density,
toughness of crop residue and soil penetrating resistance. No till drills have indicated that under heavy crop
residues, failures of the disc openers to cut through the residue resulted in the seed being placed either in the
residue or on the soil surface. The seed was placed on this trash resulting in poor germination. Since, no-till and
minimum tillage system have considerable potential for saving energy, time, man hours, machine hours, controlling
wind and water erosion, reduction of soil moisture loss by evaporation, it is extremely important to investigate
problems associated with seed placement under crop residue conditions (Kushwaha et al., 1886; Baker and Saxton,
2007).
The combine harvested rice-wheat fields are generally left with long loose straw and stubbles in the field which
create several operational problems in land preparation for the next crop. Nearly 75% of rice-wheat straw goes as
waste besides causing environmental pollution due to straw burning in the field prior to tillage for subsequent
sowings. Burning of rice stubbles is widely practiced in Punjab, India, due to a lack of suitable machinery for direct
drilling of wheat seed into combine-harvested rice residues. Although direct drilling of seed into burnt stubbles is a
rapid and cheap option, and it allows for a quick turnaround between crops, it is causing serious problems for
human and animal health due to air pollution, and decline in soil fertility due to loss of nutrients and organic matter
(Singh et al., 2008). Considering the problems with direct drilling of wheat into combine-harvested rice fields the
study was undertaken to develop and evaluate the performance of crop residue cutting mechanism for direct
drilling in crop residual conditions in the soil bin.

The research work was carried out in Soil Dynamic Laboratory, Agricultural Mechanization Division, Central
Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Bhopal (MP). The experiment of rice straw cutting mechanisms were
conducted according to CRD design and Response Surface Methodology (RSM) was applied to the experimental
data. The relative effect of the variables of speed ratio, pair of press wheels and straw density on the responses was
studied. The responses studied were horizontal force (draft), vertical force, power requirement and straw cutting
percentage.
The straw cutting mechanisms viz., plain blade disc with twin press assembly and toothed blade disc with twin
press assembly were developed for studying their rice straw cutting ability in no-till crop residue conditions in the
soil bin. Parametric software Pro-Engineer creo element was used to design the straw cutting mechanisms. Based
on the design of plain disc, the whole disc of 460 mm in diameter and 4 mm thick was divided in to eight parts for
fabrication of plain eight blades (Fig. 1). These plain blades were fixed on the flange of 350 mm diameter. The
flange was made up of mild steel from 4.0 mm thick plate. The bevel angle of the blade was 12°. This plain blade
has advantage of replacement of damage or blunt blade instead of complete replacement of whole disc. The toothed
blade disc was also developed for evaluating its performance in the soil bin (Fig. 2). A pair of twin press wheel
assembly was developed to hold and press the straw under tension during cutting of the straw. Press wheel
assembly consists of twin press wheel, fork and ratchet returning spring. Straw cutting mechanisms along with
cutting discs are shown in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4.
Fig. 1 Plain blade disc for straw cutting Fig. 2 Toothed blade disc for straw cutting
Fig. 3 Straw cutting mechanism equipped with toothed blade
Fig. 4 Straw cutting mechanism equipped with plain blade

The straw cutting mechanisms were operated on a wide range of straw densities from 3000 to 5000 kg/ha at
carriage speed of 2.5 km/h and at speed ratios 5.20 to 8.67 with a pair of twin press wheels assembly at constant
depth of 15 mm. The straw cutting mechanisms were fixed on the tool bar provided on the carriage. The carriage
was brought and parked over the packed soil and operating depth was set. The tool bar was lowered to the desired
depth of penetration from the zero mark. Preparation of straw for an experiment was tedious and time consuming.
The rice straws were taken from the bale for maintaining the uniformity in the all experiments. Pieces of straw of
length 400 mm were made and taken for the experiment and maintained the required range of density from 3000 to
5000 kg/ha (Mangaraj and Kulkarni, 2010). The carriage motor was set at desired speed of 2.5 km/h. The data
acquisition program was run with a data file. Data were collected with straw cutting mechanism running on the
straw. Soil force and torque data automatically collected for the working distance of 5 m. Exported the data to MS
excel for further analysis purpose. At the end of the run, the straw cutting mechanism was lifted up and the carriage
returned. Collected uncut straw pieces from the soil bin for its measurement of uncut and cut straw percentage and
the soil was prepared for the next run.
Simulation of soil conditions in the soil bin was the major factor in determining the performance of the straw
cutting mechanisms. Various operations such as tilling, wetting of soil, leveling and packing were the part of soil
preparation. The soil preparation unit includes roto-tiller, deep working tines, sheep foot roller, soil leveler and
water application system to obtain uniform moisture and penetration resistance throughout each experiment with
repeatability measures. The field condition of soil compaction level was closely simulated in the soil bin. One
important parameter is soil compactness and this was measured in the field and in the soil bin with a cone penetro-
logger. Data were collected from fields with a cone penetro-logger. Data for soil penetration resistance were
collected at seeding time with stubble under no-till conditions on the field of the Central Institute of Agricultural
Engineering, Bhopal. Cone index values were evaluated at 0 to 300 mm depth by taking an average of five
readings of five different plots.
The core of the complete soil bin system was a computer controlled data acquisition and analysis unit. It was a
supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) and programmable logic control (PLC) based system. The
computer based data acquisition and control system provides on-line display and logging of experimental variables
while simultaneously prepares reports in printable format which allows rapid evaluation of experimental results.
The experimental design was applied after selection of the ranges. The experiments were randomized in order to
minimize the effect of unexplained variability in the observed responses due to extraneous factors. The centre point
in the design was repeated six times to calculate the reproducibility of the method. The developed straw cutting
mechanism was fixed to the frame provided on front tool bar of the carriage across the bin width. The straw cutting
mechanism was fitted on the frame through a sub frame which was entirely supported from the carriage through six
appropriately oriented force transducers for measuring the horizontal force, vertical force and lateral force acting
on the straw cutting mechanism (Singh et al. 2008).
The power was given to the straw cutting mechanism from 3.75 kW motor through chain and sprocket
arrangement and the torque sensor was coupled to the shaft of the motor. The proximity switch was fitted at the
frame of torque sensor’s foundation for counting the rpm of straw cutting mechanism. The effect of various
parameters of straw cutting mechanism like pair of press wheels, straw density and speed ratio on horizontal force,
vertical force, power required for straw cutting mechanism and straw cutting percentage was measured.

Horizontal force requirement for straw cutting mechanisms
From Table 1 it is seen that the requirement of horizontal force (Fh) by the straw cutting mechanism equipped with
a toothed blade and twin press assembly was observed to be 13.52, 14.91 and 16.01 kgf at 3000, 4000 and 5000
kg/ha straw density, respectively at 5.20 speed ratio while it was found to be 12.16, 12.50 and 13.59 kgf for plain
blade disc at the same straw density level and speed ratio. Similar trend was also observed at speed ratios of 6.94
and 8.67 (Table 1). The increase in Fh in toothed blade as compared to the plain blade may be attributed to the fact
that the straw were trapped in tooth of the blade and carrying straws along with its periphery. Whereas, the plain
blade had the continuous contact of its cutting edge with the straw and helped for smooth cutting of straw and
resulted into less requirement of Fh than the plain blade. The values of Fh obtained demonstrated that, Fh
requirement of 10, 16 and 15% was observed higher for toothed blade disc than that for the plain blade disc at
3000, 4000 and 5000 kg/ha straw density, respectively. Choi and Erbach (1986) reported that an average horizontal
force of 20.1 kgf is required for cornstalk residues shearing by rolling coulter at 38 mm depth. The reported higher
value of Fh was due to the higher depth of operation of 38 mm and rolling coulter. The Eq. 1 in terms of actual
factors can be used to make predictions about the response of horizontal force (Fh) for given levels of each factor.
Table 1 Requirement of horizontal force (kgf) for toothed and plain blade disc straw cutting mechanism
Speed Toothed blade disc Plain blade disc
ratio at straw density, kg/ha
3000 4000 5000 3000 4000 5000
5.20 13.52 14.91 16.01 12.16 12.50 13.59
6.94 14.09 15.37 16.63 12.58 13.68 13.81
8.67 14.85 15.90 16.89 13.24 14.51 14.18
The regression Eq. 1 describing the effects of the variables on horizontal force for toothed and plain blade in
terms of actual levels of variables given as,
Horizontal force 2.94 0.29 X 2.72 X 0.0034 X 0.26X …..(1)
Where, X1- speed ratio, X2- pair of press wheels and X3- straw density, are the variables
Vertical force on straw cutting mechanism
From Table 2 it is seen that the requirement of vertical force (Fv) by the straw cutting mechanism equipped with a
toothed blade and twin press assembly was observed to be 33.17, 36.42 and 40.63 kgf at straw density of 3000,
4000 and 5000 kg/ha, respectively at 5.20 speed ratio, while it was found to be 12.16, 12.50 and 13.59 kgf for plain
blade disc at the same straw density level and speed ratio (Table 2). Similar trend was also observed at speed ratios
of 6.94 and 8.67 (Table 2). On an average 22% higher Fv was found for straw cutting by toothed blade disc than
that for the plain blade at 5.20 speed ratio. This increase in vertical force (Fv) would have been due to the straw
pushed into the soil by the toothed knives of toothed blade and therefore, the toothed blade demanded higher
vertical force (Fv) for their penetration in the soil. The requirement of higher Fv it may due to the impact shearing of
straw by the tooth.
Table 2 Requirement of vertical force (kgf) for toothed and plain blade disc straw cutting mechanism
3000 4000 5000 3000 4000 5000
5.20 33.17 36.42 40.63 27.58 29.91 32.82
6.94 33.74 36.93 41.19 28.37 30.94 32.79
8.67 34.69 38.23 41.51 28.85 31.76 35.05
The regression Eq. 2 describing the effects of the variables on vertical force for toothed and plain blade in terms
of actual levels of variables given as,
Vertical force 6.21 0.35 X 8.70 X 0.0023 X 1.27X …..(2)
Effect of variables on power requirement of straw cutting mechanisms
The estimation of power required by straw cutting mechanisms equipped with toothed blade disc and a pair of twin
press wheel assembly was found to be 243.21, 383.93 and 544.79W. Whereas, it was found to be 192.66, 280.23
and 356.33 W for plain blade disc at 3000, 4000 and 5000 kg/ha straw density, respectively at 5.20 speed ratio
(Table 3). Similar trend was also observed for power requirement at other speed ratios of 6.94 and 8.67. Agreement
of Kushwaha et. al. (1986) for power consumption of powered coulters working at 55 mm depth and at 4000 kg/ha
straw density was 173.2 for plain coulter. These values of power consumption are lower because of the lower speed
ratio of 2.0 whereas, in the present study, the experiments were carried out at 5.2 to 8.67 speed ratio.
Table 3 Power requirements (Watts) of straw cutting mechanisms equipped with toothed and plain blade disc
3000 4000 5000 3000 4000 5000
5.20 243.21 383.93 544.79 192.66 280.23 356.33
6.94 246.02 412.77 551.56 199.83 284.89 368.60
8.67 256.03 421.85 565.98 203.13 313.57 389.99
Straw cutting performance of the blades

From Table 4, it is depicted that the 100% straw cutting percentage was observed by plain blade disc at all the
straw density levels of 3000, 4000 and 5000 kg/ha and at all the speed ratio of 5.20, 6.94 and 8.67. It may due to
that a pair of twin press wheels assembly was sufficient for holding the straw which were fitted at both sides of
straw cutting blade and the plain blade had smooth cutting edge resulted into 100% of straw cutting. Kushwaha et
al. (1986) also reported that the plain coulter cut the straw nearly 100% at all the rotational speeds and straw
densities. Whereas, the straw cutting performance of toothed blade was observed lower than that of plain blade and
it was observed to be 84.33, 82.33 and 82.00% at 3000, 4000 and 5000 kg/ha straw density, respectively at 6.94
speed ratio. The regression Eq. 3 describing the effect of variables on percentage of straw cut in terms of actual
levels of variables is given as,
Straw cut 16.508 28.858 X 0.008 X 6.506X 4.39 x 10 X …..(3)
Table 4 Straw cutting percentages of straw cutting mechanisms equipped with toothed and plain blade disc
3000 4000 5000 3000 4000 5000
5.20 75.67 73.67 77.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
6.94 84.33 82.33 82.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
8.67 73.00 76.00 74.67 100.00 100.00 100.00
Figure 5 and 6 shows the straw cutting work performed by the toothed blade and plain blade equipped with a
pair of twin press wheels assembly. From Fig. 7, it is seen that, after passing the plain blade the straws were cut and
the cut straws were completely sectioned into two halves.
100
75
Straw cut (%)
50
25
5000 8.67
4000 6.94
Straw density (kg/ha) Speed ratio

3000 5.20
Fig. 5 Straw cutting percentage by straw cutting mechanism equipped with toothed blade disc
100
75
Straw cut (%)

50
25
5000 8.67
4000 6.94
Straw dens
sity (kg/ha) S
Speed ratio
3000 5.20
0
Fig. 6 Straw
w cutting percenntage by straw
w cutting mechaanism equippedd with plain blaade disc
Figg. 7 Straw cuttting mechanism

m equipped wiith plain blade and a pair of tw
win press wheeels assembly
The amounnt of clogged straw by straaw cutting mechanism

m equuipped with plain
p blade and
a a pair of twin press
wheels assembbly was obseerved to be 7.58,
w 7 4.51 annd 6.22 kg/haa at 3000, 4000 and 50000 kg/ha straw w density,
reespectively att 5.20 speed ratio
r whereass, 21.46, 24.882 and 23.89 kg/ha was obbserved for tooothed blade disc at the
saame straw dennsity and speed ratio. Alm most similar reesults were allso obtained at
a 6.94 and 8..67 speed ratiios. A very
leess amount off clogged straaw i.e. 4.01 kgg/ha was obseerved in straw
w cutting mecchanism of pllain blade witth a pair of
twwin press wheeels assembly y, it was due to
t that the paair of wheels press
p hold thhe laid strawss properly at the
t time of
sttraw cutting. A pair of twwin press wheeel assembly had higher contact
c area of
o press wheels with straw w and soil
suurface, and hence almost alla the straw were hold byy the pressingg wheels and resulted into less straw cllogging. A
very few amount of clogged straw was found and it may due to the 100% straw cutting. The regression Eq. 4
describing the effect of variables on straw clogged in terms of actual levels of variables is given as,
Straw clogged
20.436 21.372X 54.16X 0.202X X 1.536X 19.028X
1.244 x 10 X …..(4)
CONCLUSIONS
The quantity of straw cut by straw cutting mechanism equipped with plain blade disc was 100% for all straw
densities and speed ratios and it performed better under no-till conditions and recommended for no-till sowing
under heavy crop residue conditions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are most grateful to Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Bhopal (M.P.) for funding the
research project.
REFERENCES
1. Baker, C.J. and Saxton, K.E. 2007. No-tillage seeding in conservation agriculture, 2nd edition, published by FAO of
United Nations.
2. Choi, H.C. and Erbach, D.C. 1986. Cornstalk residue shearing by rolling coulters. Transaction of the ASAE. Vol.
29(6):1530-1535.
3. Graham, J.P. Ellis, F.B. Christian, D.G. and Cannell, R.Q. 1986. Effects of straw residues on the establishment, growth
and yield of autumn-sown cereals. J. Agric Engng Res. 33:39-49.
4. Hegazy, R.A. and Dhaliwal, I.S. 2011. Evaluation of a Power Driven Residue Manager for No-till Drills. Agricultural
Engineering International: the CIGR Journal. Manuscript No.1641 13(1).
5. Kushwaha, R.L. Vaishnav, A.S. and Zoerb, G.C. 1986. Performance of powered-disk coulters under no-till crop residue
in the soil bin. Canadian Agricultural Engineering Journal 28 (2): 85-90.
6. Mangaraj, S. and KulkarnI, S.D, 2010. Field straw management- A techno economics perspectives. Journal of the
Institute of Engineering Vol. 8(1):153-159.
7. Saunders, C. Davis, L. and Pearce, D. 2012. Rice-wheat cropping systems in India and Australia, and development of
the Happy Seeder. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Australia, pp 10-15.
8. Singh, K. P. Pardeshi, I. L. Kumar, M. Srinivas, K. and A. K. Srivastava, 2008. Optimisation of machine parameters of
a pedal-operated paddy thresher using RSM. Biosystem Engineering 100:591-600.
9. Tandon, S.K. 2007. Conservation Agriculture Practices to meet challenges of global warming. Indian Council of
Agricultural Research, New Delhi.
BIO-CHAR PRODUCTION FROM AGRICULTURAL CROP RESIDUE USING
HORIZONTAL REACTOR
A. K. Kamble1*, A. J. Dere2 and Sandip Gangil3
1*
Corresponding Author & Assistant Scientist, AICRP on Energy in Agriculture & Agro-based Industries, Department of Unconventional
Energy Sources & Electrical Engg. Dr. PDKV, Akola (M.S.), INDIA
2
Ph. D. Scholar Department of Unconventional Energy Sources & Electrical Engg. Dr. PDKV, Akola(M.S.), INDIA
3
Principal Scientist, Agriculture Energy & Power Division, Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Bhopal (M.P.), INDIA
anilkumar_kamble@hotmail.com, amardeep.dere2@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
A reactor was developed for bio-char production from agricultural crop residue of pigeon-pea stalks. The
horizontally oriented reactor of 1.5 kg capacity was developed in Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering,
Bhopal. The study was conducted at three levels of predefined temperature of 450, 500 and 550°C and residual
time duration of 60, 120 and 180 min for optimization of temperature for obtaining the better quality of bio-char.
The average recovery of bio-char prepared from pigeon-pea stalk was found to be 40.30%. Total carbon (TC),
total organic carbon (TOC), and total inorganic carbon (TIC) of pigeon-pea stalks of sized Ø ≤ 5 mm (D1), Ø = 5
to 7 mm (D2) and Ø ≥ 7 mm (D3) was found in the range of 45.1 to 45.8, 41.6 to 42.3 and 2.6 to 4.1%,
respectively. Similarly, these value were determined at three temperature levels of 450, 500 and 550°C and
found to be 68, 67.03 and 3.5%; 81.51, 69.11 and 6.5%; 68.4, 65.18% and 6.7%, respectively. Fixed carbon in
bio-char was found to be 80% higher than that of its stalk and around 40% of total carbon was found higher in
bio-char than that of the pigeon pea stalks. The pH value of bio-char prepared at 450, 500 and 550°C was found
in the range of 6.1 to 6.8, 7.7- to 8.5 and 7.7 to 9.5, respectively.
Keywords: Pigeon pea stalks, bio-char, fixed carbon and horizontal reactor
INTRODUCTION
Bio-char is commonly defined as charred organic matter, produced with the intent to deliberately apply to soils to
sequester carbon and improve soil properties (Blackwell et al., 2008). The only difference between bio-char and
charcoal is its utilitarian intention; charcoal is produced for other reasons (e.g. heating, barbeque, etc.) than that of
bio-char (Mchenry, 2009). In a physicochemical sense, bio-char and charcoal are essentially the same material. It
could be argued that bio-char is a term that is used for other purposes than scientific, i.e. to re-brand charcoal into
something more attractive-sounding to serve a commercial purpose. However, from a soil science perspective it is
useful to distinguish any charcoal material and those charcoal materials where care has been taken to avoid
deleterious effects on soils and to promote beneficial ones. Research in India showed that pigeon-pea helped to
reduce bulk density of the soil, helping to increase the root volume and root weight of the crop in the rotation
(Zwieten et al., 2009). Top-growth stalk production has been reported as high as 35 tons of fresh weight green
matter per acre. Dry matter top growth production is about 2.5 tons/acre, contributing about 25 kg of nitrogen per
ton of dry matter (Singh et al., 1992; Sukiran and Kheang, 2011). Keeping in mind the importance of the bio-char a
horizontal bio-char reactor system was developed for preparation bio-char from agricultural residues.
The experiment was planned using three independent parameters namely diameter of stalks, charring temperature
and duration. Details regarding the experiment are given in Table 1.
Table 1 Experimental for evaluation of bio-char production system
S. No Test Name Charring temp, (°C) Charring time , (min) Diameter, (mm)
1 D1T1 Du1 60
2 D1T1 Du2 120 D1 ≤ 5
3 D1T1 Du3 180
4 D2T1 Du1 60
5 D2T1 Du2 450 120 D2 > 5 &< 7
6 D2T1 Du3 180
7 D3T1 Du1 60
8 D3T1 Du2 120 D3 ≥ 7
9 D3T1 Du3 180
Table 1 Contd…
344
nt & Society (N
NCWES-20188) 345
S.. No Tesst Name Charring temp

p, (°C) Chaarring time , (min) Diameeter, (mm)
10 D1T2 Du1 60
11 D1T2 Du2 120 D1 ≤ 5
12 D1T2 Du3 180
13 D2T2 Du1 60
14 D2T2 Du2 500 120 D2 > 5 &<
<7
15 D2T2 Du3 180
16 D3T2 Du1 60
17 D3T2 Du2 120 D3 ≥ 7
18 D3T2 Du3 180
19 D1T3 Du1 60
20 D1T3 Du2 120 D1≤ 5
21 D1T3 Du3 180
22 D2T3Du1 60
23 D2T3 Du2 550 120 D2 > 5 &<
<7
24 D2T3 Du3 180
25 D3T3 Du1 60
26 D3T3Du2 120 D3 ≥ 7
27 D3T3 Du3 180
Note: D1, D2 and D3 are diameters
d of piggeon pea stalks, mm;
m T1, T2 and T3 are temperaturres,
o
C; Du1, Du2 and Du3 are residual tim
me in reactor, minn
For efficiennt application

n of the systeem the physiical propertiees of the pigeeon-pea weree studied. Thhe physical
prroperties suchh as bulk dennsity and truee density were determinedd (Downie et al., 2009). Siize reductionn of pigeon
peea stalks werre needed to fulfill
f the reqquirements of rapid heatingg and to achieeve bio-char yields and it was made
byy bio-mass cuutter. The piggeon-pea stalkks were selectted and cut doown to 80-100 mm in lenggth. The cut pieces were
seeparated in thhree differentt diameter seets as ≤ 5((D1), > 5 - 7(D2), ≥ 7 mm (D3).T Temperature of reactor
chhamber was set
s at three lev 4 °C, 500 °C and 550°C. The recoverry of the bio-cchar was deteermined by
vels such as 450
ussing followinng equation.
Bio − char masss

o-char recoveery, (%) =
Bio × 100 …..(1)
Bio − mass
The reactorr was made upu of mild steeel of 2 mm thhickness haviing diameter of 300 mm and a length of 1500 mm.
Electrical heatting element of 6 kW caapacity was wrapped
E w exteernally througghout the reaactor body too raise the
teemperature frrom room tem mperature to predefined
p seet temperaturee. The experiimental set-upp of the horizzontal bio-
chhar system iss shown in Fig. 1. For chaarring, the maaterial was fedd into the reaactor and the temperature was
w raised
frrom ambient to predefined d temperaturee (450, 500 and
a 550°C). TheseT experimments were carried
c out foor different
reesidual time ranging
r viz., 60, 120 and 180 min to find
f out the optimum
o tempperature and time to obtaiin the best
quuality bio-chaar from pigeo f the study include pigeoon pea stalk of
on-pea crop-reesidue. Materrial selected for o different
diiameters. Prooperties of bio
o-char such as
a moisture coontent, volatille matter, ashh content, ioddine value, pHH, and true
deensity, bulk density
d were determined
d inn laboratory.
Fig. 1 Experiimental set-up of horizontal bio-char

b reactor System
R
RESULTS AN
ND DISCUSS
SION
R
Recovery of bio-char
b
The recovery of bio-char at
T a charring teemperature 4550, 500, and 550oC of 277 samples of pigeon pea stalk were
evvaluated in bio-char reacto or. The recovvery of bio-chhar of 27 sammples is ahow
wn in Fig. 2. Less
L percentaage of bio-
chhar productioon may be due d to presennces of som me un-charredd raw materiial in experim ment conditioon due to
teemperature reegime inside the
t reactor. There
T was posssibility that complete
c fastt pyrolysis coould not take place.
p The
reecovery in diffferent experiments varied from 33 to 60%. The averrage bio-char recovery wass found to be 40.36 %.
70
60
Recovery,%
50
40
30
20
10
0
D2T3Du1
D1T1 Du1
D1T1 Du2
D1T1 Du3
D1T1 Du3
D2T1 Du1
D2T1 Du2
D2T1 Du3
D3T1 Du1
D3T1 Du1
D3T1 Du2
D3T1 Du3
D1T2 Du1
D1T2 Du2
D1T2 Du2
D1T2 Du3
D2T2 Du1
D2T2 Du2
D2T2 Du3
D2T2 Du3
D3T2 Du1
D3T2 Du2
D3T2 Du3
D1T3 Du1
D1T3 Du2
D1T3 Du3
D2T3 Du2
D2T3 Du3
D3T3 Du1
D3T3 Du2
D3T3 Du3
P
Pigeon pea sam
mples
Fig. 2 Reecovery of bio--char of 27 sam

mples of pigeonn pea
E
Effect of size of
o pigeon-pea on moisturre content, assh content, fixed
f carbon and volatile matter
The effect of sizes
T s of pigeo on-pea stalks on its moistuure content, volatile
v matteer, ash contennt and fixed carbon,
c is
shhown in Fig.33 to Fig. 6. Thhe moisture content,
c volatiile matter, ashh content andd fixed carbonn was found to be in the
raanged of 4.1 to 4.9 %, 59 9.10 to 65.12 %,
% 1.8 to 2.544 % and 22.6 to 33.6 %, reespectively. NoN remarkeblee variation
w observed in moisture content,
was c fixedd carbon, ash content, volaatile matter annd fixed corbbon of pigeonn-pea stalk
saamples and biio-char samplles.
D1= ɸ ≤ 5 mm
5.1 D2 = ɸ > 5 & < 7 mm
4.9
Moisture content %
4.7 D3= ɸ ≥ 7mm

4.5
4.3
4.1
3.9
3.7
3.5
D1 D2 D3
Diameter, mm
Fig. 3 Effecct of sizes of pigeon

p pea on its moisture content
c
nt & Society (N
NCWES-20188) 347
66
65
Volatile matter, %
64
63
62
61
60
59
58
57
56
D2T3Du1
D2T3D 1
D1T1 Du1
D1T1 Du2
D1T1 Du3
D1T2 Du1
D1T2 Du2
D1T2 Du3
D1T3 Du1
D1T3 Du2
D1T3 Du3
D2T1 Du1
Du2
D2T1 Du3
D2T2 Du1
D2T2 Du2
D2T2 Du3
D2T3 Du2
D2T3 Du3
D3T1 Du1
D3T1 Du2
D3T1 Du3
D3T2 Du1
D3T2 Du2
D3T2 Du3
D3T3 Du1
D3T3 Du2
D3T3 Du3
D2T1 D 2
D1 D2 D3
Diam
meter, mm
Fig. 4 Effect
E of sizes of
o pigeon pea on
o volatile mattter
2.7
Ash content,%
2.5
2.3
2.1
1.9
1.7
1.5 D2T3Du1
D1T1 Du1
D1T1 Du2
D1T1 Du3
D1T1 D 3
D1T2 Du1
D1T2 Du2
D1T2 Du3
D1T3 Du1
D1T3 Du2
D1T3 Du3
D2T1 Du1
D2T1 Du2
D 2
D2T1 Du3
D2T2 Du1
D2T2 Du2
D2T2 Du3
D2T3 Du2
D2T3 Du3
D3T1 Du1
Du1
D3T1 Du2
D3T1 Du3
D3T2 Du1
D3T2 Du2
D3T2 Du3
D3T3 Du1
D3T3 Du2
D3T3 Du3
D2T1
D3T1
D1 D2 D3
Diameter, mm
D
Fig. 5 Effect of sizess of pigeon peaa on ash contennt
40
Fixed carbon,%,
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
2 3 1
D2T3Du1
D1T1 Du1
D1T1 Du2
D1T1 Du3
D1T1 Du3
D1T2 Du1
D1T2 Du2
D1T2 Du3
D1T3 Du1
D1T3 Du2
D1T3 Du3
D2T1 Du1
D2T1 Du2
Du2
D2T1 Du3
D2T2 Du1
D2T2 Du2
D2T2 Du3
D2T3 Du2
D2T3 Du3
D3T1 Du1
D3T1 Du2
D3T1 Du3
D3T2 Du1
D3T2 Du2
D3T2 Du3
D3T2 Du3
D3T3 Du1
D3T3 Du2
D3T3 Du3
D2T1
D1 D2 D3
Diameter, mm
m
Fig. 6 Effect of sizees of pigeon peea on fix carbonn
Iodine valuue of pigeon-ppea stalk wass measured annd found in thhe range 201 to 298. The standard deviation of
thheir value waas 29.26. Sim
milarly, pH vaalue was also determined anda found in the range off 4.1 to 5.1. The
T total
caarbon (TC), total
t organic carbon (TOC C) and total innorganic carbon (TIC) of stalk
s of D1 D2 and D3 werre found
ouut and presennted in Fig.7. The range off total carbonn was found to be 45.1 to 45.8
4 %, TOC C ranged from
m 41.6 to
422.3 % and TIIC ranged from % The average value of TC,
m 2.6 to 4.1 %. T TOC and TIC of pigeoon-pea stalk of o D1 size
w
were found to be 45.18, 42.35 and 2.83 %, respectiveely. Similarlyy for D2 it was 45.14, 42.45 and 2.69 % and for
D3 it was 45.833, 41.64 and 4.19

4 respectivvely. Very miinor variationn was observeed in D1 D2 annd D3 size off pigeon-
peea stalks.
Table 2 Total carbon percentage in pigeon pea staalks
Stalk diam
meter TC (%%) TOC (%) TIC
C (%)
D1 45.18 42.335 2.83
D2 45.14 42.445 2.69
D3 45.883 41.664 4.19
50
5
40
4
Percentage, %
30
3
20
2 D1
10
1 D2
0 D3
T.C T.O.C T.I.C
D1 D2 D3 D1 D2 D3 D1 D2 D3 …
Fig. 7 Effecct of sizes of piigeon pea stalkk on TC, TOC and

a TIC
E
Effect of diam
meter of bio-cchar on bulk
k density
The average vaalue of bulk density
T d of bioo-char of size D1, D2 and D3 charring at 450
4 °C was found
f to be 2330.6, 587.3
m3, respectiveely. Similarly, the average value of bulkk density of size
annd 636.3 kg/m s D1, D2 annd D3 charringg at 500 °C
w found to be
was b 547, 590 anda 284.3 kg//m3, respectivvely and it waas 548, 579 annd 284.6 kg/mm3 when charrred at 550
°C
C (Fig. 8).
Bulk density (kg/m3)
300
280
260
240
220
200
D1 D2 D3
Diam
meter of bio-cchar, mm
Fig. 8 Effect
E of diameeter of bio-chaar on bulk density
It is clear from
f the Fig. 8 that as the diameter of stalk increaseed the bulk density
d also inncreases and the bigger
siized producedd layered sizee char. Similaarly, the true density of D1,1 D2 and D3 siize of pigeonn-pea stalk bioo-char was
deetermined andd found to bee 452.2, 453.66 and 454.4 kgg/m3.
C
Comparison o pigeon-pea
of a stalk and itts bio-char
T parameterrs of pigeon-p
The pea stalk and bio-char
b was studied and shown
s in Table 3.
Table 3 Comparison on
o pigeon-pea stalk and bio-cchar
Average value
S. No. Parameterrs
Stalk Bio-char
1 Moistuure content ,% 4.45 2.1
2 Volatiile matter,% 63.48 42.03
3 Ash coontent,% 2.23 1.4
Taable 3 Contd…
…
Average value
S. No. Parameters
Stalk Bio-char
4 Fixed carbon,% 29.78 54.30
5 pH value 4.6 7.5
6 Iodine value, mg/gm 253.51 757.6
7 Bulk density, kg/m3 271.66 256.40
8 True density, kg/m3 543.03 459.44
9 Total carbon,% 45.39 75.77
10 Total organic carbon (TOC), 42.14 65.54
11 Total inorganic carbon (TIC), % 3.24 5.61
It was observed that about 50 % moisture contents different was observed in pigeon-pea stalk and its bio-char.
Similarly, it was seen from the Table 3 that around 30 % different in volatile matter of stalk and its bio-char was
observed. Fixed carbon in bio-char was found to be 80 % higher than that of its stalk. Around 40% of total carbon
was found higher in bio-char than that of the pigeon pea stalks.
CONCLUSIONS
The recovery of bio-char prepared from pigeon pea was varied from 33 to 60 % and on an average it was found to
be 40.36 %. Fixed carbon in bio-char was found to be 80 % higher than that of its pigeon pea stalk. Around 40% of
total carbon was found higher in bio-char than that of the pigeon pea stalks.
REFERENCES
1. Downie A., Crosky A., & Munroe P. (2009). Physical properties of biochar. Biochar for environmental management:
Science and Technology, Earthscan, United Kingdom: 13 -32.
2. Singh F., and Oswalt D. L. (1992). Pigeonpea botany and production practices. International Crops Research Institute for
the Semi-Arid Tropics Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh, India. 28:4-5.
3. Blackwell P., Reithmuller G. and Collins M. (2008). Bio-char application to soil. In:Bio-char for Environmental
Management, Science and Technology, Earthscan, London, United Kingdom. pp.1–29.
4. Mchenry P.M. (2009). Agricultural bio-char production, renewable energy generation and farmcarbon sequestration in
Western Australia: Certainty, uncertainty and risk. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 129: 1–7.
5. Zwieten L. S., Kimber S., Morris K. Y, Chan A., Downi J., Rust & Joseph S.and Cowie A. (2009). Effects of bio-char
from slow pyrolysis of paper mill waste on agronomic performance and soil fertility. Plant Soil. 327: 235–246.
6. Sukiran M.A. and Kheang L.S.. (2011). Production and Characterization of Bio-Char from the Pyrolysis of Empty Fruit
Bunches. American Journal of Applied Sciences. 8(10): 984-988.

BIO-ENERGY UTILIZATION THROUGH THERMO EFFICIENT BIOMASS
COOK STOVE FOR RURAL HOUSEHOLDS
A. K. Kamble1* and M. B. Nagdeve2
1*
Energy Sources & Electrical Engg. Dr. PDKV, Akola (M.S.), INDIA
2
Dean, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, Dr. PDKV, Akola (M.S.), INDIA
ABSTRACT
The thermo efficient biomass cook stove was designed using scientific principles, to assist better combustion and
heat transfer, for improving efficiency performance. The goal of a development of a thermo efficient biomass
cook stove was to improve upon the shortcomings of the existing improved cook stoves and traditional stoves,
while still ensuring lower cost and ease of use. The performance of the cook stove was evaluated viz., fuel
burning rate, power output rating, thermal efficiency and carbon monoxide concentration in laboratory and
actual cooking test at user’s site. The thermal efficiency of the thermo efficient biomass cook stove was found to
be 31.34%, which was 20.56% higher than traditional biomass mud cook stove. It saved 39% cooking time over
a traditional biomass cook stove. The CO concentration in flue gas emit by the thermo efficient cook stove was
found to be 2.97g/MJ, whereas, the CO concentration was found to be 73.15% higher in traditional biomass
mud stove cook stove than that of the thermo efficient cook stove. The cook stove is a relatively clean burning
device, fuel efficient and easy to operate. User friendly and low cost thermo efficient biomass cook stove is
recommended for cooking in rural households using cotton stalk as fuel. From the study, it reveals that use of
thermo efficient cook stove would be perspective for rural households over the conventional cook stove.
Keywords: Crop residue, cotton stalk, thermo-efficient and thermal efficiency.
INTRODUCTION
Biomass (bio-energy) has a very high potential as a renewable energy resource because of its reliability and
availability everywhere around the globe. It is the fourth highest primary energy resource in the world after oil,
coal, and gas, contributing about 10.6% of the global primary energy supply. Globally, around 2.6 billion people 40
per cent of the world’s population still rely on traditional biomass to meet their household cooking energy
requirements. Also, nearly 1.3 billion people remain without access to electricity and 2.6 billion still do not have
access to clean cooking account for two-thirds of those without electricity and in just three countries, India China,
and Bangladesh which account for more than half of those without clean cooking facilities. Almost 80 to 90% of
the energy used in rural household is for cooking and water heating, of which 75 to 95% of the energy is from
wood and charcoal. An estimated 826 million Indians depend on simple cook stoves that burn solid fuel, mainly
fuel wood or coal (Anonymous 2011 and 2012a). To mitigate indoor air pollution and to get more efficient
technology for cooking have been remain one of the major challenges for researcher. Indoor smoke from solid fuels
is the tenth leading cause of avoidable death worldwide. It is the second-most important environmental cause of
disease after contaminated water borne diseases. It has been found that every year 4.3 million people die
prematurely from illness attributed to the household air pollution caused by the inefficient use of solid fuels. It is
also estimated that three to four lakh people die of indoor air pollution in India every year (Tripathi, 2014).
Approximately 70% of the population of India live in rural areas where biomass are primarily utilized for
meeting the cooking and heating requirements through open firing, traditional stoves and having very low
efficiencies, about 10%. Traditional biomass stoves cause significant greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions due to
formation of products of incomplete combustion. Indoor air pollution is a major attributable factor for ill health in
rural India. As per Ministry of Statistical and Programme Implementation, National Survey Office, Energy Sources
of Indian households for cooking and lighting, 2011-12, the rural households mostly used firewood & chips as
primary source of energy for cooking. At all India level, firewood & chips were used by more than two-third
350
(67.3%) of rural households, followed by LPG, which was used by 15.0% households. Only 9.6% and 1.1% of the
rural households used dung cake and coke and coal, respectively as primary source. The remaining 4.9%
households used other sources, i.e. biogas, charcoal, electricity and others. 1.3% rural households did not have any
arrangement for cooking (Anonymous 2012b).
The cotton is cultivated by more than 10.0 million farmers in 12.7 million hectares in India. In India and
Maharashtra cotton is the major principal crop and covers 12.70 Mha and 4.2 Mha, respectively and produced 38.1
MT and 12.6 MT cotton stalks in India and Maharashtra, respectively (Anonymous 2011). The cotton stalks are
available with farmers at their farms. Considering the potential of cotton stalks and its availability in rural village,
the stalks can be used as fuel for cook stove. There are many improved stoves are available but these are operated
on wood fuel or briquettes and these are top fuel feeding. In this study the attempt has been made to develop crop
residue based natural draft biomass cook stove rural households.

The thermo efficient crop residue based biomass cook stove was developed in Department of Unconventional
Energy Sources and Electrical Engineering, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola (Dr. PDKV) in
2015-16. The photograph and an isometric view of the developed cook stove are shown in Fig. 1.
Handle
Pan support
Secondary air
hole holes
Grate
Legs
Fuel supply hole
Fig. 1 Photograph and isometric view of thermo efficient biomass cook stove
In experimental study cotton stalk was collected from University field. The selected cotton stalks were dried in
oven at 110oC to bring about 4-8% moisture content. In present study, cotton stalks fuel was selected as it is
available with the farmers at their own farm. From the proximate analysis of the selected cotton stalks showed very
low ash content, highest carbon content and low sulphur content. The cook-stove performance tests had been
performed as per Indian standard 13152: Part 1:1991 and modified draft December 2012 (Kshirsagar and
Kalamkar, 2014).
The complete experimental set up for performance evaluation of thermo efficient cook stove is shown in Fig. 2.
The various instruments viz., KANE 940 flue gas analyzer, infra red thermometer, temperature indicator,
thermocouples (RTD), and weighing balance were used for evaluation of thermo efficient cook stove.
A flue gas hand held analyzer of model KANE 940 was used for measuring the concentration of carbon
monoxide present in flue gas. The flue gas velocity was measured by anemometer-vane probe of model AM 4201
at the out let of the hood for determination of flue gas flow rate. The flue gas flow rate was found out by the
observations of flue gas velocity, cross sectional area of opening of hood and flue gas density (Harshika et al., 2014
and Motghare et al., 2015).
Fig. 2 Complete set up for evaluation of thermo-efficient cook stove

The fuel consumption rate was found out with reference to the BIS standard to determine the fuel burning rate
per hour. To determine burning rate, the cook stove’s combustion chamber was filled up to 3/4 of the height of
cook stove as recommended by BIS procedure. Initial and final weight of the cook-stove with weighed test fuel was
measured before lighting the fuel (Panwar and Rathore 2008 and Venkataraman et al., 2010). The further method
and steps were adopted as per BIS testing norms and the fuel consumption rate was determined. On the basis of
fuel consumption rate the heat input per hour was estimated using the following equation.
, / …..(1)
Where,
M1– Initial mass of cook stove with test fuel, kg
M2– Mass of cook stove with fuel residue after burning the test fuel for half an hour, kg
CV– Calorific value of fuel, kcal/kg
The power output rating of cook stove is a measure of total useful energy produced during one hour by the fuel
(Bansal et al., 2013). It was calculated as follows.
, / 860 …..(2)
Where,
Po - Power output, kWh
F - Fuel consumption rate of cook stove, kg/h
CV - Calorific value of fuel, kcal/kg
η - Thermal efficiency of the cook stove, %
The thermal efficiency of a cook stove is usually defined as the ratio of heat utilized to the heat theoretically
produced by complete combustion of a given quantity of fuel. The thermal efficiency is the significant parameter to
find out performance of the stove. Water boiling test was performed on cook stove. The constant heat output
method was used for calculating the thermal efficiency of the cook stove. In this method, known quantity of water
was heated in a pot on the cook stove till it attained a desired temperature. The heating temperature of the water
was about 96oC. At this temperature it was replaced by another pot with the same quantity of water at ambient
temperature. The process was repeated till the completion of the combustion process. The thermal efficiency of the
stove was calculated as per Indian Standard 13152: Part 1 [6]. It is expressed and calculated by the following
equations.
,% 100 …..(3)
1 0.896 0.896 …..(4)
…..(5)
Where,
m - Mass of fuel used, kg
CV - Calorific value of fuel, kcal/kg

The fuel burning rate of the cook-stove was performed as per BIS standard and the results are shown in Table 4.
The fuel consumption rate was found to be 1.089 kg/h. The power output rating was calculated and it was found to
be 1.513 kW. However, the fuel consumption rate of PDKV updraft wood stove, Sardar Patel Renewable Energy
Research Institute (SPRERI) and traditional mud stove cook stove was found to be 1.172, 1.138 and 1.264 kg/h,
respectively. The power output rating of traditional mud stove, PDKV updraft wood stove, SPRERI cook stove was
found to be 1.194, 1.907 and 0.683 kW, respectively. It seems from Table 1 that fuel requirement was
comparatively less than the existing cook stove and traditional cook stove
Table 1 Fuel burning rate and power output rating

Thermo- efficient PDKV wood SPRERI cook Traditional cook
Sr. No. Particulars
cook stove stove stove stove
1. Fuel burning rate, kg/h 1.089 1.172 1.138 1.264
2. Power rating, kW 1.513 1.194 1.907 0.683
Thermal efficiency of stove

The thermal efficiency of the agricultural residue based cook stove was worked out by using cotton stalks as fuel
and results are represented in Table 2. It was observed that the average thermal efficiency of the cook stove was
found to be 31.34%.
Table 2 Thermal efficiency of thermo efficient natural draft biomass cook stove
SN Particulars Tests
T1 T2 T3
1 Calorific value of cotton stalk biomass, kcal/kg 3757.5 3757.5 3757.5
2 Ambient air temperature, oC 33.8 34.6 31.2
3 Quantity of water taken in pot for heating (m), kg 4 4 4
4 Initial temperature of water (Tw), oC 26.1 26.0 26.3
5 Water heating temperature (Tx), oC 96 96 96
6 Highest temperature attainted by the last pot (Tb), oC 46 41 51
7 Total quantity of water heated (Mt), kg 32 32 32
8 Total quantity of water heated at 96 oC (excluding quantity 28 28 28
of water from last pot (M), kg
9 Quantity of water heated in last pot (m), Kg 4 4 4
10 Total amount of water evaporated (M1), kg 0.4829 0.5154 0.4270
11 Specific heat of water (Cp), kcal/kg 1 1 1
12 Latent heat of vaporization (H), kcal/kg 586.436 586.436 586.436
13 Quantity of biomass used, (W), kg 2 2 2
14 Thermal efficiency, % 31.25 31.56 31.19
15 Average thermal efficiency, % 31.34
The thermal efficiency of the other stoves were also determined and compared with thermo efficient cook stove
and the results are shown in Table 3.
Table 3 Comparison of thermal efficiency of different cook stove

Thermo- efficient cook PDKV wood SPRERI cook Traditional single pot
Particulars
stove stove stove cook stove
Thermal efficiency, % 31.34 20.93 25.94 10.78
It is seen from the Table 3 that the thermal efficiency of the thermo efficient cook stove was found to be higher
than that of the existing cook stove viz., PDKV updraft wood stove, SPRERI and traditional mud stove cook stove
by 13.38, 8.37 and 20.56%, respectively. The increase in thermal efficiency of the thermo efficient cook stove
could be due to improved heat transfer to the pot by the cook stove and thus heat produced was effectively utilized
than any other stove tested in the laboratory. The higher thermal efficiency of thermo efficient cook stove was due
to the minimal heat losses and also the higher burning rate of fuel in others cooks stoves as well in traditional mud
stove. The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), New Delhi, reported that the highest thermal
efficiency of domestic cook stove of top feeding arrangement is 33.44% using wood as fuel, whereas, the
developed thermo efficient cook stove with side fuel feeding arrangement had 31.34%. In side feeding cook stove
continuous fuel feeding is possible whereas, in top feeding cook stove every time cooking pot has to be removed
for fuel feeding.
CO concentration measurements
Due to improper design of combustion zone and low thermal efficiency, it emits gaseous pollutants like CO. Such
emissions have a serious health consequence on household members especially women involved in the cooking and
on young children who spends time around their mother while playing. The CO concentration in flue gas emit by
the thermo efficient cook stove was found to be 2.97g/MJ, whereas, the CO concentration was found to be 18.63,
5.41, and 73.15% higher in PDKV updraft wood stove, SPRERI and traditional mud stove cook stove, respectively
than that of the thermo efficient cook stove (Table 4). As per Indian standard the CO concentration should not
exceed 3.5g/MJ heat delivery.
Table 4 CO concentration in flue gas
Sr. Particulars Thermo- efficient PDKV wood SPRERI cook Traditional cook
No. cook stove stove stove stove
1. CO concentration, g/MJ 2.97 3.65 3.14 11.06
Cooking test of thermo efficient cook stove

The actual cooking test of the thermo efficient cook stove was taken in villages viz., Dagadparwa, Yeota and
Kurankhed of Akola District. The detail study of preparation of food items prepared at the house of Mrs.
Bebinanda Sanatan Tayade, At Yeota, Tq. Distt. Akola are given in the following Table 5 (Muralidharan and
Thomas , 2015).
Table 5 Preparation of meal using thermo efficient cook stove
Sr. No. Particulars Wt. of material, gm/ml Time required, min Fuel required, gm
1. Tea 250 05.5 117
2. Chapati 500 23.5 469
3. Curry 525 12.5 214
4. Rice 125 11.0 198
Total 52.5 998
The total time requirement for preparation of meal for five adult’s family members by using thermo efficient
cook stove was worked out to be 52.5 min and the fuel requirement was 998 kg. The comparative cooking test of
various stove were also taken and given in Table 6.
Table 6 Comparative cooking test and cost of various cook stoves
Thermo efficient SPRERI cook PDKV cook Single pot mud

Sr. No. Particulars
cook stove stove stove stove
1 Wt. of rice taken for 250 250 250 250
cooking, gm
2 Time required for cooking 11 18 16 18
rice, min
3 Cost of stove, Rs. 700 1400 2000 -
The advantages of the thermo efficient cook stove over the traditional mud cook stove are;
Higher thermal efficiency of the cook stove
Reduction in smoke and healthier environment for women and children
Reduces drudgery of women for collection of fuel wood from forest
Reduced deforestation due to use of cotton stalks available with the farmers
Reduction in cooking time by 39%
Less exposure of women to kitchen smoke
Less cost of fabrication of the stove (INR 700/-)
CONCLUSIONS
The thermal efficiency of the thermo efficient biomass cook stove was found to be 31.34% and which was 20.56%
higher than traditional biomass cook stove. It saved 39% cooking time over a traditional biomass cook stove. The
CO concentration in flue gas emitted by the thermo efficient cook stove was found to be 2.97g/MJ, whereas, the
CO concentration was found to be 18.63, 5.41, and 73.15% higher in PDKV updraft wood stove, SPRERI and
traditional mud stove cook stove, respectively than that of the thermo efficient cook stove. The cost of thermo
efficient cook stove is very less as compared to the any other existing cook stoves. The cook stove is a relatively
clean burning device, fuel efficient, low cost and user friendly.
REFERENCES
1. Anonymous, 2011. Future potential of biomass energy in India. Bioenergy India, Ministry of New and Renewable
Energy, Government of India: 6-11.
2. Anonymous, 2012a. Energy Sources of Indian Households for Cooking and Lighting, 2011-12 Ministry of Statistics and
Programme Implementation.12-22.
3. Anonymous, 2012b. World Energy Outlook. International Energy Agency. 6-7.
4. Bansal M, Saini RP, Khatod DK, 2013. Development of cooking sector in rural areas in India. Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews. 3: 44-53.
5. Harshika K, Chandra A, Kaushik SC, 2014. Comparative Study on Emissions from Traditional and Improved Biomass
Cook stoves Used in India. International Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology. 2
(8):249-257.
6. Kshirsagar MP and Kalamkar VR, 2014. A comprehensive review on biomass cook stoves and a systematic approach
for modern cook stove design. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 30: 580–603.
7. Motghare KA, Rathod AP, Waghmare SS, Wasewar KL and Labhsetwar NK, 2015. Performance evaluation and heat
transfer studies on biomass gasifier cook stove. International Journal of Application or Innovation in Engineering &
and Management. 4: 47-63.
8. Muralidharan V and Thomas E, 2015. Field testing of alternative cook stove performance in a rural setting of western
India. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health.12: 1773-1787.
9. Panwar NL and Rathore NS, 2008. Design and performance evaluation of a 5 kW producer gas stove. Biomass and Bio-
energy. 32:1349-1352.
10. Powar R, Bandgar PS and Kadu P, 2014. Clean energy from cotton stalk exercise of cook stove. International Journal
of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering.4 (7).
11. Tripathi AK, 2014. Renewable energy for rural areas. Akshay Urja. 8 (2): 28-32.
12. Venkataraman C, Sagar AD, Habib G, Lam N and Smith KR, 2010. The Indian National Initiative for advanced
biomass cooks stoves: The benefits of clean combustion. Energy for Sustainable Development. 14: 63-72.
STUDIES ON BIOGAS PRODUCTION FROM SOYBEAN AND
COTTON STRAWS SUBSTRATE
A. K. Kamble1 S.B. Kirjat2 and M. B. Nagdeve3

1*
Energy Sources & Electrical Engg. Dr. PDKV, Akola (M.S.), INDIA Email:anilkumar_kamble@hotmail.com 2M. Tech Student and 3Dean,
Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, Dr. PDKV, Akola (M.S.), INDIA
ABSTRACT
Studies on biogas production from agricultural crop residue inoculated with cattle dung was undertaken for
utilization of biomass as bio-energy generation. The six plastic bottles i.e. digesters of 2 liter capacity was
arranged in such a way that the first digester contained ratio of 25:75 (Soybean straw : Cattle dung), the second
digester contained ratio of 50:50, third bottle contained ratio of 75:25 for soybean straw. Similarly, fourth
digester contained ratio of 25:75, fifth digester contained ratio of 50:50, sixth digester contained ratio of 75:25
substrate of cotton. Seventh digester content only cattle dung. 8th and 9th digester content soybean and cotton
straws alone, respectively. In proximate analysis of soybean straw the average moisture content, volatile matter,
ash content and fixed carbon and was found to be 6.87, 71.13, 5.44 and 16.56 %, respectively and it was found to
be 7.43, 67.60, 4.50 and 20.47 %, respectively in cotton straw. The calorific value of soybean and cotton straw
was found to be 3694.93 and 3342.56 kcal/kg, respectively. The optimum biogas production of 40,320 ml was
observed in the proportion of substrate of soybean straw mixed with cattle dung (25:75 ratio) and it was 32,445
ml while using cotton straw with the same ratio of substrate. The highest percentage of methane was observed to
be 66.17% using soybean straw mixed with cattle dung (25:75 ratio) and it was found to be 65.05% in case of
cotton straw with the same ratio of substrate.
Keywords: Bio-Methanogenesis, anaerobic digestion and crop residue.
INTRODUCTION
Energy is one of the most important factors to global prosperity. The global mix of fuels comes from fossil (78%),
renewable (18%) and nuclear (4%) energy sources. The dependence on fossil fuels as primary energy source has
led to global climate change, environmental degradation, and human health problems. Moreover, the recent rise in
oil and natural gas prices may derive the current economy toward alternative energy sources such as biogas. Biogas
is a gaseous mixture generated during anaerobic digestion processes using waste water, solid waste (landfills) and
organic waste, e.g. animal manure and other sources of biomass. Anaerobic digestion is the biological degradation
of biomass in oxygen-free conditions. In the absence of oxygen, anaerobic bacteria will ferment biodegradable
matter into methane (40-70%), carbon dioxide (30-60%), hydrogen (0-1%) and hydrogen sulfide (0-3%), a mixture
called biogas. Biogas is formed solely through the activity of bacteria. Although the process itself generates heat,
additional heat is required to maintain the ideal process temperature of at least 35°C. Mainly cattle dung has
been used as the major feed material for AD, which is not likely to have significant impact globally. This calls for
widening the scope of this technology by tapping other organic materials like plant waste, industrial waste,
municipal waste and water hyacinth.
Soybean and cotton are the major crops of Maharashtra grown in kharif season. Soybean straw is left as a
residue after soybean harvesting in India which is often get rid of by open burning in the field. Open burning causes
many problems such as influence on soil nutrition, soil moisture, pollution and being flammable to nearby
structures. Cotton waste (cotton plant straws, cotton leaves and cotton seed hulls) is one of the agricultural wastes
that is considered as ‘‘energy source’’ especially in countries in which the cotton is being planted on a large scale
The area under cultivation of cotton was found to be 105 lakh ha and 38.06 lakh ha in India and Maharashtra,
respectively. The production of cotton was 351 lakh bales and 89 lakh bales in India and Maharashtra respectively.
The production of cotton straws in 2015-16 in India, Maharashtra and Vidarbh is 37.95 MT, 12.57 MT and 3.72
MT, respectively. It is estimated that about 25 million tons of cotton straw is generated in India every year. Most of
the straw produced is treated as waste though a part of it is used as fuel by rural masses. On average cotton plant
straw contains about 68 % hemi-cellulose, 26 % lignin and 6 % ash. Availability of LPG gas as a fuel is one of
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the major challenges faced by our modern society. Alternative energy sources have recently become more and
more attractive due to the increasing demand for energy, the limited resource for buying fossil fuel, the
environmental concerns, and the strategy to survive post-fossil fuel economy era and one of the alternative sources
of energy is biogas. Soybean and cotton is the major crop of Vidarbh region and these crops are the major biomass
source as renewable energy. In this study attempt has been made to develop experimental setup of biogas digesters
and to evaluate their performance using soybean and cotton straws as substrate.
Hence, these agricultural wastes can be used for the production of biogas which could be used as a fuel. Study
reveals the agricultural wastes undergo anaerobic digestion problem, due to the presence of lignocellulose in most
of them resulting to low nitrogen content. Hence, to improve the digestibility and C:N ratio of most agricultural
wastes, size reduction (increased surface area), pre-treatment and co-digestion with animal dung as inoculum is
highly recommended to obtain an optimum gas yield. The research is objectively geared towards utilization of the
abundantly available agricultural wastes from agricultural produce found all around the country with the aim of
exploring their biogas production potentials from co-digestion of the selected agro-waste with cattle dung as
inoculums.

