Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Design influences the cost of a product as it grows from conception, through stages
of research, development, market testing, use, maturity, and, finally, disposal. An
organization has the greatest control over the ultimate success of a product at the
early stages of its creation, when the market, its factory and operational costs, and
life cycle are determined.
Design for Product Success presents the concepts used as a basis for developing high-
quality products through the examination of analytical tools and case studies, some
of the topics explored in this book include:
• product team building;
• characteristics of self-directed product teams;
• new product creation strategies and processes;
• creative design techniques;
for
• principles of design for manufacturing;
• design for disassembly; and
• ergonomics. product
Society of
Manufacturing
Engineers Society of
www.sme.org Manufacturing
Engineers
www.sme.org Devdas Shetty
Design for Product Success
Devdas Shetty
987654321
Preface ................................................................................................................... ix
Acknowledgments ................................................................................................. xiii
4 Manufacturing
Manufacturing,, Disassembly
Disassembly,, and Life Cycle
Systematic Process Selection ................................................................................. 147
Manufacturing Process Selection .......................................................................... 148
General Guidelines for Efficient Manufacturing ..................................................... 153
Design for Reconditioning .................................................................................... 153
Design for Maintenance ...................................................................................... 154
Design for Recyclability ........................................................................................ 154
Design for Disassembly ....................................................................................... 156
6 Streamlining PProduct
roduct Creation
Workplace Design ............................................................................................... 219
Production Capacity Model .................................................................................. 221
Choosing the Production Method ......................................................................... 221
Flexibility in Manufacturing .................................................................................. 222
Value Stream MappingSM ..................................................................................... 226
Summary ............................................................................................................ 238
9 Case Studies
Product and Process in Aerospace (Case Study 1) .................................................. 261
Improvement Using Assembly Analysis (Case Study 2) ........................................... 266
Application of Design Methodology (Case Study 3) ............................................... 273
Header Attachment in a Heat Exchanger (Case Study 4) ........................................ 277
Questions ........................................................................................................... 283
Bibliography ....................................................................................................... 289
Index .................................................................................................................. 293
This book, Design for Product Success, cess has seen several changes. To survive,
delves into the techniques used by world- companies must produce products that are
class companies to guide the design and de- globally competitive in a changing environ-
velopment of high-quality products in a ment. Many companies have formed part-
step-by-step manner, using analytical tools nerships with suppliers, customers, and
and case studies. In a global economy that international partners.
is becoming more and more integrated, a Modern manufacturing industries are
shift is taking place in many companies. The adopting the concept of lean thinking. The
price of a product marketed globally is dic- new generation of lean companies is ex-
tated by world economy, and not by one’s pected to meet customer requirements with
own economy or by a company’s marketing products and services that meet function,
edge. Successful companies are the ones that time, and cost requirements, while being
focus on a product and process delivery sys- flexible to changing customer needs.
tem and know how to transform process in- Industries adopting lean practices will be
novations into technical success. expected to make changes in their policies
In today’s competitive environment of and programs. As a result, product design-
manufacturing, product cycles are short and ers and product managers of the future must
markets are fragmented, thus making qual- be more skilled at developing and imple-
ity and speed critical. The automation of menting strategies in totality, rather than
machines and processes has become perva- as a series of isolated steps. The measure of
sive, impacting every dimension of manu- the abilities of product managers to make
facturing. Micro-electromechanical systems, profits while reacting to sudden and unpre-
nanotechnology, and embedded systems dictable changes in customer service de-
have contributed to the development of in- mands is very important. The challenge
telligent products. Also noteworthy is the facing manufacturers today is the improve-
technology of rapid prototyping that assists ment of product development systems. As
in the creation of a product model before it companies feel more competitive pressure
is manufactured. from world-class manufacturers, it is essen-
Driven by global competition and the de- tial that they critically examine their prod-
mand for high quality, lower cost, and quick uct design strategies. The design of a product
delivery times, the product realization pro- determines its method of assembly, compo-
Preface
nent tolerance, the number of adjustments, Using case studies, various product rede-
and the type of manufacturing processes sign techniques are explored. The book can
used. be even more useful when combined with proj-
The objective of this book is to familiarize ects that require step-by-step problem solv-
readers with the concepts, techniques, and ing procedures and the application of analysis
tools that encourage creativity and innova- techniques.