The experimental set up of “laboratory scale studies on biogas production from soybean and cotton straws
substrate” was developed in the workshop of College of Agriculture Engineering and Technology Dr. PDKV Akola
and the experiment conducted in the Department of Unconventional Energy Sources and Electrical Engineering,
Dr. PDKV, Akola. The agricultural crop residues of soybean and cotton were collected from Dr. PDKV farm and
store in the Department of UCES & EE. The residue was chopped and dry in sunlight for a week before being
grinded to reduce its particle size. The required size of particles was prepared to fulfill the requirements of biogas
production and to achieve high biogas yields. Feed stock material specifications range was less than 2 mm for
biogas production. The size reduction of agricultural crop residues was made by grinding machine and sieve
shaker.
Characterization of soybean and cotton straws

In order to assess the quality of soybean and cotton straws, it was characterized for its proximate and ultimate
analysis. In a proximate analysis of soybean and cotton straws it was characterized for determination of moisture
content, volatile matter, ash content and fixed carbon. In ultimate analysis of soybean and cotton straws it was
characterized for determination of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulphur based on the American Society of
Testing and Materials (ASTM) standards. The oxygen was obtained by subtracting the percentage of ash, carbon,
hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur from 100%.
Determination of calorific value
Calorific value of any biomass is the amount of the heat liberated by that under specific conditions of combustion.
The heat value in a given biomass is mostly a function of the biomass chemical composition. The higher heating
value (HHV) is the total amount of heat energy that is available in the biomass, including the energy contained in
the water vapor in the exhaust gases. The lower heating value (LHV) does not include the energy embodied in the
water vapor. The calorific value was calculated using Dulong's formula.
O
HCV = 8080 C 34500 H 2240 S ….. 1
Where,
C = Carbon
H = Hydrogen
O = Oxygen
S = Sulphur
LCV = HCV – 0.09(H) × 587 ….. 2
Experimental setup for performance evaluation of biogas digesters

The six plastic bottles (digesters) of 2 liter capacity was arranged in such a way that the first digester contained
ratio of 25:75 (SS:CD), the second digester contained ratio of 50:50, third bottle contained ratio of 75:25 for
soybean straw. Similarly, fourth digester contained ratio of 25:75, fifth digester contained ratio of 50:50, sixth
digester contained ratio of 75:25 substrate of cotton. Seventh digester content only cattle dung. 8th and 9th digester
content soybean and cotton straws alone, respectively. All the containers were connected with plastic tubes having
a diameter of 10 mm. One end of the tube is connected the digester and another end is inserted in the gas measuring
jars. The lids of all digester were sealed tightly in order to control the entry of air and loss of biogas. Measuring
cylinders filled with water were oriented inverted and placed in the plastic containers immersed in water. The
amount of biogas produced replaced the amount of water from measuring cylinders and easily measured the
quantity biogas produced by every digester. Decreased in level of water column in the measuring cylinders is the
biogas produced. The complete experimental set up is shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 Experimental setup for performance evaluation of biogas digesters
Table 1 and 2 indicates the proportion of substrates of soybean and cotton straws added in the digesters.
Table 1 Experimental proportion of soybean straw and cattle dung

Proportions (g) / Ratio (%) 0:100 25:75 50:50 75:25 100:0
Soybean straw (g) 0 187.5 375 562.5 750
Cattle dung (g) 750 562.5 375 187.5 0
Water (ml) 750 750 750 750 750
Total sample (g) 1500 1500 1500 1500 1500
Table 2 Experimental proportion of cotton straw and cattle dung

0:100 25:75 50:50 75:25 100:0
Cotton straw (g) 0 187.5 375 562.5 750
Cattle dung (g) 750 562.5 375 187.5 0
Water (ml) 750 750 750 750 750
Total sample (g) 1500 1500 1500 1500 1500
Determination of available N:P:K contents in substrates and digested slurry

The nitrogen content in substrates and digested slurry was determined by Kjeldahl’s method. The phosphorus
content in substrates and digested slurry was determined by Olsen’s method. One ml extract was used in test tube.
According to Olsen’s method, reagent (R1) was prepared by adding 42 ml H2SO4 in 100 ml chilled distilled water
in volumetric flask of 250 ml. Then, the mixture was shaken after the addition of 4.3g ammonium
heptamolybedate. Reagent (R2) was prepared by taking 1.75 g polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) in 1 liter beaker, and heated
with 200 ml of de-ionized water at 80°C and stirred with a glass rod. After cooling this mixture, 0.175g malachite
green was added. Reagent 1 (R1) was added and kept for 10 minutes. Then, Reagent 2 (R2) was added and left for
30 minutes. Bluish green color was appeared in the extract as phosphorus was present in it. Spectrophotometer
(HITACHI U-2000) at 610 nm wavelength was used to detect the phosphorus content present in the extract raw
mixture substrates and digested slurry. After the wet digestion of samples according to the method of Wolf,
potassium was determined after the extraction by ammonium acetate (1 N of pH 7.0). Potassium content in raw
mixture substrates and digested slurry samples were determined by using Jenway PFP-7 flame photometer.

The proximate analysis of soybean and cotton straws was carried out to determine moisture content, volatile matter,
ash content and fixed carbon. The results are presents in Table 3.
Table 3 Proximate analysis of soybean and cotton straws

S. No. Particulars Soybean straw Cotton straw
1 Moisture content, (%) 6.87 7.43
2 Volatile matter, (%) 71.13 67.60
3 Ash content, (%) 5.44 4.50
4 Fixed carbon, (%) 16.56 20.47
The average moisture content, volatile matter, ash content and fixed carbon in soybean straw was found to be
6.87, 71.13, 5.44 and 16.56 % respectively and cotton straw was found to be 7.43, 67.60, 4.50 and 20.47 %,
respectively.
Ultimate analysis of soybean and cotton straws
The carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur and oxygen content was determined by using ultimate analysis of soybean
and cotton straws and it was found to be 40.90, 6.67, 1.40, 0.69 and 44.67 per cent, respectively in soybean straw
and it was found to be 43.63, 5.56, 1.63, 0.55 and 44.36 per cent, respectively in cotton straws (Table 4).
Table 4 Ultimate analysis of soybean and cotton straws

S. No. Particulars Soybean straw Cotton straw
1 Carbon, (%) 40.90 43.63
2 Hydrogen, (%) 6.67 5.56
3 Nitrogen, (%) 1.40 1.63
4 Sulphur, (%) 0.69 0.55
5 Oxygen, (%) 44.67 44.36
Carbon is the most important element in the fuel as it has direct influence on the heating value according to
same; higher the carbon content (40.90 and 43.63 %) of soybean and cotton represents higher heating value of fuel.
The C:N ratio of soybean straw and cotton straw was found to be 29.21 and 26.77 respectively.
Calorific value of soybean and cotton straw
The higher calorific value (HCV) for soybean and cotton straws were observed to be 3694.93 and 3342.56 kcal/kg,
respectively and the lower calorific value (LCV) for soybean and cotton straws were 3542.80 and 3249.06 kcal/kg,
respectively. Soybean straw has higher calorific value than that of cotton straw. Higher calorific value of the
residue is desirable to have a better performance in biogas production (Table 5).
Table 5 Calorific value of soybean and cotton straw residues

S. No. Calorific Value HCV (kcal/kg) LCV (kcal/kg)
1 Soybean straw 3694.93 3342.56
2 Cotton straw 3542.80 3249.06
Average daily biogas production in each digester

The quantity of biogas produced from the soybean and cotton straws and cattle dung feed stock of 1500 ml quantity
over a period of 50 days at an average temperature of 38ºC are summarized in Fig. 2 and 3.
1400 0(SS):100(CD)
Daily biogas production1200 25(SS):75(CD)
50(SS):50(CD)
1000 75(SS):25(CD)
800
(ml)
600
400
200
0
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 43 46 49
Retention time (days)
Fig. 2 Daily biogas production from various ratios of soybean straw with cattle dung
1400 0(CS):100(CD)
25(CS):75(CD)
Daily biogas production (ml)
1200 50(CS):50(CD)
75(CS):25(CD)
1000 100(CS):0(CD)
800
600
400
200
0
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 43 46 49
Retention time (days)
Fig. 3 Daily biogas production from various ratios of cotton straw with cattle dung
The cumulative biogas produced from each digester was measured until it stopped to produce any more gas. In
the course of measurement, both substrate types appeared to yield more biogas than cattle dung alone. Thus, biogas
production is a function of the feedstock’s organic content and its biodegradability. The digester containing 25:75
ratio of soybean straw and cattle dung, and other two ratios of 50:50 and 75:25 started biogas production from 6th,
7th and 9th day respectively after loading feed stock, while biogas production commenced on 4th day after loading
feed stock in the digester containing 100% cattle dung. Highest biogas production observed in the digester
containing substrate mix of 25:75 and no biogas produced in digester containing cotton straw alone mixed with
water. The biogas production started early in the digester containing 100 percent cattle dung. This could be due to
its partial fermentation that usually takes place in digestive tract of ruminant animal.
Measurement of cumulative biogas production from various ratios of
soybean and cotton straws mixed with cattle dung
The cumulative biogas production was calculated by adding daily biogas production yield. The maximum biogas
produced 40320 ml from 1500 ml of slurry (TMS) in the ratio of 25:75 of SS and CD followed by 24865 ml in
50:50 ratio, 14115 ml in CD alone i.e. 0:100 and 12410 ml in 75:25 ratio (Table 6).
Table 6 Cumulative biogas production from various ratios of soybean straw with cattle dung
Retention Biogas production from soybean straw with cattle dung (ml)
period (day) 0:100 75:25 25:75 50:50 100:0
50 14115 12410 40320 24865 0
Cumulative biogas production from various ratios of cotton straw with cattle dung
The maximum biogas produced 32445 ml from 1500 ml of slurry in the ratio of 25:75 of cotton straw and cattle
dung followed by 20375 ml in 50:50 ratio, 14115 ml in cattle dung alone. i.e. 0:100 and 10200 ml in 75:25 ratio
(Table 7).
Table 7 Cumulative biogas production from various ratios of cotton straw with cattle dung
Retention period Biogas production from cotton straw with cattle dung (ml)
(day) 0:100 75:25 25:75 50:50 100:0
50 14115 10200 32445 20375 0
It was observed that biogas production was actually slow at starting and the end of observations. This is
predicted because biogas production rate in batch condition is directly equal to specific growth of methanogenic
bacteria. During the first week of observation, there was less biogas production and this may be due to the lag
phase of microbial growth. Whereas, in the range of second week of observation biogas production increased
substantially and this might be due to more growth of methanogens. The maximum biogas obtained in the ratio of
25:75 proportion of crop residue with cattle dung. However, the cumulative biogas produced of 40320 ml in
soybean straw substrate which was higher than that of the cotton straw substrate. (32445 ml) This might be due to
fact that the cotton straws content higher percentage of hemi-cellulose (75.1 %) as compared to soybean straw (25
%). The amount of hemi-cellulose reduced the biodegradation rate in the digester and ultimately reduced the biogas
production.
Composition analysis of the biogas produced from soybean and cotton straw substrate
Methane yield is an important economic factor in anaerobic digestion. The highest CH4 was produced in the ratio
of 25:75 using soybean straw and cattle dung. It was found that the co-digestion of different materials used in this
study enhanced methane yields. The composition of biogas produced from various ratios of soybean and cotton
straws with cattle dung was analyzed by gas chromatographs at National Environmental Engineering Research
Institute (NEERI) Nagpur. The biogas composition in terms of methane and carbon dioxide contents for various
ratios of soybean and cotton straws with cattle dung is shown in Table 8.
Table 8 Composition analysis of the biogas produced from various ratio of soybean and cotton straw with cattle dung
Proportions In soybean straw and cattle dung In cotton straw and cattle dung
S. No.
(Straw: Cattle dung) CH4 (%) CO2 (%) CH4 (%) CO2 (%)
1 0:100 60.40 32.62 60.40 32.62
2 25:75 66.17 36.84 65.05 34.02
3 50:50 63.82 34.21 61.46 32.33
4 75:25 61.18 30.24 58.49 29.85
5 100:0 No Gas Found No Gas Found
The methane content varied from 60.40 to 66.17 % based on ratios of mixtures. The percentages of methane for
soybean substrate were observed to be 66.17, 63.82, 60.40, and 61.18 % for the ratios of 25:75, 50:50, 0:100, and
75:25, respectively. However, the ratio 25:75 gave highest percentage of methane content (Table 8). From the
results of CH4 content the 25:75 ratios recommended amongst the various ratios. The average recorded values of
CO2 in biogas were 36.84, 34.21, 32.62, and 30.24% for various proportions of soybean straw with cattle dung i.e.
0:100, 25:75, 50:50 and 75:25, respectively. The methane content varied from 58.49 to 65.05 % was observed in
various proportion of cotton straw and cattle dung. Similarly results are obtained in case of 25:75 ratio of cotton
straw and cattle dung also. The higher percentage of methane 65.05 % content was observed is 25:75 proportion
and other ratios i.e. 0:100, 50:50 and 75:25, content 60.40, 61.46 and 58.49 %, respectively. (Table 8). The CO2
percentage was observed to be 32.62, 34.02, 32.33 and 29.85 % in 0:100, 25:75, 50:50 and 75:25 ratios,
respectively.
Determination of NPK content analysis of cattle dung and digested slurry
Cattle dung is the major source of biogas production. Cattle dung and slurry both are being used as organic manure
for agriculture. Nitrogen contents in cattle dung and digested slurry was determined by Kjeldahl nitrogen assembly
apparatus. The concentration of phosphorus and potassium was determined by using spectrophotometer and flame
photometer, respectively. The nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium contents in cattle dung and digested slurry were
determine in the laboratory at the Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry Dr. PDKV, Akola and
the results are presented in Table 9.
Table 9 N:P:K content in cattle dung and digested slurry of various proportions of
soybean and cotton straw mixed with cattle dung
Sr. Proportions Soybean straw and cattle dung Cotton straw and cattle dung
No. (Straw: Cattle dung) N (%) P (%) K (%) N (%) P (%) K (%)
1 0:100 1.17 1.09 0.32 1.17 1.09 0.32
2 25:75 1.45 1.21 0.80 1.36 1.12 0.58
3 50:50 1.38 1.09 0.46 1.25 1.01 0.43
4 75:25 1.32 1.02 0.41 1.22 0.84 0.40
5 100:0 1.23 0.70 0.28 1.10 0.53 0.16
From table 10 it is seen that the fresh cattle dung content 1.17, 1.40 and 0.32 %, N:P:K respectively and after
digestion in the biogas digester it is increased up to 1.45, 1.21 and 0.80 %, respectively in the proportion of 25:75.
Similarly, the digested slurry of various proportions of cotton straw with cattle dung was analyzed for N:P:K
content and it is observed that, the maximum N:P:K content in 25:75 ratio was observed to be 1.36, 1.12 and 0.58
%, respectively higher than that of other proportion of cotton straws with cattle dung.
The nitrogen concentration in cattle dung was lower than that of digested slurry samples. The reason is that
slurry being the thermopile bacteria broken down the organic wastes and fixed the amount of nitrogen in it during
the anaerobic fermentation of cattle dung in biogas production. The digested slurry contains higher amount of
nitrogen than that of the cattle dung mixed with water. However, in cattle dung the nitrogen concentration may be
lost because of different reasons. As during sun-drying operation, the manure lost nitrogen roughly equivalent to
the whole of free ammonia present. The results revealed that a concentration of nitrogen and potassium was high
in digested slurry whereas, the concentration of phosphorus was high in cattle dung. The study suggests that slurry
is effective and rich manure as compared to cattle dung.
CONCLUSIONS
The optimum biogas production of 40,320 ml was observed in the proportion of substrate of soybean straw mixed
with cattle dung (25:75 ratio) and it was 32,445 ml while using cotton straw with the same ratio of substrate. The
highest percentage of methane was observed e 66.17% using soybean straw mixed with cattle dung (25:75 ratio)
and it was found to be 65.05% in case of cotton straw with the same ratio of substrate.
REFERENCES
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Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and state University.
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4: 1-73.
4. Isci A. and Demirer GN. (2006). Biogas production potential from cotton wastes Renewable Energy Vol. 32: 750-757.
5. Kamble AK (2016) Modified biogas technology for the digestion of fresh undiluted cattle dung for energy generation
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South African Journal of Chemical Engineering, Vol. 20: 11- 26.
8. Patel B and Gami B (2012). Biomass characterization and its use as solid fuel for combustion. Iranica journal of energy
and environment 3(2): 123-128.
9. Tsunatu D, Yavini UH, Taura NM and James MN (2014). Comparative study of mesophilic biogas production potentials
of selected agro-wastes. The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) Vol. 3: 2319-1813.
SOLAR ENERGY OPERATED CABINET DRYER FOR
DRYING TOMATO SLICES
A. K. Kamble1*, Ramesh L. Dombale2 and M. B. Nagdeve
1*
Assistant Scientist, and Corresponding Author, 2 M. Tech. Student, 3Dean, Engineering
All India Coordinated Research Project on Renewable Energy Sources,
Department of Unconventional Energy Sources & Electrical Engineering
Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Agricultural University, Akola (MS)-INDIA
ABSTRACT
The solar cabinet dryer coupled with heat storage system has been developed and evaluated its performance for
drying tomato slices. The loading capacity of the dryer was about 10 kg of tomato slices per batch. The drying
characteristics of the dryer were compared with open sun drying method. The temperature developed in the dryer
was recorded at three positions viz., lower, middle and upper tray and it was observed in the range 34.2 to 52.6,
33.5 to 49.7 and 33.2 to 51.1°C, respectively. Drying time for drying tomato slices from initial moisture content
of 94 to 6% (wb) was observed to be 12 h in solar dryer whereas, 15 h was observed in the open sun drying. The
benefit cost ratio and payback period for drying of tomato slices in solar dryer was worked out to be 1.36 and 4
month 24 days, respectively.
Keywords: Solar cabinet dryer, heat storage system, flat plate solar air heater, natural convection.
INTRODUCTION
In India, sun drying is the most commonly used method to dry the agricultural material like grains, fruits and
vegetables. In sun drying, the crop is spread in a thin layer on the ground and exposed directly to solar radiation
and other ambient conditions. The rate of drying depends on various parameters such as solar radiation, ambient
temperature, wind velocity, relative humidity, and initial moisture content of produce, type of crops, crop
absorptive and mass of product per unit exposed area (Mohanraj and Chandrasekar, 2009 and Umayal Sundari,
2013). This form of drying has many drawbacks such as degradation by windblown, debris, rain, insect infestation,
human and animal interference that will result in contamination of the product. Drying rate get reduced due to
intermittent sunshine, interruption and wetting by rain. At the time of harvesting, most of the agricultural products
have high moisture content. Agricultural products, if left as such will biologically degrade due to the growth of
microorganisms. So, to preserve them for future purpose and to make it available throughout the year proper
preserving technique is to be adopted (Umayal Sundari, 2013).
Drying is a method of food preservation which can improve the shelf life of agricultural products mainly fruits
and vegetables. Drying reduces moisture content of a product to a level below which deterioration does not occur
and thus prevents fermentation or growth of moulds (Medugu, 2010). Products after drying process fetch a better
market price. Thus, drying helps the farmers to secure of a greater economic return which in turn enhance the
economy of the nation (Nahar, 2009). Normally thermal storage systems are employed to store the heat, which
includes sensible and latent heat storage. Common systems used in storing thermal energy include gravel bed, rock
beds, rock beds, sand, concrete etc., where thermal energy is stored in the form of sensible heat (Anuradha and
Oommen, 2013; Ayyappan and Mayilsamy, 2012; Kamble et al. 2013). Use of gravel and iron scrap bed for the
improvement of performance of solar air heater has been proposed by several investigators (Saravankumar and
Mayilsamy, 2010).
Solar dryers can be used only during day time for 7 to 8 h when solar intensity is available and the conventional
source of energy is to be used to continue the drying after sun set or during off sun shine hours. Thermal storage
system could be coupled with the solar dryer to improve its efficiency, operating hours of solar dryers. This could
also save conventional source of energy. In view of the above, the study was undertaken to develop and evaluate
the performance of solar cabinet dryer coupled with heat storage system for drying tomato slices.
365

A solar cabinet dryer integrated with heat storage system of 10 kg/batch capacity was developed and installed at
Department of Unconventional Energy Sources and Electrical Engineering, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi
Vidyapeeth, Akola, and evaluated its performance for drying of tomato slices. The dryer was provided with
metallic mesh trays for keeping the tomato slices. The dryer was integrated with heat storage system of gravels and
iron scraps material for experimentation. The solar radiation is incident on the flat plate collector; the ambient air
which enters into the dryer, is heated and hot air heats up the gravels and iron scraps bed flows heated air in drying
chamber for drying. During sunshine hours, the heat storage bed is being charged by the hot air and discharged
during off sunshine hours. The performance of solar cabinet dryer integrated with and without heat storage system
was evaluated at full load test (Fig. 2). The temperature of heat storage system at its bottom, middle and top
position of upper and lower layer was also measured. The tomato slices of 10 kg were spread over the trays
uniformly. The initial weight of the samples was recorded. Each sample of 100 gm was weighted regularly at an
interval of 30 minute and simultaneously the temperature, relative humidity and air velocity inside the solar cabinet
dryer corresponding to ambient parameters including solar intensity was measured. Drying was conducted between
8.30 to 20.30 h and 8.30 to 17.30 h daily in solar cabinet dryer with and without heat storage system, respectively.
The temperature was measured in the solar dryer at three position viz., lower, middle and upper drying trays using
pre-calibrated digital thermometers.
(a) (b)
Fig. 1 (a) and (b) Drying of tomato slices in solar cabinet dryer coupled with heat storage system
Drying characteristics of tomato slices

The drying depends on simultaneous heat and mass transfer phenomena and factors dominating each process
determine the drying behaviour of the product. The drying rates were computed from the experimental data and
drying characteristics curves i.e. moisture content versus drying time, drying rate and moisture ratio versus drying
time.
Determination of moisture ratio
The moisture ratio of the produce is computed by following formula (Chakraverty, 1988).
M M
Moisture Ratio M. R. e
M M
Where,
Mt - Moisture content (db), %
Me - Equilibrium moisture content (db), %
Mi - Initial moisture content (db), %

k - Drying rate constant per minute
t - Drying time, min
Determination of drying rate
The drying rate, (mw) was determine from the mass of moisture to be removed by solar heat and drying time and is
determine by the following equation.
M
m
t
Where,
mw - Drying rate, kg h-1
Mw - Quantity of water evaporated from product, kg
td - Assumed drying time, h
Thermal efficiency of dryer (η)
The thermal efficiency of solar cabinet dryer was calculated by the following formula.
m Cp Ti Te
η
Ic Ac
Where,
η -Thermal efficiency of dryer, %
m -Weight of water evaporated from the product, kg
Cp - Specific heat of water, kJ kg-1°C
Ti - Temperature in drying chamber, °C
Te - Temperature at exhaust chimney, °C
Ac - Area of the collector, m2
Ic - Solar intensity, kJ m-2h

The solar cabinet dryer was evaluated for drying of tomato slices. From Fig. 2 it is observed that the temperature in
the solar cabinet dryer was observed in the range of 34.2 to 52.6, 33.5 to 49.7 and 33.2 to 51.1°C at lower, middle
and upper trays, respectively. The ambient temperature, relative humidity and solar intensity were observed in the
range of 34.3 to 42.0°C, 13 to 28% and 202.18 to 991.70 W/m2, respectively. It was observed that drying of tomato
slices in solar dryer took 12 h and finish the drying in a single day.
The changes in moisture content of tomato slices with drying time in solar cabinet dryer and open sun drying
(OSD) is shown in Fig. 3. The average moisture content of tomato slices placed in T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 trays
reduced from 1566.67 to 31.11, 35.56, 46.67, 51.67 and 35.56% (db) in 12 h, respectively in solar cabinet dryer
coulped with heat storage system. Whereas, the average moisture content of tomato slices was reduced from
1566.67 to 23.89% (db) in 15 h in OSD. The drying time was reduced to about 24.9% for drying tomato slices in
solar cabinet dryer integrated with heat storage system when compaired to OSD.
From Fig. 4 it is seen that the drying rate of tomato slices dried in trays T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 of solar cabinet
dryer integrated with heat storage system varied from 5.0000 to 0.0525, 4.5556 to 0.0664, 4.0556 to 0.0648, 3.2778
to 0.0718 and 3.3333 to 0.0617 gm/100gm bdm min, respectively. The drying rate of tomato slices dried in OSD
was found to be 2.3889 to 0.0111 gm/100gm bdm min. The average moisture ratio for drying tomato slices was
found to be 0.5138, 0.5197, 0.5237, 0.5289 and 0.5209 in T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5, respectively whereas, it was found
0.4892 in OSD experiment (Fig. 5).
60 1200
50 1000
Solar intensity (W/m²)

Temperature (°C)
40 800
30 600
20 400
10 200
0 0
08:30
08:40
08:50
09:00
09:30
10:00
10:30
11:30
12:30
13:30
14:30
15:30
16:30
17:30
18:30
19:30
20:30
Lower tray
Time (h) Middle tray
Upper tray Ambient temp.
Fig. 2 Temperature variation in the solar cabinet dryer at full load test
2000
Moisture content (db), %
T1
1500 T2
T3
T4
1000
T5
OSD
500
0
0.0 0.3 1.0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Drying time (h)
Fig. 3 Variation in moisture content of tomato slices in solar cabinet dryer and OSD
6.0
T1 DR
(gm/100gm bdm min)
5.0
T2 DR
Drying rate
4.0 T3 DR
3.0 T4 DR
2.0 T5 DR
OSD DR
1.0
0.0
0.0 0.3 1.0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Drying time (h)
Fig. 4 Variation in drying rate of tomato slices in solar cabinet dryer and OSD
1.4
T1 MR
1.2
T2 MR
1.0
T3 MR
Moisture ratio 0.8
T4 MR
0.6
T5 MR
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0 0.3 1.0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
‐0.2
Drying time (h)
Fig. 5 Variation in moisture ratio of tomato slices in solar cabinet dryer and OSD
Temperature developed in heat storage system of solar cabinet dryer

The temperature developed in the heat storage system of solar cabinet dryer during day time and after sunset was
measured at upper and lower layer of heat storage system viz., bottom, middle and top positions. From Fig. 6 it is
seen that the temperature in the heat storage system at its upper layer was observed to be 36.5 to 58.6, 37.6 to 67.2
and 38.6 to 73.9°C at bottom, middle and top position, respectively. While the temperature in the heat storage
system at its lower layer was observed to be 34.1 to 52.0, 35.7 to 57.3 and 35.8 to 60.8°C at the bottom, middle and
top position, respectively. The ambient temperature was observed to be 34.3 to 42.0°C and solar intensity was
202.18 to 991.70 W/m2. The maximum temperature difference between ambient and drying chamber was observed
to be 10.6, 7.7 and 9.1°C during 8:30 to 17:30 h and 6.2, 5.8 and 5.4°C during 17:30 to 20:30 h at lower, middle
and upper tray, respectively for drying tomato slices.
80 1200
70
1000
Solar intensity, (W/m²)
60
800
Temperature, (°C)
50
40 600
30
400
20
200
10
0 0
8:30
8:40
8:50
9:00
9:30
10:00
10:30
11:30
12:30
13:30
14:30
15:30
16:30
17:30
18:30
19:30
20:30
Time, h
Bottom- upper layer Middle- upper layer Top- upper layer
Bottom- lower layer Middle- lower layer Top-lower layer
Ambient temp. Solar intensity
Fig. 6 Temperature developed in the heat storage system at full load condition
Drying time for drying of tomato slices from initial moisture content of 94 to 6.0 % (wb) was found to be 12
and 15 h in solar cabinet dryer integrated with heat storage system and OSD methods, respectively. The BC ratio of
the system was calculated by dividing present worth of benefit stream and present worth of cost stream. The benefit
cost ratio of tomato slices dried in solar dryer and was found to be 1.36. Payback period for drying tomato slices
was found to be 4 months and 24 days. The appearance of tomato slices dried in solar dryer and OSD is shown in
Fig. 7 (a) and (b), respectively. It is also clearly observed that the tomato slices dried in solar dryer has dark red
colour compare to OSD dried samples.
(a) Solar cabinet dried tomato slices (b) Open sun dried tomato slices
Fig. 7 (a) and (b) Solar and open sun dried tomato slices
The seven different thin layer drying models were applied for variation of moisture ratio with respect to drying
time using STATISTICA-11 software. The best ranked thin layer drying model with higher coefficient of
determination (R2) and lower chi-square (χ2) and root mean standard error (RMSE) value was selected. Logarithmic
model was best fitted for tomato slices dried in OSD method in the month of May, 2014. It was observed that,
Logarithmic model fitted the best ranked thin layer drying model to the variation of moisture ratio with drying time
of tomato slices dried in T1 in solar cabinet dryer and is given as below.
. . . exp
Where, a and b are constant and x is the moisture ratio.
Wang and Singh drying model was best fitted for drying of tomato slices in trays T2, T3, T4 and T5 in of solar
cabinet dryer with heat storage system. The equation is given as below.
. . 1
Where, a and b are constant and x is the moisture ratio.
CONCLUSIONS
Drying time for 10 kg of tomato slices for reducing its moisture content from 94 to 6% (wb) was found to be 12 h
in the solar cabinet dryer coupled with heat storage system, whereas it was found to be 15 h in the open sun drying
method. It was observed that the gravel with iron scrap heat storage system supplied heat for 3 h after sunset also.
The benefit cost ratio and payback period for drying of tomato slices in solar cabinet dryer integrated with heat
storage system was found to be 1.36 and 4 month and 24 days, respectively. The colour and physical appearance of
the tomato slices dried in solar dryer was found superior than that of the open sundried samples.
REFERENCES
1. Anuradha and R. Oommen, 2013. Analysis and study of solar dryer for cauliflower and ladies finger drying with pebble
bed storage system. International Journal of Recent Scientific Research. 4(10): 1571-1574.
2. Ayyappan, S. and K. Mayilsamy, 2012. Solar tunnel dryer with thermal storage for drying of copra.Int. J. Energy
Technology and Policy. 8(1): 3-12.
3. Chakraverty, A. 1988. Post harvest technolgy of cereals, pulses and oilseeds. Oxford & IBH Pub. Co., New Delhi.
4. Kamble, A.K., I.L. Pardeshi., P.L. Singh and G.S. Ade, 2013. Drying of chilli using solar cabinet dryer coupled with
gravel bed heat storage system. Journal of Food Research and Technology. 1(2): 87-94.
5. Medugu, D.W., 2010. Performance study of two designs of solar dryers. Arch. Journal of Applied Sciences Research, 2:
136-148.
6. Mohanraj, M. and P. Chandrasekar, 2009. Performance of a forced convection solar dryer integrated with gravel as heat
storage material for chilly drying. Journal of Engineering Science and Technology. 4(3): 305–314.
7. Nahar, N. M., 2009. Processing of vegetables in solar dryer in arid areas.In the proceedings of the International Solar
Food Processing Conference.
8. Saravanakumar, P.T., and K. Mayilsamy, 2010. Forced convection flat plate solar air heaters with and without thermal
storage. Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research. 69: 966-968.
9. Umayal Sundari, A. R., P. Neelamegam and C.V. Subramanian, 2013.Performance of evacuated tube collector solar
dryer with and without heat sources.Iranica Journal of Energy & Environment 4 (4): 336-342.
ENERGY AUDIT OF COTTON CROP PRODUCTION SYSTEM
A. K. Kamble1* and M. B. Nagdeve2

1*
Energy Sources & Electrical Engg. Dr. PDKV, Akola (M.S.), INDIA Email:anilkumar_kamble@hotmail.com
2
Dean, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, Dr. PDKV, Akola (M.S.), INDIA
ABSTRACT
The study on energy audit of cotton crop production was undertaken to estimate energy input and output
involved in cotton crop production in cotton growing areas of Vidarbha region (M.S.). Three types of energy
were considered for quantification of requirement of energy for performing various agricultural operations in
cotton viz., mechanical energy used by mechanical devices in field operation, animal energy and human energy.
The consumption of fuel was collected for the various field operations. The total estimated energy was
determined in MJ/ha by multiplying with standard energy equivalent of the particular parameters. The important
farm operations like land preparation, sowing, intercultural operations, irrigation, fertilizer application, picking
etc. were considered in the cotton crop production. Similarly, human energy used in the field operations was
determined by considering the number of labours requirement for field operations. Field operation wise and
source wise energy input utilization for cotton crop production and output energy from cotton was workout.
Total energy input was workout to be 12577.76 MJ/ha and output energy was workout to be 17275 MJ/ha and
net energy was workout to be 4697.24 MJ/ha. The highest energy consumption of 7253 MJ/ha was observed for
fertilizer application followed by ploughing (1562 MJ/ha), cotton stalk uprooting (893.281562 MJ/ha),
harrowing (703.881562 MJ/ha) and picking (628.321562 MJ/ha). The energy output-input ratio, specific energy,
energy productivity and net energy for cotton crop production was worked out to be 1.37, 8.59 MJ/kg, 0.12
kg/MJ and 4697.24 MJ/ha, respectively.
Keywords: Energy audit, crop cultivation, energy productivity and net energy.
INTRODUCTION
Energy consumption per unit area in agriculture is directly related with the development of technological level and
production. The inputs such as fuel, electricity, machinery, seed, fertilizer and chemical take significant share of the
energy supplies to the production system in modern agriculture. Efficient use of the energy resources is vital in
terms of increasing production, productivity, competitiveness of agriculture as well as sustainability to rural living.
Energy auditing is one of the most common approaches to examine energy efficiency and environmental impact of
the production system. It enables researchers to calculate input-output ratio, other relevant indicators and energy
use pattern in an agricultural activity. Moreover, the energy audit provides sufficient data to establish functional
forms to investigate the relationship between energy inputs and outputs. Estimating these functional forms is very
useful in terms of determining elasticities of inputs on yield and production. Energy use pattern and contribution of
energy inputs vary depending on farming systems, crop season and farming conditions. Energy input-output
analysis is usually used to evaluate the efficiency and environmental impacts of production systems. This analysis
is important to perform necessary improvements that will lead to a more efficient and environment-friendly
production system.
The Maharashtra has a significant share in the total agricultural production in India. Cotton is the main crop
grown in the Maharashtra in Kharif season and 42 lakh ha area is under cotton cultivation. Therefore, considering a
major crop of the Maharashtra, energy input and output in cotton production was examined in the present study.
The main objective of this study was to evaluate the energy input and output for cotton production system.
Questionnaire for data collection for energy requirement for cotton cultivation system is finalized by concerning
with social scientist of Extension Education and Economist of Agricultural Economics and Statistical Department
of Dr PDKV, Akola. Data for the cultivation of cotton crop system were collected from 60 farmers by using a face-
to-face questionnaire method. This study seeks to analyze the effect of indirect and direct energy on yield using
functional form. In addition to these parameters, it was also aimed to calculate energy output/input, energy
productivity and specific energy used in the field crop production. In Vidarbha region of Maharashtra, human,
animal energy, tractor, oil engines, electric motors and power tiller are the source of energy being used to perform
372
various farm operations. Large quantities of the energy inputs are used in the form of physical inputs like
fertilizers, chemical, seed, farm yard manure etc.
Information pertaining to requirement of energy with its respect source together with cost of production is of
immense utility and importance to agriculture. Investigation on the use of energy per unit area for different crops
are very important particularly at times when the country is facing energy crisis and undertaking investigation,
which forecasted requisite data on the energy crises issues. It becomes necessary to study energy use pattern and
also to study the possibility of optimizing the returns by re-allocation of energy input resources. After careful
consideration and in light of above present investigation was undertaken to know the requirement of energy sources
for performing various farm operation in cultivation of cotton crop production.
METHODOLOGY
The present study was undertaken in Akola, Amravati and Yavatmal districts. The districts were selected
purposively because these districts are contributing major cotton growing area. The climate of the area is semi-arid.
The majority crops grown in Vidarbha are dependent on rainfall. Cotton, soybean, sorghum, green gram are the
major crops cultivated in Kharif season. The study was mainly designed to collect pertinent facts about energy
requirement in cotton crop cultivation. The emphasis was given on the studies of energy requirement in cotton crop
cultivation system. The focus of the present study is centered on the computation of energy requirement for
performing different agricultural operations. Therefore, it becomes an inevitable to discuss and describe the
procedure followed for computation of energy required for performing different agricultural operations. Three
types of energy were considered for quantification of requirement of energy for performing various agricultural
operations in cotton. The first one is mechanical energy used by mechanical devices in field operation. The
consumption of fuel was collected for the various field operations. The total estimated quantity of energy was
determined in MJ/hectare (multiplied by diesel equivalent energy (MJ/litre). The important farm operations like
land preparation, sowing, intercultural operations, irrigation, fertilizer application, picking etc. were considered in
the cotton crop production. Similarly, human energy used in the field operations was determined by considering
the number of labours requirement for field operations. The consumption of bullock energy for field operation was
determined in cotton production. The basic input required for the cotton production of seed, fertilizer, organic
manure, irrigation were considered to show the outlet of stated parameter in terms of energy for the input energy
required for cotton production. Finally, in order to workout total requirement of energy summation of mechanical
energy, human energy and bullock energy and the primary input were considered together and thus total energy
required for crop under study was estimated.
Parameters of the study
Following parameters were studies for energy audit of cotton cultivation system.
Table 1 Parameters and their measures

S. No. Parameters Empirical measures
1 Area under cultivation Hectares of land actual put under cultivation
2 Power sources Bullock power, tractor power and both bullock & tractor power and human energy used
3 FYM application Quantity of FYM applied for cotton cultivation
4 Irrigation sources It refers to the irrigation sources used by farmers
5 Hoeing Number of hoeing applied for cotton cultivation
6 Input energy It refers to actual energy obtained from direct and indirect energy resources.
7 Yield It refers to the quantity of yield obtained from each farmer.
8 Output energy It includes actual energy from cotton, fiber and cotton stalk.
Energy analysis of cotton cultivation system

Energy analysis attempts to take in to account all forms of energy inputs to system and energy output from the
system, to establish their energy relationship for understanding the energy requirement of the various operations.
The total energy input include direct and indirect energy requirement. The total output energy will be calculated
from cotton fiber and stalk and their energy equivalent. Input output analysis was primarily done to examine the
quantity of energy produced by the system against expending a certain quantity of energy. The ratio of output
energy to input is called as energy ratio. The input output ratio of energy was estimated by the following formula;
O , MJ
Energy use efficiency %
I , MJ
Specific energy or energy intensity has been widely used in energy analysis to express quantity of energy
invested to produce unit quantity of product. The unit of specific energy is MJ/kg.
Energy input MJ/ha
Specific energy, MJ/kg
Crop output kg/ha
Energy productivity which measures the quantity of production per unit of input energy (kg/MJ) i.e. inverse of
specific energy was term used in energy analysis.
Crop output kg/ha
Energy Productivity, kg/MJ
Energy input MJ/ha
The net energy of the cotton crop production was determined using following formula.
Net energy MJ⁄ha Energy output MJ/ha Energy input MJ/ha
Where energy input represents the energy use in the form of direct and indirect mode for cotton crop production.
The input energy for various operations and the input deployed for growing of cotton crop was determined. The
energy equivalents were used for estimation of energy required for cotton crop production is given in Table 2.
Table 2 Energy equivalents for estimation of inputs and outputs energy of cotton production
Input Energy equivalent, MJ/unit
Human labour (h) 1.96
Diesel 47.8
Chemical fertilizers (kg)
Nitrogen 60.6
Phosphorus 11.1
Potassium 6.7
Chemicals (kg)
Herbicides 238
Insecticides 199
Cotton seed(kg) 25
Irrigation (m3) 0.63
Yield (kg) 11.8

The distribution of respondent on selected characteristics have been presented and described in this part. The
characteristics namely, land holding, power sources, farm yard manure, fertilizer application, hoeing, irrigation,
input energy have considered exploiting the effect on output energy and cotton yield. The actual area of land in
hectares possessed by farmer for cotton cultivation is given in Table 3.
Table 3 Distribution of respondent according to area under cotton crop and power sources used
Frequency
S. No. Category Percentage, %
(N=60)
Area under cotton crop cultivation
1. Marginal Farmer (< 1 ha) 21 35
2. Small Farmer (1 to 2 ha) 24 40
3. Semi medium farmer (2 to 4 ha) 11 17.5
4. Medium farmer (4 to 10 ha) 5 7.5
5. Large farmer (> 10 ha) 0 0
Table 3 Contd...
Frequency
S. No. Category Percentage, %
(N=60)
Power sources
1. Manual power 0 0
2. Bullock power 0 0
3. Tractor power 0 0
4. Bullock+ tractor power 0 0
5. Manual +Bullock+ tractor power 60 100
Table 3 indicates that, the marginal farmer farmers, small farmer, semi medium farmer, medium farmer and
large farmer having actual area under cotton cultivation were 35%,40%, 17.5% and 7.5%, respectively and it has
been also noticed that there was no any sample found in the category of large farmer. The actual power sources
used by the farmers includes manual power, bullock power, tractor power, both bullock and tractor and all three
sources together and the power sources wise distribution of respondents is given in Table 2. From Table 2 it reveals
that 100% respondents were found to use all the above three sources together. The above finding are in conformity
with the observation that majority respondent prefers, both bullock and tractor for cultivation of cotton crop.
Operation wise energy requirement for cotton crop production
Actual energy utilized for various farm operations viz., ploughing, harrowing, FYM application, sowing, fertilizer
application, irrigation, hoeing, weeding, spraying, picking, stalk uprooting, stalk collection and transportation of
cotton crop production are discussed below in following sections.
Energy requirement for land preparation
The farmers prepared the land by ploughing followed by harrowing and planking and some farmers prepared the
land by ploughing followed by rotavator operation. Generally, farmers ploughed their land after every three year
and around 61.67% farmers had ploughed their land by tractor drawn MB plough (Table 4). The average energy
required for ploughing by MB plough was worked out and found to be 1562 MJ/ha and 703 MJ/’ha for tilling soil
by rotavator. The total energy required for land preparation was worked out 2265 MJ/ha. However, 38.33% farmers
had not ploughed their land and preferred to used five tines cultivator followed by harrowing or tilling by rotavator
and the energy requirement was worked out to be 1243.19 MJ/ha.
Table 4 Energy requirement for land preparation
Frequency
S. No. Particulars Percentage, % Av. energy, MJ/ha
(N=60)
1. Ploughing 37 61.67 1562.00
2. Rotavator 48 80.00 703.88
Total energy 2265.88
1. Five tine cultivator (Panji) 23 38.33 539.31
2. Harrowing/rotavator 23 38.33 703.88
Total energy 1243.19
Energy requirement for sowing cotton

Almost all farmers had used bullock drawn seed drill and manual dibbling for sowing delinted cotton seeds. The
local seed drill (Tifan) was used by the 81.67% farmers. The average energy utilized for sowing a unit hectare of
land of cotton seeds was found to be 316.95 MJ/ha and energy of seed input was used 26.75 MJ/ha. The 18.33%
farmers sown cotton seed by dibbling method and the energy required was worked out 144.30 MJ/ha.
Table 5 Energy requirement for sowing cotton seeds

Frequency Av. energy,
S. No. Particulars Percentage, %
(N=60) MJ/ha
1. Sowing by bullock drawn seed drill (Tifan) 49 81.67 290.20
2. Seed input - - 26.75
Total energy 316.95
1. Dibbling 11 18.33 47.10
2. Cross marks by marker 11 18.33 97.20
Total energy 144.30
FYM application and irrigation facilities

FYM application refers to FYM used by respondents for production of cotton. It is apparent from Tables 6 that 57.5
% of respondent used FYM in the farm and 42.5% farmers have not used FYM. Similarly, 46.67% farmer’s do not
having irrigation facility and only 27% of respondents having the irrigation facility for cotton crop production. The
average energy utilized for irrigation of cotton crop was worked out to be 99.0 MJ/ha
Table 6 Distribution of respondent according to FYM application and irrigation

S. No. Particulars Frequency (N=60) Percentage, % Av. energy, MJ/ha
1. No FYM used 28 46.67 -
2. FYM used 32 53.33 142.50
Irrigation
1. Non Irrigation 28 46.67 -
2. Irrigation 32 53.33 99.0
Energy requirement for hoeing

It is evident from the data in Table 7 that maximum percentage (56.67%) respondent had done four times hoeing
for cotton cultivation. As much as 28.33 per cent of respondents were done hoeing up to three times. And
remaining 15 % of the respondents had done hoeing up to five times, respectively. The average energy used by the
farmers for hoeing was found to be 438.81MJ/ha.
Table 7 Distribution of respondent according to hoeing number and energy requirement

Frequency Percentage, Av. Energy,
S. No. Category
N=60 % MJ/ha
1. 3 times hoeing 17 28.33
2. 4 times hoeing 34 56.67 438.81
3. 5 times hoeing 9 15.00
Energy requirement for weeding in cotton crop

It is evident from the data in Table 8 that maximum percentage (70%) respondents had done four times weeding in
cotton crop. As much as 25 per cent of respondents were done weeding up to two times. And remaining 5% of the
respondents had done weeding up to four times. The average energy used by the farmers in weeding operation was
found to be 270.48 MJ/ha.
Table 8 Distribution of respondent according to weeding numbers

Frequency
S. No. Category Percentage, % Av. energy, MJ/ha
N=60
1. 2 times weeding 15 25.0
2. 3 times weeding 42 70.0 270.48
3. 4 times weeding 03 5.0
Fertilizer application
The farmers gave first fertilizer dose at the time of sowing called as basal dose of N:P:K amounting to 40:50:50
kg/ha. On average farmers used to gives three fertilizer doses including basal dose. The average energy utilized for
fertilizer application was estimated to be 7253 MJ/ha (Table 9).
Table 9 Fertilizer application and energy used in cotton crop production
Av. Energy, MJ/ha
S. No. Particulars Total Energy, MJ/ha
N P K
1. First Basal dose (July) basal (N:P:K) 40:50:50 2424 555 335
2. Second dose (August) only N= 35 kg/ha 2121 - - 7253
3. Second dose (September) N= 30 kg/ha 1818 - -
Total 6363 555 335
Energy requirement for spraying in cotton crop

It is evident from the data in Table 10 that maximum percentage (60%) respondents had sprayed pesticides three
times on cotton crop. As much as 31.67 per cent of respondents had sprayed pesticides two times and remaining
8.33% of the respondents had sprayed pesticides four times. The average energy used by the farmers in spraying
pesticides was found to be 269.54 MJ/ha.
Table 10 Distribution of respondents according to spraying numbers
Frequency
S. No. Category Percentage, % Av. Energy, MJ/ha
N=60
1. 2 times spraying 19 31.67
2. 3 times spraying 36 60.00 269.54
3. 4 times spraying 5 8.33
Energy requirement for picking of cotton

It is evident from the data in Table 11 that around 51 women labours were used for picking cotton and the average
energy required for picking cotton was worked out 628.32 MJ/ha.
Table 11 Energy requirement for picking of cotton

S. No. Operation Labours required, Nos. Av. Energy, MJ/ha
1. First picking 10
2. Second picking 11 628.32
3. Third picking 14 (Energy equivalent of women labour 1.54 MJ/h)
4. Fourth Picking 13
5. Fifth picking 3
Total women labours 51
Cotton stalks uprooting

The cotton stalks was uprooted by tractor drawn v-blade and stalks were collected by women labours. The energy
required for uprooting was estimated 893.28MJ/ha.
Table 12 Energy requirement for cotton stalks
S. No. Operation Av. Energy, MJ/ha
1. Cotton stalk uprooting by V Blade (844 MJ/ha) and labours required 893.28
for stalks collection (49.28 MJ/ha)
uprooting
Output energy assessment

The assessment of energy from cotton yield was workout and presented in Table 13. On an average four picking
were made by the farmers and yield of cotton is shown against each picking in Table 13. The total energy from
yield of cotton was estimated 17275 MJ/ha.
Table 13 Output energy from yield of cotton

S. No. Particulars Yield, q Av. Energy, MJ/ha
1. First picking 2.17
2. Second picking 2.55 17275
3. Third picking 4.60 (Energy equivalent of cotton 11.8MJ/kg)
4. Fourth Picking 4.40
5. Fifth picking 0.92
Total yield 14.64
Operation wise and source wise energy input utilization for cotton crop production and output energy is
summarized in Table 14. Energy input-output and efficiency calculation in cotton crop production is given in Table
15.
Table14 Operation wise average energy input coefficient (MJ/ha) required for cotton crop production
S. No. Operations Energy, MJ/ha
Input Energy
1 Ploughing 1562.00
2 Harrowing /rotavator 703.88
3 Sowing 316.95
4 FYM application 142.50
5 Irrigation 99.0
6 Hoeing 438.81
7 Weeding 270.48
8 Spraying 269.54
9 Fertilizer application 7253.00
10 Picking 628.32
11 Cotton stalk uprooting 893.28
Total input energy 12577.76
Output energy 17275.00
Table15 Energy input-output and efficiency calculation in cotton crop production

S. No. Particulars Value
1. Total energy input, MJ/ha 12577.76
2. Output energy, MJ/ha 17275.00
3. Energy output input ratio 1.37
4. Specific energy, MJ/kg 8.59
5. Energy productivity, kg/MJ 0.12
6. Net energy, MJ/ha 4697.24
CONCLUSION
Operation wise and source wise energy input utilization for cotton crop production was worked out to be 12577.76
MJ/h and output energy from cotton was workout to be 17275 MJ/ha and net energy was estimated to be 4697.24
MJ/ha.
REFERENCES
1. Dagistan E., Akcaoz H. Demirtas B. and Yilmaz, Y. (2009). Energy usage and benefit-cost analysis of cotton
production in Turkey. African Journal of Agricultural Research Vol. 4 (7): 599-604.
2. Oren M. N., Ozturk H.H. (2006). An Analysis of Energy Utilization for Sustainable Wheat and Cotton
Production in Southeastern Anatolia Region of Turkey. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture, Vol. 29(1):119-
130.
3. Alipou A., Veisi, H. Darijani F., Mirbagheri B., Behbahani A.G. (2012). Study and determination of energy
consumption to produce conventional rice of the Guilan province. Res. Agr. Eng. Vol. 58, 2012, No. 3:
99-106.
4. Kalbande, S. R.,. Kamble, A. K and Gangde, C. N. (2011). Bioenergy assessment and its integration for self
sufficient renewable energy village. Karnataka J. Agric. Sci., 24 (2): 207-210.
APPLICATION OF GIS AND REMOTE SENSING FOR WATER
CONSERVATION PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT OF THE PURNA
WATERSHED IN AKOLA DISTRICT OF MAHARASHTRA
C. B. Pande, R. S. Patode, M. B. Nagdeve, K. N. Moharir1, and M. B. Dongardive
AICRP for Dryland Agriculture, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola, Maharashtra
1
Department of Geology, Sant Gadge Baba Amravati University
ABSTRACT
The aim of the study is to develop a water conservation plan and management with the help of GIS and remote
sensing support. Watershed management is the process of creating and implementing plans, programs, and
projects to sustain and increase watershed functions that affect the plants, animal and human communities inside
watershed boundary. The GIS and remote sensing support us for giving a fast and cost effective study of
different applications with accuracy for water conservation planning and management of the Purna watershed.
The results of this study gives a good quality perspective for understanding the problems of water conservation
management and development and therefore useful for policy planners evolve a better result for water
conservation development and management using remote sensing and GIS techniques. This study demonstrates
the role of remote sensing and GIS technologies, in the identification, delineation of drainage network within
watersheds, generation of slope and flow direction maps from digital elevation models (DEMs). The results
include the DEM, slope, flow accumulation, aspect and flow direction maps for visualization of topographic
characteristics of the watershed as tools for informed decision making by managers during the water
conservation plan and management process. Conclusions appreciate and recognize the importance of spatial
technologies in watershed conservation and management and recommend their use in developing watershed
conservation and management tools.
Keywords: Conservation, DEM, slope, Watershed.
INTRODUCTION
Water resources are increasingly in demand in order to help of agricultural and industrial development, to create
incomes and wealth in rural areas, to reduce poverty among rural people, and to contribute to the sustainability of
natural resources and the environment. Reliable and timely information on the available natural resources is very
much essential to formulate a comprehensive land use plan for sustainable development (K. Palanisamia et al.
2009). The land, water, minerals and biomass resources are currently under tremendous pressure in the context of
highly competing and often conflicting demands of an ever expanding population. Consequently over exploitation
and mismanagement of resources are exerting detrimental impact on environment. In India more than 75% of
population depends on agriculture for their livelihood. Agriculture plays a vital role in our country economy. In
order to mitigate droughts which occur frequently in several parts of the country especially in dry land areas the
Ministry of Agriculture and co-operation has launched. An integrated watershed concept using easy, simple and
affordable local technologies. Watershed approach has been the single most important landmark in the direction of
bringing in visible benefits in rural areas and attracting people’s participation in watershed programmes (Chang K.
T., 2009). The basic objective is to increase production and availability of food, fodder and fuel; restore ecological
balance. Watershed management is an iterative process of integrated decision making regarding uses and
modification of lands and waters within a watershed (Pande C. et al. 2014). Development of the watershed needs
better understanding about the various natural resources their relations with each other and their relations with
livelihood of the stakeholders. The current study is used using Remote Sensing and GIS application to proposed
different water conservation structures measures in order to recommend included that the land and water resource
development plan for Purna watershed is covered by 120.25 hectare in Akola district in Maharashtra
(Chaitanya B. Pande et al. 2017, Chakraborti, A. K 1993).
STUDY AREA
The study area is situated in between South latitudes 20043’0” to 20042’0” and East longitudes 77002’30” to
7704’0” in the Akola district in Maharashtra and covered by Survey of India toposheet no. with scale of 1: 50000.
380
nt & Society (N
NCWES-20188) 381
The mean maxximum and minimum

T m mperatures 422.30C and 11..80C were obbserved in thee Purna watershed area
tem
reespectively. The
T average annual
a rainfalll recorded is 750
7 to 820 mm
m in the Purnna watershed.. Location off watershed
arrea is shown in
i Figure 1.
Fig. 1 Locationn Map of Purnaa Watershed

M
METHOD
To achieve thhe objectives,, the followinng methodoloogy and proccedure has been
T b adopted in water conservation
pllanning and management.
m The satellite data and Survvey of India Topographica
T al maps were collected fromm national
aggency in Inddia. Collectioon of rainfalll and tempeerature data and other collateral
c dataa were colleected. The
n 1:25000 scalles was prepaared from digital elevation model using Arc GIS 10.3 software
prreparation off base map on
(A
Abel Nyariboo Kaburi et all. 2014). The drainage, waatershed bounndary was geenerated from m SRTM data using Arc
H
Hydro tools with
w the refereence of SOI topographical
t l maps. The slope
s and asppect maps weere prepared from
f Flow
D
Direction Mapp, Flow Accumulation Map, M preliminnary pre-fieldd interpretatioon of Hydro geomorphollogy using
Satellite data on 1:25,000 0 Scale, grouund truth datta collection,, verification of doubtfull areas and correction,
c
modification and transfer of post field details of Hydro geomorphology on to original maps, recommendation of
land & water resources development plan.