tion. It offers a strategic approach for orga- The text includes useful tools that can
nizing product design. Although its main easily have an impact on the new product
emphasis is on the design of products with development process. It provides an under-
an engineering content, most of the ap- standing of methods to minimize the impact
proaches included are general in nature and of design changes on the production launch
can be applied to different types of products. and offers ways to improve and structure
Design for Product Success includes design- the relationship between the design and
oriented discussions that support successful manufacturing departments.
product creation for designers, engineers, Product design is a complex process that
and technology managers. Some of the top- requires a systematic approach. The book
ics covered include: how to build product deals with foundations of thinking that stress
teams; characteristics of self-directed prod- engineering design fundamentals. There are
uct teams; new product creation strategies practical real-world problems that are easy
and processes; creative design techniques; or- to follow and implement. Successful tech-
ganizational aspects and principles of design niques for building product design teams and
for assembly, disassembly and manufactur- managing innovation are introduced.
ing; and environmentally conscious design. Each chapter of the book focuses on a dif-
A new engineer’s career involves designing, ferent aspect of product design and includes
prototyping, and fabricating a wide variety of examples. The first five chapters are devoted
products. Many companies are expecting to product design strategies and the next
graduate engineers to be familiar with the three are devoted to manufacturing strate-
steps involved in successful product creation. gies. The last chapter features case studies
There is a need to familiarize students not of successful product designs.
only with design concepts, but also with a Chapter 1 deals with the need for better
global view of manufacturing, techniques, design methodology. Considering the funda-
and management. This need has caused mentals of the product realization process,
many engineering programs in the country it provides an in-depth discussion of some
to re-examine the design content in their cur- essential elements of product development.
riculums. This book can be used by students Chapter 2 is entirely devoted to the concep-
in product design and design for manufac- tual phase of the product design process. Vari-
turing courses in the mechanical, industrial, ous techniques used for concept generation
manufacturing engineering, and engineer- are described, including axiomatic design,
ing management areas. The end-of-the book quality function deployment, TRIZ funda-
problems can be very useful to instructors mentals, and product design using function
teaching these courses. The chapters are or- analysis.
ganized to take the reader through the vari- In Chapter 3, design considerations nec-
ous steps of creative product design, starting essary to create a better product assembly
with the concepts and ending with the final are explained. The Boothroyd-Dewhurst,
stages of production and marketing. Hitachi assembly evaluation, and Lucas de-
Preface
sign methods are introduced. It details a product creation using optimum design and
number of case studies and projects to illus- business results. Using the Internet for inf-
trate each step. ormation gathering and management as-
Chapter 4 introduces readers to various pects of product creation is also discussed.
manufacturing processes and guidelines for Chapter 8 discusses the importance of prod-
efficient manufacturing. Recent advances in uct design groups.
design for disassembly and design for life Industrial case studies of successful prod-
cycle are presented. Chapter 5 describes uct design are described in Chapter 9. They
tools and techniques used in product design, illustrate the phenomenal success of inte-
and the tools of optimum design and deci- grated product and process developments and
sion-making using learning curves. the value of using analytical tools. The criti-
Chapter 6 describes methods of stream- cal aspects and constraints of time-driven
lining a process, workplace design, and Value product development are examined at com-
SM
Stream Mapping . Chapter 7 deals with panies such as Boeing and Pratt & Whitney.
The material presented in this book is a rial. I also want to thank Jun Kondo, Rafat
collection of many years of research and Yamani, and S. Krishnamurthy, all of the
teaching at the University of Hartford, Coo- University of Hartford, for helping with the
per Union. It is also a result of the insight data collection on many design methods.
gained from working closely with industry I am indebted to many of my past gradu-
affiliates such as Pratt and Whitney, Ham- ate students who are now successful pro-
ilton Sundstrand, Carrier Corporation, Otis fessionals. They include Ken Rawolle and
Elevator Company (all of United Technolo- Kiran Kolluri of Pratt & Whitney, Nilesh
gies), Wiremold Company, Jacob Vehicle Dave of International Fuel Cells, Beth
Equipment Company, and many others. Cudney of Jacobs Vehicle Equipment Com-
I am grateful to a number of professors pany, Troy Chicoine and Andrea Sidur of
whose comments and suggestions at various Hamilton Sundstrand, Rob Choquette and
stages of this project were helpful in revising Zlatko Strbuncelj of Otis Elevator, John
the manuscript. I would like to acknowledge Breault of Loctite Corp., Brian Blair of EMC
Prof. Richard Kolk of Carrier Corporation, Corp., Walter Mori of Gems Corp., and Saat
Prof. Jean Le’Mee of Cooper Union for the Embong and Noreffendy Tamaldin of
Advancement of Science and Art, Prof. M.S. Motorola Corp.