The Purna watershed area comes under rainfed condition with the Basalt Rock and undulating topography.
Application of Remote sensing and GIS technology has been used for water conservation planning and
management in the alluvium and basaltic hard rock area. This watershed area younger and older alluvium zones
was observed (Biswas, S 2002). Thematic map has been helpful for land development, water conservation planning
with groundwater recharge and rainwater harvesting plan suggested in watershed area. Number of case studies and
soil and water conservation projects proved unsuccessful sometime due to improper watershed development plan
and due to adjustments with dissimilar facts of environment problems by lack of awareness of the soil, water and
other resources in the micro-watershed planning. In order to make finest use of existing environmental resources
like land, soil, forest, vegetation and water in watershed, systematic scientific surveys must be conducted (UNEP
2009). Geo-spatial studies of the hard rock terrain, socioeconomic assessment of the stake holders and the use of
remote sensing and GIS data for earlier appraisal of environmental resources such as hydrology, soil, geology, land
use and land cover, soil fertility, soil land capability and drainage density as well as evaluation of cost-effective
activities through land use and infrastructure of the watershed area is well known information (R. S. Patode et al.).
The remote sensing data and GIS software is a very powerful tool for development plan of the watershed area with
whole environmental and socio economic factor for good planning, implementation and monitoring of any
watershed area. Remote Sensing (RS) data and Geographical Information System (GIS) play key role in the sector
of sustainable water resource development and management (Carlos Perez et al., 2003). One of the best advantages
of using remote sensing data for natural resource management is its capability to make the information in spatial
and temporal domain, which is very critical for successful model analysis, prediction and validation (Khadri S.F.R
et al. 2016).
Flow Accumulation: A flow accumulation grid was created using ‘Flow Accumulation’ tool and flow direction
grid. The number associated with a cell in the flow accumulation grid represents the total number of cells draining
to that specific cell. Upstream drainage areas can be determined by multiplying the flow accumulation number at
any given cell by the cell area. The flow accumulation map was prepared from flow direction map using spatial
analysis tools. The flow accumulation values directly showed which area is suitable for water conservation
planning in the watershed area. In this study area, flow accumulation map was divided into three categorized high,
medium and low then 125, 62.5 and 0 was observed values using Arc GIS 10.3 software.
Fig. 2 Flow Accumulation Map of Purna Watershed

Topography Analysis
The topography elevation was analyzed through SRTM or Digital Elevation Model (DEM), which was obtained
from Purna watershed area, Akola Taluka, Akola and depicted in Fig. 3. In this study area show high, medium and
low elevation ranges such as 313, 300 and 288 are observed using Arc GIS 10.3 software.

Fig. 3 Topography Map of Purna Watershed
Slope Analysis
Slope analysis is a significant criterion based on which the water conservation planning and management can be
prepared through application of remote sensing and GIS technology. The watershed area sometimes observed with
the high runoff and rainfall due to fallow and barren land. These most of land is under in agriculture practices and
water conservation planning can be more useful for rainfed area. A higher degree value of slope results in a high
run-off potential in the Purna watershed area. The slope map was generated using digital elevation model with Arc
GIS 10.3 software, where in slope category of 0-94.32 and 94.32-154% will have low runoff, the area having slope
range of 154-215.51% will have moderate runoff, the area having slope range of 215.51-359.73% will have high
runoff observed in Purna watershed. However the total contribution of the runoff will depend on the area coverage
in particular class in the watershed. Slope values are very much essential for the preparation of water conservation
planning and management in the watershed area (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4 Slope Map of Purna Watershed
Flow Direction
The hydro DEM was used to determine the flow direction within each cell using ‘Flow Direction’ tool. A value 255
is assigned to cells where a distinct flow direction cannot be determine and is often indicates that a sink exists
within the DEM. Flow direction grid confirmed that none of the cells were assigned a value of 255 (Khadri, S. F. R
et al. 2014). The flow direction map was prepared from digital elevation model with the help of spatial analysis
tools in Arc GIS 10.3 software (Fig.5).

Fig. 5 Flow Direction Map of Purna Watershed
CONCLUSION
Application of remote sensing and technology is a very powerful tool for water conservation planning and
management. In this study different thematic maps were generated from satellite data using Arc GIS 10.3 software.
These thematic maps can be essential parameters during survey of water conservation planning in the Purna
watershed. The field of watershed science, particularly watershed planning is experiencing fundamental changes
that are having profound impact on the use of computer-based simulation models in natural resource development,
planning and management. Therefore by taking into consideration the slope as per the plan provided to water
conservation practices should be adopted along with construction of temporary, semi-permanent and permanent
structures on the drainage lines for harvesting the runoff from rainwater. This will also be useful for augmenting
groundwater recharge which ultimately will lead to increase in the groundwater levels further providing extra
irrigation during Kharif and Rabi season. The watershed development plan can be used in the watershed area, to
direct impact of groundwater levels, crop yield and production of the Purna watershed. This watershed
development plan will be useful to farmers and they may be benefitted by adoption of one or combination of these
activities as per site suitability. The results of this study gives a good quality perspective for understanding the
problems of water conservation management and development and therefore useful for policy planners evolve a
better result for water conservation development and management using remote sensing and GIS techniques.
REFERENCES
1. Abel Nyaribo Kaburi and Patroba Achola Odera (2014,) GIS and Remote Sensing Support in Watershed Conservation
and Management: Case Study of the Upper Gucha Watershed – Kenya, IOSR Journal of Environmental Science,
Toxicology and Food Technology, 8.7: 35-43, (2014).
2. Biswas, S (2002), Remote sensing and geographic information system bases approach for watershed conservation. J.
Surv. Eng., 128: 108–124.
3. Carlos Perez and Henry Tschinkel (2003), Improving Watershed Management In Developing Countries: A Framework
For Prioritising Sites and Practices, Agricultural Research & Extension Network.
4. Chaitanya B. Pande, S. F. R. Khadri, Kanak N. Moharir R. S. Patode (2017), Assessment of groundwater potential
zonation of Mahesh River basin Akola and Buldhana districts, Maharashtra, India using remote sensing and GIS
techniques, Sustainable Water Resources Management, 1–15.
5. Chakraborti, A. K (1993), Strategies for watershed management planning using remote sensing techniques. J. Indian
Soc. Remote Sensing, 22: 87–97, (1993).
6. Chang K. T., (2009), Introduction to Geographic Information Systems. Mc Graw-Hill Co.
7. K. Palanisamia and D. Suresh Kumar B. (2009), Impacts of Watershed Development Programmes: Experiences and
Evidences from Tamil Nadu, Agricultural Economics Research Review, 22: 387-396,
8. Khadri, S. F. R., Chaitanya B. Pande (2014) Remote Sensing and GIS Applications of Geo-morphological Mapping of
Mahesh River Basin, Akola & Buldhana Districts, Maharashtra, India using Multispectral Satellite Data, Indian
Streams Research Journal, 4.5.
9. Khadri S.F.R., Kanak Moharir (2016). Land use/cover disturbance due to increase in urbanization Man River Basin of
Akola Buldhana Districts, Maharashtra-India: A remote sensing and GIS based approach, Compusoft, An International
Journal of Advanced Computer Technology, 5: 21.1
10. R. S. Patode, M. B. Nagdeve, C. B. Pande and K. N. Moharir (2017), Land use and land cover changes in Devdari
Watershed, Trends in Biosciences Vol. 10.8: 1622-1625.
11. UNEP (2009), Integrated Water Resource Management Definition; International Decade for Action ‘WATER FOR
LIFE’ 2005 -2015,
12. Pande C. and Moharir K. N. (2014) Analysis of Land Use/Land Cover Changes Using Remote Sensing Data And GIS
Techniques of Patur Taluka, Maharashtra, India, IJPRET, 2.12: 85-92, (2014).

FLOW CHARACTERISTICS OF LABORATORY FLUMES IN
FREE AND SUBMERGED FLOW CONDITIONS
Bhukya Ramakrishna1, Gaddam Gangadher2, Rapolu Sravani3,
Hechu Swathi4 and Mudhigonda Chandramouli5
1
Assistant Professor, 2345Student, Civil Engineering Department, RGUKT Basar, Telangana
1
bhukyaramakrishna@gmail.com, 2ndagangadher@gmail.com, 3swathicivil1557@gmail.com, 5sravanisandya111@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Use of the water resources in an efficient and economical manner, place a vital role in domestic, agricultural and
industrial needs are concerned. Measurement of water in an open channel is very much important in collection,
distribution, safe delivery of water resources. It is necessary to know how to measure water in open channel. For this
purpose the flume which we use are one of the equipment. Flumes will give best results by eliminating major
problems like reducing the head loss and removal of sediment. And we can measure accurately by this and in an
easy manner also. Free flow is nothing but where the flow in downstream is not affecting the upstream and
submerged flow is downstream flow is affecting the upstream flow. With this connection experiments are
conducted on laboratory flumes like venturi, Parshall (3”), WSC (2”,45 degrees) on 5m. Tilting Flume. In Venturi
and Parshall flume, surface profiles which are drawn along the channel bed shows that the depth of water in
upstream is not affected by backwater depth in free flow, where as in submerged flow it was influenced by
backwater depth. And drawn the standard profiles for rough estimation of profile in different conditions like Bed
slope(-0.005, 0, +0.01), discharge(5l/s, 7l/s ,9l/s ,11l/s), back water depth. The discharge relations in Venturi,
Parshell flumes, between actual and theoretical values shows that they are in linear relation. In Parshell flume the
channel bed slope, discharge and backwater depth are mutually independent. And in WSC flume, comparison of
standard curves in different flow conditions says that, submerged flow is affecting the curve position.
Keywords: Flumes, Free flow, submerged flow, Surface profiles.
INTRODUCTION
The efficient and economical use of water resources is becoming a critical, social concern. Accurate flow
measurement is very important for proper and equitable distribution of water among water users. Due to
increasing utilization and the value of water, measuring techniques become more important and necessary
information concerning the volume of available water is very useful in planning for its future use and
distribution. There are several types of flow measurement devices are available those are namely Differential
pressure flow meters, Positive displacement flow meter, Electromagnetic flow meters and Open channel flow
meters.
Flume is an open channel used for measurement of flow of water. Some varieties of flumes are used in
measuring water flow those are Venturi flume, Parshall flume and WSC flume (Washington State College
flume). A venturi flume is a critical flow flume where in the critical depth is created by a contraction in width
of the channel. Thus the contracted section serves as a control. A venturi flume consists of three sections a
converging section, a throat section and diverging section. The flow upstream and downstream of the throat is
subcritical and supercritical respectively. Parshall flume is advanced one of the venturi flume it is a standing
wave flume. The loss of head for the free flow limit is only about 25 per cent of that for the over pour weir. The
accuracy of discharge measurements with this flume, under normal operating conditions, is probably within
2 to 5 per cent. The Parshall flume may be operated as a free flow single head device or under submerged
flow conditions where two heads are involved. Compare to venturi flume Parshall flume having low head
losses. WSC flume noting but a Trapezoidal flume was developed primarily to measure irrigation flows.
These flumes having capable of accurately measuring a much wider range of flows then those of the Parshall
flume with particular emphasis of low flow sensitivity. It also used for the measuring of Varity types of
discharges. The bottom is flat from entrance to exit for better head conservation. These flumes do not require
free fall discharge to operate correctly.
386
There was a lot of work done by eminent personalities on flow measurement by flume. Especially in
Parshall flume, an improved version of venturi flume has more applications compared to other types. The
WSC flume has wide range of usage for different field conditions.
V. M. CONE, Irrigation Engineer[12] studied the venturi flume he proposed standard discharge curves and
tables For best results to use of these the structure can be built as shown in the general plan and gauges should
be placed according to that only.
RALPH L. PARSHELL, Irrigation Engineer[6],the free flow it is operated with relatively small head,
which is approximately four times that in the flume. And in submerged flow the degree of submergence is also
high without much affecting the rate of free flow discharge.
Stock et. Al [11](1955), the Parshall flume, can be operated in free flow or submerged flow where single
head or two heads involved respectively. He proposed standard diagrams for determining the loss of head,
which is function of throat width, submergence and discharge. He also proposed discharge curves discharge
tables for free flow.
Skogerboe et.[9](1966) al says the exact definitions for free and submerged flow. For free flow, submerged
flow calibrations he taken upstream head, Upstream head and throat head are taken respectively & by using
free flow calibration tables which are given , are used to find out discharge value. Nomo graphs are to obtain
the change in water elevation, submergence ratio. Head loss for Parshall flume would be finding out by
standard chats which are function of submergence discharge throat width.
Skogerboe et.[10](1965) says that the standard free flow. For submerged flow the equation which is
involved is function of acceleration due to gravity, upstream head, throat head, and minimum flow depth
occurring in the throat. To get the transitional submergence he equated the free and submerged flow of
respective size of flume. The discrepancy between transitional values by plots and computed values are
attributed to in accuracies in free flow and submerged flow equations.
Jalam Singh et. Al [2&3] says that there are a lot of work was done beforly on parshell flume till now. And
they mainly focused on free flow and sediment ladden flow. Experimental work has been carried out on
Parshall flumes and gave coefficient of Parshall flume (K) and exponent (n) were determined through
MATLAB programming.
The main objective of “Flow characteristics of laboratory flumes in free and submerged flow conditions” is
to define a flow in free or submerged conditions by observing the profiles under a limited conditions of
discharge and bed slope of channel. Characteristics of flow includes
1. Determining the discharge through a venturi, Parshall flumes by using head-discharge relationship and
comparing those with the standard table, charts, Armfield S6 MKII software in free and submerged
flow conditions.
2. Observing the water surface profiles in free flow, submerged flow condition and representing those
profiles with respect the channel bed.
3. Plotting the graphs between theoretical
METHODOLOGY
Venturi Flume
In a venturi flume we are finding out the discharge by determining the relationship between upstream head and
flow rate of water through a venturi flume and drawing the flow profiles. For that first we have to open the flow
control valve and set one flow rate and one bed slope then allow the flow to stabilise, and then measure the depth of
the water along the bed of the channel from 1m to 2.5m at every 10cm interval by using hook and point gauge.
After this raise the overshot weir then measure reading for every 10cm interval, then again raise the overshot weir
and measure the readings along the length of the channel. After this, change the flow rate and again take the
readings, same procedure is repeated for different flow rates. By using obtained values we have drawn the flow
profiles by taking the distance along x-axis and depth of water along the y-axis. After this we have measured the
depth of the water at the upstream side, throat section and at the downstream, by using discharge equation we are
finding out the discharge (Qthe) , and Qact value directly given by armfield S6 MKII software, graph is plotted for
Qact v/s Qthe.
2 2Q
Discharge Equation: = .b.H32 …..(1)
3 3
Parshall Flume
Parshall flume is the advancement of the venturi flume, in this flume we have observed and studied the water
surface profiles in the free flow and submerged flow conditions. Free flow condition means the critical depth
occurs in the throat section of a Parshall flume, the discharge is dependent upon only the upstream water, but
it is impracticable to install a measuring flume in such a manner that free flow condition always exist.
Submerged flow conditions are said to exist in a Parshall flume when the depth of the downstream flow causes
the rise in the depth of the upstream flow. For drawing the water surface profiles, we have to set one flow rate
and one bed slope, then allow the flow to stabilise. In this case the downstream water does not impose any
change in the upstream flow means now the flow is in free flow condition, then measure the depth of the
water from 0 to 3m along length of the channel at every 10cm by using hook and point gauge. After this, raise
the water level at the downstream side by using the overshot weir and take the water depths for all the
intervals. By using these values we had drawn the profiles by taking the distance along x-axis and depth of
water along y-axis. By looking at the profiles we can easily identify the formation of the critical depth, and is
that profile is under the submergence flow or free flow condition, and ripple formation at the end of the throat
section due to downstream flow conditions rise the water level in flume. By knowing the depth of water at the
upstream side and downstream side, we can find out the submergence ratio. Submergence ratio is the ratio of
depth of downstream water to the depth of upstream water. If the submergence ratio exceeds 50% it will
considered as submergence flow, less than 50% is considered as free flow. We have measured the depth of the
water at the upstream side, throat section and downstream side to
find out the discharge in free flow conditions and in submerged flow conditions. After finding the discharge we
compared the obtained results with the standard charts and S6 MKII armfield software.
Discharge equation in free flow : Q = 0.992H1.597
a …..(2)
Discharge equation in submerged flow: = –0.953(H a − H b )0.55
H
log b 0.0044 …..(3)
Ha
Where Ha = Depth of Water in Upstream Sill; Hb = Depth of Water in Throat level Sill
WSC flume
Here we are studying the characteristics of flow of water through a WSC flume and comparing the obtained
results with the standard calibration chart. First we have to open the flow control valve and gradually increase
the flow rate from 0 to 8lit/sec and after every setting allow flow to stabilise, after that measure the upstream
water level, downstream water level and water level at the throat section by using hook and point gauge and
also measured the inclined scale reading which is provided on WSC flume after that raise the overshot weir
and allow the flow to stabilise then measure the readings. From the flow rate and inclined scale reading on the
flume we have to draw the calibration curve and find out the submergence ratio (depth of the water at throat
section to upstream depth of water). Finally compare the obtained results with the calibration curve.

Venturi Flume
After installation of venturi flume in tilting flume working section, we put a particular bed slope, discharge
then drawn the water surface profile in that condition. Similarly by altering the above conditions we drawn
the all surface profile conditions. Example, for abed slope of 1 in 200 (positive bed slope), at discharge of 3,
5, 7, 9 l/s the water surface profiles are shown below.
nt & Society (N
NCWES-20188) 389
F 1 Flow Prrofiles In a ven

Fig. nturi flume
By observiing the flow profiles, we can identify
y that, increaasing depth of
o back waterr causes the rise
r in the
water level at the upstream
w m side and allso we can find
fi out the discharge
d for a zero bed slope
s at a giv
ven length
of the channell 1.6 to 3.3 m.
m
Fig. 2 Discharge Variation of Venturi

V Flumee
The graph plotted as th heoretical diischarge v/s actual dischaarge was draawn by takin ng the valuess of water
depth and sub bstituted theese values inn the standarrd dischargee equation byb this we can get the theoretical
t
discharge, thee armfield S6MKII gives the actual discharge valuesv directlly, and then actual disch harge was
taaken along th
he X-axis andd theoretical discharge taaken along th
he Y-axis. Th he resulted grraph is linearr from the
grraph we can easily say th
hat the theoreetical discharge is approxiimately equaal to the actuaal discharge.
P
Parshall Flum
me
In
n Parshall Fllume profiless are drawn for different bed slope of channel i.ee. -0.005, 0, +0.001 and Discharge
D
values of 5l/s,, 7l/s, 9l/s, 11
1l/s and diffeerent depth of
o backwater conditions. From
F the profiles, at low backwater
b
coondition the upstream dep pth of water cannot affectting. But wheen this backwwater depth is increasing, gradually
th
he upstream water depth in affecting g. The first type
t of flow is called freee flow and second flow w is called
su
ubmerged flo ow. And the flowf in betweeen to free an
nd submerged is called ass transition su
ubmerged flo ow. And as
per Skogerboee et.al [5] (19 965), for 3 innch Parshall flume is 56%%.The surfacce profiles which
w are drawwn above,
arre functions of discharg ge, bed slopee, backwaterr depth. And d the relatio
ons between those param meters are
discussed beloow.
Fig. 3 Discharge
D variaation with resp
pect to channeel bed position
n in Parshall Fllume
Fig. 4 Backwater
B variiation with resspect to Bed sllope
From abov
ve given set of
o instruction
ns one can easily find out the surface water
w profile using below
w graph
Fig
g. 5 Standard profiles
p Of Paarshall Flume
nt & Society (N
NCWES-20188) 391
Fig. 6 Coefficient of
o discharge fo
or Parshall flum
me
Actual disccharge& theo

oretical discharge are draw wn in graph. It
I clearly sayss that the slop
pe of 1.1 it is greater
han 1, and for Standard eq
th quations it iss 0.7778, so coefficient
c off discharge iss varying in between
b 0.7 to
t 1.
W Flume
WSC
From the meaasurements of flow rate and a scale read ding on the flume,
f createe a Calibratio
on Curve. Co ompare the
sccale reading with the upstream water depth at each h flowr ate. Determine
D thhe submergen nce ratio (deepth at the
th
hroat y 1 to upstream
u depth y 0 ) at whhich the accu
uracy of measurement staarts to becomme affected.
Fig. 7 Com
mparison of WSC
W flume Flo
ow calibration curves
Comparing g the scale reeading with upstream

u wissh at each flo
ow rate theree is a slight incrementing
i g the scale
reeading on thhe flume. ByB the calcu ulations of submergence
s ratio exceeeded to the o.8 there iss a slight
in
ncrementing the scale reaading in the flume.By
f thee increment of
o scale readiing downstreeam conditio ons restrict
th
he free flow of water out of the flumee due to the in ncrement deb bris formationn, small headd losses will occur and
fllume capacity
y also decreaases. These alll conditions are occur at the low floww rate.
SUMMARY AND CONC

CLUSION
Flow characteeristics of Flu umes, the objjectives of th
his work is sttudying the profiles
p of Venturi,
V Parsh
hall flumes
annd dischargee relation of Venturi,
V Parsshell and WS SC flumes. Studying
S the surface proffiles of Veturri, Parshall
fllumes showss that, free flow
f and sub bmerged flow can be id dentified based on the deepth of back kwater. i.e
backwater dep pth is influen ncing the upstream depth h of water. Iff upstream depth
d of wateer is not influuenced by
depth of backw water, it is called as free flow. And Inn submerged d flow upstreaam depth of water is influ uenced by
depth of backkwater. The standard
s proffiles drawn for
f different conditions liike dischargee(5l/s, 7l/s, 9l/s,
9 11l/s),
annd bed slope(-0.005, 0, 0.01) and backwater
b d
depths providdes rough esstimation off profile und der above
coonditions andd the type off flow. From m the figures A.1
A to
A.10 in APPENDIX-A it is clear that in zero bed slope condition the existence of submerged flow is not at
all possible, where as in -0.005, +0.01 bed slope condition both free and submerged flows. The relationship
between discharge, bed slope, backwater depth clearly shows that they are mutually dependent. If one
parameter changes will affect the other two. Following table clearly shows these relationships.
Table 1 Flow Parameters variation of Parshall flume.

Bed slope Discharge (Q) Backwater depth
Initially decreasing and increasing Increasing Increasing
Initially constant and increasing Increasing Decreasing
Discharge relationships in Venturi, Parshall flume clearly says that the coefficient of discharge values
gives to approximately 1, and in WSC flume, comparison of calibration curves in free and submerged flow
with standard calibration chart, which was provided by Armfield S6-MKII manual (See APPENDIX-D) says
that in submerged flow the curve, in the initial stage getting hump and reached to normal position afterwards,
and for free flow it is symmetrical.
REFERNCES
1. Hyatt, M. Leon. 1965. Design, calibration, and evaluation of a trapezoida1 measuring flume by model study. M.
S. Thesis, Utah State University, Logan, Utah. March.
2. Jalam Singh, H.L.Tiwari, S.K.Mittal , “Flow Characteristic in Parshall Flume – A Review” International Journal
of Scientific Engineering and Technology, Volume No.3 Issue No.3, pp : 231–234.
3. Jalam Singh, S.K.Mittal, and 3 H.L.Tiwari, “Parshall Flume Discharge Relation under Free Flow Condition
”ISSN 2320-5407 International Journal of Advanced Research (2014), Volume 2, Issue 7,906-915.
4. Parshall, R. L. Measuring Water in Irrigation Channels. Farmers' Bulletin No. 1683, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture,
October 1941.
5. Parshall, R. L. Measuring Water in Irrigation Channels With Parshall Flumes and Small Weirs. SCS Circular No.
843, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. May, 1950.
6. RALPH L. PARSHELL, “THE IMPROVED VENTURI FLUME” Irrigation Engineer, The Colorado Agricultural
College, Fort Collins, COLORADO.
7. Robinson, A. R. 1960. Parshall measuring flumes of small sizes, Technical Bulletin 61. Agricultural Experiment
Station, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado. August. [8].Skogerboe, G. V., W. R. Walker, and L. R.
Robinson. 1965. Design, operation, and calibration of the Canal "A" submerged rectangular measuring flume.
Report PR- WG24-3, Utah Water Rese.arch Laboratory, Utah State University, Logan, Utah.
8. Skogerboe, Gaylord V., Hyatt, M. Leon, England, Joe D., and Johnson, J. Raymond, (1965) "Submerged Parshall
Flumes of Small Size", Reports. Paper 79. Utah Water Research Laboratory, Logan, Utah.
9. Skogerboe, Gaylord V., Hyatt, M. Leon, England, Joe D., and Johnson, J. Raymond, (1966) "Measuring Water
with Parshall Flumes", Reports. Paper 83. Utah Water Research Laboratory, Logan, Utah.
10. Stock, Eldon M., "Measurement of Irrigation Water" (1955). Reports. Paper 66. Utah Water Research Laboratory,
Logan, Utah.
11. V. M. CONE, “THE VENTURI FLUME” Irrigation Engineer, Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering,
United States, Department of Agriculture.
12. Villemonte, J. R. and V. N. Gunaji., "Equation for Submerged Sharp-crested Weirs Found Applicable to 6-inch
Parshall Flume." Civil Engineering. June, 1953.
A PRELIMINARY STUDY OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM IN
ADHAINAGAR, HYDERABAD
K. Shimola1, P. Venugopal2 and T. Sai Bharath3
1
Associate Professor, 2B.Tech student, 3B.Tech student,
Civil Engineering Department, Malla Reddy Engineering College(Autonomous), Secunderabad
jeslin.shimola@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Under guidance of Hyderabad Metropolitan Water Supply and Sewarege Board, there are 21 divisions and 10
sections are working to supply water to the different regions in Hyderabad. In Audhaih Nagar, pumping system
is used to supply the water to the elevated region and as well as the overhead tank which further supply water to
the Audhaih nagar colony. . The layout of the water distribution system is tree system. Sluice valves and air
valves is important in supplying water through pipes. Hence it is complicated to supply water unlike the planned
townships and residential areas which has grid system and more feasible in its way. Elevated reservoirs are
constructed using prestressed R.C.C. Water distribution network uses ductile iron and cast iron pipe material.
Pipe joints such as spigot and socket joint are used for joints. Before the water reaches the consumer, the water
goes various treatment methods to make the water safe for consumption. Even though after all the treatments
once the water reaches the tank, chlorination has done to kill any bacteria and other microorganisms. The water
is treated with Gaseous chlorination before distributing to households.
Keywords: water distribution system, tree system, sluice valves and air valves, spigot and socket joint, elevated
reservoirs
INTRODUCTION
After complete treatment of water, it becomes necessary to distribute a number of houses, estates, industries and
public places by means of a network of distribution system. Water may be polluted by physical, chemical and
bacterial agents. Therefore, protected water supply is a sine qua non of public health of a community
(1)
.Vasan(2003), while discussing the issues related to water distribution system focused on some of the most
compelling problems facing optimization. The distribution system consists of pipes of various sizes, valves, meters,
pumps, distribution reservoirs etc. Service connections are done to connect the individual buildings with the water
line passing through the streets. The pipes are provided to pump the water to the elevated service reservoirs are
directly in the water mains to obtain the required pressure in the pipelines. Service Reservoirs are important
structures and are mainly provided for storing the treated water for the supply of it by gravity to the town or city.
These Reservoirs are also provided for meeting the water demand during fires, breakdown of pumps, repairs etc.
The location of service reservoirs is utmost important for regulation of pressure in the distribution system as well as
per coping up with the fluctuating demands. In order to maintain the constant pressure in the distribution systems,
the reservoirs are located near the control portion of the distribution area and it is always better to construct them
on a high ground of city or at such a place where it can be constructed economically.
Jacob (1991), proposed a technique for simulation of water distribution system in developing countries,
where supply is less than demand i.e., intermittent supply. Depending upon the method of distribution, the
distribution system is classified as Gravity system, Pumping system, Dual system or combined gravity and
pumping system. When some ground, sufficiently high above the city area, is available, this can be best utilised for
the distribution-system in maintaining the pressure in water pipes. This method is also much suitable when sources
of supply such as Lake, River or impounding Reservoirs are at sufficient height than city. The water flows in the
mains due to gravitational force. In this pumping system, the water is pumped in the mains. Since the pumps have
to work at different rates in a day, the maintenance cost increases. It is preferred to have number of pumps and only
the required numbers may work at various times to meet the varying demand. High lift pumps are required and
their operations are continuously watched. The required pressure maintain in the pipeline is by direct pumping.
Combined gravity and pumping system the treated water is pumped and stored in a elevated reservoir and then
393
supplies to the customer by action of gravity. This is the most economical, efficient and reliable system. In this
paper, a preliminary study is made to study the water distribution stystem in Adhainagar.
WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM IN AUDHAIH NAGAR

In Hyderabad, HMWSSB has 21 divisions and 10 sections under it. Under Madrepally division, 6,618 connections
are recorded. This division includes Audhaih nagar, Boiguda, Hussain sagar areas. Maredpally region is situated at
an elevation of 548 meters and Audhaih nagar is situated at an elevation of 545 meters whereas, Hussain sagar
region is at 514 meters. Hence to supply water in Audhaih nagar and areas surrounding it requires pumping
system. In Audhaih nagar, 4 pumps are placed for filling of reservoir and consumer supply. Out of 4 pumps, 2
pumps have capacity of 150HP and other 2 pumps have capacity of 100HP. The reservoir level is 13 feet and
reservoir capacity is 1ML in Audhaih nagar and 1ML in Bhoiguda
Layout of Distribution System
Dead End or Tree System
It is suitable for irregular developed towns or cities and is adopted in Audhaih nagar. In this system one main starts
reservoir along the main road. Sub-mains are connected to the main in both the directions along roads which meet
the main road. In streets, lanes and other small roads which meet the roads carrying sub-mains, branches and minor
distributors are laid and are connected to sub-mains. From these branches service connections are made to
individual houses.
The main advantages of this system are cheap in initial cost and easy determination of pipe diameter, valves,
size etc. But the main advantage of this system being formation of dead ends and if pipe breaks down or is closed
for repair, the whole locality beyond the point goes without water. Since the water is reaching at each point from
one side only, it cannot meet the fire demand, nor can the supply be increased or diverted from other points. This
causes serious handicap and limits the fire fighting capacity.
Fig. 1 Dead End or Tree system
Distribution system should not generally be designed for residual pressures exceeding 22 m. Multi-storeyed
buildings needing higher pressure should be provided with booster.
Sluice Valves and Air Valves
These are also known as gate-valves and are most commonly used in waterworks practice. These valves are
cheaper, offers less assistance to the flow of water than other valves, used for the same purpose. Gate-valves
control the flow of water through pipes, and are fixed in the main lines bringing water from the sources of a town,
at 3 to 5 kilo meters intervals, thus divide the pipelines in to different sections. During the repairs, only one section
can be cut off by closing the sluice valves at both ends. This valve is made of cast iron with brass, bronze or
stainless steel mountings and it’s ends are screws are flanged or spigot and socketed on the pipe. When water enters
in pipe lines, it also carries some air with it which tends to accumulate at high points of the pipe. When the quantity
of air increases, it causes serious blockage to the flow of water. Therefore it is most essential to remove the
accumulated air from the pipe line. Air relief valves are used for this purpose.

Fig. 2 Sluice Valves and Air Valves

Elevated reservoirs: When sufficient high ground above the distribution area is not available for the construction
of ground reservoirs, from where water can flow under gravitational force in the distribution system, elevated
reservoirs are constructed. The elevated reservoirs reduce the initial cost of pumps, reduce the peak demands on the
pumps and reduce the maximum pressure required at the pumps discharge. Generally two types of elevated
reservoirs are used which are Stand Pipes, Elevated Tanks.
Stand Pipes & Elevated Tanks: These are usually made of steel and are circular in plan. The useful storage
capacities of these are the volume of tank above the elevation of the high point of distribution. A stand pipe has
inlet, outlet and drain pipe. Man hole is provided at the top with ladder for inspection and repair work. When water
is to be distributed at very high pressure and the use of the stand pipes becomes impracticable. Now-a-days R.C.C.
elevated tanks are very popular, because they have long life, require very little maintenance and give decent
appearance in the locality. Recently prestressed R.C.C tanks are flourishing, because they are even economical than
plain R.C.C. tanks.
Fig. 3 Elevated Tank

Capacity of the Reservoirs: The total capacity of the service reservoir is determined by adding the quantity of
water required for various purposes.
1. Balancing Reserve: It is the quantity of water required for balancing the variations in the demand against the
constant supply from the treatment plant. This is mostly calculated by means of Mass Curve or Hydrograph
of the inflow and outflow.
2. Breakdown Reserve: Sometimes there is breakdown in the pumps or power driving them. Therefore some
quantity of water is required to be kept as reserve or breakdown time, so that water can be distribute even
during the repair work of pumps or power. This quantity of water depends on the time taken during the repair
work, and as such it is variable, therefore, it is very difficult to estimate. Any way the repair time may be
assumed as 1 and 1/2 to 2 hours of average daily supply.
3. Fire Reserve: The quantity of water required to be kept as reserve for fire-fighting can be obtained by
deducting the reserve fire pumping capacity ‘C” from the fire demand ‘F’ and then multiplying it by
probable duration of fire time ‘T”.
Pipe Joints and Pipe Material
For the facilities in handling, transporting and placing in position, pipes are manufactured in small lengths of 2 to 6
m. These small pieces of pipes are then joined together after placing in position, to make one continuous length of
pipe line. The design of these joints mainly depends on the condition of the pipe, internal water pressure and the
condition of the support. The bell and spigot joint using lead as material is mostly used for cast iron pipes. For
steel pipes flanged or screwed joints may be used. Various types of joints which are mostly used, are as follows:
1. Spigot and socket joint,
2. Flanged joint,
3. Screwed joint,
4. Collar joint,
Screwed Joint: The joint is mostly used for connecting small diameter cast iron, wrought iron and galvanized
pipes. The ends of the pipes have threads on outside, while socket or coupling has threads on the inner side. The
same socket is screwed on both the ends of the pipes to joint them. For making water tight joint zinc paint or hemp
yarn should be placed in the threads of the pipe, before screwing socket over it.
Fig. 4 Screwed joint

Types of Pipe Material
Various types of joints which are mostly used, are Cast-Iron Pipes, Concrete pipes, Ductile Iron pipes
Cast-Iron Pipes & Ductile Iron pipes: Cast-iron pipes are mostly used in water supply schemes. These are highly
resistant to corrosion; therefore have long life-about 100years. Ductile iron pipe is a pipe made of ductile cast iron
commonly used for potable water transmission and distribution. The ductile iron used to manufacture the pipe is
characterized by the spheroidal or nodular nature of the graphite within the iron. Typically, the pipe is
manufactured using centrifugal casting in metal or resin lined moulds. Protective internal linings and external
coatings are often applied to ductile iron pipes to inhibit corrosion. Life expectancy of unprotected ductile iron
pipes depends on the corrosiveness of soil present and tends to be shorter where soil is highly corrosive. However,
a lifespan in excess of 100 years has been estimated for ductile iron pipelines installed using "evolved laying
practices".

Fig. 5 Cast-Iron Pipes & Ductile pipes
Chlorination
Chlorination is one of the methods that can be used to disinfect water. When water is to be treated in large water -
works, gaseous chlorine is used. The gaseous chlorine is absolutely pure and has 100% available chlorine. Chlorine
is available in amount of 50, 75 and 100 kg cylinder stored under a pressure 7 to 11 kg/cmsq. in seamless steel
cylinders. Very large steel cylinder containing one tonne of chlorine are also used in very large plants. The chlorine
gas may first be dissolved in a small quantity of water and the solution so prepared is fed to the point of
application.
Fig. 6 Gaseous Chlorine cylinder
CONCLUSION
This preliminary study deals with the analysis of effective distributing water in different areas with different
layouts. The study reveals that safe supply and treated water to the consumer at an affordable rate is the main
priority. Dead End layout of water distribution is implemented in Audhaih Nagar since the area is irregularly
developed. Valves which regulate the pressure regulate the pressure where air valves and sluice valves are provided
in the pipelines. Air valves reduce the air bubbles in the pipes while flowing at high pressure. Sluice valves and
Air valves are the most utilised valves for the regulating pressure in pipes to reach minimum residual pressure.
Screwed joints are mostly used for connecting small diameter cast iron. Cast-iron pipes and ductile iron pipes are
used in the Audhaih Nagar water supply scheme. Gaseous chlorine is added as post chlorination process to reduce
or remove the microorganisms present the water which can cause water borne diseases.
REFERENCES
1. Manual on Water Supply And Treatment” 1991, Third Edition, The GOI, Ministry of Urban Development, New
Delhi, March, pp 319.
2. Jacob Michel, 1991, “Guidelines for Sewage Works Design”, world press.
3. A Vasan and Slobodan P. Simonovic, 2010, “Optimization of Water Distribution Network Design Using Differential
Evolution,” Journal of water resources planning and management, asce, 279-287, march/april.
ASSESSMENT OF WATER QUALITY FOR DRINKING AND IRRIGATION PURPOSE IN
ALLADURG MANDAL OF MEDAK DISTRICT, TELANGANA STATE, SOUTH INDIA
Sanda Rajitha1*, Adimalla Narsimha2,3, and Praveen Raj Saxena4

1
Department of Applied Geochemistry, Osmania University, Hyderabad-500007, India
2
School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Chang’an University, Xi’an 710054, China 3Key Laboratory of Subsurface Hydrology
and Ecological Effects in Arid Region of the Ministry of Education, Chang’an University, Xi’an 710054, Shaanxi, China
4
School of Applied and Natural Sciences, Adama Science and Technology University, Adama, Ethiopia
drsandarajitha@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Groundwaer is widely used for drinking and irrigation purposes in the Alladurg mandal. In view of this thirty
groundwater samples were collected during the post-monsoon period 2015 and analysed major ions. Results
indicated that calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), chloride (Cl-) and sulphate
(SO42-) were within the acceptable limits. However, fluoride (F-) and nitrate (NO3-) were ranged from 0.25 to 2.8
mg/L and 7.83 to 484 mg/L, which are 1.86 and 9.68 times larger than the maiximum allowable limit of 1.5
mg/L for fluoride and 50 mg/L for nitrate respectively. The major hydrochemical facies were Ca2+-HCO3-, Ca2+-
Cl- types and, HCO3− and Ca2+ found in the study region. Sodium adsorption ration (SAR), sodium percentage
(Na%), residual soimum carbonate (RSC), and kelly’s ratio (KI) were also computed to better understand the
groundwater qualtiy for irrigation usages. Based on the US Salinity Laboratory diagram, groundwater samples
were classified 80% of the groundwater samples fell under the C3-S1 category (high salinity with low sodium),
and 16.6% few samples were fell under C2-S1 category (medium salinity with low sodium), and remaining
samples shown C4-S1 category (very high salinity with low sodium). Therefore, the study unveils that most of
the groundwater samples fit for drinking and irrigation purposes.
Keywords: Groundwater qulity, drinking & irrigation water quality, Alladurg mandal, South India
INTRODUCTION
Groundwater is a vital natural resource and also it’s being used for domestic, agricultural and industrial purposes in
many parts of the world (Adimalla and Venkatayogi 2018; Narsimha and Rajitha 2018). Groundwater is a vital
natural resource and also it’s being used for domestic, agricultural and industrial purposes in many parts of the
world (Adimalla and Venkatayogi 2018; Adimalla et al. 2018a,b; Narsimha and Rajitha 2018). However, in many
parts of rural regions of India primarily rely on groundwater for drinking and irrigation. It is estimated that 89% of
groundwater extracted and used for irrigation purposes (Ravikumar 2010). Conversely, contamination of
groundwater is increased for the past two decades (Narsimha and Rajitha 2018; Adimalla et al. 2018a).
Groundwater quality drastically deteriorated by many factors such as: anthropogenic, agricultural pesticides, water
rock interaction, industrial waste, municipal waste, leakage of septic tanks, animal and human waste (Adimalla and
Venkatayogi 2017; Narsimha and Sudarshan 2017a,b). Therefore, groundwater contamination have been reported
in many parts of India and including Telangana (Adimalla et al., 2018a,b; Rajitha et al., 2015; Rajitha et al.,
2011a,b; Narsimha and Rajitha 2018; Adimalla and Venkatayogi 2017).
Groundwater is only main source for drinking and irrigation in the Alladurg mandal of Medak district.
Therefore, the main aims of the study are (i) to evaluate the groundwater quality for drinking, and (ii) to assess the
groundwater quality for irrigation purposes in the study area.
STUDY AREA AND GEOLOGY

The study area is situated in between 17° 45 and 18° 0 North Latitudes 77° 30 and 77° 45 East Longitudes
and falling survey of India toposheets no. E43R9, and E43R13 (Fig 1). The minimum and maximum temperature
are 11ºC and 44ºC in the months of May and, December respectively. The average annual rainfall is 745mm and
junly is the wettest month of the year. The study area majorly occupied by basalts and laterites, which are clearly
depicted in Fig 1. In the study groundwater occurs under water table in semi-confined conditions limited joints and
fractures. The density/intensity of fractures and joints play a major role in movement and occurrence of ground
water.
399
Fig. 1 Geology and groundwater sampling locations of the study area

A total of thirty groundwater samples are collected from bore wells. Each of the groundwater samples analyzed for
various physico-chemical parameters such as pH, Total Dissolved Solids, Total Hardness (TH), sodium (Na+),
potassium (K+), calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), carbonate (CO3-), bicarbonate (HCO3-), chloride (Cl-), nitrate
(NO3-), fluoride (F-) and sulphate (SO42-) were analyzed using standards methods prescribed by Americal Public
Health Association (APHA, 2005). The obtained results were used as graphical representations of the
concentrations of different ions in a groundwater samples is developed using Piper diagram, and USSL diagram.
To assess of groundwater quality suitability for irrigation was carried with the help of Sodium Percentage, Residual
Sodium Carbonate, Sodium Adsorption Ratio and Kelly’s ratio.

The groundwater quality parameters and its analysis are presented in Table 1. In the study, pH ranges from 6.7 to
7.8, with a mean of 7.1, which indicates the slightly acidic nature of water (Table 1). All groundwater samples were
within the prescribed for drinking purpose is 6.5 to 8.5 (WHO 2012). The TDS ranged from 256 to 1664 mg/L,
with a mean of 683 mg/L (Table.1). In the study 86.6% of groundwater samples were under fresh water category,
and remaining groundwater samples were brackish water category (Fetter, 1990). Total hardness as CaCO3 varies
from 85 mg/L to 541 mg/L, with a mean of 267 mg/L (Table 1). In the study area total hardness is under category
of moderately hard to hard.
Water Quality parameters for Irrigation purpose: The groundwater samples were assessed for their suitability for
irrigation of water quality, Percent sodium (%Na), Sodium Absorption ratio (SAR), Residual Sodium Carbonate
(RSC) and, Kelly’s ratio these parametes had been compared different standards.
Table 1 Chemical indices and hydrogeochemical parameter the study area (n=30)
Parameters Min Max Mean
Potential hydrogen (pH) 6.7 7.8 7.1
Electrical conductivity (EC) 400 2600 1067
Total dissolved solids (TDS) 256 1664 683
Total Hardness (TH) 85 540 267
Sodium (Na+) 1.0 19.1 11.0
Potassium (K+) 1.2 30.0 4.2
2+
Calcium (Ca ) 20.0 170.3 60.7
Magnesium (Mg2+) 6.1 96.1 28.1
Carbonate (CO3-) 0.0 231.0 50.5
Bicarbonate (HCO3-) 122.0 719.8 420.9
Chloride (Cl-) 17.7 730.3 139.1
2-
Sulphate (SO4 ) 15.8 213.1 61.9
Nitrate (NO3-) 7.8 227.9 71.8
Fluoride (F-) 0.3 2.8 1.1
Percent Sodium (%Na) 2.4 34.9 11.2
Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR) 0.0 0.3 0.1
Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC) -0.8 10.4 3.4
Kelly’s Ratio (KR) 0.6 8.0 2.5
Percentage of Sodium (%Na): Sodium is an important in classifying for suitability of irrigation water. Percent
sodium in water is a parameter computed to evaluate the suitability of water quality for irrigation (Wilcox, 1955).
%Na computed by Eq. 1.
%Na = .....(1)
The % Na indicates that all collected groundwater samples were suitable for irrigation, and 96.60%, and 3.30%
of them were classified under good and excellent category, respectively (Table. 2).
Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR): The SAR is used to estimate the sodicity hazard of the water, the sodium
adsorption ratio (SAR) is used to predict the danger of sodium accumulation in soil. Excess sodium in water
produces the undesirable effects of changing soil properties and reducing soil permeability. The SAR values for
each water sample were calculated by using following Eq. 2.
SAR = .....(2)
The concentration is expressed in meq/l. SAR values in the study area ranged from 0.1 to 2.1 meq/L (Table.2),
which is disclosed that all groundwater samples under excellent category and suitable for irrigation purpose. In
addition to that SAR and EC values of the groundwater samples of the study area were plotted in the US Salinity
Laboratory diagram (Wilcox, 1955 ).
The USSL diagram of the study area are classified into C2, C3 and C4 types on the basis of salinity hazard and
S1,S2 and S3 types on the basis of sodium hazard. Moreover, 80% and 16.6% of groundwater samples fell under
the category C3-S1 (high salinity with low sodium), and C2-S1 (medium salinity with low sodium) respectively.
Furthermore, USSL classification unveils that only one groundwater sampling location is unsuitable for irrigation
(Fig 2).
Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC): The quantity of bicarbonate and carbonate in excess of alkaline earth (Ca
+Mg) also influences the suitability of water for irrigation purposes. Residual sodium carbonate (RSC) is
frequently used to assess the water quality for irrigation purpose. The RSC value is computed, where ions are
expressed in meq/L using the following Eq. 3.
RSC = (HCO3- + CO32-) – (Ca2+ + Mg2+) .....(3)
However, with respect to RSC, 99.65% of the groundwater sampling locations were within the safe quality
categories for irrigation, which also indicates that groundwater is suitable for irrigation purpose (Table 2).
Fig. 2 Irrigation suitability for groundwater in the study region
Kelly’s Ratio (KR): Sodium measured against calcium and magnesium was considered by Kelly (1940).The
formula used in the estimation of Kelley’s ratio is expressed below Eq. 4.
KR = (Na+/Ca2+ + Mg2+) .....(4)
If KI is larger than one such groundwater unfit for irrigation. In the study KR values varied from 0.03 to 0.3
with a mean of 0.07. According to the KI, all the groundwater samples were suitable for irrigation purpose
(Table 2).
Table 2 Suitability of irrigation classification based on SAR, RSC and KI

Range Category Number of samples % of samples
SAR
< 10 Excellent 30 100%
10 to 18 Good Nil Nil
18 to 26 Doubtful Nil Nil
> 26 Unsuitable Nil Nil
RSC
< 1.25 Safe 29 99.6
1.25 - 2.5 Moderate Nil Nil
> 2.5 Unsuitable 1 3.3
KI
<1.0 Suitable 30 100%
>1.0 Unsuitable Nil Nil
Fig. 3 Piper trilinear diagram showing geochemical classification and hydrochemical parameters of groundwater
Hydrogeochemical classification: Piper trilinear diagram (Piper 1953) was plotting wih using the analytical data
obtained from the hydrochemical analysis. This diagram is very useful in bringing out chemical relationships
among groundwater in more definite terms (Todd 2005). Commonly Piper trilinear divided in to six sub-categories.
In this study groundwater samples were classified for drinking and, agricultural to produced the Piper trilinear
diagram. The groundwater samples are fall under Ca2+-Mg2+-HCO3- type and, Ca2+-Cl- type of the study area.
Majority of the samples (83%) are fall in Ca2+-Mg2+-HCO3- type and 17% of the samples fall in the field of Ca2+-
Cl- type. Present study area is alkaline earths (Ca2+ and Mg2+) exceeds alkalies (Fig 3).
CONCLUSION
The aim of this work was to assess the groundwater suitability for drinking and irrigation purposes in Alladurg
mandal of Medak, South India. Nitrate and fluoride are higher than the recommended limits. Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+,
Cl- and SO42- are within the acceptable limit. It is noticed that predominant hydrochemical facies in the study area
are Ca2+- HCO3- and alkaline earths exceeds alkalies. The analytical data plotted on the US Salinity Laboratory
diagram elucidates that 80% of the groundwater samples were fell in the field of C3-C1, indicating medium salinity
with low sodium, and 16.6% samples fell in the field of C2-S1 demonstrating that medium salinity with low
sodium. However, according to the irrigation classifications such as: Na%, SAR, RSC, and KI high number of
groundwater samples were suitable for irrigation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research work was financially supported to first author by University Grants Commission, Women PDF, New
Delhi and, India. The first author would like to extent sincere thanks to Dr. M. Ramana Kumar for his constant
encouragement and support in the field work and as well as analysis work.
REFERENCES
1. Adimalla N, Venkatayogi S (2017) Mechanism of fluoride enrichment in groundwater of hard rock aquifers in Medak,
Telangana state, South India. Environ Earth Sci 76:45. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-016-6362-2.
2. Adimalla N, Venkatayogi S (2018) Geochemical characterization and evaluation of groundwater suitability for domestic
and agricultural utility in semi-arid region of Basara, Telangana state, South India. Appl Water Sci 8:44.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-018-0682-1.
3. Adimalla N, Vasa SK, Li P (2018a) Evaluation of groundwater quality, Peddavagu in Central Telangana (PCT), South
India: an insight of controlling factors of fluoride enrichment model. Earth Syst. Environ. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-
018-0443-z.
4. Adimalla N, Li P, Qian H (2018b) Evaluation of groundwater contamination for fluoride and nitrate in semi-arid region
of Nirmal Province, South India: a special emphasis on human health risk assessment (HHRA). Human and Ecological
Risk Assessment: An International Journal. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2018.1460579.
5. American Public Health Association (APHA, 2005), Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste water,
21st Centennial Edition, APHA, AWWA, WPCF, Washington DC, USA .
6. Fetter, C. W. (1990) Applied Geology. CBS Publishers & Distributors, New Delhi, India.
7. Kelly, W.P. (1940), Permissible Composition and Concentration of Irrigated Waters. Proceedings of the American
Society of Civil Engineers , 66, 607-613. Wilcox, L.V. (1948) Classification and Use of Irrigation Waters. US
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in hard rock aquifers of Siddipet, Telangana state, India. ApplWater Sci 7:2501–2512. https://doi. org/10.1007/s13201-
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PRUNING: A NEW APPROACH FOR QUALITY PRODUCTION IN ACID LIME
Surendra R. Patil, Mahipal M. Ganvir, Sonali N. Lokhande and Premlata M. Chandan
Department of Horticulture, Post Graduate Institute,
Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola (M.S.), India
ABSTRACT
An experiment was carried out to evaluate effect of severity and time of pruning on yield and quality of hasta
bahar in acid lime in Factorial Randomized Block Design with two factors, time with three levels viz., 1st
September, 15th September and 1st October and severity with three levels viz., 5 cm, 10 cm and 15 cm with
overall 9 treatment combinations and replicated three times. In time of pruning, pruning at 1st September found
significantly superior in regards to average weight of fruit, volume of fruit and length / breadth ratio (Fruit
index).While, pruning at 15th September found significantly superior in regards to fruits per tree, yield per tree,
fruit juice per cent and TSS. In severity pruning, pruning with 15 cm found significantly superior in regards to
average weight of fruit, volume of fruit and length / breadth ratio (Fruit index).While pruning with 10 cm found
significantly superior in regards to fruits per tree, yield per tree, fruit juice per cent, TSS and ascorbic acid.
Pruning with 10 cm severity at 15th September time was found significantly superior in regards to fruits per tree
and yield per tree.
Keywords: Acid lime, severity and time of pruning, quality and yield.
INTRODUCTION
Citrus is considered as most important fruit crops with their wholesome nature, multifold nutritional and medicinal
values have made them so important. The important commercial products of acid lime are lime oil and ascorbic
acid, which are used for flavouring. It is used in preparing refreshing drinks, preserved products like pickle, syrup,
marmalade and squash.For induction of hasta bahar in acid lime by the application of chemicals may affects on the
health of the plant and produce more dead wood. These should be always easy to define correct time of application
but not according to calendar dates and application of the chemicals is also some what difficult in rainy season. The
climatic conditions during certain period vary from year to year and cause shifts in the development stage. This is
more dealing with different places.Pruning at bearing stage may helps to induce a good healthy shoots which will
provide maximum fruit bearing area. Therefore this work was planned to study the effect of severity and time of
pruning on fruit yield and quality of acid lime in hasta bahar.

The experiment was carried out in Acid lime orchard during the year 2014-15 at All India Co-ordinated
Research Project on Citrus (AICRP on Citrus), Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola.The
experiment was laid out in Factorial Randomized Block Design with two factorstime with three levels viz., 1st
September, 15th September and 1st October and severity with three levels viz., 5 cm, 10 cm and 15 cm with overall
9 treatment combinations and replicated three times. The observations were recorded at various parameters
viz.,fruits per tree, yield per tree, average weight of fruit, volume of fruit, length/breadth ratio (Fruit
index), fruit juice per cent, TSS, ascorbic acid content and acidity per cent.

Fruits per tree
Severity of pruning significantly influenced on fruits per tree. The maximum fruits per tree (714.11) were harvested
from the tree pruned at 10 cm severity followed by 15 cm severity (678.66) minimum fruits per tree (571.11) were
harvested from the tree pruned at 5 cm severity. The increased yield under 10 cm intensity of pruning could be
attributed to the balanced vegetative growth, better nutrition depending upon the shoot root ratio and better
availability of sunlight to the leaves which lead to the production of more hermaphrodite flowers and reduction in
number of male flowers considerably. The tree subjected to heavy pruning recorded low yield as compared to
medium pruning. This might be due to reduced shoot area in heavy pruned trees and the interval between period of
405
pruning and fruiting was short enough to enable to the reaming shoots to improve their vigor and fruiting ability.
The increase in yield by pruning in citrus was recorded by Nath (1994) in Assam lemon, Arora and Yamdagni
(1985) in sweet lime, Ingle et al. (1999) in acid lime, Ingle et al. (2005) in acid lime, and Khan and Syamal (2004)
in kagzi lime.
It is evident from the Table 1 that fruits per tree were significantly influenced by time of pruning. More fruits
per tree (783.00) harvested from the tree pruned on 15th September. Followed by 1st September (693.66). While less
fruits per tree (547.22) were harvested from trees pruned on 1st October. The above findings on increase in yield in
terms of fruits per plant as a consequence of pruning time are in accordance to the earlier reports of Frometa et al.
(1981) reported that hedge pruning during late summer enhanced autumn flushing, resulting in a larger proportion
of bearing shoots in the following year for high density lemon cultivation and ultimately provide more yield.
Perusal of data revealed that maximum fruits per tree (908.66) were harvested from the tree on 15th September
at 10 cm severity. Followed by pruning was done on 1st September at 10 cm severity (792.66). While minimum
fruits per tree (465.00) were harvested from tree pruned on 1st October at 5 cm severity. During the dormancy and
after pruning the level of reserve metabolites such as carbohydrates, starch and sugar in higher after pruning of
trees. Pruning during dormancy period lead to more growth, higher fruit set and greater yield. On the other hand,
pruning done during induction phage and breaking phase of dormancy resulted in lower yield. The results are in
conformity with the result reported earlier by Sandhu et al. (1992) in ber, Sandhu and Zora (1986) and Singh and
Sandhu (1984) in ber.
Yield per tree
Perusal of data in Table 1 revealed that severity of pruning significantly influenced on yield per tree. The maximum
yield per tree (34.08 kg) was harvested from the tree pruned at 10 cm severity, followed by 15 cm severity (27.04
kg). While, minimum yield per tree (21.78 kg) was harvested from 5 cm pruned tree. The increased yield under 10
cm intensity of pruning could be attributed to the balanced vegetative growth, better nutrition depending upon the
shoot root ratio and better availability of sunlight to the leaves which lead to the production of more hermaphrodite
flowers and reduction in number of male flowers considerably. The tree subjected to heavy pruning recorded low
yield as compared to medium pruning. This might be due to reduced shoot area in heavy pruned trees and the
interval between periods of pruning and fruiting was short enough to enable to the reaming shoots to improve their
vigor and fruiting ability.The increase in yield by pruning in citrus was recorded by Nath (1994) in Assam lemon,
Arora and Yamdagni (1985) in sweet lime, Ingle et al. (1999) in acid lime, Ingle et al. (2005) in acid lime, and
Khan and Syamal (2004) in kagzi lime.
The data regarding time of pruning indicated that yield per tree was significantly influenced by time of pruning.
The maximum yield per tree (34.26 kg) was harvested from the tree 15th September followed by 1st September
(27.87 kg) while minimum yield per tree (20.78 kg) was harvested from trees pruned at 1st October. The above
results may be due to the availability of proper temperature (16 to 34oC) and humidity (40 to 70 %) which fevers
higher fruit set and greater yield of fruit. Frometaet al. (1981) reported that hedge pruning during late summer
enhanced autumn flushing, resulting in a larger proportion of bearing shoots in the following year for high density
lemon cultivation and ultimately provide more yield.
It is revealed from the Table 1 that, the combine effect of severity and time of pruning influenced the yield per
tree. Perusal of data revealed that maximum yield per tree (44.06 kg) was harvested from the tree on 15th
September at 10 cm severity, followed by pruning was done on 1st September at 10 cm severity (33.41 kg) while
minimum fruits per tree (16.90 kg) were harvested from tree pruned on 1st October at 5 cm severity. During the
dormancy and after pruning the level of reserve metabolites such as carbohydrates, starch and sugar in higher after
pruning of trees. Pruning during dormancy period lead to more growth, higher fruit set and greater yield. On the
other hand, pruning done during induction phase and breaking phase of dormancy resulted in lower yield. The
results are in conformity with the result reported earlier by Sandhu et al. (1992) in ber, Sandhu and Zora (1986) and
Singh and Sandhu (1984) in ber.
Average weight of fruit
Perusal of data in Table 1 revealed that the average weight of fruit was significantly influenced by severity of
pruning in acid lime. The maximum average weight of fruit (43.82 g) was observed with the fruits harvested from
15 cm pruning trees. While minimum average weight of fruit (38.20 g) was harvested from 5 cm severity. These
results are close conformity with Arora and Yamdgani (1985) in sweet lime, Ingle et al. (1999) in acid lime and
Ingle et al. (2005) in acid lime.
Perusal of data revealed that the average weight of fruit was significantly influenced by time of pruning. The
maximum average weight of fruit (44.27 g) was obtained fruits harvested on 1st September, while minimum
average weight of fruit (38.11 g) was with the fruits harvested on 1stOctober.The presence study trees were in
complete dormancy before the pruning in the month of August, therefore gave the best results by pruning at that
time probably owing to the dormant to the dormant shoots becoming better source for metabolites and nutrients.
These results are in close conformity with findings of Gill and Bal (2006), Gupta and Singh (1977), Sandhu et al.
(1983) and Singh et al. (1978) in ber.
Data in respect of average weight of fruit shown significantly influenced by combined effect of severity and
time of pruning. The maximum average weight of fruit (48.50 g) was recorded when trees pruned at 1st September
with 15 cm severity, followed by pruning at 1st September with 10 cm pruning (45.03 g). While, minimum average
weight of fruit (36.35 g) was recorded pruning at 1st October with 5 cm severity.The possible reason for maximum
average weight of fruit due to interaction effect might be due the congenial atmosphere available at the time fruit
development due to severity and time of pruning. Similar findings were also reported by Gill and Bal (2006), Gupta
and Singh (1977), Sandhu et al. (1983) and Singh et al. (1978) in ber.
Volume of fruit
It shown that volume of fruit was significantly influenced by severity of pruning. The maximum volume of fruit
(36.77 cc) observed in 15 cm severity, followed by in 10 cm severity (35.36 cc). While, minimum volume of fruit
(30.59 cc) was found in 5 cm severity. The increase in volume of fruit might be attributed to the better source-sink
relationship and lesser competition for assimilates among fruits in pruned tree. These results in accordance with
that of Gupta and Singh (1977), Singh et al. (1984), Bajwa et al. (1986) andGill and Bal (2006)that pruning in
produces larger fruits.
Perusal of data shown that the volume of fruit was significantly influenced by time of pruning. The
maximum volume of fruit (36.44 cc) was observed on 1st September. While, minimum volume of fruit (31.77 cc)
was observed on 1stOctober.The increase in volume of fruit due to time of pruning could be attributed to the
increase in vigour of the pruned trees. Similar results were reported by Singh and Sandhu (1984), Gupta et al.
(1977) and Gill and Bal (2006) in ber.
The data in regards to volume of fruit as influenced by combined effect of severity and time of pruning. The
maximum volume of fruit (39.66 cc) was recorded when pruning was done on 1st September with 15 cm severity
which is at par with pruning on 1st September with 10 cm severity (38.66 cc). While, minimum volume of fruit
(29.33 cc) was recorded by the pruning on 1st October with 5 cm severity. Similar results were reported by Gupta
and Singh (1977), Singh et al. (1978), Lal and Prasad (1980), Bajwa et al. (1986) and Gill and Bal (2006) in ber.
Table 1 Effect of severity and time of pruning on yield and quality

Treatments Fruits per tree Yield per tree Average weight of fruit Volume of fruit
(A)Time of pruning
A1(1st September) 693.66 27.87 44.27 36.44
A2(15th September) 783.00 34.26 41.18 34.52
A3(1st October) 547.22 20.78 38.11 31.77
F test Sig. Sig. Sig. Sig.
SE (m)± 7.94 0.55 0.53 0.44
CD at 5 % 23.81 1.65 1.60 1.32
(B)Severity of pruning
B1 (5 cm) 571.11 21.78 38.20 30.59
B2 (10 cm) 774.11 34.08 41.54 35.36
B3 (15 cm) 698.66 27.04 43.82 36.77
SE (m)± 7.94 0.55 0.53 0.44
CD at 5 % 23.81 1.65 1.60 1.32
Table 1 Contd…
Interaction effect (A x B)
A1B1 582.66 22.30 39.29 30.99
A1B2 792.66 33.41 45.03 38.66
A1B3 705.66 27.92 48.50 39.66
A2B1 665.66 26.15 38.95 31.47
A2B2 908.66 44.06 41.48 35.33
A2B3 774.66 32.57 43.11 36.77
A3B1 465.00 16.90 36.35 29.33
A3B2 621.00 24.78 38.12 32.10
A3B3 555.66 20.64 39.86 33.88
SE (m)± 13.75 0.95 0.92 0.76
CD at 5 % 41.24 2.87 2.77 2.29
Table 2 Effect of severity and time of pruning on fruit quality
Length/ breadth ratio

Treatments Fruit juice per cent TSS Acidity per cent
(Fruit index)
(A)Time of pruning
A1(1st September) 1.078 49.03 (44.44) 7.61 8.00 (2.83)
A2(15th September) 1.067 50.37 (45.21) 7.76 7.96 (2.82)
A3(1st October) 1.060 47.68 (43.67) 7.49 7.92 (2.81)
F test Sig. Sig. Sig. NS
SE (m)± 0.0015 0.53 0.031 0.029
CD at 5 % 0.0046 1.59 0.095 -
(B)Severity of pruning
B1 (5 cm) 1.057 46.82 (43.18) 7.35 8.02 (2.83)
B2 (10 cm) 1.070 51.10 (45.63) 7.91 7.96 (2.82)
B3 (15 cm) 1.077 49.16 (44.52) 7.60 7.90 (2.81)
SE (m)± 0.0015 0.53 0.031 0.029
CD at 5 % 0.0046 1.59 0.095 0.089
Interaction effect (A x B)
A1B1 1.059 46.96 (43.26) 7.34 8.06 (2.84)
A1B2 1.082 51.02 (45.58) 7.91 8.00 (2.83)
A1B3 1.092 49.12 (44.50) 7.59 7.94 (2.82)
A2B1 1.058 47.26 (43.43) 7.45 8.02 (2.83)
A2B2 1.069 53.18 (46.82) 8.03 7.96 (2.82)
A2B3 1.073 50.67 (45.38) 7.81 7.90 (2.81)
A3B1 1.053 46.24 (42.84) 7.26 8.00 (2.83)
A3B2 1.059 49.11 (44.49) 7.79 7.91 (2.81)
A3B3 1.067 47.69 (43.69) 7.42 7.85 (2.80)
F test Sig. NS NS NS
SE (m)± 0.0026 0.92 0.055 0.051
CD at 5 % 0.0080 - - -
Length/ breadth ratio (Fruit index)

It appears that length/ breadth ratio of fruit was significantly influenced by severity of pruning. The maximum
length/ breadth ratio of fruit to the tune of (1.077) was in 15 cm pruning followed by 10 cm pruning (1.070). While,
minimum length/ breadth ratio of fruit to the tune of (1.057) was found in 5 cm severity. The increase in fruit
length/ breadth ratio (Fruit index) might be attributed to the better source-sink relationship and lesser competition
for assimilates among fruits in pruned tree. This results in accordance with that of Gupta and Singh (1977), Singh
et al. (1984), Bajwa et al. (1986) andGill and Bal (2006)that pruning in produces larger fruits.
Perusal of data shown that the length/ breadth ratio of fruit was significantly influenced by time of pruning. The
maximum length/ breadth ratio of fruit to the tune of (1.078) was observed with 1st September. While, minimum
length/ breadth ratio of fruit to the tune of (1.060) was with 1st October. The increase in length/ breadth ratio (Fruit
index) of fruit due to time of pruning could be attributed to the increase in vigour of the pruned trees. Similar
results were reported by Singh and Sandhu (1984), Gupta et al. (1977) and Gill and Bal (2006) in ber.
The data in regards to length/ breadth ratio of fruit influenced by combined effect of severity and time of
pruning. The maximum length/ breadth ratio of fruit to the tune of (1.092) was recorded when pruning was done at
1st September with 15 cm pruning, followed by pruning at 1st September with 10 cm pruning (1.082) While,
minimum length/ breadth ratio of fruit to the tune (1.053) by the pruning on 1st October with 5 cm severity. Similar
results were reported by Gupta and Singh (1977), Singh et al. (1978), Lal and Prasad (1980), Bajwa et al. (1986)
and Gill and Bal (2006) in ber.
Fruit juice percent
The data presented in Table 2 indicated that the fruit juice per cent was significantly influenced by severity of
pruning. The highest juice per cent (51.10 %) was found in fruits harvested from 10 cm pruning, followed by in
15 cm severity (49.16 %). While, minimum fruit juice per cent (46.82 %) was found fruits harvested from 5 cm
pruning. The increase in juice per cent of acid lime fruits by pruning severity could be attributed due to more leaf
areaandultimatelythe more photosynthesis produce foe better fruit development. Similar results were reported
Awasthi and Mishra (1969) in ber, Fucik (1977) in grape fruits and Arora and Yamdgani (1985) in sweet lime.
It is apparent from the data in Table 2 that the juice per cent was significantly influenced by time of pruning.
The highest juice per cent (50.37 %) was found in 15th September pruned trees, followed by 1st September pruned
trees (49.03 %) while, minimum juice per cent was (47.68 %) fruits harvested from trees pruned on 1st October.
The data indicated that the interaction effect of severity and time of pruning on fruit juice per cent was found non
significant.
Total Soluble Solids (TSS)
Perusal of data revealed that TSS of the fruits was significantly influenced by severity of pruning. Maximum TSS
(7.91 °Brix) was observed at 10 cm pruning, followed by 15 cm pruning (7.60 °Brix). While, minimum TSS of the
fruit (7.35 °Brix) was found in 5 cm severity. Highest TSS found in juice of fruit which is pruned at 10 cm severity,
since the TSS content in the fruit juice depend on the sink-source relationship, increased vigor and decreased
number of fruits in pruned trees resulted in higher TSS content. The results are also correlated with findings of
Bajwa et al. (1987) and Kunduet al. (1995) in ber and Ingle et al. (2005) in acid lime.
The data presented in Table 2 indicate that the TSS of the fruits was significantly influenced by time of pruning.
Maximum TSS (7.76 °Brix) was observed on 15th September pruning, followed by 1st September pruning (7.61
°
Brix). While, minimum TSS of the fruit (7.49 °Brix) was in 1st October pruning. The results conformity with
findings of Bajwa et al. (1987) and Kunduet al. (1995) in ber.It is evident from Table 15indicated that interaction
effect of severity and time of pruning on TSS of the fruit was found non significant.
Acidity per cent
The data shown in Table 2 revealed that the acidity of fruits was significantly influenced by severity of pruning.
The maximum acidity per cent (8.02 %) was found in fruits harvested from 5 cm pruned trees which is at par with
10 cm pruned trees (7.96 %) and minimum acidity per cent (7.9 %) was found in 15 cm pruned trees.Acidity was
decreased when increase in severity of pruning. Low acidity in fruits under severely pruned trees could have been
due to more leaf area per fruit resulted better synthesis and greater translocation of carbohydrates from leaves to
fruits. These findings are line with the result reported by Nath (1994) in Assam lemon, Bajpaiet al. (1973) in ber,
Chitkaraet al. (1991) in peach and Thataiet al. (1987) in grape. It is evident from the Table 2 that the acidity per
cent was not influenced by time of pruning. Interaction effect of severity and time of pruning on acidity per cent
was found to be non significant.
CONCLUSION
In time of pruning, pruning at 1st September found significantly superior in regards to average weight of fruit,
volumeof fruit and length/ breadth ratio (Fruit index).While, pruning at 15th September found significantly superior
in regards to fruits per tree, yield per tree, fruit juice per cent and TSS. In severity pruning, pruning with 15 cm
found significantly superior in regards to average weight of fruit, volumeof fruit and length/ breadth ratio (Fruit
index).While pruning with 10 cm found significantly superior in regards to fruits per tree, yield per tree, fruit juice
per cent and TSS and pruning with 5 cm found significantly superior in regards to acidity per cent.
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FEASIBILITY OF ENERGY PRODUCTION FROM
BIO-DEGRADABLE WASTE
T. Kiran Kumar
Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, K.S.R.M. College of Engineering (Autonomous), Kadapa, A.P., India.
kiran_1571@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Municipal Solid Waste management constitutes a serious problem in many world cities. Most cities do not
collect all the wastes generated and of the wastes collected, only a fraction receives a proper disposal. The
insufficient collection and inappropriate disposal of solid wastes represent a source of water, land and air
pollution and poses risks to human health and the environment. Over the next several decades globalization,
rapid urbanization and economic growth in the developing world tend to further deteriorate this situation. In
early days people were not facing such big problems of disposals because of availability of space and natural
materials but now a day’s congestion in cities and use of non-biodegradable materials in our day life create many
problems. So, proper management of solid waste has become unavoidable. The quantity of MSW generated in
India is increasing rapidly due to increasing population and change in lifestyles. Land is scarce and public health
and environment resources are precious. In Kadapa District according to 2011 census 206.21 M. Ts of solid
waste is being generated. These waste is collected and dumped resulting wastage of precious lands hence a
method of recycling of those waste is to be employed. Hence a part of solid waste is such as vegetable waste and
fruit waste is recycled to create biogas. This project deals with various topics related with solid waste such as its
quantity, performance of solid waste management practiced in Kadapa Municipal Corporation and also to
recycle the vegetable waste and fruit waste for generation of bio gas by biomethanation by the process of
anaerobic digestion. This methane gas that has been produced can be used as a bio fuel in generation of
electricity or to use it as a fuel which in turn can save the fossil fuels that has been in a declination state in
today’s world.
Keywords: Municipal Solid Waste, Projections, Paper, Plastic, Bio-degradable, e-waste, Biomethanation and
Anaerobic Digestion.
INTRODUCTION
Due to scarcity of petroleum and coal it threatens supply of fuel throughout the world also problem of their
combustion leads to research in different corners to get access the new sources of energy, like renewable energy
resources. Solar energy, wind energy, different thermal and hydro sources of energy, biogas are all renewable
energy resources. But, biogas is distinct from other renewable energies because of its characteristics of using,
controlling and collecting organic wastes and at the same time producing fertilizer and water for use in agricultural
irrigation. Biogas does not have any geographical limitations nor does it requires advanced technology for
producing energy, also it is very simple to use and apply. Deforestation is a very big problem in developing
countries like India, most of the part depends on charcoal and fuel-wood for fuel supply which requires cutting of
forest. Also, due to deforestation. It leads to decrease the fertility of land by soil erosion. Use of dung, firewood as
energy is also harmful for the health of the masses due to the smoke arising from them causing air pollution. We
need an ecofriendly substitute for energy.
Organic waste is the material having the high calorific value and nutritive value to microbes, that’s why
efficiency of methane production can be increased by several order of magnitude as said earlier. It means higher
efficiency and size of reactor and cost of biogas production is reduced. Also in most of cities and places, kitchen
waste is disposed in landfill or discarded which causes the public health hazards and diseases like malaria, cholera,
typhoid. Inadequate management of wastes like uncontrolled dumping bears several adverse consequences: It not
only leads to polluting surface and groundwater through leachate and further promotes the breeding of flies,
mosquitoes, rats and other disease bearing vectors. Also, it emits unpleasant odour & methane which is a major
greenhouse gas contributing to global warming.
Mankind can tackle this problem(threat) successfully with the help of methane , however till now we have not
been benefited, because of ignorance of basic sciences – like output of work is dependent on energy available for
411
doing that work. This fact can be seen in current practices of using low calorific inputs like cattle dung, distillery
effluent, municipal solid waste (MSW) or sewage, in biogas plants, making methane generation highly inefficient.
We can make this system extremely efficient by using kitchen waste/food wastes.
Waste to Energy (WTE) refers to the process of generating the energy in the form of heat and electricity from
Fruit and Vegetable waste. Energy from those solid waste can be obtained by following processes:
1. Thermal processes like incineration or combustion of refuse derived fuel (RDF); and
2. Biological processes like Biomethanation and further conversion into electrical power or automotive fuel
(Compressed Gas)
Non-recyclable waste having calorific value of 1500Kcal/kg or more shall not be disposed of on landfills and
shall only be utilized for generating energy either through refused derived fuel or by giving away as feed stock for
preparing refuse derived fuel. These high calorific wastes can be used in the processing in cement or thermal power
plants. The integrated solid waste management hierarchy has indicated that the recovery of the energy from solid
waste is preferable only after considering the potential for recovery of the material. Valuable energy is sought to be
recovered after ensuring that all possible reduce, recycle and recover mechanisms have been adopted on the waste
that has been used for generating the energy.
The various methods and other technologies such as pyrolysis and gasification has not proven to be successful
and adoptable under the conditions that are prevailing in India. Combustion technologies in India have to cope with
the comparably high moisture and inert content, as is common in Indian waste. However, door step segregation of
the waste, segregated management of inert wastes, and pre-treatment to separate the high calorific fraction can
enable efficient thermal processes. Application of technologies like pyrolysis and gasification to treat wastes in
India is at very nascent stage with one or two experimental plants in the process of being set up provides an
overview of these technologies. WTE plants are an expensive option and require skilled staffing and adoption of
high level technologies. They also have the potential to cause significant environmental impacts through emissions
and fly ashes if plants aren’t operated efficiently and if appropriate emission control mechanisms aren’t adopted.
Necessity of Study
Vegetables in our daily diet are the source of proteins, vitamins, minerals, dietary fibers, micronutrients,
antioxidants and phytochemicals. The diverse soil and climatic conditions in the country makes it possible to grow
variety of vegetables belonging to different groups. The vegetable markets produce plenty of vegetable waste per
day. The disposal of these wastes is a very serious issue. The present vegetable waste disposal includes dumping in
the municipal landfills, spreading on land and by feeding to animals. These unscientific methods result in
environmental pollution. These methods result in land, air and water pollution. The treatment of vegetable wastes
with biological methods appears to be economical and also controls the environmental pollution.
On the other hand, Global energy crisis has posed a serious problem due to the shortage of fossil fuels.
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has become increasingly aware of the
problems which aimed at more efficient energy use and exploitation of energy sources. Bio mass seems one of the
most valuable sources of the energy because it is principle renewable and to large extent the techniques for
converting it to energy are known. Hence as due to increase in the vegetable waste resulting environmental
pollution due to its unscientific methods of disposal and due to lot of usage of fossil fuels and other energy
resources resulting in the energy crisis leading to a serious energy crisis problems, hence some suitable methods
such as bio methanation are adopted to prevent the environmental pollution and to use these vegetable waste in
helping the production of bio gas in turn helps in the production of energy to come up against the problem of
energy crisis.
So as to assure the disposal of these vegetable wastage with environment friendly it requires a lot of money for
collection, transportation, segregation, processing and to disposal. Hence it can be avoided and these can be used
for the production of the energy, which is in global crisis. Hence it can be used for making something very useful
from something which is waste.
nt & Society (N
NCWES-20188) 413
OBJECTIVES
O
1. To know about the cu urrent populaation and currrent solid waste generation rate, to estimate the increase
i in
populationn and increase in the rate of
o solid wastee generation.
2. Detail stuudy of solid waste
w generatioon and solid waste
w potential in Kadapa District.
3. To discusss various soliid waste manaagement pracctices in Kadaapa District.
4. Experimeental method of Bio-methhanation andd generation of Biogas from f fruit annd vegetable waste by
anaerobicc process.
5. To study about the various uses andd also about various applicaations of the methane
m gas.
6. Remedial measure for avoiding the pollution from m solid wastee and proposeed best managgement practices.
STUDY AREA
Kadapa districct is the only district in Andhra
K A Pradessh that share its boundariees with the otther districts of Andhra
Pradesh. This is not the sam me in case off any other district in the state.
s In the north
n it is Kurrnool/Prakashham, in the
eaast with Nelloore, Anantapu ur district onn the West, while in the soouth it is withh Chittoor. Thhe major riveers flowing
thhrough the diistrict are Pen nna, Papaghnni, Chitrvati, Mandavya.
M Itt is situated on
o Chennai – Mumbai raiilway line.
K
Kadapa city iss a tail end off Kurnool Kaadapa canal. TheT city is suurrounded threee sides by thhe Nallamala forest and
Palakonda hills.
Fig. 1 Locatiion Map of the study area F 2 Geograpphical area of Kadapa

Fig. K city
Kadapa Muunicipality haas been upgraded to Munnicipal Corporation (KMC C) by mergingg the borderiing village
Panchayats vizz. Patha Kadaapa, Chinna Chowk,
C Chem mmumiapet, Gudur
G and Akkkayapalli. The Health Deppartment of
M
Municipal Corrporation is reesponsible foor collection and
a transportaation of solidd waste generrated in KMC C area. For
opperational puurposes the enntire area of the
t Kadapa Municipal
M Coorporation is divided into 4 solid wastee divisions
annd 1 malaria division
d compprising 5 to 6 wards in eacch division. A Sanitary Insspector headss each of the solid
s waste
diivision. In case
c of the Panchayats a Sanitary Insppector in Chiinna Chowk and a Maistry in other Panchayat are
reesponsible. Thhe primary coollection in thhe KMC area is carried outt through dusstbins and opeen collection points and
seecondary collection and transportation
t n would be through
t T primary collection
Bulloock Carts annd Tractors. The
syystem in KM MC area consttitutes, waste collections from
f open duumps, street sweeping
s andd drain cleaning by the
Sanitary Workkers and placiing the waste in a nearest dust
d bins andd open collecttion point. Inn total there arre 535 and
4338 dust bins and
a open colllections points located resppectively in KMC
K Area.
M
METHODOL
LOGY
C
Current Wastte Generation
Inn general, quaantity of MSW W generated depends on a number of factors
f in a ULB
U such as food
f habits, standard
s of
living, degree of commercial activities anda seasons. These
T quantitties are usefull in planning and developiing system
foor efficient coollection and disposal of MSW.
M The muunicipal solid waste generaated from the ULB was weeighed and
ennsured by thee Commission ner. The total waste generaated from Kaadapa ULB inn the year 20115 is about 1551 tons per
daay with 0.39 Kg K per capitaa per day.
Existing Land-use and Sources of Waste Generation

Kadapa Outline Development Plan Map depicts land-use pattern of the municipality. According to the map, total
area of the municipality of 16,408 Hectare is divided into residential, commercial, industrial and public areas.
Residential area covers major portion of landuse reflecting dense population. Out of 405 tons of total waste
generated per day from all nine (9) ULBs of Kadapa district, Kadapa M corp., contributes to 151 TPD.
It may be noted that waste is generated from residential areas, commercial establishments & hotels, educational
institutions & offices, vegetable market areas & slaughter houses, road sweepings, drains and part of construction
and demolition (C&D) waste. In Kadapa ULB, bulk quantities of C&D waste are generally dumped in low lying
areas.
Municipal solid waste collection, grinding and mixing
The raw materials consisting of bio-degradable fraction of MSW of different composition were collected and
shredded to finer particles. The wastes were collected, segregated, shredded and weighed as per the different
compositions. The shredded MSW samples were characterized for moisture content, total solids, volatile solids,
total carbon, total nitrogen, C/N ratio and COD using the standard methods.
Fig. 3 Collection of Solid Waste

This substrate was mixed with the fresh anaerobic seeding sludge collected from the Sewage treatment plant.
The resultant mixture, called feedstock was used in the reactors for anaerobic digestion process. A portion of this
feedstock was analyzed for its chemical composition.
Experimental Setup
Anaerobic reactor and samples used: One laboratory scale anaerobic reactor of volume 20L capacity were setup for
studying the anaerobic degradation process and methane generating potential of municipal solid waste samples
representing the waste compositions of Kadapa city.
Fig. 4 Experimental Setup

The 20 L capacity vessel is purchased and vessel is provided with suitable inflow and outflow valves manually
and was made air tight for the perfect working conditions of an anaerobic reactor. An opening was provided at the
top of the reactor for the gas collection facility and another opening was given at the side bottom of the reactor for
the collection of the samples at desired time and for regular monitoring of the pH and characterization of the
samples. The gas collection facility for the reactors was provided by means of a water displacement system. This
system comprises of two glass cylinder bottles of 1 L capacity in which the first cylinder was connected to the
anaerobic reactor in which the waste samples was filled. This cylinder is filled with an acidic solution of pH < 3 so
that the CO2 from the biogas while coming to this cylinder should not be dissolved into the solution. The biogas
coming to this cylinder will displace the water to the second cylinder connected to this cylinder and the water
displaced will be collected in this graduated cylinder. Thus the amount of biogas collected daily was monitored
manually every 24 hours. A constant pH between 5 and 7 was maintained throughout the retention time of the
reactor by adding 0.16% of buffer into the waste samples for the efficient functioning and biogas production. The
buffer used here was sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3). This process of gas collection and monitoring of data
was continued till the end of the whole process.
Sample preparation
The raw materials consisting of the paper, textile, leather, and glass, metal and inert material such as gravel, sand
etc. are collected weighed and mixed according to the waste composition given in the table. The biodegradable
fraction of the waste comprises of food waste, green waste, vegetable and fruit wastes. All the raw materials are
collected and shredded into finer particles and mixed thoroughly to prepare the substrate of desired composition.
This substrate was mixed with the fresh anaerobic sludge collected from the Sewage treatment plant in Saharanpur,
Uttrakhand for seeding purpose. The sample was prepared with a biodegradable waste to anaerobic sludge ratio of
1:1.
This mixture was again mixed with tap water to make slurry having 30% solids composition. This resultant
mixture was used as the samples in the reactors for anaerobic digestion process. The municipal solid waste sample
in the slurry form was mixed thoroughly and transferred into the anaerobic reactors and was purged with N2 and
CO2 in the ratio 70:30 to remove the oxygen present inside the reactor. The reactors are then sealed tightly to
preserve the anaerobic growth inside the reactors. The openings on the top of the reactors were connected to the gas
displacement system by means of silicon pipes for the collection of biogas from the anaerobic reactors. The biogas
produced was recorded every 24 hours.
Fig. 5 Preparation of sample waste
RESULTS & DISCUSSION

Table 1 Projected Population for Design Life by Arithmetic Increase Method
Estimated Waste Estimated Waste
Year Projected Population
Quantity (TPY) Quantity (TPD)
2011 344893
2012 356065
2013 367236
Table 1 Contd....
Estimated Waste Estimated Waste

Year Projected Population
Quantity (TPY) Quantity (TPD)
2014 378408
2015 389579 *27935 151
2016 400751 56695 155
2017 411922 58276 160
2018 423094 59856 164
2019 434265 61437 168
2020 445437 63017 173
2021 456608 64598 177
2022 467780 66178 181
2023 478951 67759 186
2024 490123 69339 190
2025 501294 70920 194
2026 512466 72500 199
2027 523637 74081 203
2028 534809 75661 207
2029 545980 77242 212
2030 557152 78822 216
2031 568323 80402 220
2032 579495 81983 225
2033 590666 83563 229
2034 601838 85144 233
2035 613009 86724 238
2036 624181 88305 242
2037 635352 89885 246
2038 646524 91466 251
2039 657695 93046 255
2040 668867 94627 259
2041 680038 96207 264
2042 691210 97788 268
Total Waste for 25 years in metric
21,13,457
Tonnes (MT)
Projected Population & Estimated Waste Generated Rate in

KADAPA
800
Population (in Thousands)
600
400
200
0
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
2026
2027
2028
2029
2030
2031
2032
2033
2034
2035
2036
2037
2038
2039
2040
2041
2042
Year
PoPulation TPY
Fig. 6 Population Projections by Arithmetic Method

Fig. 7 Estimated Waste Generation Rate for the Design Period
Similar to logistic method, this method assumes that the city has some limiting saturation population and that its
rate of growth is a function of its population deficit.
This method combines geometric rate of growth at low population with declining growth rates as the city
approaches some limiting population. Generally, this method is used when the growth rate of population due to
births, deaths and migrations takes place under normal situation and it is not subjected to any extraordinary changes
like epidemic, war, earthquake or any natural disaster, etc. and the population follows the growth curve
characteristics of living things within limited space and economic opportunity. If the population of a
city/town/ULB is plotted with respect to time, the curve so obtained under normal condition looks like S-shaped
curve and is known as logistic curve.
Table 2 Population Projection Comparison

Projected Population
Year
Arithmetic Method Incremental Increase Method
2015 389579 389939
2016 400751 401200
2017 411922 412461
2018 423094 423723
2019 434265 434984
2020 445437 446245
2021 456608 457507
2022 467780 468768
2023 478951 480030
2024 490123 491291
2025 501294 502552
2026 512466 513814
2027 523637 525075
2028 534809 536337
2029 545980 547598
2030 557152 558859
2031 568323 570121
2032 579495 581382
2033 590666 592643
2034 601838 603905
2035 613009 615166
Table 2 Contd...
Projected Population
Year
Arithmetic Method Incremental Increase Method
2036 624181 626428
2037 635352 637689
2038 646524 648950
2039 657695 660212
2040 668867 671473
2041 680038 682735
2042 691210 693996

Fig. 8 Population Projection Comparison
The above figure depicts that the population growth comparison in between geometric Method, Arithmetic
Method and Incremental method for 151 TPD in year 2015 to 269 TPD in year 2042.
CONCLUSION
Being a precious renewable energy source, Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is acquiring attention in India. Whereas,
developed countries are getting benefits from waste to energy by adopting proper management system of MSW.
1. Rapidly growing population leading urbanization generates abundant quantity of solid waste at alarming
rate in India. Approximately, 32 million tonnes of MSW per year are generated by major cities of the
country.
2. As per the population estimation methods, approximately 64% of population will increase by the year 2042
from now.
3. Total waste quantity generated for the design life is 21,13,457 Million Tonnes based on Population
Estimation Method.
4. When compare the three population estimation methods Arithmetic Method and Incremental increase
method shows similar manner in population growth whereas Geometric Method shows more population
growth.
5. MSW is composed of 36% and 64% by inorganic and organic wastes correspondingly. Moreover, the share
of decayble, non-decayble, degradable and non-degradable has been estimated, that is 42%, 22%, 3% and
33% respectively.
6. Informal collection rate of MSW has been observed, that is approximately from 30 to 70% in rural to urban
areas respectively. Lack of engineered landfill or any other environment friendly treatment facility is found
even in major cities of the country.
7. An unawareness of source segregation, lack of well-designed on site storage as well as processing
equipment, informal waste collection and improper collection route have been commonly observed in each
and every city of the country.
Through the use of green technologies like anaerobic digestion, can avoid the emission of harmful greenhouse
gasses and make a positive contribution to environmental targets.
REFERENCES
1. A Survey on Waste to Energy Potential in Odisha, Divya Das, M.Tech Scholar, Dept. of Energy System Engineering,
College of Engineering and Technology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India.
2. Utilization of Municipal Solid Waste of Gwalior City for Energy Generation (A case study), Shyamveer Singh Chauhan,
PG Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, MITS, Gwalior, India
3. Status of solid waste generation and management practice in Kolkata municipal corporation, West Bengal, Sk Ajim Ali,
Research Scholar, Department of Geography, AMU, Aligarh.
4. Feasibility of Biogas Production From Organic Fraction of Municipal Solid Waste of Kurnool City, T. Ramachar,
Department of Basic Engineering, G. Pulla Reddy Engineering College (Autonomous), Kurnool (A.P.) India.
5. Municipal Solid Waste Quantification, Characterization and Management in Rajam, V. Ramakrishna, Professor, Civil
Engineering Department, Lakireddy Balireddy College of Engineering, Mylavaram, Krishna District, AP
6. A Case Study on Adampur Landfill Site at Bhopal, Tapas Dasgupta,Executive Engineer, Municipal Corporation Bhopal,
M.P., India.
7. Anaerobic digestion of Vegetable waste for Biogas generation: A Review. Patil V.S,. Lal Bahadur Shastri College of
Arts, Science and Commerce, Satara-415002, M.S., INDIA
8. A Review of Biomethanation Technology as a Promising Waste to Energy Option, Hema Patel, Environmental Officer,
Shobha Food Products. HE-21, UPSIDC Industrial Area Uttar Pradesh.
ADVANCED SPECTRAL CLASSIFICATION METHODS FOR
HYPERSPECTRAL DATA - A CONCISE REVIEW
Veeramallu Satya Sahithi1, MVSS Giridhar2 and I V Murali Krishna3

1
National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC-ISRO)
2
Jawaharlal Nehru Techological University, Hyderabad
3
Administrative Staff College of India, Hyderabad
sahithi.geo@gmail.com, mvssgridhar@gmailcom
ABSTRACT
Classification of Hyperspectral image requires certain special algorithms that can handle its huge volume,
redundancy and reduce the processing time. Various factors like atmospheric correction method, spectral
response of the target material, parameters used for classification, training sample size etc. play an important role
in obtaining an accurate classified map. The spatial resolution of the hyperspectral data also plays a vital role in
imparting mixed pixels in the data and thus bringing challenges like data redundancy and ambiguity in
processing and classifying the datasets. Many advanced classification methods have come up that can aid in
overcoming these limitations and accurately classifying the voluminous hyperspectral datasets. Few per pixel
classification methods like Support Vector Machines, Angle Mappers, Random Forests, Artificial neural
networks and sub pixel unmixing classifiers, Deep learning, morphological profiles etc. are discussed along with
few other techniques.
Keywords: Hyperspectral data classifications, per pixel methods, sub pixel methods, ensemble classifiers, deep
learning methods.
INTRODUCTION
Hyperspectral(HS) remote sensing is one of the recent advances in remote sensing technology. A HS sensor
acquires data simultaneously in hundreds of spectral bands with narrow bandwidths and can provide detailed
contiguous spectral curves that traditional multispectral sensors cannot offer [83]. For instance, Hyperion sensor of
NASA’s Earth Observing-1 (EO-1) satellite is the first spaceborne hyperspectral instrument to acquire data both
visible/near-infrared (400-1000 nm) and shortwave infrared (900-2500 nm) spectral data in 242 bands with a
spatial resolution of 30 m and 7.6 km swath width [94]. Another example is the Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging
Spectrometer (AVIRIS) of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) that acquires 224
contiguous bands with a nominal bandwidth of 10 nm each. This huge spectral information can help in various
applications like vegetation species mapping, mineral identification, impervious/pervious surface delineation, crop
health & stress monitoring, water quality mapping etc. the However, a major difficulty found in hyperspectral
remote sensing is the huge dimensionality of data that gives rise to the Hughes phenomenon [92] which refers to
the fact that the sample size required for training a specific classifier grows exponentially with the number of
spectral bands. Better consideration should be given to the collection of training and test data that characterize the
range of land surface variability at the spatial scale of the image [3].
Classification of hyperspectral remote sensing data dates back to 1980s when conventional multispectral
classification methods were used for classification. The conventional classification techniques available for
multispectral data like maximum likelihood, minimum distance to mean etc. have considerable difficulties while
dealing with high resolution data and are known to produce inconsistent classification results [33] due to its the
higher dimensionality. The criteria considered for the multispectral datasets that – “the number of training samples
required for classification should be 10 times the number of bands” is very difficult to be satisfied in the case of
hyperspectral data (Hughes phenomenon)[3]. Most widely used per pixel classifiers. Significant efforts were made
during 1999-2003 in the HS data classification and feature extraction reported in [60-85]. Many new techniques
like sub pixel-unmixing methods[74,75,76,77,78,80], morphological profiles[70,71,72,73], ensemble
classifiers[65,67,77], decision tree techniques[66,83], deep learning & deep belief methods[64,68,69] etc are being
explored to efficiently extract he information from hyperspectral images.
420
This article presents a concise review on few conventional and state of art hyperspectral image classification
methods explored so far in the field of remote sensing.
Table 1 Various criteria and methods of classification
Criteria Methods of classification
Training samples are available and prior knowledge about the study
Supervised area is available Eg: Maximum Likelihood, Support Vector Machines.
Based on availability Spectral Angle Mapper etc.
of training samples No prior information about the study area and image is available. No
Unsupervised training samples are given as input for classification.
Eg: Iso data , K -Means
Based on assumptions Parametric Gaussian assumption of data Eg: Maximum Likelihood classifier
on distribution of data Non-Parametric Non Gaussian assumption of data Eg: SVM, ANN
If spatial data is Uses the spatial or contextual information apart from the spectral
Object based classification
included during information. Eg: Texture based or contextual classifier or watershed
method
classification segmentation
Land cover continuity is not shown. Classification is done based on
Hard classifiers or per pixel
Based on pixel the information available in one pixel.
classifiers.
information and Eg: SVM, ANN, SAM, MLC etc.
within pixel Continuity of land cover classes is seen in the classifier. It considers
Soft classifiers or sub pixel
information extraction the per pixel information for classifying the data.
classifiers
Eg: Unmixing – Linear & Non-Linear, MTMF etc
Whether a single Single classifier Only a single classifier is used to produce the classification results.
classifier is used or Eg: All per pixel classifiers
multi classifiers are More than one classifiers are used for classification.
Ensemble classifiers
used. Eg: Random forests, Ensemble methods etc.
Per Pixel Hard Classifiers

Spectral Angle Mapper
The Spectral Angle Mapper Classification (SAM) is an automated method for
directly comparing image spectra to a known spectrum (usually determined
in a lab or in the field with a spectrometer) or an end member. SAM assumes
that the data have been reduced to apparent reflectance. This method treats
both (the unknown and known) spectra as vectors in an n-D space, where n is
the number of bands and calculates the spectral angle between them. Each
vector has certain length and direction. The length of the vector represents
brightness of the pixel while the direction of the vector represents the spectral
feature of the pixel. This method is insensitive to illumination since the SAM
algorithm uses only the vector direction and not the vector length. The result of the SAM classification is an image
showing the best match at each pixel. The spectral angle values are between 0 to π/2. The equation used for the
calculation of spectral angle is as follows:
∑
SAM angle = Cos-1[- ∑ / ∑ / ]
where n is the number of bands

t is the target
r is the reference spectra. = Spectral Angle
Artificial Neural networks

Artificial Neural Networks have been developed with an inspiration from the human
brain. Its design consists of one input layer, at least one hidden layer and one output
layer. The neuron receives the input from the left; each of the input is multiplied by
a weight factor. Learning occurs by adjusting the weights in the node to minimize
the difference between the output node activation and the output. This input is fed
to a summing function, and the output of the summing function is fed to a transfer
function, which uses some mathematical function. This can be an input to another
neuron or an output multilayer feed forward ANN is used to perform a nonlinear Fig 1 A typical Multilayer
classification.
Several neural network-based classification approaches have been proposed in the literature considering both
supervised and unsupervised, non-parametric approaches [38-42], being feed forward neural network (FN)-based
classifiers the most commonly adopted ones. FNs have been well studied and widely used since the introduction of
the well-known back propagation algorithm (BP) [43-45], a first order gradient method for parameter optimization,
which presents two main problems: slow convergence and the possibility of falling in local minima, especially
when the parameters of the network are not properly fine-tuned. With the aim of alleviating the disadvantages of
the original BP algorithm, several second order optimization-based strategies, which are faster and needless input
parameters, have been proposed in the literature[46]. Recently, the extreme learning machine (ELM)learning
algorithm has been proposed to train single hidden layer feed forward neural networks (SLFN) [47,48]. Then, the
concept has been extended to multi-hidden-layer networks[48], radial basis function networks (RBF) [50], and
kernel learning [49]. The main characteristic of the ELM is that the hidden layer (feature mapping) is randomly
fixed and need notto be iteratively tuned. ELM based networks are remarkably efficient in terms of accuracy and
computational complexity and has been successfully applied as nonlinear classifier for hyperspectral data providing
comparable results with the state of-the-art methodologies [51-54].
Support Vector Machines
SVM is a new classification technique which is based on the statistical learning theory. This technique is said to be
independent of dimensionality of feature space. The main idea behind this classification is to separate the classes
with a surface that maximize the margin between them, using boundary pixels to create the decision plane[58].“A
decision plane is one that separates between a set of objects having different class memberships. The decision
planes may not always be exact straight lines as it is not possible in many classification tasks. Classification tasks
based on drawing separating lines to distinguish between objects of different class memberships are known as
hyper plane classifiers[59]. The data points that are close to the hyper plane are termed ‘support vectors’. The
performance of the support vector mainly depends on the kernel types used to transform the data into higher
dimensional feature space[60]. SVM provides good classification results from complex and noisy data.” In
practical consideration, the major advantage of support vector machine classifier is that even a single training pixel
for a particular class would be enough for the SVM to classify the corresponding matching spectra in the image to
that class [62,63].
Fig. 2(a) Linear SVM Fig. 2(b) Non-linear SVM
Spectral Feature Fitting (SFF)

Spectral Feature Fitting is a method for analyzing hyperspectral data which is an absorption-feature based method
for matching image spectra to reference end members. Prior to analysis this method requires the data to be
converted to reflectance and that a continuum be removed from the reflectance data. A continuum is a
mathematical function used to isolate a particular absorption feature for analysis. It corresponds to a background
signal unrelated to a specific absorption feature for analysis. Spectra are normalized to a common reference using a
continuum formed by defining high points of the spectrum (local maxima) and fitting straight line segments
between these points [90]. The continuum is obtained by dividing it into the original spectrum.
Thus SFF requires that the reference and endmembers be selected from either the image or a spectral library,
with the continuum removed, and that each reference endmember spectrum be scaled to match the unknown
spectrum. A “scale” image is produced for each endmember by first subtracting the continuum removed spectra
from one, thus inverting them and making the continuum zero[91]. A single multiplicative scaling factor is thus
determined that makes the reference spectrum match the unknown spectrum. A large scaling factor resembles a
deep spectral feature, while a small scaling factor indicates a weak spectral feature.
Sub Pixel Soft Classifiers
Spectral unmixing
Pixel-wise classification identifies the class to which a pixel spectrum closely resembles, but it does not yield any
further insight into the other materials that exist within the mixed pixel of the hyperspectral data which occurs due
to its moderate spatial resolution. In such cases, sub-pixel classification techniques like spectral unmixing come
into picture which give the abundance fraction of a particular material within a pixel. The results of unmixing are
highly dependent on the end members used for unmixing and the results change with the changing end members.
The method of unmixing a mixed pixel depends on the way in which these constituent material substances in a
pixel combine to yield the composite spectrum measured at the sensor (Nascimento & Bioucas Dias, 2005). Hence,
the spectral unmixing techniques are classified into two types – i) linear unmixing, ii) non-linear unmixing (Fig 4a
and 4b). The linear spectral unmixing assumes that the radiation incident on the earth interacts with only a single
material before it reaches the sensor. On the other hand, the nonlinear technique assumes that the incident ray
interacts with more than one material on the earth’s surface, before reaching the sensor. In linear spectral unmixing,
the resultant spectral signature of a pixel will be the weighted sum of all the materials within the pixel, where the
weights are the abundance fractions of the corresponding material.
Table 2 Review table on various Hyperspectral data classifiers
Principle of working and key
Method of classification Classifier Previous works
parameters
Support Vector Machines • Constructs a hyper plane that Melgani et al., 2004 [58],
(SVM) maximizes the margin between two Gualtieri et al., 1999 [59],
classes. Pal et al., 2004[60],
• It is best suitable for binary classifiers Waske et al.,2010 [62],
and uses kernels for multiclass Hsieh et al., 2015 [63].
classification problems.
• Its major advantage is that it yields
better accuracy even with minimum
number of training samples.
• Key parameters: Penalty parameter,
kernel type, gamma value, training
sample.
Artificial Neural Networks • Typically follows the model of the Goel et al., 2003 [82],
Per pixel classifiers brain neuron system. Kuching et al., 2007[83]
• Input, hidden layers and output are
the major components of a neural
network.
• The back propagation method ANN
uses the weights assigned in the
hidden layer and any difference
between the output and the estimated
is back propagated to the input
neuron until the output and the
estimated output are the same.
• Time consuming technique but gives
very accurate results when properly
trained.
Table 2 contd...

parameters
• Key parameters: hidden layers,
number of iterations and threshold
values.
Spectral Angle Mapper • SAM calculates the cosine angle Kuching et al., 2007[84],
between the unknown spectra (pixel Park et al.,2007 [85],
under consideration) and target Chang et al., 2000 [86],
spectra and assigns the pixel to the Cho et al.,2010[87],
target class if the angle is less than Kruse et al.,2003[88],
the threshold angle (user specified). De Carvalho et al., 2000[89]
• Prominently used for Vegetation (Spectral Correlation Mapper).
species mapping because of its
insensitivity to illumination angle.
• Key parameters: Threshold angle (α)
Decision Tree classifier Spectral Feature Fitting • Absorption-feature based method for Parra et al., 2009[90],
matching image spectra to reference Debba et al.,2005[91] etc.
end members SFF uses a continuum
removed profile to observe the
dominant absorption regions in a
profiles.
• Based on the absorption regions,
reference endmember spectrum will
be scaled to match the unknown
spectrum.
Ensemble methods Ensemble methods • Integrates more than one classifiers Samat et al., 2014 [65] (Extreme
based on the weights and yields an learning ensemble method),
improved classification output.
• Key parameter: weights for each
classifier
Random Forest classifier • For each new training set that is Rodriguez-Galiano et al.,2012
generated, one-third of the training [67], Ham et al., 2005 [77],
samples are randomly left out, called
the out-of-bag (OOB) samples. The
remaining (in the-bag) samples are
used for building a tree
• votes for each case are counted every
time the case belongs to the OOB
samples.
• A majority vote will determine the
final label
Linear Spectral Unmixing • Assumes that the radiation incident on Heinz et al., 2001 [74],
the earth interacts with only a single Nascimento et al., 2005 [75]
material before it reaches the sensor. (Vertex Component Analysis),
• Two important constraints Winter et al., 1999 [76],
a) Non negativity – which requires Bioucas et al., 2012 [78],
all the fractions from a pixel to be Iordache et al., 2011[79]
positive. (Sparse representation),
b) Sum to one – where sum of Nascimento et al., 2009 [81]
fractions of all the features should
Sub pixel classifiers
be equal to one.
Non-linear Unmixing • Used for problem of unmixing Chen et al., 2013 [80],
hyperspectral images, when the light
suffers multiple interactions among
distinct endmembers.
• The nonlinear model will take into
account the second-order scattering
interactions, which are assumed to be
the most significant.
Table 2 contd...

parameters
Mixture Tuned Matched • Filters” the input image for good Williams et.al., 2002 [55],
Filtering matches to the chosen target Goodarzi et al.,2013 [54],
spectrum by maximizing the response Boardman et al., 2011 [56],
of the target spectrum within the data Mitchell et al., 2009 [57].
and suppressing the response of
everything else.
• Yields two outputs – MF score and
infeasibility image.
Deep learning methods Deep learning methods & • A kind of neural network with multi Chen et al., 2015 [64],
Deep belief systems layers, typically deeper than three Xia et al., 2014 [68],
layers, that tries to hierarchically Chen et al., 2015 [69],
learn the features of input data
Mathematical Morphological profiles • Various Morphological operators like Benediktsson et al., 2005 [70],
Morphology based erosion, dilation, opening, closing are Fauvel et al., 2008 [71],
used with a structuring element to Dalla Mura et al., 2011 [72],
extract the information from the Liao et al., 2012 [73]
image. (Urban application)
Linear Unmixing
Unmixing simply solves a set of n linear equations for each pixel, where n is the number of bands in the image. The
unknown variables in these equations are the fractions of each endmember in the pixel. To be able to solve the
linear equations for the unknown pixel fractions it is necessary to have more equations than unknown, which means
that we need more bands than the endmember materials. The results of linear spectral unmixing include one
abundance image for each endmember. The pixel value in each image indicates the percentage of the pixel made up
of that endmember. An error image is usually calculated to help evaluate the success of the unmixing analysis. The
results of spectral unmixing highly depend on the end members and the constraints used in the process of
unmixing. Spectral unmixing requires all the materials in the pixel to be defined as end members without missing
one.
Fig. 3(a) Linear Unmixing Fig. 3(b) Non-Linear Unmixing
The two important constraints used in linear spectral unmixing are – a) Non negativity – which requires all the
fractions from a pixel to be positive, b) Sum to one – where sum of fractions of all the features should be equal to
one. However the constrained unmixing results do not match the real world scenario as it is not possible to identify
all the end members in a pixel. Although the linear mixture model has obvious practical advantages, there are many
situations in which it may not be appropriate (e.g., involving multiple light scattering effects) and could be
advantageously replaced by a nonlinear one [80].
b. Non-Linear Spectral Unmixing