Fofana of Worcester Polytechnic Institute, I want to acknowledge Prof. Don Leone and
Prof. R. Dukkipati of Fairfield University, Prof. Ron Adrezin of the University of Hart-
Prof. Lee Tuttle of Kettering University and ford, and Prof. Prakash Persad of the Uni-
Prof. Zbigniew Bzymek of the University of versity of the West Indies for stimulating
Connecticut. discussions on product design. I also acknowl-
I warmly acknowledge the professional edge the hundreds of students from the
support given by Jim Rivera of Otis Eleva- classes where I have tested the teaching ma-
tor Co., Steve Maynard of Wiremold Co., terial.
Peter Carter of Carrier Corp., Joe Wagner Funding from the Society of Manufactur-
of United Tool and Die, and Adish Jain of ing Engineers Education Foundation and
Jacob Vehicle Equipment Co. I thank Claudio the National Science Foundation is grate-
Campana and Suresh Ramasamy of the fully acknowledged.
University of Hartford for the detailed as- The tremendous support and encourage-
sistance that helped me to refine the mate- ment I have received from my colleagues has
Acknowledgments
been invaluable. I am indebted to the fac- and Phil Mitchell for their superb contribu-
ulty and administration of the University of tions.
Hartford for their valuable support. My sons Jagat and Nandan have contrib-
Thanks are due to the staff at the Society uted greatly in reviewing the manuscript. I
of Manufacturing Engineers (SME). I appre- also want to express my gratitude to my wife
ciate the assistance of editors Cheryl Zupan Sandya for her love and support.
teristics of being descriptive, illustrative, and tion. Le’Mee notes that through oral or writ-
creative (Le’Mee 1987). The language is ten communication or direct actions, design
grammar-oriented and verbs, in their seman- can influence surroundings. It therefore fol-
tic function, carry the meaning of activity lows that the designer has a standpoint for
process and result of action. Determination action.
of the action factor deriving from observa- Action is a process leading to a result. This
tion of a given situation depends on the view- obvious statement is necessary to clearly
point of the observer. Depending on the distinguish the dual nature of action. It is,
context, additional aspects may influence of course, also essential in linking an action
the situation; but both action factors and to its consequences, and in exploring these
results of action are implicitly present. As consequences at the design stage. In the re-
shown in Table 1-1, at each step of the it- alization that the designer is a witness, it
erative design process, six questions are should be evident that actions of design
asked to identify the activity process should reflect an external reality. Humans
(Le’Mee 1987). perceive the world by a limited sense of un-
derstanding, influenced by sight, touch,
The Designer as an Agent for Action taste, smell, and thereby mental processes.
The fundamental questions shown in Therefore, it is justifiable to consider the
Table 1-1 represent six activity and action domain of the mind and explore the way
factors of the design process. A design event people think and feel, since their perceptions
begins by identification of the design situa- for so many years have been built into the
tion, with the designer being a witness in whole design process. Roozenburg and
the process of designing. The views and im- Eekels propose that designers do not make
pressions about a particular situation pro- a decision based on mental logic alone, but
duce a design viewpoint. This viewpoint are influenced by the reality of some pur-
changes with the designer’s professional pose and interaction (Roozenberg and
level or sphere of perception, which may be Eekels 1995).
influenced by the designer’s personality, It is the idea of purpose that best charac-
immediate group, environment, and ap- terizes design as shown in Figure 1-2. If de-
proach. Not only does the designer perceive, sign is thought of as an interaction between
feel, and think, but he or she can also act. the domains of mind and material repre-
Therefore, the designer is an agent for ac- sented by matter, it is influenced by a
and recycled in the whole life cycle of keeping with its importance, database tech-
the product—from conception to dis- nology has steadily improved and evolved.
posal and eventual reuse. With the fast emergence of Web-based solu-
tions, database management has assumed
Engineering designers conceive design as
an important role.
a process. Industrial designers conceive de-
sign as a product. The solution of a design
problem may take several forms. It may be Foundation of New
a particular device or a product, such as an Product Development
automobile, submarine, or space shuttle. A Design and development of a product in-
solution for a design problem could be a pro- variably involve considerable investment of
cess such as a technique for preserving food, time, effort, and money. It is essential that
or a new procedure for cutting metals. It a new product is thoroughly examined and
could also be a procedure or set of action reviewed before it is presented to the pub-
plans. Although various professions define lic. A company’s credibility, reputation, and
it differently, in general, design is some an- finances rest on the launching of each of its
swer to a problem; an answer that has vis- products. Fundamental questions a product
ible form, shape, or function. designer has to look into are the Why? What?