This method of unmixing assumes that the reflected energy received at the sensor suffers multiple interactions with
distinct end members. Nonlinear unmixing has generated considerable interest among researchers, and different
methods have been proposedto account for nonlinear effects. Using training-based approachesis a way to bypass
difficulties with unknown mixing mechanism and parameters. In [93], a radial basis functionneural network was
used tounmix intimate mixtures. In [94],the authors designed a multi-layer perceptron neural networkcombined
with a Hopfield neural network to deal with nonlinearmixtures. In [95,96], the authors discussed methods
forautomatic selection and labelling of training samples. Thesemethods require the networks to be trained using
pixels withknown abundances, and the quality of the training data mayaffect the performance notably. Moreover,
for a new set ofspectra in a scene, or different embedded parameters, a newneural network should be trained again
before unmixing canbe performed. Approaches that do not require training sampleswere also studied in the
literature. In [97], a nonlinear unmixingalgorithm for the general bilinear mixture model was proposed.Based on
Bayesian inference; this method however has a highcomputational complexity.
Mixture Tuned Matched Filtering (MTMF)
MTMF is another sub-pixel unmixing type in which user chosen target spectra can be mapped. In complete
unmixing to get an accurate analysis finding out the spectra of all endmembers from the data is required but this
type of unmixing is called a ‘partial unmixing’ because the unmixing equations are only partially solved[]. MTMF
was originally developed to compute the abundances of targets that are relatively rare in the scene. If the target is
not rare, special care must be taken when adapting this technique [55]. Matched filtering “filters” the input image
for good matches to the chosen target spectrum by maximizing the response of the target spectrum within the data
and suppressing the response of everything else. Any pixel with a value of 0 or less would be interpreted as
background[54]. The problem with MF is that it is possible to end up with false positive results but the solution, but
the solution to this problem is to calculate an additional measure called “infeasibilty”. Infeasibility is based on both
noise and image statistics and indicates the degree to which the matched filtering results are a feasible mixture of
the target and the background. Pixels with high infeasibilities are likely to be false positive regardless of their
matched filter value [54].MTMF results are presented as two sets of images, the MF score presented as a grey scale
images with values from 0 to 1.0, which provide a means of estimating relative degree of match to the reference
spectrum (1.0 being a perfect match) and the infeasibilty image, where highly infeasible numbers indicate that
mixing between the composite background and the target is not feasible. The best match to a target is obtained
when the matched filter score is high (near 1) and the infeasibilty score is low (near 0) [55, 56] used MTMF and
minimum noise fraction (MNF) methods on Landsat -5 Thematic Mapper 5 image using a minimum number of
training data based on field observation. Classification of six desired lithological units was done by the maximum
likelihood classification (MLC) method and has reported good accuracy.
Ensemble Classifiers
Ensemble methods
Traditionally, a single classifier was taken into account to allocate a class label for a given pixel. However, in most
cases, the use of an ensemble of classifiers (multiple classifiers) can be considered in order to increase the
classification accuracies [11]. In order to develop an efficient multiple classifier, one needs to determine an
effective combination of classifiers that is able to benefit each other while avoiding the weaknesses of them [12,
13]. Two highly used multiple classifiers are boosting and bagging [12, 13, 14], which were elaborated in detail in
[11].
Random Forests
Random Forest uses an unbiased method to evaluate the classification accuracy in case a separate test set is not
available[21]. For each new training set that is generated, one-third of the training samples are randomly left out,
called the out-of-bag (OOB) samples[24]. The remaining (in the-bag) samples are used for building a tree. For
accuracy estimation, votes for each case are counted every time the case belongs to the OOB samples. A majority
vote will determine the final label[13].Only approximately one-third of the trees built will vote for each case. The
OOB error estimate has been shown to be unbiased in many tests. Although the structure of a decision tree provides
information concerning important features, such an interpretation becomes impossible when using hundreds of
trees[23]. One additional feature of Random Forest, however, is its ability to evaluate the importance of each
feature based on the use of internal OOB estimates[21]. To evaluate the importance of each feature, the values of
the mth variable of the OOB samples will be allowed to permute. The perturbed OOB samples will be run down
through each tree again[13]. The differences in the number of correctly-labelledcases, or accuracy, between the
original and the perturbed OOB samples over all the trees grown in the Random Forest will be averaged. This
average number will become the importance score of the mth variable and will be used as a ranking
index[21,23,24]. Since only a portion of the input features is used at each split and without pruning, the
computational load of Random Forest is comparatively light[20]. The computational time is in the order of T MN
log(N) where T is the number of trees, M is the number of features used for each split, and N is the number of
training samples (10). A prediction is made by the unweighted majority of prediction from the ensemble of
classification trees[13,21]. Random Forest is described as a very accurate technique, with no risk of overfitting, low
bias and low variance.
Decision Classifiers
Decision trees represent another subclass of nonparametric approaches, which can be used for both classification
and regression[35]. During the construction of a decision tree, the training set is progressively split into an
increasing number of smaller, more homogeneous groups[33,37]. This unique hierarchical concept is different from
other classification approaches, which generally use the entire feature space at once and make a single membership
decision per class [34]. The relative structural simplicity of decision trees as well as the relatively short training
time required (compared to methods that can be computationally demanding) are the main advantages of such
classifiers [33,34,35]. Moreover, decision tree classifiers make it possible to directly interpret class membership
decisions with respect to the impact of individual features [35]. Although a standard decision tree may be
deteriorated under some circumstances, its general concept is of interest and the classifier performance can be
further improved in terms of classification accuracies by classifier ensembles or multiple classifier systems [36,37].
Deep learning methods
Deep learning is a kind of neural network with multilayers, typically deeper than three layers, that tries to
hierarchically learn the features of input data. Deep learning is a fast-growing topic that has shown usefulness in
many research areas, including computer vision and natural language processing [25]. In the context of RS, some
deep models have been proposed for hyperspectral data feature extraction and classification [26]. The stacked auto
encoder (SAE) and the auto encoder (AE) with sparse constrain were proposed for hyperspectral data classification
[27], [28]. Later, another deep model, i.e., the deep belief network (DBN), was proposed for the classification of
hyperspectral data [29]. Very recently, an unsupervised convolutional neural network (CNN) was proposed for RS
image analysis, which uses greedy layer-wise unsupervised learning to formulate a deep CNN model [30].
There are some motivations to extract the invariant features from hyperspectral data. First, undesired scattering
from neighboring objects may deform the characteristics of the object of interest. Furthermore, different
atmospheric scattering conditions and intra-class variability make it extremely difficult to extract the features
effectively. Moreover, hyperspectral data quickly increased in volume, velocity and variety, so it is difficult to
analyze in the complicated real situation. On the other hand, it is believed that deep models can progressively lead
to more invariant and abstract features at higher layers [27]. Therefore, deep models have the potential to be a
promising tool. Deep learning involved a number of models including stacked auto-encoders (SAE) [25], deep
belief networks (DBN) [29], and deep convolutional neural network (CNN) [30].
Morphological profiles
Mathematical morphology is a theory aiming to analyze the spatial relationship between pixels. For a remote
sensing application, several morphological operators are available for extracting geometrical information. The two
fundamental operators in mathematical morphology are erosion and dilation [32]. These operators are applied to an
image with a set of known shapes, called the structuring elements (SEs). To erode an image consists of finding
where the SE fits the objects in the image. The dilation, which is dual to the erosion, shows where the SE hits the
objects. Thus, they can introduce fake objects in the image. To avoid this problem, geodesic morphology and
reconstruction should be used [32]. Opening and closing by reconstructions are connected operators that satisfy the
following assertion: If the structure of the image cannot contain the SE, then it is totally removed; else, it is totally
preserved. For a given SE, geodesic opening or geodesic closing allows one to know the size or shape of some
objects present in the image: The objects that are smaller than the SE are deleted, whereas the others (that are
bigger than the SE) are preserved. To determine the shape or size of all elements present in an image, it is
necessary to use a range of different SE sizes. This concept is called granulometry. Granulometries are typically
used for the analysis of the size distribution of the structures in the images. Classical granulometry by opening is
built by successive opening operations with an SE of an increasing size. By doing so, the image is progressively
simplified. By using connected operators, like opening by reconstruction, no shape noise is introduced. MPs are
defined by using the granulometry. A Morphological Profile is composed of the opening profile (OP) and the
closing profile (CP).
The OP at the pixel x of the image I is defined as an n-dimensional vector
OPi(x) = γ(i) R (x) i [0,n]
where γ(i) R is the opening by reconstruction with an SE of a size i and n is the total number of openings. In
addition, the closing profile at the pixel x of image I is defined as an n-dimensional vector:
CPi(x) = φ(i) R (x) i [0,n]
where φ(i) R is the closing by reconstruction with an SE of a size i. Clearly, we have CPo(x) = OPo(x) = I(x). By
collating the OP and the CP, the MP of image I is defined as 2n + 1- dimensional vector
MP(x) = {CPn(x),...,I(x),..., OPn(x)}.
Thus, from a single image results a multiband image, whose dimension corresponds to the number of
transformations, and spatial information is now contained in the MP for each pixel. However, an MP is built with
only one band. Therefore, the spectral information is lost. One approach to deal with this problem is to extract
several images that contain some parts of the spectral information and then build the MP on each of the individual
images- known as EMP method.
EMP In order to apply this approach to hyperspectral data, characteristic images need to be extracted. In [32], it
was suggested to use several PCs of the hyperspectral data for such a purpose. Hence, the MP is applied on the first
PCs, corresponding to a certain amount of the cumulative variance, and a stacked vector is built with the MP on
each PC. This yields to the EMP. Following the previous notation, the EMP is an m(2n + 1) dimensional vector:
MPext(x) = {MPPC1 (x),..., MPPCm(x)}
where m is the number of retaining PCs.
Object based classification
Object-based image classification Compared to traditional per-pixel and sub-pixel classification methods, object-
based models provide a new paradigm to classify remote sensing imagery[55, 56]. With object-based models,
geographical objects, instead of individual pixels, are considered the basic unit for analysis. That is, instead of
considering an image as a collection of individual pixels with spectral properties, object-based methods generate
image objects through image segmentation [57], and then conduct image classification on objects rather than
pixels. With image segmentation techniques, image objects are formed using spectral, spatial, and textural and
contextual information. Then these objects are further classified using spectral and other relevant criteria. Object-
based approaches are considered more appropriate for VHR remote sensing images since they assume that multiple
image pixels form a geographic object. Many studies have proven that significant higher accuracy has been
achieved with objectbased approaches [58, 59, 60].
Although spectral classifiers have the advantages of conceptual simplicity and computational effectiveness, their
limitations are also obvious [60]. A number of land use land cover types cannot be effectively separated with
spectral information, and thereby less than desired accuracy has been reported with spectra-only classifiers. For
example, there has been a consensus that impervious surfaces and bare soil (e.g. bright urban impervious surfaces
and dry soil, and dark impervious surfaces and moist soil) cannot be effectively separated only with spectral
information. In order to achieve higher classification accuracy, an increasing number of spatio-contextual analysis
techniques have been developed recently to complement the spectral classification approaches. Spatio-contextual
analysis techniques into three methodological approaches, including 1) texture extraction, 2) MRFs modelling, and
3) image segmentation and object-based image analysis. Texture extraction involves incorporation of texture
metrics so that they can improve the classification accuracy through mitigating spectral confusion among spectrally
similar classes. (e.g. fractal models, autoregressive models, MRFs models etc). MRFs incorporate spatio-contextual
information into a classifier through modifying the discriminant function with an addition of spatial correlation
term. Spatio-contextual information has been incorporated in the image segmentation process, with each segment
contains spatially contiguous and homogenous pixels, and avoids the salt-and-pepper noise.
CONCLUSION OR SUMMARY
In this article, we have provided a review of different supervised hyperspectral classification approaches in
different domains. The compared techniques include popular approaches such as SVMs, RFs, neural networks,
deep approaches, decision trees and sparse representation-based classifiers, which have been widely used in the
hyperspectral analysis community. The main conclusion that can be obtained from the present study is that there is
no classifier that consistently provides the best performance among the considered metrics (particularly, from the
viewpoint of classification accuracy). Instead, different solutions depend on the complexity of the analysis scenario
(e.g., the availability of training samples, processing requirements, tuning parameters, and speed of the algorithm)
and on the considered application domain. Combined, the insights provided in this article may facilitate the
selection of a specific classifier by an end user depending on his/her expectations and/ or exploitation goals. An
ensemble method of classification can help in integrating the results of various classifiers based on the weights and
can produce a reliable result in most of the conditions.
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ANALYSIS ON GREEN BUILDING
(Case study: GRIET, Hyderabad, India)
Akula Prakash1 and Rathod Ravinder2

12
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of
Engineering and Technology (Autonomous), Hyderabad.
akulprakash93@gmail.com, rathod506ravinder@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The idea of green building has made an enormous significance in a creating nation like INDIA. The hypothesis
suggests of minimizing the wastage and the expense of development. With expansion in urbanization the normal
assets were utilized as a part of ill-advised ways which drives us towards the usage of green structures and the
idea helps in making ideal utilization of regular assets. The green building is an eco-friendly segment, since it
depends on the essential tenet - "REDUCE, REUSE and RECYCLE". In the long run, the green structures
manage the cost of an abnormal state of financial and building execution, which drives us to the advancement of
future era. The point of a green building configuration is to minimize the interest on non-renewable assets,
amplify the use effectiveness of these assets when being used and boost reduce, reusing and usage of renewable
assets. It amplifies the utilization of effective building materials and development hones; enhances the utilization
of local sources and sinks by bio-climatic design; utilizes least vitality to power itself; utilizes productive gear to
meet its lighting, aerating; cooling and different needs; boosts the utilization of renewable wellsprings of vitality;
uses proficient waste and water administration hones; gives agreeable and hygienic indoor working conditions.
With regards to the expression "Green Buildings," we may simply characterize it as an extraordinary sort of
working without knowing the subtle elements and foundation behind it. Really, Green Buildings comprise of a
wide range of sorts of material and gear. Their appearances additionally vary from other typical structures. Green
structures regularly incorporate measures to lessen vitality use. To expand the productivity of the building
envelope (boundary amongst molded and unconditioned space), they may utilize high-proficiency windows and
protection in walls, roofs, and floors.
Keywords: Green Building; Resource efficiency; Energy efficiency; Waste reduction; Passive design; GBC;
GRIET.
INTRODUCTION
These days, people give careful consideration to ecological security, in this manner build up another pattern called
Green Buildings. It's not about the shading green, but rather has something to do with another structural idea. The
"Green Building" is an interdisciplinary subject, where the green building idea incorporates a large number of
components, segments and methodology which veer to a few subtopics that entwined to frame the green building
idea. For the most part, the green building is thought to be a natural segment, as the green building materials are
produced from neighborhood eco-sources, i.e. ecologically friendly materials, which are then used to make an eco-
development subject to an eco-plan that give a solid environment based on the social and compositional legacy in
development while guaranteeing protection of characteristic assets. This ensures dismantling the building parts and
materials, after a decided building lifetime, to ecologically well disposed materials that can be either re-utilized or
recycled.
Green building (otherwise called green development or supportable building) alludes to both a structure and the
utilizing of procedures that are earth capable and asset proficient all through a building's life-cycle: from referring
to outline, development, operation, upkeep, redesign, and destruction. At the end of the day, green building outline
includes finding the harmony amongst homebuilding and the supportable environment. This requires close
collaboration of the configuration group; the draftsmen, the specialists, and the customer at all anticipate stages.
Although new advances are always being produced to supplement current practices in making greener
structures, the regular goal of green structures is to decrease the general effect of the assembled environment on
human wellbeing and the common habitat by:
• Efficiently utilizing energy, water, and different assets
434
• Protecting tenant wellbeing and enhancing representative profitability

• Reducing waste, contamination and environmental degradation.
The expression "Green" alludes to naturally, neighborly practices from building configuration to the finishing
decisions. It additionally hopeful person and Economic vitality use, water utilize, and storm water and waste water
reuse.
A Green building is that building which is developed at an all around arranged area with legitimate
configuration and reasonable materials fitted and painted with eco agreeable materials. The building ought to
provide for its inhabitants solid and agreeable environment in all atmospheres. It stays cool in summer, warm in
winter, inside completely shielded from downpour, gives normal contamination free air and light through
entryways, windows and ventilators with no simulated means. For specific prerequisites it has sun based, wind
power and eco friendly electrical, mechanical and so on gadgets. The expression "Green Building" applies to items,
as well as to development systems, building outline and introduction, finishing, building operations, support, and
the sky is the limit from there. The less effect a building has on human wellbeing and the earth, the more green it is.
RELATED LITERATURE
A study done by Boyd and Kimmet (2006), took a gander at the Triple Bottom Line (TBL) way to deal with the
budgetary execution of speculation properties, concentrating particularly on ecological and social attributes of
green structures. The likely effect of improved natural qualities on venture sort property is appeared in Figure 1.
Fig. 1 Value Impact of Environmentally Efficient Buildings
The figure shows four expected outcomes from greater environmental efficiency, i.e. improved working
environment, reduced building operating costs, reduced facilities maintenance (FM) costs and increased capital
costs. All characteristics, with exception to the latter had positive impacts on the capital value of property.
A study started by the Building Construction Authority (BCA) and the Department of Real Estate, National
University of Singapore (NUS) in 2011 examined 23 business properties that were refurnished. Key components
considered incorporated the residency, period of property, area, size, Green Mark honor rating and year of
recompense and vitality utilization figures (prior and then afterward retrofit) and capital use for the retrofit venture.
The study inferred that retrofitting can prompt an expansion in the property estimation of around 2%, with a normal
expected investment funds in working costs of 10%.
Research has also been done primarily by Lorenz and Lutzkendorf, Sayce et al., Boyd and Kimmet in proposing
to modify valuation theory and methodologies to incorporate sustainability features in valuation. Generally they
proposed that sustainability issues would affect major risk factors in computing the asset value. Thus, valuers can
attach a risk premium to each of these factors or group the risk factors to adjust other parameters used in traditional
valuation methods.
As compared to conventional projects, green projects tend to cost more to construct. Some green materials cost
significantly more than their conventional counterparts, compressed wheat board costs about ten times more than
ordinary plywood as stated by Shristi and Singh. Green materials costs from 3 to 4% more than conventional
construction materials and also conclude that higher costs are due to design complexity and the modeling costs
needed to integrate green practices into projects which was proposed by Zhang et al. Hwang and Tan proposed that
higher costs are associated with green materials and also by using green construction technologies. According to an
estimate by Tagaza and Wilson, capital costs for green projects range from 1 to 25% higher than conventional
projects.
Peng and Sui Pheng expressed that green structures, frequently characterized as those including regular
ventilation capacities, i.e. low-vitality or free-running structures are presently at the bleeding edge of building
examination and environmental change alleviation situations. Chatterjee characterized the "Green building hone" as
a procedure to make structures and framework in a manner that minimize the utilization of assets, decrease hurtful
impacts on the nature, and make better situations for tenants. Xing et al. expressed that structures represent half of
vitality utilizations in European nations and vitality request in building keeps on becoming around the world.
Horman et al. have exhibited that procedure assumes a key part in effectively conveying a superior green office
inside spending plan and on time. The hypothesis supporting elite venture conveyance is that decreased procedure
waste can upgrade both reasonable results and the business case for maintainability.
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS OF GREEN BUILDINGS

A green building is one whose development and lifetime of operation guarantees the most beneficial conceivable
environment while speaking to the most productive and slightest problematic utilization of land, water, vitality, and
different assets. Makers, developers, originators, and buyers are making a growing business sector for lodging and
home items that dirty less and are more asset proficient. By utilizing green items and practices, our homes can be
solid and agreeable additionally earth well disposed and cost proficient. Here are 10 rules with a couple of case to
consider for everyone.
1. Create outline gets ready for the building itself.
2. Situate and outline working to site needs, atmosphere, and neighborhood conditions.
3. Augment the utilization of normal sunlight.
4. Research building materials.
5. Reuse existing materials, use less materials, and use building materials that are thought to be naturally
cordial.
6. Plan for solid indoor air quality.
7. Set high lighting-effectiveness measures.
8. Select machines that are vitality productive and save money on water use.
9. Plan for simplicity of upkeep and utilization of earth neighborly cleaning items.
10. Keep up basic and building frameworks for most extreme vitality and ecological adequacy.
PRINCIPLES OF GREEN ARCHITECTURE AND SUSTAINABILITY

Passive features shape an irreplaceable piece of Green Building Design that is the most essential and imperative stride
to be accomplished with a specific end goal to make a reasonable and Green environment. Passive components of a
Green Building are the configuration includes that are to be fused in a building with the goal that it requires utilization
of lesser energy assets by the clients of the building furthermore keep up an agreeable way of life.
Dynamic elements of Green Architecture infer on the utilization of gear that chips away at Renewable assets
and help in the protection of regular and non-renewable assets which includes:
1. Site and its environment
2. Energy Efficiency
3. Water Efficiency
4. Material Efficiency and Waste Reduction
5. Indoor Air Quality
nt & Society (N
NCWES-20188) 437
C
CASE STUDY
Y
Gokaraju Ranngaraju Institu
G ute of Engineeering and Technology
T (G
GRIET) is established inn 1997 by Drr.Gokaraju
G
Gangaraju as a self financced institute under the aeegis of Gokaaraju Rangaraaju Educationnal Society. GRIET is
appproved by AICTE,
A New Delhi permaanently affiliaated to and auutonomous unnder JNTUH,, Hyderabad. GRIET is
coommitted to quality educcation and iss known forr its innovatiive teaching practices Taable 1 gives complete
innformation off GRIET.
T
Table 1 Detaails of GRIET
T Campus
Project name
n Gokaraju Rangaraju
u Institute off Engineeringg and Technoology (GRIE
ET)
Building typee Ed
ducational Insstitution
Investor / Ow
wner Go
okaraju Gangaaraju
Project built date
d Staarted in the yeear 1997.
Location Su
urvey no. 288,, GRIET Colllege Road, Niizampet, Hydderabad, Telanngana 5000900
Purpose To
o provide quaality educatioon for engineeers and technnologists withh attitudes, skills
s and
knowledge
Size 18 acres(72843.4156 m2) (tootal site area)
8695m2 (total built up area)
Features of GR
F RIET:
1. Large arrea for landsccape to enhancce micro clim mate and for visual
v delight
2. One of the
t top Engin neering colleges in the statee providing quuality educatiion to the studdents.
3. GRIET quality policcy is to providde an integraated learning environment to enable stuudents to grow w towards
their fulll potential an
nd meet the hiigh expectatioons of the Inddustry and the Society.
L
LOCATION
Gokaraju Ranggaraju Institu
G ute of Engineeering and Teechnology, Suurvey no. 2888, GRIET Coollege Road, Nizampet,
H
Hyderabad, Teelangana 5000090
Fig. 2 Loccation map of GRIET

G
Sourrce: Google mapp
Surroundings:
S
1. The buillding was dessigned to havee minimum disturbance
d to the surroundding ecologicaal environmennt.
2. This has preserved the
t majority of the existinng flora and fauna and natural
n micro – biologicall organism
around the
t building.
3. Extensivve erosion an
nd sedimentattion control measures
m to prevent
p topsoiil erosion havve all been taaken at the
site.
G
GRIET Centerr:
Figure 3 represents the top view of GRIIET which cleearly shows the
t presence of
o various greeen building techniques
t
suuch as vegetaation, topograp
phy, solar pannels etc.,

Fig. 3 Top
T view of GR
RIET
Green Featurees incorporatted in GRIET

G T:
1. Bio-clim
matic Architeccture
2. Occupanncy to the nattural elementss of water flow
w, air qualityy, vegetation, and topograpphy.
3. The buillt form responnds to the roccky site.
4. Large veegetative open spaces
5. Open sppace in the site exceed the local
l requirem
ments
C
Criteria Prioriity in the Ratting System:
The overall seequence of crriteria, and thhe appraisals contained wiithin them, has
T h been channged in 2015. The new
seequence is seggregated into specific sections and prevvious criteria have been moodified accorddingly. At preesent there
arre only 31 criiteria in the raating system
It is also im
mportant to kn
now which crriteria pertainn to which asppect of enviroonmental frienndliness. The following
taable thus throwws some ligh
ht on which asspects are given priority inn the rating syystem..
Table 2 Total Points allocated to Diffferent Aspectss of Sustainabillity (As per LE

EED)
Priorrity order Aspecct of green bu
uilding Points
1 Energy 20
2 Water 17
3 Sustainable building
b materrials 14
4 Occupant commfort and welll being 12
5 Performance monitoring and
a validationn 12
6 Construction managementt 9
7 Sustainable site
s planning 8
8 Solid waste management
m 6
9 Socio econommic strategies 6
It can be seeen from abov

ve distributionn of points thhat extreme im
mportance is given
g to Enerrgy optimizattion, issues
like site planniing, water con
nservation, buuilding materrials and healtth and well beeing have moore or less equual weight-
agge. Waste maanagement do oes not receivve much impoortance as muunicipal wastee disposal isssues are still not
n critical
inn the operations of human settlements inn India, thouggh this may haave long termm detrimental effects.
Energy Efficiency
Arguably, the most impressive feature of the GRIET is its energy efficiency. The building boasts of lighting energy
with maximum savings as compared to an electrically light building of the same size.
Climate:
(a) It remains fairly warm most of the year and receives less rainfall in the monsoon.
(b) Temperatures come down in the months of December and January and the nights become quite cool in and
around the Hyderabad city.
(c) During the summer months, the mercury goes as high as 42° C while in winters the minimum temperature
may come down to as low as 12° C.
Relative Humidity:
Humidity in the morning is very high exceeding 80 per cent from July to September. In the dry months of March,
April and May, humidity is generally low with an average of 25 to 30 percent and decreases to 20 percent at
individual stations.
Temperature:
During the summer months, temperature goes as high as 42° C , while in winters the minimum temperature may
come down to as low as 12° C and the average temperatures recorded in Hyderabad is as shown in Table 3
Table 3 Average Temperatures recorded in Hyderabad

Annual Mean Monthly Mean Max Temp. Ever Min Temp. Ever
Temperature Temperature Recorded Recorded
26° C 21 - 32° C 45.5° C 8° C
Source: http://www.accuweather.com/en/in/hyderabad.
Shape of building:
GRIET is designed in such way that to control the following factors
(a) Unrestricted circulation of air
(b) Limitless flexibility in design layout
(c) Stronger than conventional square building
(d) Best architecture aspect.
Natural light:
Natural light deflection systems can direct light deep into the room and ensure better natural lighting provisions as
shown in Figure 4.
Fig. 4 Natural light in GRIET

Table 4 Net Savings of Energy in terms of KWh/day for GRIET
Energy Consumption
Description
(KWh/day)
GRIET (if it is Green Building) 1252.530
GRIET ( if it is normal Building) 1328.037
Net Savings 75.507
Water Efficiency
Table 5 GRIET Population data
Description Population
B.Tech 4855
M.Tech 182
Employees 655
Grand Total 5692
Table 6 Rainfall data of Quthubullapur mandal
Annual
Year June July August September October November December January February March April May
Rainfall
2012‐13 167 288 138.8 81.6 74.4 16.6 0 0 23 0 42.8 6.8 839
2013‐14 166.4 252.4 145.6 183.6 143.4 10.4 0 0 0 50.2 9.2 20.8 982
2014‐15 47.8 146.4 127.4 82.4 14.8 15 0 8.2 0 54.8 81.4 45.4 623.6
2015‐16 180 40.4 61.4 147.4 43 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 472.2
2016‐17 148.2 146.6 66 795.8 106.6 0 0 0 0 8.8 1 13.8 1286.8
Average Annual Rainfall (mm/year) 840.72
Source : Mandal Revenue Office Quthubullapur mandal
Table 7 Catchment Area of GRIET
Particulars Roof Top Area (m2)

Block-I 1719
Block-II 1537
Block-III 2533
Block-IV 2906
Concrete paved area 10089
Total Catchment area 18784
Peak Water Demand:

From Table 5 Total population of GRIET = 5692
Consumptions of water in Litres per capita demand (lpcd) is 45 Litres/day
Total water demand = 5692*45=256140 Litres/day = 0.25614 MLD (Million Litres / Day)
Rain water harvesting:
From Table 6: Average Rainfall in Quthubullapur mandal = 840.72 mm/year = 2.335 mm/day
Run off coefficient for Roof Top areas in Hyderabad = 0.80
(Source: http://www.hmda.gov.in/EBGH/the%20guidelines/pdfs/Sto%20Bg%202.pdf)
From Table 7: Area of roof top is 18784 m2

Quantity of Rain water harvesting = Rainfall (m/day) × Area of catchment (m2) × Run off coefficient
= 0.002335 × 18784× 0.80
= 35.088512 m3 / day [since 1 m3 = 1000 Litres]
= 35088.512 Lit / day = 0.035088 MLD (Million Litres / Day)
Extra water required after effective Rain water Harvesting Technique
= 0.25614 MLD - 0.0035088 MLD
= 0.221051488 MLD
From the above Water conservation data, we can simply say that amount of water which can be available
through Rain Water harvesting is 13.66 % of the Peak Water Demand of GRIET.
Table 8 Net Savings of Water Demand for GRIET
Description Units Quantity
Peak Water Demand MLD 0.25614

Water Collected through Rain Water Harvesting MLD 0.033587 (13.66%)
Net Water Demand after effective utilization of
MLD 0.25278
Rain Water Harvesting
Achievements of Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of Engineering and Technology :

1. Building footprint: Only 11.9% of site is used for the construction purposes
2. Minimum disturbance to the existing site features
3. Large area for landscape to enhance micro climate and for visual delight
4. The building boasts of lighting energy with maximum savings as compared to an electrically light building of
the same size.
5. Vegetation that was lost to the built area was replaced by gardens
6. The building achieves recycling capacity of nearly 80% of waste water generated from it.
7. By considering all these aspects Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of Engineering and Technology has achieved 38
credits
LEED Certification Process for GRIET
Table 9 Rating System of GRIET
Parameters Maximum Credits Obtained Credits

Sustainable Architecture and Design 5 3
Site Selection and Planning 14 7.5
Water Conservation 18 6.5
Energy Efficiency 28 12.5
Building Materials and Resources 16 0.5
Indoor Environmental Quality 12 4.5
Innovation and Development 7 3.5
Total Credits 100 38
GRIET has attained 38 points as per LEED certification level with our data analysis which means GRIET
approaches nearer to the Certification levels, which itself a great task to reach such credits among the Educational
Institutional aspects.
Results and Discussions

Energy
Energy Consumption chart in terms of Rupees

Net Savings
GRIET ( if it is normal Building)
GRIET (if it is Green Building)
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

Fig 5 Energy Consumption chart in GRIET
From Table 4 , Figure 5 has been developed and it can be clearly say that Net savings of Energy in GRIET is
75.507 Kwh/day. So by inculcating Green Building designing parameters (By using sunlight effectively we can
save electricity up to 5.68% of total consumption in a day).
Water
Water Consumption chart in terms of lit/day

Net Water Demand after effective utilization of
Rain Water Harvesting
Water Collected through Rain Water Harvesting
Peak Water Demand
0 50000 100000 150000 200000 250000 300000

Fig. 6 Water Consumption chart in GRIET
From Table 8, Figure 6 has been developed and it can be clearly say that Net savings of water collected through
Rain water harvesting accounts for 13.66% of Peak Water Demand. By inculcating Green Building designing
parameters (By using Runoff water efficiently by installing Rain water harvesting pits we can save water up to
0.033587 MLD of water).
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions have been made based on the thesis work done.
1. From the study it can be clearly say that Net Energy Consumption of GRIET can be decreased by 5.68% by
using sunlight effectively.
2. From the study we can say that Net savings of water collected through Rain water harvesting accounts for
13.66% of Peak Water Demand.
3. From the study Installation of solar panels helps in increasing the net saving power.
4. Based on physical observations following suggestions are made to improve the certification level of GRIET.
(a) Use of low emitting vehicles like battery charged vehicles, CNG cars etc helps in reducing indoor air
pollution, Heat island reduction in GRIET can be done by Green Roof technique.
(b) Waste water collected has to be recycled and reused for flushers, gardening, thereby we can use water
efficiently. This can be done by imparting water fixtures and by improving recycling quality.
Recycling of waste material generated in the college has to be done.
5. By inculcating all the calculations as mentioned above we can increase the Green Building standard level of
GRIET.
REFERENCES
1. Akula Prakash and Gopal Naik M (2017), “Analysis of Green Buildings – Case Study CII Shohrabji GBC”, 3rd
National Conference on Innovative Research in Civil Engineering, Malla Reddy Engineering College (Autonomous),
ISBN 978 93 83038 52 7,pp: 69-83.
2. Akshay B. Mokal, Allaudin I. Shaikh, Shamashree S. Raundal, Sushma J. Prajapati and Uday J. Phatak (2015).
“Green Building Materials – A Way towards Sustainable Construction.” International Journal of Application or
Innovation in Engineering and Management (IJAIEM), Vol. 4 (4), Page 244 - 249.
3. Ali Hikmat H. and Al Nsairat Saba (2009). “Developing a green building assessment tool for developing countries -
Case of Jordan.” Building and Environment, Elsevier publications, Page 1053 - 1064.
4. Boyd T. and Kimmet P. (2006). “The Triple Bottom Line Approach to Property Performance Evaluation” PRRES
Conference 2006, Cairns, Australia, School of Construction Management and Property, Queensland University of
Technology.
5. Chatterjee (2009). “Energy Efficient Buildings.” International Journal of Civil Engineering Research, Vol. 5 (4), Page
2278-3652.
6. David Riley, Victor Sanvido, Michael Horman, Michael McLaughlin and Dan Kerr (2005). “Lean and Green: The
Role of Design-Build Mechanical Competencies in the Design and Construction of Green Buildings.” American
Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), Page 1-10. Doi: 10.1061/40754(183)23.
7. Eisenberg, Michael J. Holmes and Jacob N. Hacker (2007). “Climate change, thermal comfort and energy: Meeting
the design challenges of the 21st century”. Energy and Buildings, Elsevier publications, Vol. 39 (7), Page 802 – 814.
8. Hwang Bon Gang and Jac See Tan (2010). “Green building project management: obstacles and solutions for
sustainable development.” Wiley Online Library, Vol. 20 (5), Page 335–349.
9. Horman J. Michael, David R. Riley, Anthony R. Lapinski, Sinem Korkmaz, Michael H. Pulaski, Christopher S.
Magent, Yupeng Luo, Nevienne Harding and Peter K. Dahl (2006). “Delivering Green Buildings: Process
Improvements for Sustainable Construction.” Journal of Green Building, Vol. 1 (1), Page 123-140.
10. Rajluxmi V Murthy (2015). “Facilitating Green Building Adoption - An Optimization Based Decision Support Tool.”
Indian Institute of Management Bangalore (IIMB), working paper No. 485.
11. Sayce Sarah, Ellison Louise and Smith Judy (2007). “Incorporating Sustainability in Commercial Property.”
Australian journal of Property Research, Vol. 24, Page 191 – 219.
12. Satyanarayana G., Murthy V.S.N., Rao Irfan and Kumar V.S.S. (2004). “Project Costing: Get Value for Money.”
Journal of Construction World, India, Vol. 6(7), Page 40-44.
13. Saeid Hasanpour Loumer (2015). “An Evaluation of Green Building Components and their Relationship with
Sustainable Development Objects.” World Journal of Management and Art, Vol. 2 (2), Page 74-79.
14. Shona L. Russell and Ian Thomson (2009). “Analyzing the role of sustainable development indicators in accounting
for constructing a Sustainable Scotland”, Elsevier Publications, Accounting Forum, Vol.33, Page 225 -244.

ESTIMATION OF RESIDENTIAL BUILDING USING LOW COST MATERIALS
Rathod Ravinder1, Akula Prakash2, M. Govardhan3, Ch. Chaitanya Lakshmi4, Varala Akhila5
1, 2, 3
Asst. Prof, 4, 5 Student (GRIET) Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of Engineering and Technology, Bachupally Hyderabad.
ABSTRACT
Affordable housing mainly deals with effective costing and following of sustainable building techniques which
helps in reducing the cost of construction without sacrificing the strength, durability and performance. The plan
of 2 BHK have been considered for Residential building. The total residential building is divided into two parts
i.e., Structural and non Structural. As the cost of cement takes major part of total building cost, so we adopted fly
ash by replacing cement with percentages of 30%, 40%, 50% for structural elements. The strength tests such as
compressive, split test, flexural test have been calculated. From the test results, 40% replacement of fly ash gave
required strength for single storey building. For Non- structural elements, the low cost materials such as concrete
frames, hollow concrete blocks etc were adopted .This project recommends plan and sustainable materials
adopted for a single storied building. After assigning low cost materials for structural and Non- structural
elements of building, the quantity and cost is estimated. The overall cost is reduced up to 30% compared to
conventional building cost.
Keywords: Sustainable building techniques, Building materials, Estimation.
INTRODUCTION
Housing is a basic need of human being. But this is out of the means of low income house holder who constitute
majority of population in our country. In India maximum affordability of household was defined to be 5.1 times the
household’s total gross income as compared to the developed countries. Low cost housing is a different concept
which deals with effective costing and following of sustainable building techniques. There is a huge misconception
that low cost housing is suitable for only sub normal works and they are built by using cheap building materials of
low quality. The fact is that Low cost housing is done by proper management of resources.
The production of Portland cement is not only costly and energy intensive, but it also produces large amounts of
carbon emissions. The production of one ton of Portland cement produces approximately one ton of co2 in the
atmosphere. Fly ash is a byproduct of the combustion of pulverized coal and is collected by mechanical and
electrostatic separators from the fuel gases of thermal power plants where coal is used as a fuel. Fly ash is
commonly used in concrete in replacement ranging from 0%-30% by weight of the total cementitious material.
Large quantities of fly ash are available around the world at low cost and the use of HVFA seems to offer the best
solution to rising cement demands. The use of HVFA in concrete has recently gained popularity as a resource
efficient, durable, cost effective, sustainable option for OPC concrete application. The low cost materials such as
Hollow concrete blocks, spiral stair case, concrete flooring , pre cast doors and window frames are recommended
for cost reduction of Residential building.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Shaikh Ajim et al.(2017) pointed use of locally available material and by modular planning. He recommended
shape of house to be square which is the most economical shape since it provides maximum amount of floor area
with the least amount of wall area. He has given the measures to be taken be the private and government agencies
to economize the cost of the housing project. P. Vipul Naidu et al.(2014) conducted a study on replacement of
cement in concrete with HVFA in India. In this paper the trail mixes of fly ash and lime are developed and test
results are carried out. It reduces the cost up to 40% by 75% replacement of cement by HVFA and limestone.
Dhiraj B Tapkir et al.(2012) carried out study on Study And Analysis Of Low Cost Housing Based On
Construction techniques, it is observed that, there are three factors that affecting the cost of house ie., time,
materials used and techniques. In this paper different methods were discussed for cost control and reduction.
VivanW.Y.Tam et al.(2011) carried out study on cost effective of using low cost housing Technologies in
construction, it is observed that construction methods of foundation, walling, roofing and lintel are compared.
444
nt & Society (N
NCWES-20188) 445
Strength and durability,

d saffety and menttal satisfaction are factors that assume top
t priority during
d cost reeduction. It
iss found that about 26.11% and 22.688% of the buuilding cost can be saved by consum ming low cosst housing
teechnologies inn assessment with the tradditional consttruction methhods. Rinku Taur
T et al. (22009) carriedd out study
onn Low Cost Housing,
H it is observed thhat, This papeer goals to arrgument out the various aspects
a of preefabricated
coonstruction methodologies
m s for low cosst housing byy highlightingg the differennt prefabricatiion techniquees, and the
ecconomical addvantages acccomplished by b its adoptioon. In a buildding the foundation, walls, entries and windows,
flloorings and roofs are thee most importtant componeents, which can c be analyzzed individuaally based on the needs
thhus, improvinng the speed d of constructtion and droopping the coonstruction coost. The majjor current methods
m of
coonstruction syystems considered here arre namely, sttructural block walls, morttar fewer bloock walls, preefabricated
rooofing.
C
CONSTRUCT
TION OF 2 BHK
B
DETAILS
S OF PLAN::
1.Plot sizee : 30’*40’=1200 sq ft
2.Type : detached
d buildding
3.Rules:Building bye laaws, IS888
4. No of stories : 1
5. Road diirection : Norrth
6. From fiig :
D = 1.00*2.0m
D1= 0.88*2.0m
D2=0.77*2.0m, W=1.2*1.2m
Fig. 1 PLAN
P OF 2BH
HK
B
BUILDING ES
STIMATE
¾ TOTAL BU
UILDING ELE E DIVIDED INTO 2 PAR
EMENTS ARE RTS:
STRUCTU
URAL ELEME
ENTS
NON STRU
UCTURAL ELEMENTS
E
STRUCTURA
AL ELEMEN
NTS
The structural elements su
T uch as beams, columns, foootings, plintth beam, linteels, sunshadees etc are esttimated by
reeplacing cemment with fly ash with perrcentages of 30, 40, 50. The differentt strength tesst such as coompressive
sttrength, flexuure , split testss are conducteed to know thhe 28 day streength for thosse percentagees. Finally thee particular
peercentage is recommended
r d to use for strructural elem
ments which reeduces cemennt cost by the usage of fly ash.
a
OBSERVATIIONS
O
Grade of ceement: M25
Type of cemment and bran nd: OPC & Chettinad
C cement
Specific graavity of cemeent: 3.15
Specific graavity of coarsse aggregates:: 2.7
Specific graavity of fine aggregates:

a 2.7
Fly ash percentages: 30% %,40%,50%
N
NON CTURAL ELEMENTS
STRUC
For Non-strucctural elemen nts the low coost materials such as pree cast concrette frames, Hollow concreete blocks,
cooncrete flooriing, spiral staircase are proovided and coost is calculateed.
T
TEST RESUL
LTS AND DIISCUSSIONS
From table1, thhe replacement of 40% flyy ash gave apppropriate strenngth compareed to 30% andd 50%.
Taable 1 Test ressults of fly ash replacement
T
TOTAL COS
ST OF BUILD
DING
The quantities of structurall elements succh as beams ,footings,
T , collumns are calculated by asssuming dimeensions for
thhe given plan and the mateerials for thosse elements such as cemennt ,fly ash, cooarse and finee aggregates were
w taken
annd individuall quantities arre estimated. The cost off different maaterials had been
b taken as per Standardd schedule
raates and the cost
c is calculaated for somee elements forr Affordable housing accoording to theiir quantities anda finally
thhe values are compared with conventionnal residentiall building.
Tablee 2 TOTAL COST
C ESTIMA
ATION TABLE
E
AF
FFORDABLE NVENTIONAL
CON
S.NO ELEMEN
NTS
HOOUSING COST HOU
USING COST
1 Slabs 86400 108000
2 Beams 18945 20940
3 Columns 24705 28000
4 Footings 42030 47300
5 Staircase 15000 40000
6 Plastering 14000 28000
7 Bricks 1,20,000 1,27,710
8 Door frames 6420 10400
9 Window frammes 11510 18720
10 Flooring 32400 108000
Total cost 3,71,410 5,37,070
NOTE:
¾ As steel is not replaced with any other low cost material, the quantity and cost of steel have not been
included in this report.
¾ The electrical fixtures and plumbing etc can be taken as contingencies.
DISCUSSIONS
¾ There is an increase of strength with 40% replacement of cement compared to 30% and 50%. It has good
workability.
¾ As fly ash does not give early strengths, we have to wait for 56 days and more for good strengths.
CONCLUSION
¾ After calculating strength of cubes ,beams and cylinders with 30%,40%,50% of fly ash ,the test results for
40% gave appropriate strength compared to conventional concrete. So that 40% fly ash can be
recommended.
¾ Quantity and cost is estimated for structural and non structural elements. Using low cost materials in non
structural elements cost can be reduced. So we can adopt them.
¾ The overall total cost of the Residential building can be saved up to 30%.
REFERENCES
1. Dhiraj B Tapkir , Nikhil R Mohire , Pratik N Zurunge , Siddharth R Sonsale4, A.W. Dhawale(2016), “Study And
Analysis Of Low Cost Housing Based On Construction Techniques”, International Journal Of Research In Engineering
And Technology , Volume: 05 Issue: 05, Pg-146-148.
2. P. Vipul Naidu And Pawan Kumar Pandey(2014), “Replacement Of Cement In Concrete”, International Journal of
Environmental Research and Development, Volume-04, Pg-91-98.
3. Swapthik Chowdhary, Sangeetaroy,(2013)“Prospects Of Low Cost Housing In India”,Geomaterials, Pg-60-65
4. Shaik Ajim, Badhe Ajinkya, Rashinkar Sandip, Sarode Lalu Prasad(2017), “Low Cost Housing”, International Research
Journal Of Engineering And Technology, Volume-04, P-Issn: 2395-0072.
5. Vivian W.Y.Tam, (2011), “Cost Effectiveness of Using Low Cost Housing Technologies In Construction”, Procedia
Engg, 14, Pg-156-160.
LABORATORY STUDY OF BITUMINOUS MIXES USING SISAL FIBER
Kandlagunta Mounika1, Akula Prakash2 and Rathod Ravinder3

1
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, CMR Institute of Technology(Autonomous), Kandlakoya, Medchal, Hyderabad-
501401. mounika.kandlagunta@gmail.com
23
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, GokarajuRangaraju Institute of Engineering and Technology (Autonomous),
Hyderabad – 500090.
akulprakash93@gmail.com, rathod506ravinder@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Generally a bituminous mixture is a mixture of coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, filler and binder. A Hot Mix
Asphalt is a bituminous mixture where all constituents are mixed, placed and compacted at high temperature.
HMA can be Dense Graded mixes (DGM) known as Bituminous Concrete (BC) or gap graded known as Stone
Matrix Asphalt (SMA). SMA requires stabilizing additives composed of cellulose fibbers, mineral fibers or
polymers to prevent drain down of the mix. In the present study, an attempt has been made to study the effects of
use of a naturally and locally available fiber called SISAL fiber is used as stabilizer in SMA and as an additive in
BC. For preparation of the mixes aggregate gradation has been taken as per MORTH specification, binder
content has been varied regularly from 4% to 7% and fiber content varied from 0% to maximum 0.5% of total
mix. As a part of preliminary study, fly ash has been found to result satisfactory Marshall Properties and hence
has been used for mixes in subsequent works. Using Marshall Procedure Optimum Fiber Content (OFC) for both
BC and SMA mixes was found to be 0.3%. Similarly Optimum Binder Content (OBC) for BC and SMA were
found to be 5% and 5.2% respectively. Then the BC and SMA mixes prepared at OBC and OFC are subjected to
different performance tests like Drain down test, Static Indirect Tensile Strength Test and Static Creep Test to
evaluate the effects of fiber addition on mix performance. It is concluded that addition of sisal fiber improve the
mix properties like Marshall Stability, Drain down characteristics and indirect tensile strength in case of both BC
and SMA mixes. Ii is observed that SMA is better than BC in respect of indirect tensile strength and creep
characteristics.
Keywords: Bituminous Concrete (BC), Stone Matrix Asphalt (SMA), Sisal Fiber, Marshall Properties, Static
Indirect Tensile Strength, Static Creep
INTRODUCTION
Construction of highway involves huge outlay of investment. A precise engineering design may save considerable
investment as well as reliable performance of the in-service highway can be achieved. Two things are of major
considerations in flexible pavement engineering– pavement design and the mix design. The present study is related
to the mix design considerations. A good design of bituminous mix is expected to result in a mix which is
adequately (i) strong (ii) durable (iii) resistive to fatigue and permanent deformation (iv) Environment friendly (v)
economical and so on. A mix designer tries to achieve these requirements through a number of tests on the mix
with varied proportions and finalizes with the best one. The present research work tries to identify some of the
issues involved in this art of bituminous mix design and the direction of current research.
BITUMINOUS MIX DESIGN
Objective of Bituminous mix design
Asphaltic/Bituminous concrete consists of a mixture of aggregates continuously graded from maximum size,
typically less than 25 mm, through the fine filler that is smaller than 0.075 mm. Sufficient bitumen is added to the
mix so that the compacted mix is effectively impervious and will have acceptable dissipative and elastic properties.
The bituminous mix design aims to determine the proportion of bitumen, filler, fine aggregates, and coarse
aggregates to produce a mix which is workable, strong, durable and economical. The objective of the mix design is
to produce a bituminous mix by proportioning various components so as to have-
1. Sufficient bitumen to ensure a durable pavement
2. Sufficient strength to resist shear deformation under traffic at higher temperature
3. Sufficient air voids in the compacted bitumen to allow for additional compaction by traffic
448
4. Sufficient workability to permit easy placement without segregation

5. Sufficient resistance to avoid premature cracking due to repeated bending by traffic
6. Sufficient resistance at low temperature to prevent shrinkage cracks
REQUIREMENTS OF BITUMINOUS MIXES
Stability
Stability is defined as the resistance of the paving mix to deformation under traffic load. Two examples of failure
are (i) shoving - a transverse rigid deformation which occurs at areas subject to severe acceleration and (ii)
grooving - longitudinal ridging due to channelization of traffic. Stability depend on the inter-particle friction,
primarily of the aggregates and the cohesion offered by the bitumen. Sufficient binder must be available to coat all
the particles at the same time should offer enough liquid friction. However, the stability decreases when the binder
content is high and when the particles are kept apart.
Durability
Durability is defined as the resistance of the mix against weathering and abrasive actions. Weathering causes
hardening due to loss of volatiles in the bitumen. Abrasion is due to wheel loads which causes tensile strains.
Typical examples of failure are (i) pot-holes, - deterioration of pavements locally and (ii) stripping, lost of binder
from the aggregates and aggregates are exposed. Disintegration is minimized by high binder content since they
cause the mix to be air and waterproof and the bitumen film is more resistant to hardening.
Flexibility
Flexibility is a measure of the level of bending strength needed to counteract traffic load and prevent cracking of
surface. Fracture is the cracks formed on the surface (hairline-cracks, alligator cracks), main reasons are shrinkage
and brittleness of the binder. Shrinkage cracks are due to volume change in the binder due to aging. Brittleness is
due to repeated bending of the surface due to traffic loads. Higher bitumen content will give better exibility and
less fracture.
Skid resistance
It is the resistance of the finished pavement against skidding which depends on the surface texture and bitumen
content. It is an important factor in high speed traffic. Normally, an open graded coarse surface texture is desirable.
Workability
Workability is the ease with which the mix can be laid and compacted, and formed to the required condition and
shape. This depends on the gradation of aggregates, their shape and texture, bitumen content and its type. Angular,
flaky, and elongated aggregates workability. On the other hand, rounded aggregates improve workability.
DESIRABLE PROPERTIES
From the above discussion, the desirable properties of a bituminous mix can be summarized as follows
• Stability to meet traffic demand
• Bitumen content to ensure proper binding and water proofing
• Voids to accommodate compaction due to traffic
• Flexibility to meet traffic loads, esp. in cold season
• Sufficient workability for construction
• Economical mix
LITERATURE REVIEW
Brown (1994) studied on SMA using different type of filler, stabilizer and concluded that Drain down in SMA is
effected by type of filler, type of stabilizer , amount of stabilizer(higher the amount of stabilizer lower the drain
down).Optimum binder content of SMA mixes is greater than DGM.
Mogawer and Stuart (1996) studied the effect of mineral fillers on properties of SMA mixtures. They chose eight
mineral fillers on the basis of their performance, gradation etc. They evaluated the properties of SMA mixtures in
terms of drain down of the mastic, rutting, low temperature cracking, workability, and moisture susceptibility.
Mustafa Karasahin et al. (2006) used waste marble dust obtained from shaping process of Marble blocks and
lime stone as filler and optimum binder content was determined by Marshall Test and showed good result.
YongjieXue et al. (2008) utilized municipal solid waste incinerator (MSWI) fly ash as a partial replacement of
fine aggregate or mineral filler in stone matrix asphalt mixtures. They made a comparative study of the
performance of the design mixes using Superpave and Marshall Mix design procedures
Jony Hassan et al. (2010) studied effect of using waste glass power as mineral filler on Marshall property of SMA
by comparing with SMA where lime stone, ordinary Portland cement was taken as filler with varying content (4-
7%).
Brown and Mallick (1994) used viscosity grade binder AC-20 for their research on SMA properties related to
mixture design. Mogawer and Stuart (1996) also used AC-20 binder.
Putman et al. (2004) used a performance grade binder PG 76-22 to study the SMA properties. They observed that
polymer modified bitumen gives better performance (in terms of deformation) than unmodified bitumen.
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS
Tests on Materials Used
Aggregates
For preparation of Bituminous mixes (BC, SMA) aggregates as per MORTH grading as given in Table 1 and Table
2 respectively, a particular type of binder and fiber in required quantities were mixes as per Marshall Procedure
Table 1 Adopted aggregate Gradation for BC (MORTH) Table 2 Adopted aggregate Gradation for SMA (MORTH)
Sieve size (mm) Percentage passing Sieve size (mm) Percentage passing
26.5 100 16 100
19 90 13.2 94
9.5 70 9.5 62
4.75 50 4.75 34
2.36 35 2.36 24
0.30 12 1.18 21
0.075 5 0.6 18
0.3 16
0.15 12
0.075 10
Table 3 Physical Properties of Coarse aggregate
Property Test Method Test Result

Aggregate Impact Value (%) IS: 2386 (P IV) 23.1
Aggregate Crushing Value (%) IS: 2386 (P IV) 22.6
Los Angeles Abrasion Value (%) IS: 2386 (P IV) 21.8
Flakiness Index (%) IS: 2386 (P I) 18.83
Elongation Index (%) IS: 2386 (P I) 21.5
Water Absorption (%) IS: 2386 (P III) 0.1
Binder
Here 60/70 penetration grade bitumen is used as binder for preparation of Mix, whose specific gravity was 1.01.
It’s important property is given in Table 4
Table 4 Properties of Binder
Property Test Method Value

Penetration at 25 C (mm) IS : 1203-1978 67.7
Softening Point ( C) IS : 1203-1978 48.5

Specific gravity IS : 1203-1978 1.03
EFFECT OF DIFFERENT TYPE OF FILLER ON BC

Variation of Marshall Properties of bituminous concrete (BC) with different type of filler is explained in Fig 1.
Fig. 1 Variation of Marshall Properties of bituminous concrete (BC) with different type of filler
EFFECT OF FIBRE ON BC
Fig. 2 Variation of BC with different binder content

BC with different type of filler
As per MORTH Specification mix design requirements of bituminous mix is given in Table 5
Table 5 Morth Specification mix design requirements of bituminous mix
Property Value
Marshall stability (KN at 60) >9KN
Flow Value (mm) 2-4
Air Void (%) 3-6
VFB (%) 65-75
OBC (%) 5-6
• As BC made of from all the three type filler satisfy above requirements we can use them as filler.
• Although BC with cement as filler gives maximum stability, as it is costly we can also use fly ash and stone
dust as filler material.
• Use of fly ash is helpful in minimize industrial waste
BC with different Fibercontent
• Here OBC is 5%, OFC is found as 0.3%
• By addition of fiber up to 0.3% Marshall Stability value increases and further addition of fiber it decreases.
But addition of fiber stability value not increased as high as SMA.
• By addition of fiber flow value also decreases as compare to mix without fiber, but addition of 0.5% fiber
again flow value increases.
REFERENCES
1. Bradley J. Putman and Serji N. Amirkhanian (2004), “Utilization of Waste Fiber in Stone matrix Asphalt Mixtures”,
Resources, Conservation and Recycling, Volume 42, Issue 3, pp 265-274
2. C.S Bindu, Beena K.S.(2010),“Waste Plastic as a Stabilizing additive in SMA”, International Journal of Engineering
and Technology, Volume 2, Issue6, pp 379-387
3. Chui-Te Chiu and Li-Cheng Lu (2007), “A Laboratory study on Stone Matrix Asphalt using Ground Tire Rubber”,
Construction and Building Materials, Volume 21, Issue 5, pp 1027-1033.
4. Das A. and Chakroborty P. (2010), “Principles of Transportation Engineering”, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi, pp
294-299
5. H.Jony Hassan, Y. JahadIsraa (2010), “The Effect of Using Glass Power filler on Hot Asphalt Concrete Mixture
Properties”, Engg and Technology journal, vol.29, Issue1, pp44-57
6. IS: 1203 (1978), “Methods for Testing Tar and Bituminous Materials: Determination of Penetration”, Bureau of Indian
Standards
7. IS: 2386 (1963), “Methods of Test for Aggregates for Concrete (P - I): Particle Size and Shape”, Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi
8. IS: 2386 (1963), “Methods of Test for Aggregates for Concrete (P-III): Specific Gravity, Density, Voids, Absorption,
Bulking”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi
9. IS: 2386 (1963), “Methods of Test for Aggregates for Concrete (P-IV): Mechanical Properties”, Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi
10. Khanna S.K. and Justo C.E.G. (2001), “Highway Engineering”, Nem Chand andBros, Roorke, pp315-321
11. M. Asi (2005), “Laboratory Comparison Study for the Use of Stone Matrix Asphalt in Hot Ibrahim Weather
Climates”, Construction and Building Materials, Volume 20, Issue 10, pp 982-989
12. R. ASTM D 1559 (1989), “Test Method for Resistance of Plastic Flow of Bituminous Mixtures Using Marshall
Apparatus” Brown E.R. and Manglorkar H. (1993), “Evaluation of Laboratory Properties of SMA Mixtures NCAT
Report No. 93-5, Auburn University, AlabamaBrown E.R. and Mallick R.B. (1994), “Stone Matrix Asphalt Properties
Related to Mixture Design”,NCAT Report 94-02
13. S., Kamaraj C. and Nanda P.K. (2006), “Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA) – A Long Life Pavement Surface”, International
Seminar on Innovations in Construction and Maintenance of Flexible Pavements, Agra, 2-4 September, Technical
Papers, Volume 1, pp 169-17.
KINETICS AND ISOTHERM STUDIES ON CATIONIC DYE ADSORPTION
ONTO ACTIVATED CARBON FROM SUGARCANE BAGASSE
T. V. Nagalakshmi*1 and K. A. Emmanuel2
1
Department of Chemistry, Laki Reddy Bali Reddy College of Engineering, Mylavaram, A.P., India.
2
Department of Chemistry, Sir C.R.Reddy Autonomous College, Eluru, A.P., India.
mannava_laxmi@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
0
Activated carbon was prepared at 500 C by using Sugarcane Bagasse as a precursor. The heating was provided
at rate of 10oC min-1. In order to introduce different functional groups the prepared activated carbon was treated
with 0.1N HNO3 and labelled as SCBHNO3. To find the nature of activated carbon characterised by analyses viz.
BET, SEM and FTIR. Batch mode experiments were conducted to know the adsorption capacity of SCBHNO3 for
the removal of a cationic dye Basic Red 9(BB9) from aqueous solution. The linear regression was used to
determine the most fitted model among Freundlich, Langmuir, Temkin and Dubinin- Radushkevich isotherms.
To identify the rate and kinetics of sorption of BB9 onto SCBHNO3 five simplified kinetic models namely pseudo-
first-order, pseudo-second-order, Weber and Morris intra-particle diffusion model, Bangham’s pore diffusion
model and Elovich equations have been discussed.
Keywords: Sugarcane Bagasse, activated carbon, BET, SEM, Basic Red 9
INTRODUCTION
Environmental problems arise because of the dismissal of industrial waste water which contains dyes. The reason
for such a problem was due to the chemical structure of the dyes which gives them consistency and makes them
non-cooperative in nature. Due to the discharge of dyes, other major problems are also caused for instance the
released dye in water streams embody the danger of eco toxicity and also the threat of bioaccumulation. As a
consequence, there was even greater hazard that was faced by the humans because of the transport of these
pollutants through the food chain as it may affect their health.
Hence, this type of discharged dyes from industries especially textile waste waters has been one of the major
challenges for researchers in the last two decades. It was known fact that textile dyes possess complex aromatic
(odour) molecular structures. The behaviour of these molecular structures was inert and do not biodegradable [1],
so the textile dyes should be treated properly otherwise, these effluents may be discharge to near-by water bodies
and caused for water pollution. There are various types of conventional waste water treatments such as coagulation,
flocculation, filtration, oxidation (or) reduction and complex formations. All these are expensive textile treatment
process [2]. Other than these, there is another important and useful technique to get pure water, that is adsorption
onto activated carbon [3, 4, 5]. But since the commercial activated carbons are costly a lot of interest was shown in
finding alternate sources like Pine cone [6], Coaca shell [7], Pomegranate peel [8] Coconut shell [9], Rice husk [10]
by researchers so as to enable the preparation of low cost activated carbons.
The waste generated from sugarcane leads to pollution, if it was not properly disposed. Thus present study of
focuses on the use of sugarcane waste to prepare activated carbon and highlights on its efficiency on adsorption of
Basic Red 9 dye from aqueous solution.