In product design and manufacturing, How? Who? and When? pertaining to the
emphasis on the volume of production re- product (see Table 1-2).
ceived a great deal of attention from 1950- The question why regards the business-
1970. The emphasis shifted to quality approach strategies of the company and
during the 1980s and 1990s. Now, empha- looks into evaluating success and failure.
sis on time is coming to the forefront. The Success does not only depend on design,
trend in product design is toward shorter technology, and marketing, but also on re-
development time through integration of alistic planning. There may be several rea-
the design process, computerization of as sons for launching a product. Usually, profit
many functions as possible, increased flow is the main motivating factor. The finan-
of communication, concurrent engineering, cial setting of the company—including cash
nanotechnology, the team approach rather inflow and outflow and net payback time
than a departmentalized approach, and in- for investment—are among the issues that
creased flexibility at all levels, from the de- influence the decision. However, there are
sign process to the total enterprise. In instances where a successful new product
Definition of design situation The identification and proper definition of the prob-
lem is very important. The definition is an expres-
sion of a desire to achieve a transformation from
one situation to another. This stage gives a real
understanding of the problem, its history, and avail-
ability of resources. Defining the problem correctly
is important as the solution depends on how the
problem is defined. The designer proceeds from
recognizing the needs to be satisfied, to the comple-
tion of these goals. This process involves a signifi-
cant amount of reporting and feedback, as well as
consideration of value-related issues of the solu-
tion. Identifying the problem correctly at this stage
saves time and money, and makes it easier to reach
a satisfactory solution. It is important to find out
where the design problem originates. Some of the
steps used by experienced designers are:
• Gather and analyze the information.
• Talk with the people familiar with the prob-
lem—look past the obvious; question the ba-
sic premise.
• View the problem first hand, if possible.
• Reconfirm the findings.
• Find out where the problem came from.
• Are the reasoning and assumptions valid?
may translate into enhancing the prestige segment determines the manner in which
or even maintaining survival of the company. the product can carry out the function. Mar-
The question what pertains to the prod- ket segments are dynamic and constantly
uct under consideration and the market seg- evolve. They have to be well specified before
ment. The market segment influences the a product is planned and resources are allo-
function of a product and the technology cated. The designer should consider adoption
Generating options and solutions The goal in this step is to generate as many poten-
tially useful solutions to the problem as possible.
Solutions need to be innovative and the designer
should maintain an open, receptive mind to new
ideas. An appreciation for the unusual or extraor-
dinary is also important. This ability comes with a
great deal of practice as this skill is developed and
continues to develop throughout the designer’s ca-
reer.
Feasibility study of preferred option(s) value issues associated with these impacts, the
alternatives are ranked based on the benefits,
At this stage, a feasibility study has to be pre-
as well as costs and risks for each alternative.
pared. It is a proposal outlining what is neces-
sary to analyze. The proposal should indicate: After the alternative solutions have been evalu-
ated and ranked, the alternative that maximizes
• the solution(s) being investigated; benefits and minimizes costs and risks is cho-
• the reasons for these selections; sen. This is a complicated process as any quan-
• the coordination with other groups on the tification is based on the values of individuals,
project; groups, etc.
• the constraints, assumptions, theories,
variables, and parameters being used; Detailed analysis of the chosen solution
• the goal of the analysis; This step involves separating a potential solu-
• the elements into which the problem has tion into its meaningful elements. These parts
been broken down; and will be scrutinized through comparison with
• how the newly acquired information re- other known facts, theories, and views.
sulting from the analysis will be used by
the group and disseminated to other
groups.
Ranking of options
In this step, the first-, second-, and higher-order
impacts of the solution on the society are identi-
fied. Further, based on an understanding of the
Table 1-3. Summary of five key questions involved in a new product launch
Question Strategic Objective Financial Consideration Market Consideration
1. Why Survival of the company Financial reward Synergistic impact
Business opportunity
2. What Product definition Joint venture Projected product demand
Adopt or modify Collaboration
existing design Licensing
3. How Strengths Financial benchmark Market response
Weaknesses
Physical infrastructure
4. Who Structured decision-making Accountability Information retrieval
Human consideration and responsibility Information dissemination
5. When Timing is critical Money and investment Market window
1. All reusable and remanufacturable try. Several companies take back their equip-
components are manually removed ment (for example, copiers) to recycle them.
from the automobile and resold. Most The devices are disassembled, components
of these parts consist of power train are sorted and cleaned, and parts that are
components. reusable are sent back to the factory floor for
2. Materials of high value are manually remanufacture. Just as many people today
removed (aluminum, magnesium, and must recycle their bottles, cans, plastics, and
any other large pieces of pure metal). newspapers, more and more industries will
3. The vehicle is sent to the shredder. The be forced to do a better job in the future.
pieces are mechanically separated de- Modularity is an important consideration
pending on their material properties. in product maintenance. Modularity allows
4. Ferrous metals are separated from the the product to be repaired easily since parts
nonferrous. are removed and replaced in modular form.
5. The last 25% of the car is referred to as As a result, recyclability of these modules
automotive shredder residue (ASR). must be considered during the design phase.
ASR consists of rubber, plastics, glass, This also brings the life cycle of the mod-
dirt, fluids, etc. ules into question. In general, the life cycle
In general, most metals from automobiles of any product can be broken down into four
are recycled today. This constitutes the larg- areas:
est portion of the vehicles (approximately 1. design and development;
75%). Automotive manufacturers are at- 2. production;
tempting to further reduce environmental 3. operational use and maintenance sup-
impacts from vehicles they produce by look- port; and
ing at the remaining portion of the vehicle 4. retirement and material disposal.
that is not recycled. Recycling efforts exist
because a profit can be made. Without this It is becoming increasingly obvious that,
incentive, vehicles would simply be sent to during design phase, engineers must think
landfills. Cost often plays the biggest roll in about modularity. With modularity, some
the level of effort put toward recyclability. devices from existing designs can be used for
The driving forces that cause companies to newer designs. Electromechanical products,
recycle include: such as computers, telecommunication de-
vices, and peripherals, are most affected by
• Profits can be made from recycling. this fast-changing technology. The best ex-
• Government regulations are forcing ample is the personal computer (PC). It is
more and more industries to think estimated that processor speed increases 1.5
about recycling. times every 18 months. This essentially
Increased emphasis on recyclability in means that, while the processor becomes
the automotive industry has caused major obsolete very quickly, other devices within
automotive manufacturers to create a part- the CPU may not become obsolete. The
nership dedicated to this cause. This partner- hard-drive, video card, modem, monitor, and
ship, called the Vehicle Recycling and RAM may be appropriate to use again with
Development Center, serves as the headquar- the newer CPU. Since all these devices are
ters for a cooperative recycling effort among modular, many customers upgrade their PC
U.S. automakers. by replacing the processor only. Product
Modularity in design. Another area of modularity is an important design-for-main-
concern is the appliance and computer indus- tenance issue for electromechanical prod-
they cooperate to achieve a common goal. It chart, but it locks in the bulk of later spend-
has been influenced partly by recognition that ing. Decisions made in the design stage re-
many of the high costs in manufacturing are sult in profound effects on product cost.
decided at the product design stage. The char- Concurrent engineering involves more than
acteristics of concurrent engineering are: just design and manufacturing. Even during
the design stage, it is involved with customer
• better definition of the product with-
perception, market analysis, optimized per-
out late changes;
formance, life cycle performance, quality, re-
• design for manufacture and assembly
liability, and sales.
undertaken in the early design stage; Concurrent engineering philosophy places
• well-defined process of product devel- emphasis on concurrent product design and
opment; and process planning using a team approach.
• better cost estimates. The team must develop a sound insight into
The cost of design engineering is gener- the nature of the activity. Therefore, most
ally less than 5% of the total budget of a decisions relating to design are made early
project, but its influence on total costs is sig- in the process by a design team that con-
nificant. This is shown in Table 1-4. sists of experts from the different stages of
Figure 1-7 shows the relationship of cost product life, starting from the marketing
incurred and committed during a product’s stage to maintenance and service stages.
life cycle. With design decisions so critical, Cross-functional team members, while indi-
design is a small piece of the development vidually performing their respective func-
tional design responsibilities, simultaneously
Table 1-4. Influence on product cost work very closely with the rest of the team.