Preparation of activated carbon
As mentioned above, sugarcane was selected for the preparation of activated carbon. The rind and pulp waste was
cleaned with hot distilled water to remove dirt. Later it was dehydrated at 105oC until constant weight was secured.
The withered waste was then cut into tiny pieces and mixed with K2CO3 solution at impregnation ratio. The
impregnation ratio was given by the weight of K2CO3 solution / weight of water in grams. It was then dehydrated in
an oven overnight at 105oC.The material was carbonised in uniform nitrogen flow at 500oC. The heating was
provided at the rate of 10o C min-1 from room temperature. The carbon that was obtained was cooled to room
temperature and washed with hot distilled water to remove remaining chemical and filtered. The same process was
455
reepeated until the filtrate sh

hown neutral pH. The activvated carbon was then sievved to 150, 90, 75, and 455 mesh and
suubjected to liquid phase oxidation wiith 0.1N in HNO H 3 for 3 hours individually. In prresent sorptioon process
acctivated carboon having a siize of 45meshh was used annd named as SCB
S HNO3.
P
Preparation off Adsorbate:
Inn the preparattion of adsorbbate, all the reagents
r weree used belongg in analyticall grade. In this study expeeriment for
thhe preparationn especially the
t cationic textile
t dye, BB9,
B was useed supplied by SIGMA ALDRICH. It was taken
olution withouut any furtherr purification.. The preparaation of stockk solution (1000 mg 1-1)
diirectly to preppare stock so
off selected dye was prepared by dissolvving 1g dye into one litre double distilled water. Thhe structure of o the BB9
w shown in Figure.1.
was
2D Strructure
3D Strructure
Fiig. 1 Moleculaar structure of Basic

B Red 9
B surface arrea
BET
The characteriistics of carbo
T ons with regarrd to pore strructure were determined
d byy nitrogen addsorption at -1196oC by a
o
Q
Quanta me instrument (Nova 2200)). The carbonn was degasseed at 150 C in a vacuum condition for 24 hours
chrom
beefore being measured
m by gas adsorptioon. The meassured isotherm ms range from
m approximattely 0.03 to 0.995.
0 The
B
BET surface area
a was deteermined by means
m of the standard
s BET T equation appplied in the relative pressure range
frrom 0.06 to 0.3.
SE
EM analysis
Inn SEM analyysis to study
y the texture of the surfaace of the prrepared activvated carbon by Scanningg Electron
M
Microscope SE
EM Hitachi- S520
S (OXFORD LINK-ISIS), before annd after adsorrption of dye.
nt & Society (N
NCWES-20188) 457
F
FTIR analysis..
To identify thhe surface functional
T fu grooups, the suurface characterization off SCBHNO3 before and after dye
addsorption waas performed with the hellp of Fourierr Transform Infrared
I Specctroscopy (FT
TIR), was reecorded by
T
Thermo Nicoleet Nexus 670 spectrometerr in the wave number range 400 – 4000 cm-1.
B
Batch adsorptiion studies
All the experiiments were carried out in
A i 250 ml coonical flasks with 100 mll test solution at room teemperature
(225±2oC). 1 g of the adsorb bent is added to the text soolution and makes
m it to a neutral PH. Thhe flasks weree shaken in
hoorizontal shakker at 120 rp pm to study the
t equilibration time (10--100 minutes) to ensure maximum m adssorption of
dyye and to knoow the kinetiics of adsorpttion process. At the end, the t samples werew filtered using Whatm man no. 42
fiilter paper, annd these filtrattes were analyyzed for residdual dye conccentration at wave
w length of
o 617 nm.
The test sollution of dye of 50 mg 1-1 concentrationn was prepareed from fresh stock solutioon. The same process of
fiiltration is donne. The first part
p of the filltrate was disccharged to avvoid the effeccts of adsorptiion onto the filter
f paper
annd the remaiining filtrate was analyzeed for residuual dye conccentration usiing UV-Visibble spectrophhotometer.
C
Control experiiments were executed
e in duuplicate to recctify any adsoorption of dyee in containerrs.
…..(1)
…..(2)
W
Where m l-1
Ci = innitial concentrration of dye solution in mg
Ce = equilibrium co o dye solutioon in mg l-1
oncentration of
m = mass
m of the adssorbent in graams (g)
V = Voolume of test solution in liiters (l)
Ef
Effect of adsorrbent dosage
Studies were made
m on the reemoval of perrcentage of BB9
B by adsorpption on to SC CBHNO3 in thee range 0.1 to 1.4 g with
500 mg 1-1 initiial concentrattion of dye annd agitation time
t of 60 minutes at pH 7 and at tempperature (25± ±2oC). The
reesults are pressented on percentage remooval of dye veersus adsorbennt dosage andd was shown ini Figure.2.
Fig. 2 Effect of adsorbent dose on adsorpttion of BB9 onn SCBHNO3

Adsorption isotherms
The final data received from the experiments in the present work was tested with Freundlich [11] Langmuir [12]
Tempkin [13] and Dubinin-Radushkevich (D-R) [14] isotherms given in Table 1.
Table 1 The adsorption Isotherms of BB9 on SCBHNO3
Freundlich isotherm
Equation Graph R2 logkF 1/n kF n qe(expt.) qe(cal.) χ2
qe = kFCe1/n logqe vs (mg 1-1/n 1/n
l -1
g ) -1
(g l ) (mg g ) -1
(mg g ) -1
logqe = 1/n logCe + logCe

logkF
y=0.3099x+0.4257 0.9611 0.4257 0.3099 2.6650 3.2268 4.7240 3.6504 0.2440
Langmuir isotherm
Equation Graph R2 aL/kL 1/kL qm RL qe(expt.) qe(cal.) χ2
-1 -1 -1
qe = kLCe/(1+aLCe) Ce/qe vs (mg g ) (mg g ) (mg g )
Ce/qe = aL/kL Ce + 1/kL Ce
y =0.1277x+0.2956 0.9891 0.1277 0.2956 7.8309 0.3165 4.7240 4.2589 0.0458
Temkin equation
Equation Graph R2 B Bln(A) B A qe(expt.) qe(cal.) χ2
qe = RT/bln(Ace) qe vs (l g-1) (mg g-1) (mg g-1)
qe = Bln(Ce) + Bln(A) lnCe
where RT/b = B
y=1.1036x+3.2804 0.9583 1.1036 3.2804 1.1036 19.5398 4.7240 4.4008 0.0221
D-R equation
Equation Graph R2 lnqm Β qm E qe(expt.) qe(cal.) χ2
-βε2
qe = qme lnqe vs (mol2J-2) (mg g-1) (kJ mol-1) (mg g-1) (mg g-1)
lnqe = -βε2 + lnqm ε2
where ε = RT(1+1/Ce)
y=-0.0021x-9.4595 0.9757 -9.459 0.0021 22.510 15.43 4.7240 5.2471 0.0579
Table 2 The adsorption kinetics of BB9 on SCBHNO3

Pseudo-first-order
Equation Graph R2 k1/2.303 log(qe) k1 qe(cal.) qe(expt.) SSE
dqt/dt = k1(qe-qt)
log(qe-qt) = - log(qe-qt) vs t mg g-1 mg g-1
k1t/2.303 + logqe
y=-0.0321x+0.3193 0.9759 0.0321 0.3193 0.07393 2.0859 4.7240 0.31186
Pseudo-second-order
Equation Graph R2 1/qe 1/(k2qe2) k2 qe(cal.) qe(expt.) SSE
1/(qe-qt) = k2t + 1/qe
t/qt = (1/qe)t + t/qt vs t mg g-1 mg g-1
1/(k2qe2)
y=0.1989x+0.6657 0.9991 0.1989 0.6657 0.05943 5.0277 4.7240 0.00413
Intraparticle diffusion
Equation Graph R2 kip C kip qe(cal.) qe(expt.) SSE
1/2 1/2 -1 -1
qt = kipt +C qt vs t mg g mg g
y=0.3381x+2.6514 0.9799 0.3381 2.6514 0.3381 4.6516 4.7240 0.00023
Table 2 Contd...
Pore diffusion
Equation Graph R2 Α log(k0/(2.303V)) ko qe(cal.) qe(expt.) SSE
loglog(Ci/(Ci-qtm)) =
loglog(Ci/(Ci- ml ( g l-
αlogt + 1 -1 mg g-1 mg g-1
qtm)) vs logt )
log(k0/(2.303V))
Y=0.1525-1.6207 0.9701 0.1525 -1.6207 5.5156 4.6127 4.7240 0.00055
Elovich equation
Equation Graph R2 1/β 1/β ln(αβt) α qe(cal.) qe(expt.) SSE
-1 -1
qt = 1/β ln(1+αβt) qt vs ln(t) mg g mg g
qt = 1/β ln(t) + 1/β
ln(αβt)
Y=0.5994X+2.4030 0.9725 0.5994 2.4030 0.8249 4.2688 4.7240 0.00928

The BET surface area of SCBHNO3 was found to be 987m2g-1. The study of effect of adsorbent dose discovered that
the optimum amount of SCBHNO3was fixed for further analysis for the removal of dye. At 1 g the percentage
removal was found to be 94.98 %. From Figure.2 it was clear that the rate of removal of dye was found to be
increased rapidly with the increase of carbon dose and showed down in later.
Figure.3(a) shows Freundlich plot between logqe and logce . The values of Kf and 1/n were obtained from the
slope and intercept of the linear plot and were tabulated in Table.1.The Freundlich correlated co-efficient value was
found to be 0.9611. This value appears to be more than χ2 value (0.244). The high χ2 reveals that this model was
not suitable to explain the sorption process [15].
The Langmuir graph of Ce/qe as function of Ce was depicted in Figure.3(b). From the plot monolayer capacity
(qm) and Langmuir constant (aL) values are evaluated and is presented in Table.1
In order to explain the adsorption phenomena with its high R2 value(0.9891) and low χ2 value (0.0458)
Langmuir model is far better than Freundlich isotherm. The value of dimension less constant separation factor (RL)
was 0.3165 and it is presented in Table.1. The value lies in the range between 0-1 clearly gives as an idea that the
adsorption of dosage if favorable [16]. The adsorption capacity qm was found to be 7.8309 mg g-1.
Figure.3(c) shows the Tempkin plot of lnCe vs qe. The slope of the line gives the value of ‘B’ and intercept
values were also given in Table.1. The R2 value for this isotherm was found to be low (0.9583).
Tempkin isotherm is well suited for dye sorption process because of low χ2 (0.0221) value. This suggests that
the heat of adsorption of all the dye molecules in the layer decreases linearly with coverage due to adsorbent –
adsorbate interactions. The adsorption might characterized by uniform distribution of binding energies [13].
Dubinin-Radushkevich plot of ε2 vs qe was shown in Figure 3(d). The values of slope β, qm and mean free
energy E were given in Table.1. The high value R2 (0.9757) and low χ2 (0.0579) reveals that sorption process is
suitable and also confirmed by D-R plot. These values are also proves that those is some degree of heterogeneous
surface factor. The value of E (15.43) is within the values of ion exchange, and also indicates adsorption
mechanism may be Chemisorption [14].
The different graphs varied kinetic models Figure. 4 (a) represents Pseudo first order kinetic model plot. This
has low R2 (0.9759) and high SSE value (0.31186). Not only that log (qe (expt) [i.e., (log (9.64) =0.984)] is not
equal to the intercept value (0.3193) of the plot .This indicates that the sorption kinetics does not follow pseudo-
first order kinetics.
Figure.4 (b) represents Pseudo second order kinetic model plot. The plot of T vs T/qt, the slop and intercept
values along with R2 and SSE are given inTable.2. It has high R2value (0.9991) and low SSE value (0.00413).
Hence the sorption process can be well described by pseudo -second order model confirming to other well
established models. It predicts the behaviour over the whole range of studies and it is in agreement with the
chemisorptions mechanism being the rate controlling step [17].
(a) 1.0 (b)

6
0.8
5
0.6
4
0.4
Ce/qe
3
log(qe)
0.2
2
0.0
1
-
-0.2
-2.0 -1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 0
0 20 4
40 600
log(Ce) Ce
(c) 8.0 (d) -10..0

-10..5
6.0 -11..0
qe mol g-1
-11..5
4.0
qe
-12..0
2.0
-12..5
0.0 -13..0
-2.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 200 400 6000 800 10001220014001600
ln(C
Ce) ε2
Fig. 3 Adsorption Isotherms

I of BB
B9 on SCBHNOO3
(a) 0.2 (b)

1
12
0
‐0.2
8
‐0.4
log(qe-qt)
t/qt
‐0.6 4
‐0.8
‐1 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 20 40 60 80
8
t t
nt & Society (N
NCWES-20188) 461
-1.3
Stage (d)
(c) 5.000
II
log(log(Ci/(Ci-qtm))
4.50
0 -1.4
qt
4.00
0
-1.5
3.50
0
-1.6
3.00
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
t1/2 log(t)
5.00
0 y = 0
0.5994x + 2.403
30
(e) R² = 0.9725
4.50
0
qt
4.00
0
3.50
0
3.00
0
1 2 3 4 5
ln(t)
Fig. 4 Adsorption Kinetics of BB

B9 on SCBHNO33
Figure. 5 shows
s SEM image of SC CBHNO3with more
m number of pores, theese pores weere well closed by dye
molecules whiich were conffirmed by FT
m TIR, because of the appearrance of new functional grroups of dye molecules
onn dye loaded carbon.
Fig. 5 SEM images of (a)SCBHNO3 (bb)SCBHNO3-BB99
The FTIR spectra

s of SC
CBHNO3 andd SCBHNO3-BB B9 were showwn in Figure..6. Bands aroound 3400-3500 cm-1 in
SCBHNO3 are dued to –OH stretches
s in hydroxyl, carbboxylic and phenolic
p grouups. Similarlyy, in FTIR off SCBHNO3-
B
BB9, the intennsity of band at 3445 cm-11 was decreassed and new bands with specific
s intensities betweeen 885-811
m-1 were obsserved. Thesee bands weree characteristtic of out off plane deforrmational vibbration of twoo adjacent
cm
hyydrogen atomms in 1, 4-dissubstituted beenzene rings of BB9 dye molecule [188]. A distinctt peak was observed at
1578 cm-1.This is may be due to poly aromatic C=C stretching vibrations in sp2-hybridized carbons [19, 20]. In
case of dye loaded carbons the intensity of bands at 1585, 1163-1150 cm-1 was increased. It represents the
increased aromatic nature due to adsorption of dye molecules.
.
Fig. 6 FTIR spectrum of SCBHNO3 and SCBHNO3-BB9
CONCLUSION
On experimentation, the prepared SCBHNO3 has successfully removes Basic Red9 dye from its 50 mg 1-1 aqueous
solution. It is found that the adsorption process attains equilibrium time within 40 minutes and required adsorbent
dose is 1 g. The kinetics of the process can be best explained by pseudo second order pattern and indicates that the
dye was chemisorbed. Nevertheless pore diffusion is one of the rate controlling steps during sorption process. The
prepared activated carbon successfully removed the color of the effluents until the acceptable limit.
REFERENCES
1. V. A. Shenai, Colourage .1996, XLIII ,41-46.
2. V. Karthik, K. Saravanan, P. Bharathi, V.Dharanya, C.Meiaraj, J. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences,
2014, 7,301-307.
3. K.A.Emmanuel, A.Veerabhadrarao , T.V.Nagalakshmi , Ch. Sureshbabu and K. Somasekhara Rao, J.
Applicable Chemistry ,2015, 4 (1), 166-177
4. Adsorption Kinetics of A Cationic Dye onto Indigenously Prepared Activated Kaza’s Carbon Ch.Suresh
Babu, Ch. Chakrapani, K.A. Emmanuel and Kaza Somasekhara rao, J. Applicable Chemistry, 2014, 3
(6),2462-2469 .
5. C.Pragathiswaram, P.Sivanesan and N Ananthakrishnan , J. Applicable Chemistry,2015,4(6),1811-1820
6. Mohammad. Bassin Alquaragully, J. Advanced Research in Chemical Science., 2014, 1, 48-59.
7. Marielen C.Ribas, Matthew A. Adebayo, Lizie D.T. Prola, Eder C. Lima, Renato Cataluña, Liliana A. Feris,
M.J. Puchana-Rosero, Fernando M. Machado, Flávio A. Pavan, Tatiana Calvete. Chemical Engineering
Journal, 2014, 248, 315-326.
8. Ahmad, Mohd Azmier., Ahmad Puad, Nur Azreen., Solomon Bello, Olugbenga, Water Resources and
Industry., 2014, 6,18–35.
9. Aseel M. Aljeboree, Abbas N. Alshirifi, Ayad F. Alkaim, Arabian Journal of Chemistry.,
2014,doi:10.1016/j.arabjc.2014.01.020
10. Mohamed. Mokhtar , Journal of Colloid and Interface Science., 2004, 272, 1, 28-34.
11. H. Freundlich, Phys. Chem. Soc., 1906, 40, 1361–1368.

12. I. Langmuir, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1918, 40, 1361–1368.
13. M.J. Tempkin, V. V. Pyzhev, Acta Physiochim., 1940, 12, 217–222.
14. M.M. Dubinin, L.V. Radush Kevich, Phys. Chem. Sect. 1947, 55, 331.
15. G. McKay, Y.S.Ho, J.C.Y.Ng ,Sep. Purif. Meth., 1999, 28, 87–125.
16. A. Pavlatou, N.A. Polyzopouls, Eur. J. Soil Sci. 1988, 39, 425–436.
17. W. Rudzinksi, P. Panczyk, In: J.A. Schwarz, C.I. Contescu (Eds.), Surfaces of Nanoparticles and Porous
Materials, Dekker, New York,1998, p. 355-391.
18. Davankov, V.A. and Tsyurupa, M.P. 2010. In: Hypercrosslinked polymeric networks & adsorbing materials,
1st (Ed), 56, 184-186.
19. P.E. Fanning, M.A. Vannice, Carbon,1993, 31, 721-730.
20. E. Papirer, J. Dentzer, S. Li, J.B. Donnet, Carbon, 1991, 29, 69-72.

APPLICATIONS OF WORLDWIDE FREE AND OPEN SOURCE SOFTWARE IN

NUMERICAL COMPUTATION “SCILAB (SIMILAR TO MATLAB)”
IN WATER, WASTEWATER AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING:
CERTAIN EXAMPLES
Shivarajappa and Mohd. Hussain
Former Faculty Member, AVN Institute of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad
Professor and Dean (Life skills and Outreach) & Coordinator, Centre for Water Resources Engineering and Management (CREAM) ,
Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad
ABSTRACT
Numerical computation to solve complex mathematical equations is essential in all branches of engineering. The
present paper attempts to create awareness about the application of worldwide free and open source software
“Scilab (similar to MATLAB)” in numerical computation in water, wastewater and irrigation engineering. Scilab
codes are written for three examples of the design of filtration plant for water supply, the design of sewers for
wastewater disposal and the design of check Basin Irrigation method. These Scilab codes are executed in Scilab
Cloud.
Keywords: Water, waste water, Scilab software, Basin irrigation method.
INTRODUCTION
Scilab is free and open source software for numerical computation providing a powerful computing environment
for engineering and scientific applications.
Scilab includes hundreds of mathematical functions. It has a high level programming language allowing access
to advanced data structures, 2-D and 3-D graphical functions.
A large number of functionalities is included in Scilab:
• Maths & Simulation For usual engineering and science applications including mathematical operations and
data analysis.
• 2-D & 3-D Visualization Graphics functions to visualize, annotate and export data and many ways to create
and customize various types of plots and charts.
• Optimization Algorithms to solve constrained and unconstrained continuous and discrete optimization
problems.
• Statistics Tools to perform data analysis and modeling
• Control System Design & Analysis Standard algorithms and tools for control system study
• Signal Processing Visualize, analyze and filter signals in time and frequency domains.
• Application Development Increase Scilab native functionalities and manage data exchanges with external
tools.
• Xcos - Hybrid dynamic systems modeler and simulator Modeling mechanical systems, hydraulic circuits,
control systems (www.scilab.org)
Scilab Cloud (www.cloud.scilab.in)
Scilab on Cloud facilitates execution of the codes for particular example(s) online. The results can then be verified
with the solved example(s) from the textbook. It is also possible to change the values of the variables and in fact,
the code itself, and execute it. In addition to the given examples, one can also copy and paste. Scilab has been
designed to be an open system where the user can define new data types and operations on these data types by
using overloading. A large number of contributions can be downloaded from Scilab website. Scilab has been built
using a number of external libraries. On Scilab Cloud, the application runs its algorithms on the server-side and
renders the user-interface in any web browser. This brings new advantages for the deployment of scientific and
simulation applications and scripts. Free and Open Source Software for Science and Engineering
464
Education(FOSSEE) project is part of the National Mission on Education through Information and
Communications Technology (ICT) with the thrust area being "Adaptation and deployment of open source
simulation packages equivalent to proprietary software”, funded by Ministry of Human Resources
Development(MHRD), based at the Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay (IITB)
The Scilab Textbook Companion (TBC) is another activity supported by the FOSSEE team. It aims to port
solved examples from standard textbooks to Scilab. The code is created by students and faculty from various
colleges of India. The Scilab code is written by the FOSSEE Team of IIT Bombay in Scilab cloud and executed for
all solved examples of 14 different units from the standard book written by G. M. Fair, J. C. Geyer, and Okun’s
(1956) both for water treatment and wastewater treatment. It aims to port solved examples from standard textbooks
using an open source software system such as Scilab. (http://www.scilab.in/Textbook_Companion_Project)
LITERATURE SURVEY ON WASTE WATER REUSE FOR IRRIGATION

The SeTS (Sewage Treatment Simulation) runs under Scilab, a free commercial program from the University of
Karlsruhe. It is a GNU-licensed wastewater simulator. It has models for ASM1–ASM3 (Activated Sludge Models)
and ADM 1 (Anaerobic Digestion Model #1) (David L. Russell, PE (2006).
G. M. Fair and J.C. Geyer (1956) have addressed themselves to the presentation of principles rather than
practice, of methodology rather than method, and of rationality rather than rule of thumb. They have chosen a
structural rather than a functional treatment of the subject matter. Mark J. Hammer and Mark J. Hammer Jr. (2008)
have explained comprehensive coverage of the fundamental principles and current practices in water processing,
water distribution, wastewater collection, water treatment, sludge processing, advanced wastewater treatment, and
water reuse.
Soli J. Arceivala and Shyam R. Asolekar (2009) have described the design of a Municipal wastewater irrigation
system and the design of an industrial wastewater irrigation Scheme. Metcalf and Eddy (2003) have given the
guide lines for interpretation of water quality for irrigation. Water reuse is the only trade association that focuses
solely on advancing laws, policy and funding to increase water reuse.
(Water Reuse Association:https://wateruse.org).
The computer program, SRFR, comprises a mathematical model of flows in furrows, basins, and borders. It is
designed for systematic, repeated application in the solution of design and management problems. (WCL Report
17, US Water Conservation Lab, Phonix, Arizona)
J. O. Smith and Pete Smith (2011) have described the Decision Support Systems for environmental modelling.
They have also explained the uncertainty analysis and sensitivity analysis in environmental modelling. Another
book in which Scilab codes for solved examples are written is on Irrigation and Water Power Engineering (Dr.B.C.
Punmia, 2009).
The methodology for graded border design and furrow irrigation design based on United States Soil
Conservation service (SCS) is described (Glenn Schwab, Delmar D. Fangmeier, et.al,1993).
THREE EXAMPLES IN SCILAB CODE WITH OUTPUTS AFTER EXECUTION IN SCILAB CLOUD
Scilab codes are written for three examples of the design of filtration plant for water supply, the design of sewers
for wastewater disposal and the design of check Basin Irrigation method for different data, other than those given
in the above text books. The codes are rewritten to have more clarity. The codes are executed in Scilab Cloud and
the results are verified.
Example 1: Estimate the capacity of the structural components of a filtration plant to deliver 115 MLD
(79900 lpm) of water to a city of 200000 people.
//The solution for the above problem is written in Scilab as below.
//clc
//initialization of variables
//provide two circular mixing basins of 3m deep
P1=115 // Treatment Capacity of the filter plant in million liters per day (MLD)

P2=79900 // Treatment Capacity of the filter plant in liters per minutes (lpm)
W= 200000 //City population
d= 2 // detention period in minutes
V= d*P2/2 // Volume of each mixing basin in litres
V1= 26.63// Surface area of each mixing basin in sq metres
D= sqrt(V1*4/%pi)// Diameter of each mixing basin in metres
//Provide two flocculating and reaction basins of each 3 m deep
q= 30 // detention period in minutes
q1= q*P2/2 // Volume of each basin in litres
q2= q1/1000 // Volume of each basin cubic metres
a= q2/3 // Surface area of each basin Square. Metres
// provide two settling basins of 3 m deep, allowing 0.6 m sludge
t= 120// detention period in minutes
S1=t*P2/2 // Volume of each of settling basin in litres
S2=S1/1000 // Volume of each of settling basin in cubic metres
S3= S2/2.4 //surface area of each of settling basin with actual depth2.4m
// depth of settling basin(3m) minus depth of sludge (0.6)
S= P2/S3 // Rate of filtration in lpm /Sq metre
//Provide 10 rapid sand filters
r= 80 // Assumed Rate of filtration in lpm/ Square metre
r1= 10// Rapid sand filters
// Calculations
A= P2/(r1*r) // Surface area of each rapid sand filter in Square metre
// Results
printf('the capacity of the components of a rapid sand filtration plant= % f Sq metre',A)
The output of the above Scilab Code in Scilab Cloud is below.
P1 = 115, P2 =79900, W =200000, d = 2, V = 79900, V1 = 26.63, D = 5.8229176, q = 30,
q1 = 1198500, q2 = 1198.5, a = 399.5 [Provide size of 16m x 25m], t = 120, S1 = 4794000, S2 = 4794,
S3 =1997.5, [Provide size of 25m x 80m]
S = 40, r = 80, r1 = 10, A = 99.875 [Provide size of 8m x 12.5m]
The capacity of the components of a rapid sand filtration plant = 99.875000 Sq. metre
[ Provide assize of 12.5m X 8m].
Example 2: A 20cm. sewer is to discharge 0.0046 m3/s at a velocity equivalent in self-cleaning action to that
of a sewer flowing full at 0.762 m3/s. Find the depth, velocity of flow and the required slope.
The solution for the above problem is written in Scilab as below.
//clc
//initialisation of variables
D= 0.20 // diameter of sewer in metres

//From Table 15.3 of “Water Supply and Waste water disposal” by G M Fair and J C Geyer (1956) when
Manning’s coefficient(N)= Roughness coefficient (n), when full flow occurs in the sewer
V= 0.762// Velocity full flow in sewer in m/s
Q = 0.025// discharge of the sewer when full in cubic m/s
s = 4.44// Slope in metres per 1000 m
qs = 0.0046// discharge of the sewer in m3/s
//From Graph 15.2 of “Water Supply and Waste water disposal” by G M Fair and J C Geyer (1956 when
Manning’s coefficient(N)= Roughness coefficient (n), when full flow occurs in the sewer
q1= qs /Q // ratio of discharge in sewer to full discharge
h1= 0.25// ratio of depth of flow in the sewer to the diameter of sewer
v1 = 0.91// ratio of velocity in sewer to the velocity of full flow
S1 = 1.70// ratio of slope of sewer when the flow is partial to the slope of sewer when the flow is full
//From Graph 15.2 of “Water Supply and Waste water disposal” by G M Fair and J C Geyer (1956) when
Manning’s coefficient(N)/Roughness coefficient (n) [N ≠ n] is a variable, when full flow occurs in the sewer
q2= qs /Q // ratio of discharge in sewer to full discharge
h2= 0.30 // ratio of depth of flow in the sewer to the diameter of sewer
v2= 0.732// ratio of velocity in sewer to the velocity of full flow
S2 = 1.46// ratio of slope of sewer when the flow is partial to the slope of sewer when the flow is full
//CALCULATIONS
ha= h1*D // depth of flow in sewer in metres
Va= V*v1//velocity in sewer m/s
Sa= S1*s//Slope in metres per 1000
hb= h2*D //depth of flow in sewer in metres
Vb=V*v2// velocity in sewer m/s
Sb= S2*s// Slope in metres per 1000
//RESULTS
printf('When N=n the required depth =% f metres',ha)
printf('when N=n the required velocity =% f m/s',Va)
printf('when N=n the required slope=% f m per 1000',Sa )
printf('When N≠n the required depth =% f metres',hb)
printf('when N≠n the required velocity =% f m/s',Vb)
printf('when N≠n the required slope=% f m per 1000',Sb)
The output of the above Scilab Code in Scilab Cloud is below.
D =0.2, V = 0.762, Q = 0.025, s = 4.44, qs = 0.0046, q1 = 0.184, h1 = 0.25, v1 = 0.91,
S1 = 1.7 q2 = 0.184, h2 = 0.3, v2 =0.732, S2 = 1.46, qb =0.184, ha = 0.05, Va = 0.69342, Sa = 7.548 hb =
0.06 Vb =0.557784 Sb = 6.4824
When N=n the required depth = 0.050000 metres
when N=n the required velocity = 0.693420 m/s
when N=n the required slope= 7.548000 m per 1000
When N≠n the required depth = 0.060000 metres

when N≠n the required velocity = 0.557784 m/s

when N≠n the required slope= 6.482400 m per 1000
Example 3: For a check basin of size 24 m x 72m, the following functions are available:
1.Cumulative infiltration Ic = 9 t 0.42, where Ic is in mm and t is in minutes
2. Advance function:
(a) L= 10 tL0.6 for a stream of size 3.0 lps/m width
(b) L= 16 tL0.6 for a stream of size 6.0 lps/m width
If the depth of irrigation is 100mm, (a) deep percolation loss, (b) water application efficiency, and (c) time of
irrigation for each of the above sizes of stream
//calculate
//deep percolation loss
//water application efficiency and
// time of irrigation.
//The solution for the above problem is written in Scilab as below.
//clc;
//Given
B=24 //breadth of basin in metres
L=72 //length of basin in metres
d=100//depth of irrigation in mili metres
Ic=100//cumulative infiltration in mili metres
// From the equation for cummulative infiltration
kdash=8
ndash=0.46
//from the advance function of Part (a)
a=6;
b=0.5;
q=3.0;//stream size in lps/ metre width
Q=(q*B)/1000; //discharge in m3/s
tl= (L/a) ^(1/b) ;// time of advance to cover entire length of the basin minutes
td=(Ic/kdash)^(1/ndash);//time of ponding in minutes
T=tl+td;// Total time
p=(1-(td/T) ^(ndash)) *100;// deep percolation loss expressed as a fraction of total volume of water
eita=(1-p/100) *100;// water application efficiency
Tdash=(d*L*B)/(10*eita*Q*60) ;// time of irrigation
p=round(p*100)/100;
eita=round(eita*100)/100;
Tdash=round(Tdash*10)/10;
mprintf("Part (a):")
mprintf("\nDeep percolation loss= %f percent.",p);

mprintf("\nWater application efficiency= %f percent.",eita);

mprintf("\nTime of irrigation= %f minutes.",Tdash);
////from the advance function of Part (b)
a=9;
b=0.8;
q=6;//stream size in lps/ metre width
Q=(q*B)/1000;//discharge in cudic metres/sec
tl=(L/a) ^(1/b) ;// time of advance to cover entire length of the basin minutes
td=(Ic/kdash)^(1/ndash);//time of ponding in minutes
T=tl+td;// Total time
p=(1-(td/T) ^(ndash))*100;// deep percolation loss expressed as a fraction of total volume of water
eita=(1-p/100) *100;// water applivation efficiency
Tdash=(d*L*B)/(10*eita*Q*60) ;// time of irrigation
p=round(p*100)/100;
eita=round(eita*100)/100;
Tdash=round(Tdash*10)/10;
mprintf("\nPart (b):")
mprintf("\nDeep percolation loss= %f percent.",p);
mprintf("\nWater application efficiency= %f percent.",eita);
mprintf("\nTime of irrigation= %f minutes.",Tdash);
The output of the above Scilab Code in Scilab Cloud is below
B =24, L = 72, d =100, Ic = 100, kdash = 8, ndash = 0.46
Part (a):
Deep percolation loss= 19.300000 percent.
Water application efficiency= 80.700000 percent.
Time of irrigation= 49.600000 minutes.
Part (b):
Deep percolation loss= 2.450000 percent.
Water application efficiency= 97.550000 percent.
Time of irrigation= 20.500000 minutes.
CONCLUSION
Scilab which is free and open source software for numerical computation is very useful in water, wastewater and
irrigation engineering
This is illustrated in this paper with three examples in water supply, wastewater disposal and irrigation
engineering
REFERENCES
1. http://www.uni-karlsruhe.de/~gh31/SeTS
2. David L. Russell, PE (2006). “Practical Wastewater Treatment”, Willy-Future Science Publication.
3. G.M.Fair, J.C. Geyer, and Okun’s (1956). “Water and Wastewater Engineering”, John Wiley & Sons.

4. G. M. Fair and J.C. Geyer (1956). “Water Supply and Wastewater Disposal”, John Wiley & Sons.
5. Mark J. Hammer, Mark J. Hammer Jr (2008). “water and Wastewater Technology “PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd-New Delhi.
6. Metcalf & Eddy (2003). “Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse” Tata McGraw Hill Edtion
7. Water Reuse Association: https://watereuse.org
8. WCL Reports No. 17, US Water Conservation Lab, Phoenix, Arizona. “SRFR; A Computer Program for Simulating
Flow in Surface Irrigation – Furrows – Basins and Borders”
9. Free open source Software for Science and Engineering Education:(FOSSEE) (http://fossee.in)
10. http://www.scilab.in/TextbookCompanion_Project: The Text Book Companion project (TBC).
11. Soli J. Arceivala & Shyam R. Asolekar(2009).”Wastewater Treatment for Pollution Control and Reuse”, Tata McGraw
Hill Publication.
12. J. O. Smith & Pete Smith (2011). “An Introduction to Environmental Modelling”, Oxford University Press.
13. Dr. B. C. Punmia (2009). “Irrigation and Water Power Engineering”, Laxmi Publications (P) LTD.
14. Glenn O. Schwab, Delmar D. Fangmeier, et.al (1993). “Soil and Water Conservation Engineering”, John Wiley & sons.
15. www.scilab.org
16. www.cloud.scilab.in

A STUDY ON PHYTOPLANKTON BLOOM AFTER THE DUST STORM
S. Lavanya1* and M. Viswanadham2

1*
Ph.D Scholar, Centre for Earth Atmosphere and Weather Modification Technologies (CEA&WMT), IST,
Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad, India, lavanya.kusa@gmail.com.
2*
Professor of civil, and Director of DUFR, J.N.T.U, Hyderabad, India, maviswa14@gmai.com.
ABSTRACT
Dust Storm is a meteorological event common in arid and semi-arid regions. Deserts Surrounding the Arabian
Sea are the dominant source of the dust aerosols. Desert dust is rich in nutrients, which is beneficial for the
growth of the Phytoplankton’s over the Arabian Sea. This paper highlights the effect of dust storm on
chlorophyll concentrations of phytoplankton, which occurred on 23February 2015 over the Arabian Sea. Results
from observation of satellite images revealed that due to dust storm of 23February 2015there was increase in
chlorophyll concentrations of Phytoplankton’s.
Keywords: Dust storm, Chlorophyll concentration, MODIS Ocean color data, Suomi NPP.
INTRODUCTION
Dust storms originating over the world’s arid regions contribute a large fraction of aerosols in the atmosphere.Dust
storm arise when strong wind blows loose sand or dirt lifted from a dry surface and transported from point of
origin to another places. Deserts surrounding the Arabian Sea are the main sources of Dust Storms. The Arabian
Sea is surrounded by arid and semi-arid areas which are dominant sources of atmospheric dust. The largest one Rub
Al khali desert located in Saudi Arabia. Other sources are located in Afghanistan, Pakistan and north-west
India.Phytoplankton’s are autotrophic components of the Plankton community, live in the sunlit layer of the ocean.
They consume carbon dioxide (CO2) and release oxygen. Phytoplankton’s growth depends on the availability of
CO2sunlight, and nutrients. When all these conditions are required sufficiently Phytoplankton’s can grow
explosively, a phenomenon called the Bloom. Blooms in the ocean may cover 100’s of square Km's and are easily
visible in the satellite images.
STUDY AREA
The study area covering the northern part of the Arabian sea is located between latitudes 30°N and 00S and
longitudes 50°E and 78°E bordered by India, Pakistan, Iran, Somalia, Arabian Peninsula, Oman. Productivity is
highest in the northern region of the Arabian Sea.

Data and Methodology
MODIS Aqua Level-3 daily datasets of 4 km resolution were taken to study the Chlorophyll Concentration over the
Arabian Sea. These data sets were downloaded from Ocean Color website. The Visible Infrared Imaging
Radiometer Suite on the Suomi NPP satellite true Color images were used to study the Dust storm migration from
the point of origin to Arabian Sea.
SeaDAS is a comprehensive image analysis package for the processing, display, analysis, and quality control of
ocean color data. By using SeaDAS crop the datasets. After analysis Chlorophyll Concentration increased after the
Dust Storm. Phytoplankton Bloom was found at Gulf of Oman.
471
Fig. 1 Study Area

A of the Araabian Sea.
R
RESULTS AN
ND DISCUSS
SIONS
Inn late Februaary 2015, a significant
s w
winter Dust Storm
S stirred up dust andd sand acrosss much of thhe Arabian
Peninsula. Thee low pressurre system ennergized stronng northwest winds that carried c dust from
f as far as
a northern
Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and Kuw wait to the shhores of the Peersian Gulf annd the Arabiaan Sea. The Visible
V Infrareed Imaging
R
Radiometer uomi NPP sateellite capturedd these imagees of the Dustt Storm on 23 February 2015.
Suuite on the Su
Fig. 2 Satellite imagge depicting Phhytoplankton Bloom

B over thee Gulf of Omann.
After observing Satellite images of Arabian Sea, it was found out that Chlorophyll Concentration increased after
the Dust Storm when compared to before and during Dust Storm. When compared to the Before Dust storm after
storm Chlorophyll Concentrations increased about 45 mg/m3over the Arabian Sea. Phytoplankton Bloom was
found at Gulf of Oman on 26 February 2015.
Fig. 3 Dust Storm over the Arabian Sea on 23 February 2015.
50.0
45.0 45.1
chlorophyll concentrations (mg/m3)
40.0
35.0
30.0
25.0
22.0 Chl_a
20.0
17.8 19.0 20.2
17.3
15.0 14.7 15.7
12.1 12.6
10.0
5.0
3.0
0.0
61.3 60.0 59.8 60.2 61.0 61.8 62.9 61.6 62.2 62.5 63.2
Longitude
Fig. 4 Increased Chlorophyll Concentrations after the Dust Storm

CONCLUSION
Arabian Sea is found to be highly productive region during dust storm. After dust storm chlorophyll concentrations
(mg/m3)increased over the Arabian Sea because of the growth of the Phytoplankton’s.Phytoplankton’s using
nutrients from the Dust deposition, and CO2 (inorganic carbon) from both Atmosphere and Ocean, and sunlight to
produce organic compounds (carbon).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
S.Lavanya acknowledges Department of Science and Technology, India for providing fellowship underINSPIRE
Programme to pursue doctoral study.We are thankful to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA) MODIS Team for providing Ocean Color data and SeaDAS software package developed by OBPG.
REFERENCES
1. A.J.Gabric, R.A.Cropp, G.H.McTainsh, B.M.Johnston, H.Butler, B.Tilbrook, and M.Keywood., Australian dust storms
in 2002-2003 and their impact on Southern Ocean biogeochemistry. Global Biogeochemical Cycles,
VOL.24,GB2005,doi:10.1029/2009GB003541, 2010.
2. Dr.TuhinGhosh, Dr.Indrajit Pal., Dust storm and its Environmental Implications. Journal of Engineerring Computers &
Applied Sciences (JECAS), ISSN No: 2319-5606, volume 3, No.4 April 2014.
3. J.H.Steele and l, Baird., Relations Between Primary Production, Chlorophyll and Particulate Carbon. Marine
Laboratory, Aberdeen.
STUDY ON COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE ON PARTIAL
REPLACEMENT OF CEMENT WITH GROUND GRANULATED BLAST
FURNACE SLAG (GGBS)
Rathod Ravinder1, K. Sagarika2, K. Deepthi3, P. Alekya Reddy4, R. Spandana5 and S. Sruthi6

1
Asst. Prof, 2.3.4, 5, 6 Student (GRIET) Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of Engineering and Technology, Bachupally Hyderabad
ABSTRACT
Concrete is mixture of cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and water. Concrete plays a vital role in the
development of infrastructure.viz, buildings industrial structures, bridges and highways etc., leading to
utilization of large quantity of concrete. As cost of concrete is attributed to the cost if its ingredients which is
expensive, this lead to usage of economically alternative materials in its production. This leading to usage of
economically alterative materials in its production. This requirement is drawn the attention of investigators to
explore new replacements of cement with ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS) at a different
proportions. GGBS is by-product of steel manufacturing industry and it is a fine powder of iron slag.
Compressive strength of M30 grade of concrete with 0.45 water to cement ratio was investigated; in which, to
determine compressive strength with 50% replacement of cement with GGBS. In our experimental
investigations, it is observed that, the compressive strength of concrete has been increased by 5%. The concrete
mix of M30 prepared was tested at 7, 14 & 28 days. GGBS being a by-product serves as an eco-friendly
material. The use of GGBS overcome pollution problem in the environment and it helps in the durability of
concrete.
Keywords: Granulated Blast Furnace Slag, economically alterative materials, Compressive strength,
concrete mix
INTRODUCTION
The production of cement is an energy intensive process resulting in emission of green house gases which
adversely impact on the environment. At the same the cost of production of cement is increasing at alarming rate
and natural resources giving raw material for its manufacturing are depleting. The use of waste material having
cementitious properties as a replacement of cement in cement concrete has become the thrust area for construction
material experts and researchers. The main focus now-a-days is on search of waste material are by-product from
manufacturing process, which can be used as partial replacement of cement in concrete, without compromising on
its desired strength. The ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) is a waste product from the iron
manufacturing industry, which may be used as partial replacement of cement in concrete due to its inherent
cementing properties. In the country like India, where the development of the infrastructures projects such as large
irrigation, road and building projects are either being constructed or in completion of their planning and design
stage, such waste materials in cement concrete will not only reduce the emission of green house gases but also will
be the sustainable management of waste. The strength, durability and other characteristics of concrete depends on
the properties of its ingredients, proportion of mix, method of compaction and other controls during placing and
curing. For concrete, the combination of mineral and chemical admixtures is always essential to ensure
achievement of required strength.
GROUNG GRANULATED BLAST FURNACE SLAG (GGBS)

Ground granulated blast furnace slag is a by-product of steel manufacturing industry and it is a fine powder of iron
slag. Compressive strength of M30 grade of concrete with 0.45 water cement ratio was investigated in which to
determine compressive strength with 50% of GGBS. The concrete mixes were test at day 7, 14, 28. Being a by-
product its serves as an eco-friendly way of utilizing the product without dumping it on ground. The use of GGBS
overcome pollution problem in the environment.
475
Table 1 Properties Of GGBs
S.NO DESCRIPTION PROPERTIES
1. Appearance White
2. Ph 9 to 11
3. Specific gravity 2.85 to 2.95
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF GGBS

• GGBS has smooth surface texture and glassy surface.
• It has particle size of 0.1 to 40 microns.
• Relative density: 2.85 - 2.95.
Table 2 Chemical Composition of GGBS
CaO 40%
SiO2 35%
Al2O3 12%
Fe2O3 0.2%
MgO 10%
OBJECTIVES OF PROJECT
• To determine the compressive strength of concrete by partial replacement (50%) of cement with ground
granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS).
• To compare with conventional concrete (100% OPC).
ADVANTAGES OF GGBS
1. Better making placing and compaction easier.
2. Lower early age temperature rise, reducing the risk of thermal cracking in large pores.
3. Minimizes the risk of damaging internal reactions such as Alkali silica reaction.
4. High resistance to chloride ingress thus reducing the risk of steel reinforcement corrosion.
5. High resistance to attack by sulphates and other chemicals. Portland cement, depending on the amount of
GGBS in the cementitious material, but also continues to gain strength over a longer period in production
conditions.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Hogan and Meusal (1981).Development of strength and durability properties on concrete and reported that the
compressive strength gain characteristics of concrete containing GGBS can vary over a wide range. When
compared to Portland cement concrete, use of GGBS typically results in reduced strength at early ages (1 to 3days)
and increased strength at later ages (7 days and beyond)
Meusel and Rose (1982) Water demand for normal concrete is generally 3 to 5 percent lower than concrete with
GGBS for trial mixture proportioning studies
Wu and Roy (1982).The amount of high range water reducing admixtures required to produce flowing concrete
is usually 25 percent less than that used in concretes containing non GGBS. They also found that paste containing
GGBS exhibit different rheological properties compared to paste of Portland cements alone. Their results indicate a
better particle dispersion and higher fluidity of the pastes and mortars, both with and without water reducing
admixtures
Fulton (1974), Raja mane et al. (1998). Workability of concrete containing GGBS in greater detail and
suggested that the cementitious matrix containing GGBS exhibited greater workability due to the increased paste
content and increased cohesiveness of the paste
Atis et al (2008) investigated the compressive strength of concrete by varying concrete mixture parameters with
three different water-cement ratios (0.3, 0.4 and 0.5), three different cement dosages (350, 400 and 450 Kg/m3) and
four partial slag replacement ratios (20%, 40%, 60% and 80%). Cube specimens of 150mm size cast from fresh
concrete samples were used for compressive strength measurement at 3, 7, 28, 90 and 360 days. It is concluded that
the strength loss caused by increasing slag replacement level is more evident at early ages.
METHODOLOGY
(a) MATERIALS:
1) Ordinary Portland cement(OPC)
In this study ordinary Portland cement-grade 53, has been certified with IS: 12269-1987, grade 53
which is known for its rich quality and high durability issued. Specific gravity of cement used here is
3.1.
2) Coarse aggregate
Maximum size of coarse aggregates used in this area of 20mm. well graded cubical or rounded
aggregates are desirable. Aggregates should be uniform quality with respect to shape and gr ading.
Specific gravity of coarse aggregate used here is 2.8.
3) Fine aggregate
Grading must be uniform throughout the work and must pass through 4.75mm sieve size which
confirms to the code IS: 383-1970. Specific gravity of fine aggregate used is 2.6.
4) Water
Potable water available in laboratory was used for casting all the specimens. The quality of water
was found to satisfy the requirements of IS: 456-2000.
5) Ground granulated blast furnace slag(GGBS)
GGBS is a by-product of steel manufacturing industry and it is a fine powder of iron slag. Being a
by-product it serves as an eco-friendly way of utilizing the product without dumping it on ground.
The use of GGBS overcome pollution problem in the environment.
(b) Experimental Program Is Carried Out In Two Different Stages
STAGE 1
First preliminary tests are conducted in fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and cement. The tests include particle size
distribution of fine aggregate and coarse aggregate, specific gravity of cement, specific gravity of fine aggregate,
specific gravity of coarse aggregate. The test data of the material is obtained, the concrete mix design for M30
grade is designed using IS codes: IS. Three set of cubes are casted for M30 grade of concrete casting of specimens
were done. The plain samples of cubes were cured for 7, 14, 28 days in a water tank.
STAGE 2
In the second stage of the project, the experimental was designed to investigate the strength of GGBS concrete by
replacing 50% of cement with GGBS. 3 set of cubes were casted and tested for compressive strength for M30
grade. The casted concrete was removed from moulds and placed in water tank. The compressive strength at 7, 14,
28 days of curing were studied. Finally strength comparison of GGBS concrete and normal concrete mix was
performed and tabulated.
OBSERVATIONS
Table 3 Compressive Strength Values of Each Sample
CONVENTIONAL CONCRETE GGBS CONCRETE (50%)

S.NO DAYS
(N/mm2) (N/mm2)
24.44 20.00
1. 7 23.55 20.22
24.45 20.01
34.07 35.25
2. 14 34.06 35.15
34.10 35.21
39.09 41.00
3. 28 39.05 41.02
39.10 41.01
RESULTS
Table 4 Compression Strength
CONVENTIONAL GGBS
S.NO DAYS
CONCRETE (N/mm2) CONCRETE (50%) (N/mm2)
1. 7 24.14 20.08
2. 14 34.07 35.20
3. 28 39.08 41.01
CHARTS
compressive
4
5
4
0
3
5
3 compressive
0
2
5
7 days 14 days 28
Fig. 1 Conventional Concrete

nt & Society (N
NCWES-20188) 479
compreessive strrength
45
40
35
30
25
20 compresssive strength
15
10
5
0
7 days 14 dayss 2 days
28
Fig. 2 GGBS concreete
COMPRE
ESSIVE
4
5
4
0
3
5
3
0 con
nventional con
ncrete
GG
GBS replaced cement
c
1
5
1
0
5
7 14 28
Fig. 3 Variation of comp

pressive streng
gth with age off curing
co
ompressiivestren
ngth of conventi
c ional
con
ncrete
45
40
35
30
25
20 compressive strength
s of
conventional concrete
15
10
5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Fig. 4 Com
mpressive stren
ngth result of conventional
c c
concrete
comprressive strength
s of conccrete
45
40
35
30
25
20
compressivve strength of
15 concrete
10
5
0
0 5 10 15 2
20 25 30
Fig. 5 Compressive strength resultt of concrete onn replacing cem

ment with GGB
Bs
nt & Society (N
NCWES-20188) 481
45
40
35
30
25
connventional
20 concrete
15 GGGBS replaced
10 cem
ment concrete
5
7 days
d 14 days 288 days
Fig. 6 Variaation of Comprressive Streng

gth with Age of
o Curing
C
CONCLUSIO
ONS
O the basis off experimentaal investigatioon and the tesst results, folloowing concluusions are draw
On wn:
1. It is obsserved that th
here is an increase in thee compressivee strength off concrete on partial replaacement of
cement with
w GGBS (50%).
( The inncrease in streength is due too high reactivvity of GGBS with cement.
2. The usee of GGBS (5 50%) as partiial replacemeent of cementt helps to redduce the Enerrgy consumpttion in the
manufaccturing of cemment.
R
REFERENCE
ES
1. Er. Kimm migarg, Er. Ksshipra kapoor ISSN: 2349-20058, “It is obbserved that thhere is an inccrease in the compressive
c
strength for different co
oncrete mixes made with parrtial replacemeent of cement by b GGBS”. Voolume- 03, Issuue - 07, July
2016, papper (214-217).
2. D. Suressh, K. Nagaraju u (2015) “utilization of GGB BS as a partial replacement ofo cement” Jouurnal of civil engineering,
e
Volume 12, Issue (July y- August 20155), Paper (76- 82).
8
3. Santhoshh Kumar Karrii, G.V. Ramarao “Workabiliity of concretee increases wiith the increaase in GGBS replacement
r
level”. SSRJ-Internatioonal journal civvil engineering (SSRJ-IJCE) volume
v 2, Issuue 10 October 2015,
2 Paper (344-41).
HYDROGEOCHEMICAL STUDIES IN AND AROUND KISTAPUR AREA,
MEDCHAL DISTRICT TELANGANA
M. Venkateshwarlu1*, M. Narsi Reddy1, K. Suresh1, A. P. Ravi Chandra1,
P. Anjaneyulu2, M.D.Waseemuddin2, G. Manoj Reddy2 and G. Shashank Mitra2
1
Department of Civil Engineering
CMR College of Engineering & Technology, Kandlakoya (V), Medchal Road, Hyderabad-501401. Telangana State. India.
venkatmusini@gmail.com
2
UG Students, Department of Civil Engineering
CMR College of Engineering & Technology, Kandlakoya (V), Medchal Road,
Hyderabad-501401.Telangana State. India
ABSTRACT
Access to safe drinking water remains an urgent necessity in the world as it is directly related to
health. Groundwater account for more than 80% of the rural domestic water supply in India.
Assessment of suitability of groundwater for domestic and irrigation purposes was carried out in and
around kistapur area region which is located location kistapur (vi) Medchal is a northern suburb of
Hyderabad, India. The study area covers an area of 20 km. Groundwater is the major source for
domestic and agricultural activities in this area. The study emphasized on groundwater for physical
and chemical characteristics, to assess the potability of samples collected from one surface and seven
Bore wells during pre-monsoon period for the year 2018. The analytical parameters of data were
compared with the standard guidelines recommended by the (WHO, 1984) and (I.S.I). The
hydrochemistry of the groundwater of the study area indicates the calcium and magnesium exceeds the
limits
Keywords: Hydrgeochemistry, Dissolved Oxygen, BOD, COD.
INTRODUCTION
Indian is rich in water resources, being endowed with network of rivers, urban lakes that can meet a variety of
water requirement of the country, but with rapid increase in the population of the country and the need to meet
increasing demands of irrigation, human and industrial consumption, the availability water resources in many parts
of the country are getting depleted and the water quality has deteriorated. India is facing a serious problem of
natural resource scarcity, especially that of water in view of population growth and economic development. Most
of fresh water bodies all over the world are getting polluted, thus decreasing the portability of water. All life is
depending on water and exists in nature in many forms like ocean, river, lake, clouds, rain, snow and fog etc.
However, strictly speaking chemically pure water does not exist for any appreciable length of time in nature. A
lake is a large body of water surrounded by land, inhabited by various aquatic life forms, for all practical purpose,
pure water is considered to that which has low dissolved or suspended solids and obnoxious gases as well low in
biological life. Such high quality of water may be required only for drinking purposes while for other uses like,
agriculture and industry, the quality of water can be quite flexible and water polluted up to certain extent in general
sense can be regarded as pure. The health of lakes and their biological diversity are directly related to health of
almost every component of the ecosystem. It is the estimated that approximately one third of the world’s
population use groundwater for drinking (Nickson, 2005). The increased demand for the water due to agriculture
expansion, growing population and urbanization, so water resources management has become very important. The
interaction of the natural and anthropogenic factors leads to various water types. According to Hamzaoui-Azaza
(2011), the increased knowledge of the geochemical evolution of water quality could lead to effective management
of water resources. In India and various parts of the world, numerous studies have been carried out to assess the
geochemical characteristics of groundwater (Ahmad and Qadir, 2001; Alexakis, 2011; Aghazadehm, 2010;
Jeevanandam, 2006; Laluraj, 2005; Subramani, 2005; Sujatha, 2003). Water is required by humans for agricultural,
industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. Virtually for all of these human uses require fresh
water. Only 2.5% of water on the Earth is fresh water, and over two thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice
caps. With growing needs, water demand is gradually exceeding in many parts of the world (Gleick, 1998).
482
STUDY AREA
Study area near to medchal(M) location at kistapur (vi) The area lies between north16°35' to 116˚45' latitudes and
east 78˚25' to 78˚30' longitude. Medchal is a northern suburb of Hyderabad, India. It used be as kistapur village and
one of the rural area mandals in Rangareddy district of Telangana, India
Fig. 1 Location map of the study area
GEOLOGY OF THE AREA