For this reason, good communication is es-
Initial Cost sential to effective operations in any company.
Project Cost Committed Poor communication leads to faulty decision-
Design 5% 70% making and is a major obstacle to a solid de-
Material 50% 20% sign process. Effective managers function as
facilitators, while decision-making is del-
Labor 15% 5%
egated to people doing work commensurate
Overhead 30% 5% with their responsibilities. Multifunctional
design teams have to create a product that
addresses the following requirements in a
product:
• robustness;
• design for manufacture and assembly;.
• reliability; and
• environmentally friendly.
Using concurrent engineering principles
as a guide, a designed product is likely to
meet four basic requirements:
1. high quality;
2. low cost;
Figure 1-7. Cost incurred and committed during a
3. time to market; and
product’s life cycle. 4. customer satisfaction.
Figure 1-8 shows the basic concurrent tem life cycle from conception through dis-
engineering model. Concurrent design im- posal—including quality, cost, and user re-
proves the quality of early design-related quirements. Use of DFM methods tackles
decisions and has a large impact on the life the problems of improper definition of the
cycle of the product. Creating a quality cul- product and addresses the issue of building
ture—introducing a team focus and product standard and reliable products for industry.
focus approach to project management—
generates the total philosophy of concurrent MATERIALS AND MANAGEMENT
engineering in the organization. It is well IN DESIGN
suited for team-oriented project manage- Rapid developments currently taking
ment, with emphasis on collective decision- place in certain research and development
making. Among activities of different fields will have tremendous effects on prod-
members of the team, coordination is an im- uct design. Changes witnessed in the elec-
portant element. Successful implementation tronics industry in the last 30 years, from
of concurrent engineering is possible by co- the vacuum tube to the present-day com-
ordinating adequate exchange of informa- puter chip, are just a glimpse of what is in
tion and dealing with organizational barriers store for the future. Wide spectrums of in-
to cross-functional cooperation. formation technologies and biotechnologies,
A major step in the product design schedule along with new materials, are influencing
is the development of design for manufac- the market significantly.
turing (DFM) intent. Design for manufactur- In the field of materials, interest in such
ing is a technique for developing a product subjects as superconductivity is high. The
that meets the desired performance specifi- engineering community is developing new
cations while optimizing the design through materials with special characteristics, such
the production system. It uses concurrent as high-performance plastics, super glues,
engineering based on a fundamentally dif- new alloys, and high-technology composites
ferent way of looking at how products are that are light, never wear out, and can with-
conceived, produced, and supported. DFM stand high temperature. These products are
follows a procedure intended to help design- on their way to replacing more familiar ma-
ers consider all elements of the product sys- terials. The new materials are known for
their efficiency and power-to-weight ratios ous consideration, although a small number
(many are used in the automotive industry). of parts may not necessarily mean a low
They work at much higher temperatures product cost. It is possible that a design,
and at the same time do not require lubri- solely being considered for correcting a func-
cation or cooling. Therefore, design changes tional problem, may result in a costly new
and substitution of one material for another product. Market design considerations in-
are what can be expected on a larger and volve the customers’ needs, breadth of prod-
larger scale. uct line, product customization, expansion,
Micro miniaturization has been going on upgrading, time to market, and future de-
in the electronics industry side-by-side with signs. Factory considerations are: delivery,
miniaturization of mechanical products. quality and reliability, ease of assembly, abil-
Micro-electromechanical systems are now ity to test, ease of service and repair, and
being made in laboratories and are finding shipping. Social design considerations in-
application in manufacturing, bioengineer- clude human factors, appearance, style, and
ing, and medicine. From microns for typical safety. In considering environmental factors,
parts of machinery, manufacturers are now related issues are product pollution and ease
down to parts measured in fractions of mi- of recycling a product.
crons. And already, in the distance,
nanotechnology provides measure in bil- Impact of Modern Manufacturing
lionths of a meter, literally the molecular on Product Design
level. These are products and processes that
As humans transition into the 21st Cen-
emulate the mechanisms of biological life.
tury, the marketplace has become truly glo-
The importance of managing the design
bal. Most companies have much wider
process—of not letting things just happen—
product ranges. These companies are intro-
is that it systematically creates favorable
ducing new products more quickly with a
conditions that promote innovation and new
sharp focus on the market.
ideas. The importance of people, of coopera-
In the early 1980s, most industries were
tion within multidisciplinary teams, and of
involved in getting manufacturing operations
communication is that these skills and
under control through the use of formal pro-
knowledge are decisive in ensuring the suc-
duction and materials planning, shop-floor
cess of the design process and the product.
scheduling, and enterprise resource planning.