The study area comprises crystalline rocks of Achaean age consisting of essentially granites. They are hard and
compact and range in texture from fine to coarse, least intergranular porosity. However alteration of minerals
composition and structure tend to modify this condition. Geological map of Ranga Reddy district is given here
(Fig no. 1).
The granites are primarily two type’s namely pink and gray granites. They owe their color to the presence of
characteristic of mineral. It is rather difficult to demarcate between the two granites. The gray granite is
conspicuously banded with light bands being rich in quartz and feldspar and dark bands are mainly mica and
hornblende. Pink granites consists of quartz microcline or orthoclase and acid plagioclase, some hornblende. Pink
granites consist of quartz, microcline or orthoclase and acid plagioclase, some hornblende, mica and epidote. Pink
granites grade into porphyritic varieties. The colour of the pink granite is mainly due to the presence of orthoclase
feldspar, and gray is mainly due to the presence of orthoclase feldspar, and the grey is mainly due to the presence
of typically light colored feldspar.
Gray Granites
These rocks exhibit low relief. These are fine to medium grained. They show all enclaves of mafic minerals are
hornblende and Biotite ranging in size 2 to 3 mm. this cluster is arranged in parallel plains and constitute lineation
and this is responsible for the pronounced gneissic banding the mafic enclaves are about 5cm long and 2-3 cm
wide. The light grey and the blue colour quartz grains are mainly responsible for the rock. The potash feldspar
crystals have a light brown colour and the plagioclase grains are white or light gray colour. Hence they are called
grey granites. The rock is jointed quartz and epidote veins have traversed the rock. The ramifications of quartz-
feldspathic veins are also observed. The grey granites are also occur as even grained and which case these rocks are
mostly equi granular in texture expect for a few patches of coarse and find texture here and there. The find grained
rocks are relatively dark in colour. The feldspars are white or greyish white in colour and sometimes light pink
collared feldspar also observed. The quartz is gray, smoky or light green in colour. The feldspar occurs as irregular
crystals.
Pink granites
The pink granites are common in this area. The pink granites are heterogeneous group of rocks whose common
character is the pink colour. It is also shown that there is no difference in texture and mineralogy between these
granites and the gray equivalents. The only criteria is pink colour which is due to pink or flesh colour feldspar,
which forming dominant constituent. Some of them are brick red to light pink. The grain size varies from fine to
coarse. There are generally coarse and porphyritic. The rock is grades into adjacent county rocks in the fields. It is
generally weathered and the feldspar crystals are conspicuous
GEOMORPHOLOGY
The present-day landforms in the district are the products of different geomorphic processes such as erosion,
deposition, crustal movements coupled with climatic changes operating on the surface. The specific geomorphic
groups are (i) Residual hills the present day landforms in the district are the products of different geomorphic
processes such as erosion, deposition, crustal movements coupled with climatic changes operating on the surface.
The specific geomorphic groups are (ii) Plateau The present-day landforms in the district are the products of
different geomorphic processes such as erosion, deposition, crustal movements coupled with climatic changes
operating on the surface. The specific geomorphic groups are The present day landforms in the district are the
products of different geomorphic processes such as erosion, deposition, crustal movements coupled with climatic
changes operating on the surface. The specific geomorphic groups are The present day landforms in the district are
the products of different geomorphic processes such as erosion, deposition, crustal movements coupled with
climatic changes operating on the surface. The specific geomorphic groups are (Deccan traps) (iii) Pediment
Isenberg complex (IV) Pedi plain 20 and The present day landforms in the district are the products of different
geomorphic
Fig. 2 Geomorphology
Ground water occurs under phreatic conditions in weathered zone and under semi-confined to confined
conditions in the fractured zones. The piezo metric elevations in northern part vary from 500 to 563 m alms with
steep gradient in NE direction. Geomorphology which is indicate all things and what are the parameter Ground
water occurs under phreatic conditions in weathered zone and under semi-confined to confined conditions in the
fractured zones. The piezo metric elevations in northern part vary from 500 to 563 m alms with steep gradient in
NE direction. Geomorphology which is indicate all things and what are the parameter. on the map various point
which is representation all water quality parameter alms with steep gradient in NE direction. Geomorphology
which is indicate all things and what are the parameter. on the map various point which is representation all water
quality parameter alms with steep gradient in NE direction. Geomorphology which is indicate all things and what
are the parameter. on the map various point which is representation all water quality parameter
Hydrogeology
Ground water occurs under phreatic conditions in weathered zone and under semi-confined to confined conditions
in the fractured zones. The piezo metric elevations in northern part vary from 500 to 563 m alms with steep
gradient in NE direction. In southern part, the piezo metric elevation is between 470 and 520 m alms with gentle
gradient towards. Ground water was exploited through shallow, large diameter dug wells until 1970 to meet
domestic and irrigation requirements. Presently ground water is being exploited through shallow and deep bore
wells with depth ranging from 100-300 m.
Source:- www.google.com
Fig. 3 Landuse land cover and soil maps
METHODOLOGY
Initially to understand the general variation in ground water chemistry over the study area, a well inventory survey
was carried out with the support of topographic sheet of survey of India. The data was used to select the
representative well for round water sampling. Sampling well were selected in such a way that they represent
varying geological formation, land use pattern and topography of the area ground water sample were collected from
different pates of the area.
The geochemical properties of ground water depend on the rock-water interaction and the chemistry of the
water in the recharge area as well the different geochemical process that is occurring in the subsurface. These
geological process that occurring in the subsurface. The geological process is responsible for the spatial variation in
the ground water chemistry. Ground water chemically evolves by interacting with aquifer mineral or internal
mixing among different ground water along-flow paths subsurface. Furthers the weathering of primary and
secondary minerals also contribute to the aquifer system.
The Water Quality Assessment Methodology (WQAM) is a screening procedure for toxic and conventional
pollutants in surface and ground waters and is a collection of formulas, tables, and graphs that planners can use for
preliminary assessment of surface and ground water quality in large river basins. These desktop procedures are
appropriate for hand calculators or for implementation as spreadsheet calculations on personal computers. The
manual includes a discussion of the environmental chemistry of synthetic organic chemicals and metals; a chapter
on waste source estimation techniques; and simple methods for assessment of pollutant fate in rivers, lakes,
estuaries and ground water. Stream analysis techniques are included for conservative substances, water
temperature, biochemical oxygen demand, dissolved oxygen, total suspended solids, coliform bacteria, nutrients,
and toxic organic chemicals and metals. Lake analysis procedures include thermal stratification, sediment
accumulation, toxic organic chemicals, phosphorus budget, eutrophication potential, and dissolved oxygen.
Estuarine analyses include estuarine classification, temperature, biochemical oxygen demand, and dissolved
substances. Ground water procedures include aquifer characterization, the groundwater flow regime, pollutant
transport processes, methods for predicting the fate and transport of conventional and toxic pollutants, and
interpretation of results.
Experimental
The sampling bottles soaked in 1:1 HCL for 24h were rinsed with distilled water followed by deionized water. At
the time of sampling, the bottles were thoroughly rinsed two or three times, using the groundwater to be sampled.
The chemical parameters viz. pH and electrical conductivity (EC) were collected in 1000-ml polyethylene bottles
from hand pump/bore holes in the study area. The bottles were labeled, tightly packed, transported immediately to
the laboratory, and stored at 4˚C for the chemical analyses. The samples were analyzed for Electrical conductivity
(EC) and pH were measured by conductivity meter (Systronics, 304) and digital pH meter (Systronics, 802)
respectively. Estimation of chloride (Cl), by Titration (Mohr's Method) in the laboratory. Samples were
maintained at 4˚C after sampling and analyzed within a few hours (<3h) of collection. The BOD5 was measured
respirometrically using the oxitop method with means of replicates used for statistical analysis. Nitrification was
suppressed by the addition of 0.5mg L-1 allythiourea.

pH value represents the concentration of hydrogen ions in water and is measure of acidity and alkalinity of water.
pH below 7.0 indicate acidic nature while pH greater than 7.0is indicative of alkalinity character of water. The
average value for the study area is nearly is 7.5 in area; however pH values are within permissible limit. The
average of EC of the sample of this area is 1.6 & 1.5 mS respectively. They range between 0.86 to 13.0 Ms.
Conductivity is the capacity of water to carry an electrical current and varies both with number and types of ions
the solution contains. The conductivity of distilled water is less than 1 Ms. The range of alkalinity in the area of
study is 20-128 mg/l and the average value is 95 mg/l. alkalinity is within the permissible limit in this region lake
water is slightly higher than the permissible limit. Hardness is attributed principally to Ca and Mg. hardness is also
considered as total hardness is expressed in mg/l of equivalent CaCO3. The range of total hardness in this area of
study is 72.56-915.82 mg/l with 437.38 mg/l as the average. The entire sample in this area is in the permissible
limit. Except sample (14&15) these sample not suitable for drinking purpose. The average value of BOD in this
area is 99.3 mg/l. the water is suitable for discharge in to streams and rivers. DO ranges of this area are 6.0 to
22.7mg/l. all the area has sufficient DO and is suitable for aquatic life. COD ranges of this area 50.53 to 260.20
mg/l. the average value of COD is 156.60 mg/l. the water is suitable for discharge in to rivers etc. Sodium present
in this area is between 23.0 to 43.0 mg/l. the average is 30.2 mg/l Potassium (K+). In majority of this area, the
potassium quantity is between 2.0 to 10.2 mg/l with an average of 5. 3 mg/l. Turbidity ranges of this area is 2.0 to
180.0 NTU. The average value is 3.5 NTU. Turbidity is within the limit. In some areas turbidity is exceed
permissible limit due various industries waste water release in to surrounding lakes. In kistapur villages lake water
not suitable for any purpose, these exceed the all the water quality water parameter. The range of calcium Ca+ in
the area of study is 99.2 to 130.2 mg/l. and the average value 110.63 g/l. calcium is within the permissible limit in
this area. Except some areas like lake water only exceed the permissible limit these water not suitable drinking
purpose. The range of Mg+ in this area of study is 39.0 to 106.0 mg/l. the average of Mg+ 56.63 mg/l almost all the
region sample within the permissible limit. The range of Mg+ in this area of study is 39.0 to 106.0 mg/l. the
average of Mg+ 56.63 mg/l almost all the region sample within the permissible limit.
CONCLUSION
The groundwater sources in and around Kistapur area, Medchal district of T.S., have been evaluated for their
chemical composition and suitability for drinking and irrigation purposes. In the study area malignity of
groundwater samples are within permissible limits prescribed for drinking water. The source of chloride in ground
water is more due to the weathering of minerals present in the rocks of the study area. Also the Chloride content in
ground water increased due to natural sources, domestic sewage and industrial effluents. The BOD/COD found in
all cases as less than 0.50, which indicate the poor biodegradability of the waste, need more attention in the
treatment processes and to be treated before its final disposal.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We express our thanks to Ch. Gopal Reddy, Secretary, CMRGI, Principal and HOD, CMR College of Engineering
and Technology Hyderabad, for help and encouragement to publish this paper.
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0101574-4
2. Ahmad Z and Qadir A (2011), Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 175(1-4), 9.
3. Alexakis D(2011), Environmental Monitoring Assessment, doi:10.1007/S10661-011-1884-2
4. APHA (1992), Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, Washington D.C:
American Public Health Association, 326.
5. BIS (2003), Drinking water Specification, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi IS:10500, 11.
6. Craig, E. and Anderson, M.P. (1979): The effect of Urbanization on Groundwater Quality – A case study.
Groundwater, Vol.17, No.5, pp.456-462.
7. Davis S.N. and Dewiest R.J.M.1966), Hydrogeology, New York, Wiley,463.
8. Eaton E.M.(1950), Soil Science ,69, 123.
9. European Community, (1980):“Council directive of 15 July 1980 relating to the quality of water intended for
human consumption”. Official Jour. Eur. Community, Brussels, Belgium 23 (1229), 11-23.
10. Garrers ,R.M.(1967),Genesis of some ground waters from igneous rocks .In: Ahelson pH(ed)Researches in
Geochemistry, Wiley ,New York ,405
11. Garg V.K., Sythar S, Singh S, Sheoram A, Garima M and Jari S (2009), Environmental Geology, 58, 1329.
12. Gupta S.K. and Gupta I.C.(1987), Management of Saline Soils and Water, Oxford and IBH Publication. Co.
New Delhi ,India ,399
13. Gustafson, D.L. (1993): “Pesticides in drinking water,” Van Hosfrand Reinhold, New York, pp.241.
14. Hamzaoui- Azaza F., Ketata M., Bouhlia R., Gueddari M., and Riberio L. (2011), Enviornmental Monitoring
and Assessmet 174,283.
15. Hem, J.d., (1991) study and interpretation of the chemical characteristics of natural water (3rd ed., p.263).
Jodhpur, India: United States Geological survey professional paper 2254, scientific pub.
16. Karanth, K.R. (1987): Groundwater Assessment, Development and Management, Tata Mc Graw Hill Public
Co. Ltd, New Delhi.
17. Mccarthy M.f. (2004), Medical Hypothesis, 63,138.
18. Patil. P.N, Sawant. D.V. Deshmukh. R.N., 2012. Physico-chemical parameters for testing of water A review.
International journal of environmental sciences Vol 3, (3) 1194-1207.
19. Saxena V.K., and Ahmed S., (20001), Enviorn geol, 40(8), 1084.
20. WHO (2004). Guidelines for drinking water quality. Geneva: world Health Organization.
21. WHO (1983). Guidelines for drinking water quality. Geneva: world Health Organization.

WATER CONSERVATION AND SOIL RESOURCE INVENTORY SURVEY
USING GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM AT BIO DIVERSITY
PARK, RAJENDRANAGAR, HYDERABAD
A. Shravan Kumar1 and D. Suresh2

1
Assistant Professor, Kommuri Pratap Reddy Institute of Technology, Ghatkesar, Hyderabad, 500 088
2
Executive Engineer, Begumpet Circle -30, GHMC Hyderabad, 500 016
ABSTRACT
Ground water is a precious resource and the most widely distributed resource of the earth. It plays a major role in
the livelihood of mankind by providing water for drinking, irrigation and industrial purposes. In many countries,
the decline of water level indicates that the resources are depleted very fast. It is, therefore, necessary to assess
the available subsurface resource in a more judicious scientific manner and then apply it for evolving optional
utilization purposes. In the present study soil samples were collected based on topography from various
physiographic units identified in Bio Diversity Park of Rajendranagar, Hyderabad. All the samples were
processed for physico-chemical and chemical characteristics. The results showed that variation in soil properties
strongly influenced by land form and topography. The analysis of soils indicated that the pH is neutral to
moderately alkaline (6.5 to 8.04), low to high in organic carbon (0.18 to 0.96 %), low to medium in CEC (11.5 –
26.5 c mol (p+) kg-1). The base saturation indicated that non-fertile to very fertile. The soils are low to medium
in available Nitrogen (N) (92.3 to 351.5 kg ha-1), low to medium in available Phosphorus (P) (6.22 to 28.2 kg ha-
1
), low to high in available Potassium (K) (93.1 to 293.4 kg ha-1), deficient to sufficient in available Sulphur (S)
(7.1 to 21.2 mg kg-1). Two sites were identified for the construction of check dams with an ultimate objective of
conservation and management after preparing of contour map at 0.5 contour intervals. The soil resource
inventory for identifying the soil related constraints has been prepared based on field survey and laboratory
investigation. Further the major constraints like erosion, runoff and drainage resulting in soil material loss must
be controlled with a combination of various practices in a system approach especially with trees, crops and an
abiotic component may be integrated for the restoration and conservation of soil and land resources including
native flora and fauna insitu. Hence appropriate soil and water conservation practices needed to be undertaken
simultaneously to conserve and preserve the native flora and fauna.
Keywords: Groundwater, Contour Map, Check Dams, Run off
INTRODUCTION
Geologic changes in soil composition, texture, and properties may require hundreds to thousands of years. Over
time, soils can turn into rocks, and rocks weather to form soils. In the last thirty-five years, however, it has been
realized that there are also changes in the properties of soils that can occur in weeks, months, and years, times more
relevant to engineers. Even though a huge quantity of surface water is available through rainfall, the topography
and other factors limit the storage of water. Where surface water is scarce, ground water assumes important in the
context of dry land areas. The scarcity of water resources can be alleviated to some extent by artificially recharging
the aquifers. According to the Comptroller and Auditor General of India, some of the water conservation structures
constructed in the drought prone areas turned out to be failure due to poor infiltration or poor recharging of the
aquifer. Such failures can be avoided by identifying the suitable sites for construction of conservation structures as
location of site plays major role in conserving the water resource. Water conservation technologies are not based on
annual rainfall only, but terrain, soil permeability land use and its variation on space. Time too plays an
important role in determining the sites. Hence, preparation of contour map considering topography, soil and land
use assumes significance in the identification of site for water conservation structures. In view of the above study
of Soil Resource Inventory of Bio Diversity Park, at Rajendranagar, Hyderabad is planned in this study.
488
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The aim of the present study is to develop the action plan for Land and Water conservation methods to be
implemented in the study area using topographical maps. The specific objectives are
1. To characterize the soils of Bio Diversity Park of Rajendranagar Hyderabad.
2. To identify suitable sites to create soil and water conservation structures based on topographical map.
LOCATION AND DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA

The current study area is Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, which is a part of Ranga Reddy district, Telangana State, and
spreads over an area of 60 hectares. The study area lies between 17o 18’ 57’' to 17o18’63’' latitudes and 78o24’88’'
to 78 o24’96’' longitudes and falls in Survey of India Toposheet No. 56K on a scale of 1: 25,000.
The undulating character of the terrain of the district, lends itself favorable to irrigation from canals, tanks,
wells, and streams. The net irrigated area in the district is 80227 hectares, of which canal irrigation accounts for
only 3.3 %, the remaining irrigation is through open wells, Tanks, bore wells and others. Red earth comprising
loamy soils, sandy loams and sandy clay loams. Red lateritic soils are present in Rajendranagar Mandal. The mean
normal annual rainfall of the district is 803 mm. The location map of the study area is as shown in fig.1.
Fig. 1 Location Map of the Study area
METHODOLOGY
To meet the set objectives, it is proposed to carry out the following methodology.
The Geographical Information System technology provides suitable alternatives for efficient management of large
and complex databases. Image data have been used as a primary source of natural resources information in
thematic mapping, which in turn is utilized in various hydrological studies.
1. Collection of soil samples from Agri-bio Diversity Park.
2. Estimation of physico-chemical properties of the soils.
3. Analysis of collected data to identify the soil classes.
4. Preparation of thematic maps for soil nutrients by Arc GIS Software.
5. Identification of suitable sites for soil and water conservation structures.
LITERATURE REVIEW
According to Wang et al. (2009) recorded factors determining soil nutrient distribution in a small-scale watershed
in the purple soil regions Sichung province, China illustrated that land use, topography and other variables play
important role in controlling the spatial distribution of soil nutrients including depth, texture, structure and
hydraulic properties of the soils. Further reported that particle size distribution, depth and topographical factors
were the dominant factors affecting the moisture and nutrient availability.
Malgwi and Abu (2011) reported the physical properties of soils formed on hilly terrain in ‘3’ identified
landscape positions upper, middle and lower positions. Mostly the lower landscape position compared to the other
positions got significantly (p<0.0001) higher silt and clay fractions, micro aggregate stability indices, porosity,
Organic Carbon (OC) and water retention characteristics. Of the three factors, the distribution of pore size classes
(except macro porosity), Bulk Density (BD) and water retained at various capacities were to a greater extent
influenced by changes in landscape positions whereas the distribution of OC and aggregate stability of the soils
were more dependent on changes in land use.
SOIL SAMPLING LOCATIONS

y Twenty profiles were taken in 60 ha of the study area.
y Global position system point was noticed in each profile using GPS within each profile, horizons were
identified based on the differences in colour, texture and resistance to penetration.
y Within pH, EC, CEC, OC (%), available N, P, K and S, exchangeable Ca, Mg.
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS AND RESULTS

Results of the analysis of physio- chemical characteristics of soils of study area are presented under the following
headings.
y 1 Characterization of soils
y 2 .Physico-Chemical Properties
y 3. Identification of suitable sites for soil and water conservation structure
CHARACTERIZATION OF SOILS
y Soil can be broadly divided into 5 major types on basics of the size of the particles
y Clay: It contains 45% clay, 45% silt and 10% sand
y Clay Loam: It contains 25% clay, 42% silt and 33% sand
y Loam: It contains 18% clay, 42% silt and 40% sand
y Silt: It contains 13% clay, 82% silt and 5% sand
y Sandy Loam: It contains 11% clay, 14% silt and 75% sand
Depth
y The data on effective soil depth (0-30cm) indicate that generally, in the study area of Bio Diversity Park.
y Physico-chemical properties
y Anions and Cations present in the soils are known as physio-chemical properties of the soils. Soil Reaction
(pH), Electrical Conductivity (EC), Cation exchange capacity (CEC) etc.
y Soil Physio-chemical properties of Biodiversity Park
Table 1 Physio-chemical properties of Biodiversity Park
Depth O C CaCO3 CEC

S.No No of soil Samples pH EC dSm-1
(cm) (%) (%) (c mol (p+) kg-1)
Sample 1 0-15 6.5 0.13 0.38 0.68 16.2
1
Sample 2 15-30 6.74 0.17 0.32 0.92 15.7
Sample 1 0-15 6.6 0.12 0.57 0.45 16.7
2
Sample 2 15-30 6.95 0.13 0.54 0.68 15.3
Sample 1 0-15 6.75 0.15 0.58 0.45 14.5
3
Sample 2 15-30 7.12 0.16 0.35 0.65 12.8
Sample 1 0-15 6.71 0.22 0.48 0.93 15.1
4
Sample 2 15-30 7.12 0.26 0.46 1.15 14.2
Sample 1 0-15 6.55 0.22 0.51 0.91 16.4
5
Sample 2 15-30 6.68 0.35 0.48 1.59 15.3
Sample 1 0-15 6.71 0.15 0.46 0.23 16.5
6
Sample 2 15-30 6.8 0.19 0.43 0.68 15.3
Sample 1 0-15 6.52 0.21 0.22 0.38 17.3
7
Sample 2 15-30 6.8 0.28 0.16 0.45 16.2
Sample 1 0-15 6.32 0.21 0.56 0.45 15.7
8
Sample 2 15-30 7.14 0.23 0.53 0.67 14.3
Sample 1 0-15 6.85 0.15 0.38 0.94 18.3
9
Sample 2 15-30 7.05 0.24 0.34 1.36 17.2
Sample 1 0-15 6.95 0.25 0.61 1.06 22.5
10
Sample 2 15-30 7.15 0.36 0.53 1.24 26.5
Sample 1 0-15 6.85 0.25 0.65 1.08 22.1

11
Sample 2 15-30 7.23 0.26 0.59 1.13 24.5
12 Sample 1 0-15 6.95 0.24 0.67 0.95 21.4
Sample 2 15-30 7.03 0.36 0.58 1.59 25.3
13 Sample 1 0-15 7.01 0.26 0.66 1.24 21.5
Sample 2 15-30 7.33 0.64 0.3 1.36 22.8
14 Sample 1 0-15 7.21 0.33 0.72 1.34 22.8
Sample 2 15-30 7.65 0.37 0.69 1.14 25.4
15 Sample 1 0-15 7.05 0.45 0.86 1.53 21.5
Sample 2 15-30 7.21 0.78 0.75 2.5 24.5
16 Sample 1 0-15 7.02 0.31 0.88 1.41 23.3
Sample 2 15-30 7.16 0.36 0.7 1.82 22.8
17 Sample 1 0-15 7.25 0.73 0.7 1.36 23.5
Table 1 contd...
Depth O C CaCO3 CEC

S.No No of soil Samples pH EC dSm-1
(cm) (%) (%) (c mol (p+) kg-1)
Sample 2 15-30 7.76 0.31 0.37 1.59 21.3
18 Sample 1 0-15 7.1 0.57 0.89 2.04 24.3
Sample 2 15-30 6.85 0.62 0.65 2.72 25.6
19 Sample 1 0-15 7.13 0.27 0.68 1.97 22.8
Sample 2 15-30 7.01 0.31 0.46 2.04 25.01
20 Sample 1 0-15 7.2 0.47 0.96 1.82 22.7
Sample 2 15-30 7.81 0.64 0.75 2.32 23.2
y Soil Reaction (PH)

The pH of all the profiles varied from 6.32 to 8.21. The lower pH value in surface horizons is mainly due to
leaching of bases due to rainfall.
y Electrical conductivity
The electrical conductivity of upland profiles ranged from 0.12 to 1.08 dS m-1. In all samples have relatively
less EC than sub surface and lower horizons, which increased with depth.
y Exchangeable Cations
The data on exchangeable cations are presented in Table.1. In all soils, calcium was the dominating cation on
the exchange complex followed by magnesium, sodium and potassium.
y Organic carbon
The organic carbon content in the study area ranged from 0.14 to 0.96 per cent. All soils of the study area fall
under low to medium category.
y CaCO3
The data on free calcium carbonate content are presented in Table.1. The results revealed that the calcium
carbonate content increased with depth in all the profiles. The calcium carbonate content in different profiles
ranged from 0.23 to 3.86 per cent.
• Cation exchange capacity (CEC)
The CEC of soil samples ranged from 11.8 to 26.5 c mol (p+) kg-1. The CEC values followed an increasing
trend with increasing depth in most of the samples, which indicate that, CEC concurrently followed the trend of
the clay distribution suggesting that, the CEC was primarily controlled by clay content.
Base saturation
y The base saturation of samples ranged from 43.24 to 88.13 per cent.
Available Nutrient Content of Soils of Biodiversity Park
Table 2 Nutrient Content of Soils of Biodiversity Park
N P K S
S.No No of soil Samples Depth (cm)
kg ha-1 mg kg- 1
Sample 1 0-15 138.42 15.2 133.41 12.2

1
Sample 2 15-30 132.35 14.5 124.52 11.6
Sample 1 0-15 221.32 17.06 126.38 14.5
2
Sample 2 15-30 140.05 18.4 118.41 12.6
3 Sample 1 0-15 194.72 20.5 121.18 10.1
Table 2 contd...
S.No. N P K S
No of soil Samples Depth (cm)
-1
kg ha mg kg- 1
Sample 2 15-30 181.24 19.6 109.07 9.4

Sample 1 0-15 214.12 18.05 147.82 11.5
4
Sample 2 15-30 128.36 16.4 139.48 10.8
Sample 1 0-15 201.05 10.8 135.45 10.2
5
Sample 2 15-30 178.71 8.6 127.81 9.7
Sample 1 0-15 214.45 10.2 177.12 13.1
6
Sample 2 15-30 208.36 9.6 156.08 11.4
Sample 1 0-15 216.04 19.8 129.14 13.1
7
Sample 2 15-30 134.52 18.33 116.18 11.4
Sample 1 0-15 202.95 20.74 173.74 9.8
8
Sample 2 15-30 195.47 19.62 162.38 7.4
Sample 1 0-15 143.25 9.81 141.67 13.5
9
Sample 2 15-30 120.84 8.65 130.54 12.1
Sample 1 0-15 312.46 25.83 144.23 15.2
10
Sample 2 15-30 251.35 19.04 136.58 13.5
11 Sample 1 0-15 243.32 22.92 187.94 15.1
Sample 2 15-30 197.81 21.06 166.32 12.8
12 Sample 1 0-15 250.46 23.07 149.42 17.5
Sample 2 15-30 224.35 18.95 125.36 15.4
13 Sample 1 0-15 305.92 27.13 152.59 16.4
Sample 2 15-30 216.84 21.34 147.43 12.8
14 Sample 1 0-15 334.08 26.8 293.56 21.2
Sample 2 15-30 281.42 24.6 218.02 18.5
15 Sample 1 0-15 345.45 24.5 150.16 20.5
Sample 2 15-30 293.36 22.2 135.45 18.2
16 Sample 1 0-15 348.23 26.01 289.17 17.8
Sample 2 15-30 242.08 24.02 267.34 15.3
17 Sample 1 0-15 318.34 25.05 148.52 18.1
Sample 2 15-30 205.55 20.06 131.46 15.2
18 Sample 1 0-15 326.51 24.9 282.34 19.1
Sample 2 15-30 258.74 21.1 251.58 16.3
19 Sample 1 0-15 324.18 26.5 134.14 18.5
Sample 2 15-30 273.56 21.5 123.65 16.3
20 Sample 1 0-15 351.57 28.6 181.25 18.2
Sample 2 15-30 252.24 23.6 173.32 17.8
Available Nitrogen (N)

The data on available N are presented in and soil fertility map is prepared with the analysis of N in surface soil
samples. The data on nutrient content in the soils of Agri Bio Diversity Park indicated that the soils of available N
is ranged from 120.8 to 351.57 kg ha-1. The less available N content in the upland soils might be due to the faster
degradation and consequent removal of organic matter with alluvial and colluvial processes.
Fig. 2 Avalable Nitrogène of Bio Diversity Park, Rajendranagar Hyderabad.
Available Phosphorus (P)

y The data on available P are presented in the Table.2 and prepared a fertility map considering surface soil
samples Shown in Fig.1. The available P content also following a similar trend along with N where
subsurface soil horizons recorded lower P content as compared to surface horizons. The available P content
ranged from 6.2 to 27.34 kg ha-1. The continuous increase in P content from upland to lowland might be
attributed to the particulate accumulation through translocation of materials.
Fig. 3 Avalable Phosphorus of Bio Diversity Park, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad.
y Available Potassium (K)

The data on the available K content is shown in Table.2 indicated that, K content gradually decreased with
depth in all profiles. The available K was in the range of 101.39 to293.56 kg ha-1. The available K content in
the study area was low to high. The available K was comparatively high in lowlands, because of finer
fractions in their horizons and the available form of K decreased with depth.
Fig. 4 Avalable Potassium of Bio Diversity Park, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad.

y Available Sulphur (S)
The data in Table shows the available sulphur content ranging from 7.1 to 21.2 mg ha-1 and the surface soil
horizons recorded lower available sulphur content as compared to surface horizons. The higher content of
sulphur in lower surface might be due to the particulate and carbon migration from the uplands.
Topographic Map Generation
y Coordinates were imported for contour generation.
y The contours were exported into a DXF file which was imported into an ARC GIS drawing.
y A DXF file was created for the surveyed coordinates and also imported into said drawing.
y The map was completed with the addition of annotation, border, and grid. Map contained all topographic
and planimetric features encompassed within the mapping limits.
y The map properly depicted the existing site conditions as necessary to properly identify site for
conservation structure.
y Detailed map with 1:2500 scale with all internal details indicating location of naturally grown trees, creek,
wells, electric transmission lines, telephone lines, pipelines, nallah, adjoining roads with 0.5 m contour
interval has been prepared.
y All Horizontal and Vertical Control are shown on the map relative to their true position.
y Detailed maps with 0.5 m contour intervals are shown in Fig. The elevation of the area in ranged from 550
to 572.5 m. There is possibility of constructing the water conservation structures at points which are shown
in Fig with yellow circles.
y The location of identified site for conservation structures are given as. Check Dam (1) with point serial
206, 225361.26 E, 1915421.06 N and height 552.059 m to point serial 207, 225385.13 E, 1915400.24 N
and height 552.064 m. Check anti check Dam (2) 225177.7395 E, 1915393.18 N and height 550 m to
225149.4785 E, 1915430.8003 N, height 550 m.
y There is also another possibility that the water tank can be constructed on the top of hillock and water can
be pumped into the tank, and subsequently the stored water can be supplied to herbs, sherbs, tree saplings
and other new plantation blocks during summer and moisture stress period in downward areas by gravity
slope. But, the energy requirement to pump water into the tank will be higher.
Fig. 5 Details of Surveying and contouring Map of Biodiversity Park
SUMMARY
y The data on chemical properties like pH, EC, OC and CEC exhibited that pH and EC are consistently
increased with the depth.
y Essentially the data on pH indicated that most of the soils of Bio Diversity Park are acidic to neutral. The OC
content was low to medium, the trend of CEC might be due to the clay translocation.
y Further the OC content sharply decreased.
y In all the soils calcium was most dominant cation followed by magnesium.
y The available N was low to medium in N content.
y In the case of P, soils are following a trend like low to medium soils. Whereas the K content was low to high.
Exchangeable Na and K content decreased.
y Soil related constraints are inferred from the field survey and laboratory analysis that the soils are witnessing
a severity of erosion and gravel content, low organic carbon and less in available nutrients.
y Further on the basis of the topographical and planimetric data of two sites are identified for the construction
of check dams with an ultimate objective of conservation and management.
y Two sites were identified based on topographic mapping and contour elevation for construction of water
harvesting structures at 555.629-572.11 latitude and longitude positions.
CONCLUSIONS
y Finally, the study of characterization of Bio Diversity Park the data generated and basic information at initial
stage is very useful to know the nutrient status and to overcome soil management constraints for further
development and maintenance of park in better way.
y The highest elevation contour is 550 meters and the lowest elevation contour identified is of 572.5 meters
above the mean sea level.
y There is a possibility that the water tank can be constructed on the top of hillock and water can be pumped
into the tank, and subsequently the stored water can be supplied to herbs, sherbs, tree saplings and other new
plantation blocks during summer and moisture stress period in downward areas by gravity slope.
y But, the energy requirement to pump water into the tank will be higher.
REFERENCES
1. Balpande, H. S., Challa, O and Jagdish Prasad. 2007. Characterization and classification of Grape-growing soils in
Nasik district, Maharashtra. Journal of Indian Society of Soil Science. 55: 80-83.
2. Dhale, S. A and Prasad, J. 2009. Characterization and classification of sweet orange –growing soils of Jalna district,
Maharastra. Journal of Indian Society of Soil Science. 57 (1): 11-27.
3. Durbude, D. G and Venkatesh, B. 2014. Site suitability analysis for soil and water conservation structures. Journal of
Indian Society of Remote Sensing. 32 (4): 399-405.
4. Gabhane, V. V., Jadhao, V. O and Nagdeve, M. B. 2006. Land evaluation for land use planning of a Macro-watershed
in Vidarbha region of Maharastra. Journal of Indian Society of Soil Science. 54(3): 307-315.
MODELING OF ROAD ACCIDENTS
Akula Prakash1 and Kandlagunta Mounika2
1
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of Engineering and Technology (Autonomous),
Hyderabad – 500090. akulprakash93@gmail.com
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, CMR Institute of Technology (Autonomous), Kandlakoya, Medchal,
Hyderabad-501401. mounika.kandlagunta@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The rapid growth in the personalized vehicles leads to increasing in the traffic congestion. And also it leads to
increasing in number of accidents. So Road safety is considered as one of the most important problem facing in
the modern society. Accidents are major socio economic problem in the world. Accidents are causing loss to the
nation in terms of GDP, which is the important indicative factor of development of the nation. Most of the
accidents are caused due to a multi factor events and are not only due to driver’s fault, on account of driver’s
negligence or ignorance of traffic rules and regulations, but also due to many other related factors such as
changes in the road condition, traffic flow characteristics, road user’s behavior, weather conditions, visibility and
absence of traffic guidance, control and management devices, lack of necessary awareness among the people
accessing the facility and absence of strict monitoring enforcement over it. If the major causal factors of road
accidents are collected, then the systematic road safety program would require special attention, as up gradation
of total road network would be time consuming apart from requiring huge financial resources, which may be
difficult to mobilize. The quick and cost effective step in improving road safety may be to identify accident
prone locations and improve them instead of improving the complete network. Therefore the present study is
mainly focusing on the effect of the road traffic parameters on the accidents. Models are developed based on the
dependent variable such as accident rate and independent variables are such as road traffic parameters like traffic
volume, speed, pedestrian volume, width of carriage way, V/C ratio, number of lanes etc. The models can be
useful to determine expected accident reduction if improvement measures are carried out in future.
Keywords: Traffic flow, Road Accidents, Road Safety, Traffic parameters
INTRODUCTION
Road safety is considered as one of the most important problem facing in the modern society. It is mainly because
of increasing in number of accidents due to increasing in personalized vehicles. According to WHO statistics
(2015) about more than 12 lakh people die and 20 – 50 million people injured every year in road accidents around
the world. And according to Institute of road traffic education(IRTE,2015) injuries in global crashes is about 50
million and deaths in global crashes is about 1.3 million and still raising. 91.5% of accidents are occurring in low
and middle income countries. Accident is an unexpected event that interrupts the completion of an activity. The
Predictable accidents are avoidable and unpredictable accidents are unavoidable. Road crash fatalities and
casualties have been increasing over the past twenty years. The problem of road accidents around the world is
increasingly becoming the main concern of the general public, particularly those in relevant government agencies
such as the Ministry of Transport, Ministry of Works and the Traffic Police. It is a known fact that India has one of
the highest accident rates in the world because of the rapid growth of motor vehicles in the recent past and the
inadequacy of road systems and narrow streets dominated by slow moving vehicles.
Analysis of previous data indicates that 83.5% of the accidents occur due to human error and 16.5% due to road
parameters such as road and vehicle interaction, other road user and environmental factors (Jagnoor, 2012). Road
accidents are causing huge economic loss and various strategies have been embarked upon to reduce the number of
accidents. It is leading to an annual cost of US$500 billions. India has a wide road network of 3.3 million km,
consisting of National Highway (NH), State Highway (SH), Major District Roads (MDR) and Other District roads
(ODR) (Deportment of Road Transport and Highways). National Highways constitute 2% of the total road length
and carries more than 40% of passenger traffic and 85% of goods traffic and have registered more accidents
accounting for 20%, as compared to other roads (National Highways Authority of India, April 2014).
498
Global Road Accidents Scenario

Accidents and the fatalities on road are the result of inter-play a number of factors. Road users in India are
heterogeneous in nature, ranging from pedestrians, animal-driven carts, bi- cycles, rickshaws, handcarts and tractor
trolleys, to various categories of two/three wheelers, motor cars, buses, trucks, and multi-axle commercial vehicles
etc. The mortality rate in India is 8.6 per hundred thousand populations as compared to 5.31 in UK, 4.88 in
Sweden, and 6.65 in Japan (Source: For India, Department of Road Transport & Highways; For Other
Countries World Road Statistics, 2013). The cost of road crashes has been assessed at one to two per cent of GDP
in developed countries. Region wise global percentage of Road fatalities, vehicles, and population are presented in
Table 1.
Table 1 Region wise global percentages of Road fatalities, vehicles, and population
Global Percentage of
Region
Road Fatalities Vehicles Population
Highly Motorized Countries 14 60 15
Asia/ Pacific 44 16 54
Central/ Eastern Europe 12 6 7
Latin America/ Caribbean 13 14 8
Africa 11 4 11
Middle East/ North Africa 6 2 4
Total 100 100 100
(Source: International Road Federation (IRF), United Nations annual yearbooks, World Health Organization (WHO) publications, 2010)
Accident Scenario in India

Road accident Studies have indicated that accident rate in developing countries are high compared with those in
developed countries. In India, according to (NCRB, 2015) official statistics 118,239 persons were killed in road
traffic crashes in 2014. According to these statistics 318,316 persons were killed in unnatural accidents in 2014.
The National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) and WHO states that at least 13 people dying every hour on Indian
roads, India has topped the global list of deaths in road accidents, leaving behind the world's most populated
country – China. A study by the planning commission in 2008 estimated that the annual cost of road accidents is
about 55,000 corers in India. Road accidents in India are a cause for growing concern and road accidents cost
around 3% of Annual Gross domestic Product (GDP).
Various Studies indicate that the actual number of injuries could be 15 to 20 times the number of deaths.
Accident risk is quite serious in the metropolitan cities of India. The most vulnerable group involved in road traffic
accidents is of non-motorized road users. The non-motorized road users consisting of pedestrians, cyclists and other
slow-moving vehicle riders are the most vulnerable group involved in road traffic accidents in almost every city in
India. Maximum fatalities occur among the pedestrians and cyclists as the majority in metropolitan cities of India.
It was observed that pedestrian facilities are quite inadequate and improper. The footpaths are either non-existing or
are being encroached for various non-transport usages. Motorized two wheelers and cars have a higher involvement
in non-fatal crashes than in fatal crashes. Road related accident scenario in India from 2008-2014 are presented in
Table 2
Table 2 Road Accident Deaths vs. Total Accidental Deaths in India (2008-2014)
No.of accidental deaths
SL.No Year % Share in unnatural total accidents
Total road accidents Total unnatural
1 2008 84,059 2,43,399 34.5
2 2009 84,430 2,44,671 34.5
3 2010 91,376 2,58,326 35.2
4 2011 98,254 2,71,760 36.2
5 2012 1,05,725 2,93,302 36.1
6 2013 1,14,590 3,15,641 36.3
7 2014 1,18,239 3,18,316 37.1
(Source: Accidents scenario in India NCRB (2015)
LITERATURE REVIEW
Gwynn (1967) developed a relation between crashes and traffic flow on US route 22 through the city of Newark,
new jersey. They had taken hourly volumes on every day between the years 1959 to 1963. Crash rates were
computed and plotted against the volume class. Then they found a ‘U’ relationship with more crashes was observed
at higher and lower traffic volume.
Kadiyali et al (1984) developed an accident model based on population and motor vehicle by using regression
technique. They have collected accident data for 20 years (1960-1980), population and number of motor vehicles
India. Based on the past trend a regression equation is developed based on number of deaths per 10,000 vehicles
(D) and number of motor vehicles per 1000 population (V) and is as follows.
D = 91.5147V-0.2475
Where, D = number of deaths per 10000 vehicles
V = number of vehicles per 1000 population.
Liang and Zeger (1986) proposed the generalized estimating equations procedure (GEE) overcomes these
difficulties by making it relatively easy for a modeler to develop proper and unbiased marginal models for
repeatedly measured data. The procedure can be used even if the extent and the type of correlation are unknown.
Several statistical software packages already have a built-in GEE calibration facility. This model is compared to
one which does not incorporate trend and to GLMs which do not account for temporal correlation in the accident
count data. It is necessary to first provide some background on accident modeling before introducing the GEE
concept.
Rahim F. Benekohal et al (1992) computed the accident reductions for the two-lane rural highways.
Mathematical models are developed for accident frequency prediction on before and after study with control sites.
Accident data for two years before and two years after the improvements were collected. One linear and three
multiplicative form models were used to fit the accident data collected from 51 projects with a total length of 349
miles.
Persaud and Musci (1995) used hourly traffic volumes in regression models for estimating the accident potential
on two-lane rural roads. They used data from Ontario, Canada and used different combinations of time periods and
geometric characteristics. Single vehicle accidents were particularly studied and the models showed that the
accident potential was higher during the night. On the other hand, for multi-vehicle accidents the accident potential
was higher during the day. The study also emphasized the importance in differentiating between single or multi-
vehicle accidents and day or night conditions.
Vogt and Bared (1997) developed accident models for two-lane rural segments and intersections. Advanced
statistical techniques were used in this study, adopting extensive accident and roadway data. Despite the fact that
these models had as a primary objective of the effect of design elements; such models refer to a roadway class,
two-lane rural roads, which has a high accident rate. The Highway Safety Information System (HSIS) was used in
this study as the main source of data. Models were focused on segments and intersections. Negative binomial and
Poisson models were considered for both cases.
Vogt and Bared (1997) concluded that the data used for these models offered reasonable representations of the
effects of high way variables on accidents. The State accident statistics for a given highway or intersection class
can be used to obtain proportions of accidents by severity types. However, the Poisson, negative binomial and
logistic models were used to model severities without significant results.
Zhos and Sisiopiku (1997) performed a study on interstate 94 in Michigan. The study was similar to Gwyan
(1967). In this study, instead of volume, V/C ratio was taken and they developed a ‘U’ relationship between V/C
ratio and crash rates.
Lui and McGee (1998) used logistic regression to analyze the probability of fatal outcomes of accidents given
that the crash has occurred. In yet another study, a logistic regression approach was used to examine a contribution
of individual variable to the injury severity. Logistic regression is a type of regression, where the dependent is a
categorical as opposed to a numerical variable has been the most popular technique in developing injury severity
prediction models.
Rama Chandra Rao Kalaga et al (2002) carried out the statistical measures of coefficient of variation and
coefficient of concentration on suitable descriptors of clustering. Site location considered as Durban Metropolitan
Region, accident data, average daily traffic (Veh/day), lane width for each section of roads and regression analysis
is carried for finding out a best prediction model for accidents in selected zone. Predictive equations based on
linear, exponential and quadratic models are developed by regression approach.
METHODOLOGY
Methodology adopted in the present study is explained, as shown in Figure 1. Various steps are discussed in the
subsequent articles.
Fig. 1 Study Methodology

Preparation of accident data format
The First stage of the study includes preparation accident data format to collect the accident data from the police
stations. The forms are prepared based on IRC: 53 – 1982.These forms if filled properly provide the necessary
information of the location, type of area, Classification of the accident vehicles and others involved in the accident,
etc. The formats of the forms have been designed to facilitate computer processing. These forms are given in
Appendix A.
Accident data collection from secondary sources
The accident data is collected from secondary sources from police records the required data should be tabulated
according to the date and day of occurrence, time of accident, type of area, nature of the accident, cause of the
accident, vehicles involved, classification of accident, No. of deaths, No. of injured, Type of maneuver,
responsibility of the Driver etc.
Collection of road traffic data
On the selected stretch detailed traffic and pedestrian volume surveys are carried out to measure the road traffic
volume parameters and pedestrian volume include speed, carriageway width, and number of lanes.
Tabulation and general analysis of accident data
The collected data has to be tabulated in MS-Access and preliminary analysis has to be carried out. Preliminary
analysis includes total number of accidents in police station regions by Year wise and severity wise, Composition
of vehicles involved in the accidents, Nature of accidents occurred, time wise distribution of accidents, Accidents
according to Drivers age, monthly wise distribution of accidents etc.
Preliminary analysis
Detailed analysis will be carried out to know the annual, monthly and hourly variations of accidents etc. Data
collected through field investigations will be analyzed and the details are tabulated.
Model development
NCSS is a comprehensive system for analyzing data. NCSS can take data from almost any type of file and use them
to generate tabulated reports, charts and plots of distributions and trends, descriptive statistics, and complex
statistical analyses.
Multiple linear regression
Multiple linear regression estimates the coefficients of the linear equation, involving one or more independent
variables that predicts the value of dependent variable.
Assumptions
• For each value of the independent variable, the distribution of the dependent variable must be normal.
• The variance of the distribution of the dependent variable should be constant for all values of the
independent variable.
• The relationship between the dependent variable and each independent variable should be linear, and all
observations should be independent.
Data
• The dependent and independent variables should be quantitative.
• Categorical variables, such as religion, major field study, or region of residence need to be recorded to binary
(dummy) variables or other types of contrast variables.
Linear regression variable selection methods:
Method selection allows the specification of independent variable into the analysis. Using different methods, a
variety of regression models constructed from the same set of variables.
1. Enter (Regression)
This is a procedure for variable selection in which all the variables in a block are entered in a single step.
2. Stepwise
In this method, at each step, the independent variable not in the equation that has entered in a smallest
probability of F is entered, if that probability is sufficiently small. Variables already in the regression equation
are removed if their probability of F becomes sufficiently large. The method terminates when no more variables
are eligible for inclusion or removal.
3. Remove
This method explains the procedure for variable selection in which all variables in a block are removed in a
single step.
4. Backward Elimination
In this method, all variables are entered into the equation and then sequentially removed. The variable with the
smallest partial correlation with the dependent variable is considered first for removal. If it meets the criterion
for elimination, it is removed. After the first variable is removed, the variable remaining in the equation with the
smallest partial correlation is considered next. The procedure stops when there are no variables in teh equation
that satisfy the removal criteria.
5. Forward selection
This is a stepwise variable selection procedure in which variables are sequentially entered into the model. The
first variable considered for entry into the equation is the one with the largest positive or negative correlation
with dependent variable. This variable is entered into the equation only if it satisfies the criterion for entry. If
the first variable is entered, the independent variable not in the equation that has the largest partial correlation is
considered next. The procedure stops when there are no variables that meet the entry criterion.
Regression Statistics
The following statistics are available
Regression Coefficients
Estimates displays Regression coefficient B, standard error of B ,standardized coefficient beta and t value for B.
Confidence intervals displays 95% confidence intervals for each regression coefficient .A correlation matrix is also
displayed.
Model fit
The variables entered and removed from the model are listed, and the following goodness-of-fit statistics are
displayed: R2 value, adjusted R2, standard error of the estimate, and an analysis of variance table.
R squared
Goodness-of-fit measure of a linear model, sometimes called the coefficient of determination. It is the proportion of
variation in the dependent variable explained by the regression model. It ranges in value from 0 to 1, small values
indicate that model does not fit the data well.
R square changed
This parameter denotes the change in the R2 statistic that is produced by adding or deleting an independent
variable. If the R2 change associated with a variable is large, that means the variable is good predictor of the
dependent variable.
Descriptive
Descriptive provide the number of valid cases, the mean, and the standard deviation for each variable in the
analysis. A correlation matrix with a one-tailed significance level and the number of cases for each correlation are
also displayed.
Observed Significance Level
This is often called the p value. This is the basis for deciding whether or not to reject the null hypothesis. It is the
probability that a statistical result as extreme as the one observed would occur if the null hypothesis were true. If
the observed significance level is small enough, usually less than 0.05 or 0.01, the null hypothesis is rejected.
Partial Correlation
The correlation that remains between two variables after removing the correlation that is due to their mutual
association with the other variables.
Part Correlation
Part Correlation is the correlation between the dependent variable and an independent variable when the linear
effects of the other independent variables in the model have been removed from the independent variable.
Tolerance (Regression)
A statistic used to determine how much the independent variables are linearly related to one another (multi
collinear). The proportion of a variables variance not accounted for by other independent variables in the equation.
A variable with very low tolerance contributes little information to a model, and cause computational problems. It
is calculated as 1 minus R squared for an independent variable when it is predicated by the other independent
variables already included in the analysis.
Variance inflation factor (VIF)
VIF is the reciprocal of the tolerance. As the variance inflation factor increases, so does the variance of the
regression coefficient, making it an unstable estimate. Large VIF values are an indicator of multi co-linearity.
If the VIF is “high” for one or more variables (greater than 10.0), then we can assume that multi co-linearity
is going to be problem.
If the VIF is greater than 4.0 for one or more variables, then the multicollinearity may be a problem.
If the VIF is less than 4.0 for all variables, then the multicollinearity probably will not be a problem
For each model, regression coefficients, R2, adjusted R2, Root mean squared error (Standard error) of the
estimate, T test, F ratio values are calculated.
NCSS package will be used for model development
Figure 2 is the NCSS input window through which the data has been entered. After giving the accident rate as
the dependent variable and traffic volume, pedestrian volume, speed, and other road traffic parameters as the
independent variables. By running the program the model and other correlations can be obtained.
Fig. 2 NCSS Multiple regression input window
Accident data Analysis for stretch (Malkapuram To Syedmuzavarpet)

Yearly Variation of Accidents During 2011 to 2015 (May)
Total numbers of accidents registered along the stretch, located in NH-9, police station wise are represented in
Table 3. The total distance covered is 115 kilometers. Total 2048 accidents were recorded during 2011 to
2015(May), out of these 679 were fatal accidents and 1369 were non-fatal accidents. More number of accidents
occurred in Choutuppal police station region than remaining police station regions. The police station wise
distributions of accidents are graphically presented in Figure 3.
Table 3 Police station wise accidents occurred in stretch 1
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 (May)
Police Station Distance Total
F NF F NF F NF F NF F NF
Choutuppal 22 24 62 43 69 40 86 41 43 14 15 437
Chityala 18 18 36 37 50 20 59 23 50 9 19 321
Narketpally 13 13 31 19 31 15 33 15 36 4 6 203
Kattangur 15 18 41 15 24 17 41 18 35 4 9 222
Narketpally 6 10 30 11 28 14 33 6 19 2 8 161
Kethapally 8 16 24 14 37 14 29 18 29 5 9 195
Suryapet Urban 8 10 23 15 21 19 30 10 16 2 7 153
Suryapet Rural 10 9 59 15 37 14 30 20 25 3 8 220
Chivvemula 15 16 19 14 21 3 20 11 24 1 7 136
Total 115 134 325 183 318 156 361 162 277 44 88 2048
Fig. 3 Police station wise accidents occurred in stretch
Monthly Variation of Accidents During 2011 to 2015 (May)

The analysis of month wise distribution of accidents indicates that most of the accidents were occurred in the
months of January, March, and April. Table 4 shows the month wise distribution of accidents during the years from
2006 to 2010(May). Monthly distributions of accidents are graphically presented in Fig 4.
Table 4 Month wise accidents during 2012 to 2016(May)
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 (May) Total
Month Total
F NF F NF F NF F NF F NF F NF
JAN 14 34 21 34 12 28 7 32 9 29 63 157 220
FEB 10 14 14 27 15 26 17 26 10 19 66 112 178
MAR 12 34 20 23 16 41 13 21 11 18 72 137 209
APR 17 32 23 41 12 24 13 14 14 22 79 133 212
MAY 9 31 21 31 19 30 18 26 * * 67 118 185
JUN 14 32 15 25 13 24 16 24 * * 58 105 163
JUL 11 20 7 27 13 31 11 26 * * 42 104 146
AUG 13 26 14 21 13 24 9 35 * * 49 106 155
SEP 12 29 12 20 9 36 16 21 * * 49 106 155
OCT 8 19 10 18 8 24 16 22 * * 42 83 125
NOV 4 24 17 30 8 35 17 20 * * 46 109 155
DEC 10 30 9 21 19 37 8 11 * * 46 99 145
* indicates data not available
Fig. 4 Month wise Accidents during 2011-2015 (May)

Nature of Accident Occurred

The rear end collision and head on collision are more due to misjudgment of speeds between following and
opposing vehicles, as show in Table 5 and presented graphically in Figure: 5.
Table 5 Nature of accidents occurred
NATURE OF ACCIDENT NO.OF ACCIDENTS % of Accidents

Overturning 108 5
Head on collision 854 42
Rear end collision 544 27
Collision brush 348 17
Right angled collision 20 1
Skidding 31 2
Right turn collision 5 0
Hit tree 37 2
Hit n run 101 5
Total 2048 100
Fig. 5 Composition of Nature of Accidents

Time Wise Distribution of Accidents
The time of occurrence of accidents is categorized into hourly blocks indicating that the accidents are distributed
throughout the day. It is seen that the accidents occurred during day and night are in equal proportions. From Table
6 it is observed that more accidents are occurring during 19:00 to 20:00 and 16:00 to 17:00 hours and presented
graphically in Figure 6.
Table 6 Time wise distribution of accidents
HOUR OF THE DAY NO OF ACCIDENTS HOUR OF THE DAY NO OF ACCIDENTS
0:00- 1:00 27 12:00-13:00 84
01:00 - 2:00 65 13:00-14:00 98
2:00- 3:00 57 14:00-15:00 79
3:00-4:00 71 15:00-16:00 96
04:00 - 5:00 62 16:00-17:00 127
5:00-6:00 70 17:00-18:00 120
6:00-7:00 92 18:00-19:00 107
7:00-8:00 71 19:00-20:00 137
8:00-9:00 87 20:00-21:00 108
9:00-10:00 88 21:00-22:00 72
10:00-11:00 100 22:00:00- 23:00 74
11:00-12:00 81 23:00-24:00 75
Fig. 6 Time wise distribution of accidents
Accidents Occurred at Different Places

Accidents occurred at different places are categorized as shown in Table 7. Most of the accidents occurred near the
villages where the highway is passing and graphical presentation is shown in Figure 7.
Table 7 Accidents occurred in different places
Type of area No of accidents % of accidents

Near school or college 29 1
Near or inside a village 1306 64
Near a factory 75 4
Near a religious place 35 2
In bazar 115 6
Near office complex 79 4
Near hospital 33 2
Residential area 57 3
Open area 50 2
Bus stop 181 9
Petrol pump 45 2
Pedestrain crossing 0 0
Effected by encrochments 8 0
Recreation place 30 1
Cause of Accident
The following Table 8 indicates that the cause of accident is mainly due to the fault of the driver which is 95% and
graphical presentation is show in Figure 8.
Fig. 7 Composition of Accidents occurred in different places

Table 8 Cause of the Accident
Fault of Driver Fault of Driver Defect In The

Cause of Fault of Poor Light Fault of
of Motor of Other Mechanical
Accident Pedestrian Condition Cyclist
Vehicle Vehicle Condition
No. of Accidents 1946 11 61 12 14 4

% of Accidents 95 1 3 1 1 0
Fig. 8 Composition of Cause of Accidents
Accidents based on Age of the Accused driver

More Number of accidents have been reported by the driver’s of age group of 20 – 30. The table showing the
accidents made by different age group drivers is presented in Table 9. The composition of accidents based on Age
of Accused driver is in the Figure 9.
Table 9 Cause of the Accidents based on driver’s age
DRIVER'S AGE NO.OF ACCIDENTS % of Accidents
0-10 0 0
10---20 7 1
20-30 492 26
30-40 750 39
40-50 457 24
50-60 159 8
60-70 44 2
>70 3 0
Fig. 9 Composition of accidents based on Accused vehicles driver’s age

Type of Vehicles Involved in the Accident

The analysis about the type of accused vehicle and victim vehicles involved in the accident reveals that as much as
52.5% of accused vehicles are Trucks/Lorry/Tractor and 23.6% of Car/van/Jeep. As much as 24.8% of victims are
two wheeler riders and about 15.1 % victims are pedestrians. The distribution of accused vehicles and victim is
summarized in Table 10 and presented graphically in Figure 10, respectively.
Table 10 Number of Accused and Victim Vehicles involved in the accident
Accused % of Accused Victim % of Victim
Vehicle Type
Vehicles Vehicles Vehicles Vehicles
2w 117 6 487 25
3w 147 7 225 11
Lorry 1045 52 381 19
Car 470 24 241 12
Bus 168 8 107 5
Cycle 0 0 65 3
Adv 0 0 93 5
Pedestrian 3 0 296 15
Unknown 42 2 67 3
Fig. 10 Composition of Accused vehicles and Victim vehicles involved in the Accident

The phenomenal growth of road transport has brought along with it the serious problem of traffic accidents. There
has been an increasing in personal vehicles leads to increase in the number of road accidents as well as casualties
from year to year. The present study is mainly intended to determine the effect of Traffic parameters on the road
accidents. Suitable models have been developed by the software package for the available data. The R2 values of
the models are having the range up to 0.90. Therefore, for the available data prediction models are developed to
relate the number of accidents with these road traffic factors using multiple linear regression technique.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions are drawn from the present study is:
(i) Maximum numbers of accidents are reported in the month of March and April.
(ii) Most accused type of vehicles causing accidents are the heavy vehicles like trucks and the victims are
pedestrians and two wheeler riders.
(iii) Head on and Rear end collisions are observed in more number of accidents.
(iv) The accidents occurring during day and night are almost equal in proportions.
(v) Highest numbers of accidents have occurred near the villages where the National Highway is passing.
(vi) Almost 90% - 95% of the cause of accidents is recorded as the fault of the driver.
(vii) Total Vehicular Traffic volume in that Motorized Vehicular volume, Segment length, V/C ratio, pedestrian
volume, Speeds are showing negative results with accidents. If those are increasing accidents may also
increase.
(viii) Number of lanes, Non-Motorized traffic volume showing positive results with accidents. If those are
increasing accidents may decrease.
(ix) Motorized vehicular traffic, Speed, Pedestrian volume, V/C ratio plays a major role in causing accidents.
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

While extracting the traffic data from detailed project reports in that the traffic surveys was conducted for only one
year. For all other remaining years the traffic details were projected based on the growth rate. Linear relationship
assumed between dependent and independent variable.
SCOPE FOR FURTHER STUDY

The present study can be further extended by considering number of access points at the mid block regions, various
intersection details, and geometric details. And they can be used in Development of a comprehensive model
considering all these parameters to assess the combined effect on the accidents.
REFERENCES
1. Andrew Vogt and Joe Bared (1998), “Accident Models for Two-Lane Rural Segments and Intersections”, TRB Paper
No.98-0294.
2. Charles V. Zegeer and John A.Deacon (1992), “Effect of Lane width, Shoulder width and Shoulder type on Highway
Safety”, TRB No: 3, 4.
3. Dahee Hong et.al (2005) “Development of Traffic Accident Prediction Models by Traffic and Road Characteristics in
Urban Areas” Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol. 5, pp. 2046 - 2061, 2005
4. Dinesh mohan (2009) “Road accidents in India”, Transportation Research and Injury Prevention Programme, Indian
Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India
5. Fajaruddin Bin Mustakim, Basil David Daniel, Kamaruddin Bin Ambak (2006), “Accident Investigation, Blackspot
Treatment and Accident Prediction Model At Federal Route FT50 Batu Pahat-Ayer Hitam”, ISSN 1823-6379, Vol.1, No
2, December 2006, University of Malaya.
6. Fajaruddin Mustakim et al (2008), “Black Spot Study and Accident Prediction Model Using Multiple Linear Regression”
Advancing and integrating construction education, research and practice, August 4-5, 2008
7. Hong, Dahee. & Lee, Youngkyun. (2000),” Development of Accident Prediction Models By Traffic and Road
Characteristics in Urban Areas,” Proceedings of The Eastern Asia Society For Transportation Studies, vol. 5, 2046-2061.
8. Jutaek Oh, Simon Washington, and Keechoo Choi (1998). “Development of accident prediction models for rural highway
Segments and Intersections”, FHWA-RD-98-133, October 1998
9. John Milton et.al (1998) “The Relationship Among Highway Geometrics, Traffic-Related Elements And Motor-Vehicle
Accident Frequencies” Transportation 25: 395–413.
10. Matthew G. Karlaftis, Ioannis Golias (2002), “Effects of road geometry and traffic volumes on rural roadway accident
rates”, Accident Analysis and Prevention 34, 357–365.
11. Micah.H.Maher and Summersgill (1995), “A Comprehensive Methodology for the fitting of Predictive Accident
Models”.
12. Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, Govt. of India, New Delhi, “Manual for safety in Road Design”, 1998.
13. M.bin islam et.al (2008) “Identification of factors in road accidents through in-depth accident analysis” Transportation
Engineering Program Manager, Thailand Accident Research Center, Thailand.
14. Dr. M. Parida, Dr. S.S. Jain and V.S. Landge (2006), “Stochastic modeling for traffic crashes on non urban highways in
India” ARRB Conference – Research into Practice, Canberra Australia.
15. Nikiforos Stamatiadis and Samantha Jones (1996). “Causal Factors for Accidents on Southeastern Low-Volume Rural
Roads”.
16. Nilambar Jha et.al (2004) “Epidemiological Study of Road Traffic Accident Cases: A Study from South India”. Indian
Journal of Community Medicine Vol. 29, No.1.
17. P.K.Patel and A.U.Ravi Shankar and P.K. Sikdar (1988), “Road Traffic and their Associated Problems in India”, Civil
Engineering Department, University of Roorkee.
18. P. Pramada Valli (2005) “Road Accident Models For Large Metropolitan Cities of India” IATSS Research, Vol.28, No.1.
19. Raghu bhushan k pasupathy (2000) “Single and multi vehicle crash prediction models” project UCNR 9-8, Final report.
20. Sarin S.M, “Road traffic Safety in India: Issues and challenges Ahead”, Indian highways, vol.26, no6, 19-29.
21. T.J. O’Neill and S. Ginpil (1994), “A Review of Statistical Methods for Road Traffic Accident Mass Databases”,
Department of Transport Federal Office of Road Safety.
22. Tomas Sliupas (2009) “The Impact of Road Parameters and the Surrounding Area on Traffic Accidents”. Dept of
Transport Engineering, Kaunas University of Technology.
23. Dr.T.S.Reddy et al (2005) “Traffic characteristics of India”. Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation
Studies, Vol. 5, pp. 1009 - 1024, 2005.
CORRELATION BETWEEN LAND SURFACE TEMPERATURE (LST) AND
NDVI USING IMAGE PROCESSING TECHNIQUES
L. Ravi1 and K. Manjulavani2
1
Research Scholar, CSIT, IST, JNTUH.
2
Professor, Civil Engineering, JNTUH.
ABSTRACT
Vegetation index provides massive information in transmutation of green canopy through spectral analysis. It
has a significant influence on the land Surface Temperature (LST) distribution. The objectives of this study are
to retrieve the LST and investigate the relationship between LST and NDVI. Urban agglomeration leads to
decline of vegetation, since it is as major aspect related to urban environment in terms of thermal exertion.
Remote sensing Imageries has several indices to analyze the vegetation in which NDVI is common and widely
used index having two different bands .USGS earth explorer Landsat –V,VIII satellite imagery used to study
650sq.km of GHMC Hyderabad Urban Area to contemplate the Surface temperature with vegetation indices.
Finally, It was found that the Land surface temperature(LST) was significantly affected by the health of
vegetation ,water bodies degradation and a negative correlation was observed between them.
Keywords: NDVI, LANDSAT.
INTRODUCTION
Scientists use Satellite Remote sensors to measure and map the density of Green vegetation over the earth.(John
Weier, et,al, 2000)The Vegetation analysis can be helpful in predicting the unfortunate natural disasters to provide
humanitarian aid, damage assessment and further more to device new protection strategies.(Meera Gandhi., et,al,
2015). The Remotesensing & GIS technology has been emerged as a good tool to analyze the change in land use &
land cover of the area at spatial and temporal scale.(Raviprakashsingh,et al,2016).The urban expansion process
hence needs to be monitored,quantified & understood for effective planning and the sustainable management of
natural resources (T.V.Ramachandran,et,al,2014.).\
Remotesensing Satellite imageries uses several indices to analyse the vegetation in which NDVI is a common
and widely used index(Meera Gandhi. et,al,2015).NDVI uses two wavelength bands i.e near-infrared radiation
minus visible radiation divided by near-infrared radiation plus visible radiation. NDVI extraction from remotely
sensed imageries is based on a per-pixel mechanism, which means the resulting NDVI is a regular grid-distributed
expression associated with the specific resolution of the data source.( Guobin Zhu,et al.)
Land use/cover change (LUCC) is an important factor affecting LST. The surface reflectance and roughness of
different land use types are different, thereby leading to differences in LST [HOU Guang-lei et al.,2010].Even
though LST depends upon factors other than NDVI, this paper concentrates only on the change in LST with respect
to NDVI neglecting all other factors. Since Vegetationcan effectively influence LST by selectively absorbing and
reflecting solar radiation energy and regulating latent and sensible heat exchange[Xiuliang Yuan et al., 2017]
STUDY AREA
Study Area Hyderabad is an historical city constructed on banks of Musiriver in 1591 at present city is the capital
of southern Indian state of Telangana and de jure capital of Andhrapradesh.Hyderabad is in 6th place in urban
agglomeration in India,Urban area with its vast expansion in buitup area,its also improving its vegetation area in
four corner of city as in the form of Biodiversity parks,zoo parks etc, prediction of city is about to expand its
vegetation(http://www.climatechangenews.com 2012).Hyderabad has 25 major & city level parks, 7 theme parks,
476 colony parks and 9 nurseries. t is observed that out of 99 National parks in India ,study area has three national
parks from it.
Many parks from it were constructed after 2000 so there is a scope in increase of vegetation as our result is also
contemplated with it.
512
Fig. 1 Topomaps of GHMC(Hyderabad city).
Toposheets from Survey of India to identify the boundaries of Greater Hyderabad Municipal
Corporation(GHMC) after following the geometric correction of images in JPG format,it is compared with GHMC
(Geo referenced Image with Google earth ground control points) map provided by website of
http://www.ghmc.gov.in/.
GHMC is the local governing authority covering an area of 650sq.km with perimeter of 240km

Satellite Data
USGS earth explorer is providing users the ability to query,search and order satellite images, It started with the first
Landsat satellite’s launch in 1972 and is continuing with Landsat 8, still operational. For almost 40 years, the
Landsat program has continuously collected spectral information from Earth’s surface; this unparalleled data
archive gives scientist the ability to assess changes in Earth’s landscape.
Table 1 Satellite Info

Satellite_Name Path/Row Spatial Resolution Date of Acquisition
Landsat-II 154/048 60*m 30th Nov 1977
*
Landsat-V 144/048 30m,120 (30) 22nd Feb 1989
Landsat-V 144/048 30m, 120*(30) 16th Dec 2004
*
Landsat-V 144/048 30m, 120 (30) 18th Jan 2011
Landsat-VIII 144/048 30m,100*(30) 05th Jan 2018
*Landsat-V TM Band 6 was acquired at 120-meter resolution, but products are resampled to 30-meter pixels.
* Landsat-VIII TIRS bands are acquired at 100 meter resolution, but are resampled to 30 meter in delivered data product
Fig. 2 Satellite images obtained from Landsat Satellite imageries.
Conversion of DN to Radiance
In raw remote sensing data, each pixel has a digital number value that corresponds to a raw measure acquired by
the sensor. To obtain quantitative information from images,the digital number must be converted to physical
quantities- radiance and brightness temperature for this study.The following equation is used to convert DN's to
radiance units for Landsat-V Satellite images:
Lλ = ((LMAXλ - LMINλ)/(QCALMAX-QCALMIN)) * (QCAL-QCALMIN) +LMINλ
where:
Lλ = Spectral Radiance at the sensor's aperture in watts/(meter squared * ster * μm)
QCAL = the quantized calibrated pixel value in DN
LMINλ = the spectral radiance that is scaled to QCALMIN in watts/(meter squared * ster * μm)
LMAXλ = the spectral radiance that is scaled to QCALMAX in watts/(meter squared * ster * μm)
QCALMIN = the minimum quantized calibrated pixel value (corresponding to LMINλ) in DN
QCALMAX = the maximum quantized calibrated pixel value (corresponding to LMAXλ) in DN= 255
(Landsat 7 Science Data Users Handbook,et al).
Below equation is used for Landsat-VIII
Lλ = ML*Qcal + AL
where:
Lλ = Spectral radiance (W/(m2 * sr * μm))
ML = Radiance multiplicative scaling factor for the band (RADIANCE_MULT_BAND_n from the
metadata)
AL = Radiance additive scaling factor for the band (RADIANCE_ADD_BAND_n from the metadata).
Qcal = L1 pixel value in DN
Conversion to Brightness Temperature
Where:
T = Effective at-satellite temperature in Kelvin
K2 = Calibration constant 2 from Table 11.5
K1 = Calibration constant 1 from Table 11.5
L = Spectral radiance in watts/(meter squared * ster * μm)
Convesion of brightness temperature from Kelvin to Celsius = T-272.15
Constant 1- K1 watts/(meter Constant 2 - K2

squared * ster * μm) Kelvin
Landsat 5 607.76 1260.56
Landsat VIII Band 10 774.89 1321.08
Landsat VIII Band 11 480.89 1201.14
NDVI calculation
NDVI is calculated from the values of reflectance of the Visible and Near Infrared Bands captured by the sensor of
the satellite.
NDVI=NIR- RED/NIR+RED
where NIR and RED are the amounts of near-infrared and red light, respectively, reflected by the vegetation and
captured by the sensor of the satellite. NDVI is a function that varies in the range [-1, +1]. Negative values
correspond to water, values close to zero, but positive values correspond to soils and further, from 0.2 to 0.6
indicate the presence of surfaces vegetated with maximum values around 0.8 for very dense vegetation. [P.A.
Brivio et al., 2006]
RESULTS
Fig. 3 Showing NDVI classification of 1977

Fig. 4 Comparison of NDVI & LST image of 1995
Fig. 5 Comparison of NDVI & LST image of 2004.

Fig. 6 Comparison of NDVI & LST image of 2011.
Fig. 7 Comparison of NDVI & LST image of 2018

Land Surface Temperature
Year Lmin Lmax
1995 22.75 35.58
2004 20.61 37.61
2011 20.10 36.07
2018 19.67 30.67
Fig. 8 Vegetation Change
CONCLUSION
In this study, the strong negative correlation between LST and vegetation is found. Waterbodies are very cool area
in urban study compared with vegetation. Temperature decrease from 1995 to 2018 as increase in vegetation, the
increases in NDVI lower daytime LSTmax and daily mean LST during spring, summer, and fall. Overall Satellite
data for study area carried out for spring season from October to March. Barren area with fewer shrubs implicated
with hot temperature in GHMC Hyderabad area, as it absorbs more heat and reflects high temperature.
REFERENCES
1. Guobin Zhu, Fuling Bian, and Mu Zhang ,”A FLEXIBLE METHOD FOR U RBAN VEGETATION COVER
MEASUREMENT BASED ON REMOTE SENSING IMAGES”, The Research Center of Spatial Information and
Digital Engineering, Wuhan University, Luoyu Road 129#, Wuhan, 430079, China.
2. HOU Guang-lei,ZHANG Hong-yan,WANG Ye-qiao,QIAO Zhi-he,ZHANG Zheng-xiang, (2010)
3. Retrieval and Spatial Distribution of Land Surface Temperature in the Middle Part of Jilin Province Based on MODIS
Data. Scientia Geographica Sinica 30, 421–427 (2010).
4. John Weier and David Herring “Measuring Vegetation(NDVI & EVI)” August 30, 2000.
(https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/MeasuringVegetation/measuring_vegetation_1.php).
5. Meera Gandhi.G, S.Parthiban, Nagaraj Thummalu , Christy. A,” Ndvi: Vegetation change detection using remote
sensingand gis – A case study of Vellore District”, 3rd International Conference on Recent Trends in Computing 2015
(ICRTC-2015), Procedia Computer Science 57 ( 2015 ) 1199 – 1210.
6. P.A. Brivio, G. Lechi, and E. Zilioli (2006), Principi e metodi di telerilevamento, CittàStudiEdizioni, Torino, pp. 449,479.
7. Ravi Prakash Singh, Neha Singh, Saumya Singh, and Saumitra Mukherjee,” Normalized Difference Vegetation Index
(NDVI) Based Classification to Assess the Change in Land Use/Land Cover (LULC) in Lower Assam, India”,
International Journal of Advanced Remote Sensing and GIS 2016, Volume 5, Issue 10, pp. 1963-1970ISSN 2320 - 0243,
Crossref: 10.23953/cloud.ijarsg.74
8. T. V. RAMACHANDRA, H. A. BHARATH, M. V. SOWMYASHREE, “URBAN FOOTPRINT OF MUMBAI - THE
COMMERCIALCAPITAL OF INDIA”, Journal of Urban and Regional Analysis,vol. VI, 1, 2014, p. 71 – 94.
9. Xiuliang Yuan, Wenfeng Wang, Junjie Cui, Fanhao Meng, Alishir Kurban & Philippe De Maeyer(2017) Vegetation
changes and land surface feedbacks drive shifts in local temperatures over Central Asia. [Online] Scientific Reports 7,
Article no.3287.
IMPACT OF TEXTILE EFFLUENTS ON THE GROUND WATER QUALITY
IN CHIRALA TEXTILE CLUSTER BY WATER QUALITY INDEX
K. Sri Lakshmi1 and M. Anji Reddy2

1 2
Research Scholar, Professor,Centre for Environment, Institute of Science and Technology, JNTUH, Hyderabad,
Telangana, India. sri.kamatham@gmail.com, mareddyanjireddi@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Ground water from Chirala, Andhra Pradesh, India, was collected and analysed to study the impacts of dyeing
industrial effluent on ground water quality. Physico-chemical parameters, namely EC, pH, TDS, COD, Nitrates,
Chlorides, Sodium, Sulphates were analyzed with standard analytic methods and compared with drinking water
standard. The concentrations for analysed parameters ranges from pH (7.52 to 7.62) EC (2795 to
6250Mhos/cm), TDS (1730 to 3826 mg/L), COD (98 to 204mg/l), Nitrate (up to 15 mg/L), Chloride (625 to
1592 mg/L), Sulphates (197 to 417 mg/L), and Sodium (up to 5.12 mg/L). In the present paper, Water Quality
Index is calculated to assess the level of ground water pollution. The Water Quality Index (WQI) of the ground
water ranged between 85.2 to 379.7 that indicates the water quality is very poor and is unfit for drinking purpose.
Keywords: Physico-chemical parameters; Water pollution; Textile industry, Water Quality Index
Abbreviations: EC: Electrical conductivity; TDS: Total soluble solids; COD: Chemical Oxygen
DemandWQI:Water Quality Index
INTRODUCTION
Water is the main source of life and the most important natural resource of the ecosystem [1]. Freshwater sources
like rivers, streams, lakes, ground water being the most important sources of water for human activities are of vital
concern for mankind. However, they are unfortunately under severe environment stress as their quality is being
deteriorated majorly by various anthropogenic activities and the natural phenomenon like volcanoes, earthquakes
etc contribute to a lesser effect [2]. At present, approximately 50% of the water is being used by households, and
the other 50% for industrial and agricultural activities. However, with an increasing population, there will be
pressure for industries to reclaim and reuse some of its waste water or face the prospect of being shut down.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Groundwater is used for domestic and industrial water supply and irrigation all over the world. In the last few
decades, there has been a tremendous increase in the demand for fresh water due to rapid growth of population and
the accelerated pace of industrialization. Human health is threatened by most of the agricultural development
activities particularly in relation to excessive application of fertilizers and unsanitary conditions. Rapid
urbanization, especially in developing countries like India, has affected the availability and quality of groundwater
due to its overexploitation and improper waste disposal, especially in urban areas. Once the groundwater is
contaminated, its quality cannot be restored by stopping the pollutants from the source. Inefficient treatments of
domestic and industrial wastewater along with presence of organic and pathogenic microorganisms found in
ground water receivers cause ground water pollution [3]. It therefore becomes imperative to regularly monitor the
quality of groundwater and to device ways and means to protect it. However, the extend of groundwater pollution
depends primarily on soil properties and various other factors influencing it include rainfall pattern, depth of water
table, distance from the source of contamination.
Textile industry is one that demands large quantities of water and produce large amounts of wastewater which is
characterised by strong colour and a high concentration of dissolved solids (organic and inorganic). Various studies
on assessment of pollution due to have been reported earlier [ 4, 5, 6].
OBJECTIVE
The objective of the present work is to discuss the suitability of groundwater for human consumption based on
computed water quality index values. Water quality index is one of the most effective tools [7] to communicate
information on the quality of water to the concerned citizens and policy makers. Water quality index provides a
519
siingle numberr that expressses overall waater quality ata a certain loocation and tiime, based on several waater quality
paarameters. Thhe objective of water quaality index iss to turn com mplex water quality
q data into
i informatiion that is
unnderstandablee and usable by the publicc. A single number
n cannoot tell the whhole story of water
w qualityy, there are
m
many other waater quality parameters
p thaat are not inccluded in the index. Howeever, a water quality indexx based on
soome very impportant param o water qualiity. In generaal, water quality indices
meters can proovide a simplle indicator of
inncorporate daata from multtiple water quality
q parammeters into a mathematical
m l equation thaat rates the health
h of a
w
waterbody witth number. WQI
W is calcullated from thhe point of viiew of the suuitability of groundwater
g f human
for
coonsumption.
STUDY AREA
Chirala is a toown at Prakassam district of
C o Andhra Praadesh, India geographically lies betweeen latitude 15.8136° N
annd longitude 80.3547° E (F Figure 1). Skkilled artisans started dyeinng and printinng units and itt has been operating for
a located onn either sidess of Kunderu drain that
neearly a centuury. Chirala teextile cluster has 58 indusstries which are
exxtends from epurupalem
e to
o vetapalem beyond
b whichh it confluencees with sea neearly 14Km from
f Chirala town.
t
Fig. 1 Locatiion Map of Stuudy Area
M
METHODOL
LOGY
Groundwater samples
G s are collected froom 27 locatioons during prre-monsoon period
p (Februuary 2017) near
n textile
inndustries locaated along kuunderu drainn. The samples were collected in highh grade plasttic bottles off one litre
caapacity after rinsing with Distilled watter. The sampple were brouught to the labboratory at Centre
C for Envvironment,
Jaawaharlal Nehhru Technolo ogical Universsity, Hyderabbad and the annalysis is carriied out withinn 24hrs.
All the grouundwater sam mples are annalysed for major
m pollutioon indicatingg parameters such as pH,, electrical
coonductivity, TDS,
T chloridee, sulphate, nitrate,
n m using standdard procedurres recommennded by APHA [8]. The
sodium
chhemical analyyses of the groundwater was done and compared
c witth BIS standaards for drinkiing water [9] and WHO
sttandards [10]]. Normal staatistics of water
w quality parameters were
w calculatted. The Waater Quality index
i was
evvaluated to asssess the water quality of ground waterr using some very importaant parameterrs that providde a simple
inndicator of waater quality. WQI
W and statuus of Water quality
q were presented
p in Table
T 4.
nt & Society (N
NCWES-20188) 521
C
CALCULATI
ION OF WA
ATER QUAL
LITY INDEX
X
T Weight Arrithmetic Waater Quality Inndex method has
The h been usedd for calculatiion of WQI [111]
T overall WQI
The W is determiined by using Equations:
WQI = ΣWiQi/ΣWii .....(1))
Unit weighht was calculatted as followiing:
Wi = wi/Σw
/ i .....(2)
Where, Wii is the relatiive weight, wi
w is the weigght of each parameter
p and Σwi is the sum of weigghts of all
paarameters.
Quality ratiing Qi was callculated as beelow:
Qi = (Vi/S
/ i) × 100 .....(3)
Where, Vi is observed concentrationn value of each
e parametter in each water
w sample and Si is IS
S standard
cooncentration value
v of each
h parameter.
WQI calcullation followss three steps. In the first steep, each of thhe chosen 8 paarameters aree assigned a weight
w (wi)
baased on theirr relative imp portance on quality
q of waater for drinkking purposess (Table 4). In I the secondd step, the
reelative weighht (Wi) is calculated accorrding to equaation (ii) andd tabulated (T Table 4). In thhe third step, a quality
raating scale (qi) for each paarameter is coomputed by dividing
d its obbserved conceentration in eaach water sam
mple by its
reespective stanndard accordinng to the guiddelines laid doown in the BIIS and the ressult multipliedd by100.
R
RESULTS AN
ND DISCUSS
SION
The minimum
T m, maximum, mean, median and standdard deviationn values gennerated from the analysis of the 10
saamples are prresented in Table1.
T The percent complliance of obtaained data wiith BIS standards for drinkking water
[99] are tabulateed in Table 2..
Table 1 Descriptivve statistics off Physico-chem

mical Quality off ground waterr
Table 2 Percent compliance of data with

w BIS standdards
Tablee 3 Relative weight

w of chemiical parameterss.
From the present

p investtigations it haas been obserrved that pH of ground waater was betw ween 7.52 andd 7.62 and
met drinking water
m w criteria. EC and TDS are importaant parameterrs to measuree the salinity hazard of waater. EC in
thhe present stuudy varies bettween 2795 annd 6250 µhoss/cm while TD DS values vaaried betweenn 1730 to 3826 mg/l. As
peer the classifiication of watter samples by Richards [112] all the sam mples fell undder high salinnity range. Grroundwater
cllassification based
b on TDS S given by Davis
D [13] shoows that 77% mples are unfiit for drinking purpose.
% of total sam
H
High TDS caauses hardnesss and gives corrosive prroperty to water. w The phhysico-chemiccal analysis of various
paarameters stuudied have co oncentrations: COD (98 to 204mg/l), Nitrate
N (up too 15 mg/L), Chloride (6225 to 1592
m
mg/L), Sulphaates (197 to 4174 mg/L), and a Sodium (up ( to 5.12 mg/L).
m COD,, nitrites and sodium are within the
peermissible lim mits while 33 3% of samplles showed concentration
c of sulphatess within the permissible
p limits. The
W
Water Quality Index (WQI) of the grounnd water rangged between 85.2 to 379.77 that indicatees the pollution level is
veery high. Thee water quality y is very poorr and is unfit for drinking purpose
p (Table 4).
Table
T 4 Water Quality Index (WQI) and staatus of Water quality
q [14].
% wateer
WQI vallue Wateer quality statuss
sampless
0-25 Excellent water qualitty
26-50 Goood water quality
51-75 Pooor water quality
76-1000 Very Poor
P water qualiity 11
>100 Unsuiitable for drinkinng 88.88
C
CONCLUSIO
ON
EC of all wateer samples shows high saliinity that couuld be due to close proxim
E mity of region to the sea. However,
H it
shhould be menntioned that continuous discharge
d of chemicals annd salts from m textile dyeinng units shouuld not be
ovverlooked. Most
M of the samples
s had all the param meters withinn permissiblee limits but only,
o EC andd TDS are
shhowing higheer values whicch indicate thhat to use the water
w for dom
mestic purposse certain leveel of treatmennt is highly
esssential. Almoost all the sam
mples were cllassified as unndesirable forr drinking by Davis and Deewiest.
The WQI valuesv for 888% locations are higher exceeding
e 100, the upper limit for driinking water. From the
reesults it is conncluded that the
t WQI for Ground
G waterr in all locatioons were founnd as unsuitabble for drinkinng purpose
It is recom
mmended to reegularly monnitor ground water w qualityy. To preventt ground wateer pollution in
i order to
suustain its quaality curative measures to properly treaat textile effluent are highhly recommennded. And, alsoa during
raainy season thhe percolationn of fresh watter to deeper aquifers
a also helps
h to imprrove ground water
w quality.
F
FURTHER ST
TUDIES
The analysis of
T o groundwateer (bore and well
w water) will w be carriedd out considerring all physicco-chemical parameters
p
like hardness, alkalinity, fluuoride, nitratees, chlorides, sulphates, TDS,
T chromiuum, iron etc. along
a with heeavy metal
annalysis to derrive information on effect of
o textile polllutants on groound water quuality.
A
ACKNOWLE
EDGEMENT
T
I extend my sppecial thankss to Directoraate of Sciencee & Technoloogy (DST), foor providing financial assiistance for
dooctoral researrch work.
REFERENCES
1. Manchala Lingaswamy., and Praveen Raj Saxena. Proceedings of 3rd National Conference on Water, Environment and
Society (NCWES - 2016), ISBN: 978-985230-124-9, pp. 248-254 (2016).
2. Drever J., The Geochemistry of Natural Waters: Surface and Groundwater Environments, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle
River, (1997).
3. Papaioannoua A. , Plagerasa P., Dovrikib E., Groundwater quality and location of productive activities in the region of
Thessaly (Greece), Science Direct, Desalination, 213, 209-217, (2007).
4. Mihaiescu Tania, Mihaiescu Radu, Varban Dan, Varban Rodica, Mihaiescu Mihnea. Water Quality Assessment of the
Nadas River (Romania) In Terms Of Nsf Water Quality Index. Analele Universitaþii din Oradea, Fascicula Protecþia
Mediului Vol. xxI (2013).
5. Saberi Nasr, A., Rezaei, M. and Dashti Barmaki M., “Groundwater contamination analysis using Fuzzy Water Quality
index (FWQI): Yazd province, Iran”, J Geope 3., (1). 47-55. 2013.
6. Husain I, Vaidya V. K, Husain J, Vaidya R, Sharma C. S. Groundwater Pollution by Textile Industry. Orient J Chem
2003;19(3).
7. Naik S and Purohit K M, Indian J Environ Ecoplan., 2001, 5(2) 397-402.
8. American Public Health Association (APHA), Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste water
(21stEdition) (2005).
9. Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS) Indian standard Drinking water Specification (Second Revision), Indian Standard
(10500:2012) (2012).
10. WHO (World Health Organization) Guidelines for drinking water quality, 2nd Ed., 1993, Vol 1, p 188.
11. Brown, R.M., McClelland, N.I., Deininger, R.A. and Tozer, R.G., “Water quality index do we dare?”, Water Sewage
Works, 117(10). 339-343. 1970.
12. Richards LA, Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkaline soils. In USDA Handbook. U.S Salinity laboratory Staff
(1954).
13. Davis SN, De Wiest RJ (1966) Hydrogeology. New York: Wiley.
14. Chaterjee,C. and Raziuddin, M.2002. Determination of water quality index (WQI) of a degraded river in Asanol
Industrial area, Raniganj, Burdwan, West Bengal. Nature, Environment and pollution Technology,1(2):181-189.
WATERSHED ANALYSIS A CASE STUDY OF NIZAMPET AREA
AND PROPOSED RAIN WATER STRUCTURE
S. Venkat Charyulu1, G. K.Viswanadh2 and M. V. S. S. Giridhar3

1
Research scholort, Department of Civil Engineering, JNTUHCEH, Kukatpally, Hyderabad, Telangana.
2
Professor of Civil Engineering and OSD to VC, JNTUH, Kukatpally, Hyderabad, Telangana . email gorthi.kasi@gmail.com
3
Assosiate Professor, HOD , CWR, IST, JNTUH, Kukatpally, Hyderabad, Telangana., email:mvssgiridhar@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Water management is very critical for the growth and development of any economy, more so in developing
countries like India. Therefore, we need to conserve this precious resource while benefiting from it. The prime
objective of the study is to identify the potentiality of rainwater for recharging shallow Groundwater in the
Nizampet area (320 hectares). Other objective is to propose various rainwater harvesting structures at the
appropriate places and checking the ground water quality. GIS offers integration of spatial and no spatial data to
understand and analyze the watershed processes and helps in drawing a plan for integrated watershed
development and management. We have identified stream directions using DEM and calculated runoff in the
study area 2016 Ml/day. Ninteen rainwater harvesting structures are proposed in the study area (Nizampet)
Keywords: Water management, rainwater harvesting structures, GIS.
INTRODUCTION
Groundwater has now become a major natural resource contributing the water supply system in Nizampet area and
people have been using groundwater since ages through dug wells and stone spouts. Usually groundwater gets
recharged during rainfall period. Due to urbanization, surface infiltration has been vastly reduced while
consumption of groundwater is ever rising. Groundwater is a reliable resource for drinking and production both in
terms of quantity and quality. The most important benefit of rainwater harvesting is that the water is totally free, the
only cost is for collection and use. Also the end use of harvested water is located close to the source, which
eliminates the need for complex and costly distribution systems
Present Location and Discription Of Study Area
Nizampet village situated in Bachupally Mandal, Medchal District of Telangana State, India. Now it has become
one of the fastest-growing suburban’s around the IT corridor of Hyderabad, because of its affordability and
relatively pollution-free environments with only problem being the water scarcity, tankers carrying water to
apartments and other housing colonies a very common
Fig. 1 Showing about Telangana state of different district Loation of Nizampet area (Google earth)
Nizampet Village has many colonies and Apartments around 20,000+ of which most of colonies face the
problem of water scarcity and residents of these colonies usually complain of dried bore wells and poor Municipal
water supplies. There are No Water Harvesting Pits at Nizampet and Nizampet Village; Telangana Government
should work on this major concern which can lead to Ground water scarcity.
524
Research and Methodology

1. The methodology includes collection of rainfall data for SIX years period (2012-2017).
2. The irrigation particulars, rainfall data collected from Mandal revenue office, Quthbullapur, Medchal district.
3. The bore well data has been collected from the Gram Panchayat Office located in Nizampet village to Test the
quality of water.
4. The topographical map has been collected from the Survey of India Uppal Hyderabad with the area ratio of
1:50,000. And prepared slope map ,DEM maps.
5. Identified suitable sites based on soil type, Topography etc., for rain water harvesting structures for surface
storage to recharge
Flow chart showing for methodology
Objectives of present study

Objectives of study Area
1. To propose the area for water harvesting structures in the study area
2. To calculate the runoff over the study area and capacity of storage of the tanks that can be located in the
study area
3. To Digitalize the Nizampet area , to locate stream path (run off lines)
4. To prepare the Slope ,DEM maps ,Basin maps
Literature Review A number of researches have been conducted on watershed management during the recent
years. The work of various researches have been studied and presented below:
The study area is blessed with moderate rainfall but however large amount of it lost through runoff. Suitable
sites have been identified are proposed to impound for surface through water harvesting
structures(WHS),percolation tanks, mini percolation tanks, check dams, trenches to increase the declined water
levels in study area.
The total number of 24 water harvesting structures has been proposed with the capacity of 55.46 hectare
meters.-(K.LOKESH & S.VENKATESHWAR RAO 2015). Arch gis is a handy tool minimizing large data
collection of rainfall and other ancillary data to arrive at the identification of desire structures for management of
any watershed –(ABHIJIT M.ZENDE & KAMAL KISHORE 2013). In a country like India, where a lot of
running water goes waste, it becomes very important to apply the technology of watershed management to solve its
annual problems of droughts and floods. –( S. P. Suryawanshi and Abhijeet Kamble 2015) water conservation
management and implementing knowledge repository services during information-decision support with
spatial/non-spatial database management, visualization, analysis, query and user individualized customization
utilities for optimization and management of land and water resources properly. -( P. D. Aher, J. Adinarayana, S.
D. Gorantiwar and S. A. Sawant 2012)These tools were used to determine the potential sites or areas for Rain
Water Harvesting (RWH) in JNTUH Hyderabad. Water levels measured in the three bore wells on daily basis
during the monsoon period were found to be 22.6, 23.6, 10.1 m on 15th June 2012, and the corresponding water
levels have been improved to 14.63, 16.46, 3.35 m respectively on 1st October 2012. A corresponding rise of 7.97,
7.14, 6.75 m in groundwater levels has been registered indicating significant improvement of groundwater levels. –
( Rao R, Giridhar MVSS 2016)More research is required to determine the potential of runoff farming without
surface reservoirs. .(J Ben esher 2000). Gould & Nissen-Peterson (1999) provide a detailed history of rainwater
harvesting systems. There is an optimum level of water harvesting that a basin can undergo to optimize the gross
value product of water vis-à-vis economic, social and environmental outputs basin-wide.(M.Dineshkumar 2011)
Watershed Analysis
A watershed is the area of land where all of the water that falls in it and drains off of it goes into the same place or
common outlet. In simple words watershed is a region of land within which water flows down into a specified
body, such as a river, lake, sea, or ocean; a drainage basin. The word watershed is sometimes used interchangeably
with drainage basin or catchment. Ridges and hills that separate two watersheds are called the drainage divide.
Components of Watershed
Fig. 2 Components of water shed(ESRI)

Flow chart Watershed analysis Delineation
Steps Involved in Delineation of Watershed DEM acquisition, Fill, Flow direction, flow accumulation, Stream
network, Stream links, Area-wide watersheds
Geographical Information System A Geographical Information System (GIS) can be defined as a system, which
facilitates the storage and intelligent use of geographic data and human activities. The essential features of GIS are
the use of sophisticated computer hardware and software to collect, store, manipulate and process for geographic
data. GIS is a tool that allow for the processing of spatial data into information. GIS has the ability to manipulate
spatial data and corresponding attribute information to integrate different types of data in a single analysis at high
speed, which is unmatched with manual methods. GIS provides a digital representation of landform which could be
used in hydrological modeling.
Runoff Coefficient Table 1 Run off table
Following are the minimum infiltration rates in inches/hr for each of the SCS soil groups:
• Group A..............0.30 - 0.45 in/hr
• Group B..............0.15 - 0.30 in/hr
• Group C..............0.05 - 0.15 in/hr
• Group D.................0 - 0.05 in/hr
• Calculation of runoff using rational method
Calculation of runoff using rational method
• All developments will require to give due consideration to Storm water drainage management as a crucial
part of site planning. For sustainable drainage to be effectively implemented at a site, the concept needs to be
incorporated into the developer‘s plans at the earliest stage possible, not least because its use may influence
land purchase and site layout decisions.
• The basiic Storm wateer runoff volu

ume calculatoor is given as
• Runoff volume
v (V) = A x R x Rc
Fig (i) Photogrraphs showig for the propoosed site for harvesting
h struucture
Fig. 3 Sample Photoggraphs showig for the propossed site for harvvesting structuure
D
Data Analysiss
• Toposheet No.E44M6
Fig. 4 Showing thee Nizampet areea in the topoloogy ( source: suurvey of India))
nt & Society (N
NCWES-20188) 529
• DEM Creatted for the Niizampet area
Figg. 5 Showing the

t DEM of Nizampet area
• GENERAT
TION OF BA
ASINS AT NIZAMPET
N A
AREA
Fig. 6 Showing thee Basins in of Nizampet

N area
• Generation
n Of Streamss At Nizampet Area
Fig. 7 Showiing the Stream

m lines in of Nizzampet water shed
s area
• Generation
n Of Slopes At
A Nizampet Area
Fig. 8 Shhowing the sloppe in of Nizam

mpet water shedd area
• Streams Paaths observed in Nizampet area
Fig. 9 Show
wing the Digitiized Stream paaths in of Nizaampet area Digitized
D Stream
m paths
R
Rainfall data of six years collected
c from
m the Deparrtments
Table 2
Year Junne July August
A SeptemberrOctober Novembeer December Januaryy February Marchh April Mayy Annual Rainfaall
2012‐13 167 288 138.8 81.6 74.4 16.6 0 0 23 0 42.8 6.8 839
2013‐14 166.4 252.4 145.6 183.6 143.4 10.4 0 0 0 5
50.2 9.2 20.8 982
2014‐15 47.8 146.4 127.4 82.4 14.8 15 0 8
8.2 0 5
54.8 81.4 45.4 623.6
2015‐16 180 40.4 61.4 147.4 43 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 472.2
2016‐17 148.2 146.6 66 795.8 106.6 0 0 0 0 8.8 1 13.8 1286.8
Avverage Annual Rainffall (mm/year) 840.72
R
Runoff calculation
Table 3
S. No. D
Details F
Formula Quantityy
1 Area
A of Nizampett 320 hectares
2 Average
A Rainfall of Mandal 6 yrs Rainnfall 0.841(m)
3 Volume
V of Rainfaall Rainfall*AArea 2016 ml/year
4 Loss of Rainfall 0.3* Voluume of Rainfall 604.8 ml/yearr
5 Rainfall
R Converteed as Ground Waater 0.1* Voluume of Rainfall 20.16 ml/yearr
6 Su
urface Run-off 0.6* Voluume of Rainfall 1391 ml/year
These run-ooff coefficients aree taken based on tyype of soil, built upp area.
Location of Rainwater harvesting structures
1.Red: Bore well type 2. Yellow: Percolation tank 3.Blue: Semi percolation tank 4. Green: Recharge pits
Fig. 10 Locations of (RWHS) in Nizampet

CONCLUSION
Based on analysis the following conclusions can be drawn
1. The surface runoff of the Nizampet area is 2016Ml/year
2. A total 18 water harvesting structures have been proposed in the study area Nizampet 320 hectares.
3. The Nizampet area has been digitalized and streams are identified
4. To prepared the Slope, DEM maps, Basin maps the analyzing study area.
REFERENCES
1. Abdulla F.A. and Al-shareef A.W. (2006),“Assessment of rainwater roof harvesting systems for household water supply in jordan”,
Integrated Urban Water Resources Management NATO Security through Science Series 2006, pp 291-300
2. Singhal, Vijai and Goyal, Rohit (2012) “A methodology based on spatial distribution of parameters for understanding affect of
rainfall and vegetation density on groundwater recharge”, European Journal of Sustainable Development Vol. 1 (2), 85-96.
3. De Busk K.M. and Hunt W.F. (2012), “Water Quality Benefits of Harvesting Rooftop Runoff. World Environmental and Water
Resources Congress 2012”, pp. 592-602.
4. District Environmental Atlas (2009) Alwar Rajasthan pollution control board, Jaipur Central pollution control board New delhi
5. Eldho T.I. “Rainwater Harvesting & Roof Catchment System”, Module 3 – (L8-L11), NPTEL
6. Giridhar M.V.S.S, Chandra Bose A.S and Viswanadh G.K. (2013). “Identification of suitable locations for rooftop rainwater
harvesting structures” Int. Journal of Applied Sciences and Engineering Research, Vol. 2, No. 2, ISSN 2277 – 8442
7. Census of India: http://censusindia.gov.in/
8. Central Water Commission, (2010). “Water and Related Statistics” New Delhi
9. Directorate of Economics and Statistics Rajasthan, (2009) “Statistical Abstract,” Government of Rajasthan, Jaipur, pp. 1–23.
10. District Environmental Atlas (2009) Alwar Rajasthan pollution control board, Jaipur Central pollution control board New Delhi
Author Index
A Dongardive M. B. 380 Krishna Reddy Kakumanu 50

Abhay Birajdar 239 Drisya S Dharan 232 Kruthika Mehar J. 254
Abhishek Gadade 239 Kulkarni P.S. 189
E
Adarsh S 232 Kulkarni Shashikanth 58
Emmanuel K. A. 455
Adimalla Narsimha 399 L
Aishwarya 151
G
Lakshmi C. 262
G.K. Viswanadh (xxix)
Ajinkya Gadhave 201 Lavanya S. 471
Gabhane V.V. 326
Akula Prakash 434, 444, 448, Londhe S. N. 195
498 Gaddam Gangadher 386
Alekya Reddy P. 475 Geeta S. Joshi 306 M

Giridhar M.V.S.S 420, 524 Madhu Edara 65
Amarsinh B. Landage 313
Gopal M. Naik 14 Madivalar P 141, 145
Anand Vishnu 232
Govardhan M. 444 Mahipal M. Ganvir 405
Anjaneya Prasad M. 115
Govindan Unnithan 232 Malathi V. 174
Anjaneyulu P. 482
Gurav Chandrakant 205 Mali R. S. 321, 326
Anji Reddy M. 519
Manasa R.S.M. 14
Anuja PK 232 H
Manjulavani K. 512
Apturkar S. M. 299 Hari Nivas A 157
Manoj Reddy G. 482
Archana. U. Mankad 157 Hechu Swathi 386
Md. Babar 205
Hubli Kiran 151
Ashok K. Keshari 313 Mehanaz Sherif 168
B J Mohammad Zakwan 247
Jeevananda Reddy S. 29 Mohammed Hussain 20
Badegaonkar U. R. 336
Jallewar Praveenkumar 226 Moharir K. N. 380
Beedimani Priyanka 151
K Mohd. Hussain 464
Bhukya Ramakrishna 226, 386
Kamble A.K. 336, 344, 350, Mondal N.C. 74, 271
C 357, 365, 372 Mounika T. 174
Chaitanya Lakshmi Ch. 444 Kandlagunta Mounika 448, 498 Mudhigonda Chandramouli 386
D Karale Suneel 151 Mulla S A 141, 145
Dafedar M 141, 145 Karim C Mujawar 239 Munnoli P M 141, 145, 151
Kavitha Yadav M. 178 Murali Krishna I V 420
Deepthi K. 475
Kiran Kumar T. 411 Murthy T. V. R. 157
Dere A. J. 344
Kirjat S.B. 357 Myakala Prasad 226
Dharnaik A. S. 201
Kripa M K 157
Dixit P. R. 162, 189
533
534 Author Index
N Ravi L. 512 Sruthi S. 475
Nagalakshmi T. V. 455 Ravindra Chary G. 331 Suhas Shingade 239

Reddy G 141, 145 Sumskrutha Talupula 219
Nagdeve M. B. 321, 326, 331,
336, 350, 357, 365, 372, 380 Sunder Kumar P. 115
S
Narsi Reddy M. 482 Surendra R. Patil 102, 405
Sagarika K. 475
Nikhil Lele 157 Suresh D. 488
Sai Bharath T. 393
Suresh K. 482
P Sai Pradeep K. 178
Suryakant Patil 239
Sai Ram G. 262
Palaspagar N. R. 326 Syamala Devi K. 287
Sanda Rajitha 399
Pande C. B. 321, 380
Sandip Gangil 344 T
Patil N. G. 299
Saravan Kumar A 157 Thakare S. H. 336
Patode R. S. 43, 321, 326
Satpute G. U. 299 Thangaradjou T 157
331, 380
Shahbaz Sida 306 Trinadha Rao P. 278
Payal Chakote 162
Sham Pawar 239 Turkhede A. B. 326
Pradnya Dixit 195
Shashank Mitra G. 482
Praveen Raj Saxena 399 V
Sherwani F. R. 125
Premlata M. Chandan 405 Vaheed SK. 226
Shimola K. 393
Priyanka P. Shinde 183 Vamsi Krishna B. 254, 262
Shiva Ram Bandari 3
Varala Akhila 444
Pushpa K. 254 Shivakumar Anna 299
Veeramallu Satya Sahithi 420
Pushpa G. 254 Shivakumargoud CH. 226
Venkat Charyulu S. 524
Shivarajappa 464
R Venkata Ramana G. 211
Shravan Kumar A. 488
Rai S.N. 92 Venkateshwarlu M. 482
Shravan Manda 262
Rajasekhar B. 211 Venkateswara Rao K. 287
Shravya D. 254
Rajashreebothale 168 Venugopal P. 393
Shreenivas N. Londhe 183
Rajeshwar Rao B. 3 Viswanadh G. K. 211, 524
Shrushti D. Lohi 189
Viswanadham M. 471
Ramamohan Reddy K. 331 Singh A. K. 162
Visweswararao M. (xxix)
Ramesh L. Dombale 365 Sinha U.K. 135
Ranganath L.R. 162 Sitangshu Chatterjee 135 W
Rapolu Sravani 386 Sneha Nikalje 195 Waseemuddin M.D. 482
Rathod Ravinder 434, 444, Sonali N. Lokhande 405
Z
448, 475 Spandana R. 475
Zeenat Ara 247
Ravi Chandra A. P. 482 Sravya Sri K. 262
Ravi Kshetri 239 Sri Lakshmi K. 519

LIST OF SPONSORS
Patron
Technical Education Quality Improvement
Programme-III (TEQIP-III)
JNTUH Institute of Science and Technology,
Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Hyderabad,
Kukatpally, Hyderabad
Sponsors
National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development

Mumbai
Indian Space Research Organization

Department of Space
Government of India
Sinsil International Pvt Ltd

Hyderabad
Sridevi Constructions
Hyderabad
535
536 Prooceedings of 5th National Coonference on Water, Enviroonment & Sociiety (NCWES-2018)

About the Convener and Editor
Dr. M.V.S.S. Giridhar was born on 04th June, 1971 in prakasham District,
Andhra Pradesh. He Graduated in Civil Engineering from Nagarjuna University
(1993) and did his M.Tech (Water Resources Development and Management)
from Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Kharagpur (1995). He obtained his Ph.D
in Civil Engineering from Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Hyderabad
in 2007. He is an academician having 19 years of teaching, research and
administrative experience. He joined in JNT University, Hyderabad, in 2006 as Assistant Professor
at Centre for Water Resources of science and technology, JNTUH, Hyderabad and presently
working as Associate Professor in centre for water resources, Institute of Science and Technology,
JNTUH, Hyderabad. He was coordinator for the World Bank funded project TEQIP‐ II (Technical
Education Quality Improvement Programme Phase II‐IST, JNTUH). He is now the coordinator for
the Centre for Earth Atmospheric Weather Modification Technology CEAWMT, IST, JNTUH.
He had worked as Coordinator for the World Bank funded project TEQIP (Technical Education
Quality Improvement Programme) Phase‐II and Phase‐III. He also worked as Additional
Controller of Examinations of the university from 2010 to 2014. His research interests are Remote
Sensing and GIS applications to Water Resources, Integrated Water Resources Management,
Watershed Management, Rainwater Harvesting and Urban Water issues.
He has published 151 research papers in various National/International Journals/conferences.
He guided one Ph.D student and also guided 32 M.Tech dissertations. He has organized several
National and International conferences and workshops. He published three international
proceedings and six national proceedings as an editor, nine training programs in the area of
Geospatial applications for water resources and environmental engineering. He is a Member of
institution of Engineers and a member of various reputed professional bodies.
He visited several countries for dissemination of his research outputs and for exchange of ideas at
places like Loss Angles, USA (2008), Honolulu, USA (2008), Bangkok, Thailand (2009) and Hanoi,
Vietnam (2010), USA (2015), Thailand (2016) and Srilanka (2016). He has participated in more
than 50 Conferences at National and International level on themes related to his subject
expertise to share his views in the field of water resources.
He successfully completed Seven R&D projects and is currently handling four research projects.
With the funds received from the Central Ground Water Board, MoWR, AICTE, he constructed
24 recharge borewells in the University campus and every year more than 10.0 crore liters of
rainwater is being harvested and recharged into the aquifers after proper filtration.
ISBN : 978-93-87593-72-5
Cover page image: Awareness Program on Rainwater Harvesting in Flouride Affected Areas
at ZPHS School, Yerragundlapally Village, Nalagonda.

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Proceedings of

5th National Conference

S.No. Title Page No.

1. Integrated Water Resources Management by Considering Sedimentation in (xxix)

Author Index ............................................................................................................................................................ 533

List of Sponsors ....................................................................................................................................................... 535

INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT BY CONSIDERING

Fig. 1 Map of Krishna basin

Fig. 4 irrigattion 65 % plannned vs met Fig. 5 Aveerage irrigationn planned vs met

F 8 Average irrigation plannned vs met

Figg. 9 Drinking water

Resuults of Jurala reservoir (Figg 9,10,11,12)

F 13 75% irrrigation & CW

F 15 Surplus projects plannned vs met

Fig. 166 HWS(hyderaabad water suppply) planned vs

F 18 Irrigattion 75% plannned Vs met

T abstract off success ratees for all the projects

CHALLENGES IN DRINKING WATER SUPPLY FOR RURAL HOUSEHOLDS IN

8. Design LPCD at serv vice level, may

Fig. 1 A Villagge System withh Bulk Water Supply

Fig. 2 A Viillage System with

INTEGRATIVE DESIGN APPROACH FOR INTERMITTENT SUPPLY SITUATIONS

Per- Preferable Avg. Minimum time of Peak Factors

Flow Control Valves Suitable for Mission Bhaghiratha as 5 LPM FCV

WATER METERS WITH AFFORDABLE CONTROL WATER TARIFF PLANS

ouse connectionns-at ground leevel.

CASE STUDY DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 1 Shows the image of Bhongir GLBR network

Table 1 Secondary Line under Bhongir GLBR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Fig. 2 Variation of Water Age at all nodes with time

Fig. 3 Variation of Age Calculated and Chlorine concentration for Pipe-29

INTRODUCTION TO THE TERMS USED

6. Mohd.Hussain(1993),“Developing perceptual skills of Irrigation Scheme Managers in Conflict Resolution in

Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), www.bis.gov.in

WATER AVAILABILITY IN INDIAN RIVERS: Myths & Realities

METHOD OF ESTIMATION OF WATER AVAILABILITY

SOIL WATER BALANCE

AEn = Actual evapotranspiration on day n, mm

DATA SERIES IN THE PERSPECTIVE OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Nature of data series Distribution

SELECTION OF DATA SERIES

78 years data series: Mean: 43% -- negatively skewed distribution

Met Sub-division Rainfall, mm

Probability estimates Scenario

The Highest --- 4165.42 tmc ft

1868 B 1935 A 2001 B 2066

1894-95 114 2007-08

PLENTY OF WATER IN KRISHNA RIVER

Table 2 Rainfall and water availability statistics

SUMMARY & CONCLUSIONS

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Hydrological components Treated Control (Untreated) Increase/decrease over control (%)

Table 2 Yield of green gram crop

Fig. 1 Comparison of yield of green gram in control and treated micro-catchment

Impact of CCT on fruit production

Table 3 Production of Custard apple and Atemoya during 2013

Table 4 Production of Custard apple and Atemoya during 2014

Table 5 Production of Cusstard apple andd Atemoya duriing 2015

Groundwater development in India

Table 1 Installed power sector in India

Source: Ministry of Power, 2007 and 2015

Industry Agriculture Domestic