Balance within the team and in its interac-
This happened with varying degrees of suc-
tion with the customer is crucial. Emphasis
cess. In the 1990s, many industries attempted
on production, use, and consumption are im-
to achieve world-class status by implement-
portant. It clearly demonstrates that design-
ing total quality management methods. Some
ers are decision-makers; design is nothing
introduced just-in-time manufacturing tech-
but decision-making. Now these decisions
niques like cellular manufacturing, quick
have implications and consequences that
changeover procedure, one-piece part flow,
often go far beyond the simple designer-cus-
kanban, and other techniques resulting in
tomer relationship.
inventory reduction. Spurred by success sto-
ries, industries moved to team-based continu-
ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS ous improvement and experimented with
FOR NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT self-directed work teams. Studying best prac-
General considerations in product design tices used by others and benchmarking them
consist of cost and function. Cost is an obvi- has become a standard procedure.
As designers move into the new century, tomer needs effectively. This close coopera-
they need to incorporate these improve- tion allows for development of service-rich
ments to develop a truly agile product de- products that can evolve over time, as the
velopment process. Agility is the ability to customer and the company work closely to-
succeed in an environment of constant and gether. Products may be designed to not only
unpredictable change. There is a trend to- meet current needs but to be reconfigurable
ward a multiplicity of finished products to meet a customer’s future needs. Atten-
with short development and production tion is paid to configurability, modularity,
lead times. The impact of this is seen in and design for the longer-term satisfaction
many companies in responsiveness, inven- of customer requirements. The advantage
tory, and organizational structure. Mass of a close relationship with the customer is
production does not apply to products that it helps ensure that the product being
where customers require small quantities developed really meets the customer’s re-
of highly customized, design-to-order prod- quirements.
ucts, and where additional services and
value-added benefits like product upgrades
and future reconfigurations are as impor- Focus on Product Teams
tant as the product itself. An agile approach Use of cross-functional product develop-
to manufacturing faces the reality that com- ment teams has a major effect on both cycle
panies must serve customers with small time and quality. With people from differ-
quantities of custom-designed parts with ent functions working together, development
perfect quality, 100% on-time delivery, and gets done faster because activities can be
very low cost. Companies are forced to or- done in parallel rather than in series. Qual-
ganize themselves in such a way that high- ity improves because people from different
quality products can be developed very functions work together to understand and
quickly in response to customer require- solve development problems. The process is
ments. quicker and quality is better; the net result
is that it is less expensive. In a cross-func-
Focus on the Customer tional product development team, product
Customer requirements and competitive developers from different functions work to-
pressures have resulted in a need for com- gether and in parallel. Team members come
panies to decrease product development from functions such as marketing, design,
costs and overall product costs, reduce prod- service, quality, manufacturing, engineering,
uct development cycle time, and improve testing, and purchasing. Often, key suppli-
quality. World-class manufacturers have ers are included in the team. Sometimes,
placed great emphasis on being close to the customer representatives also are included,
customer. Having customers fully participate allowing the voice of the customer to be heard
in the design of the product can significantly throughout the development process. Team
enhance the design process. Customers bring members work together, sharing informa-
their design skills to bear on the project and tion and knowledge, and producing better
the manufacturing company adds its produc- results faster than they would have done if
tion skills to the equation. In some cases, operating in a traditional product develop-
suppliers and outside process vendors also ment mode. The end result is that products
can be integrated into the design process so get to market faster, costs are reduced, and
that the product is designed to meet cus- quality is improved.
of purchased materials accounts for more industry leaders. If other organizations are
than half of expenses, so it is a good place to found to have more effective operations, the
try to reduce costs. In addition to increased product development organization can work
use of suppliers, the company involves them out why they are better, then start to im-
earlier in product development. prove its own operations.
Activity-based costing (ABC) is a costing
Focus on Prototyping technique used to overcome the deficien-
Computer-based simulation and rapid cies of traditional product costing systems,
prototyping provide fast, low-cost proof of which may calculate inaccurate product
design concepts. In recent years, there has costs. The reason for these errors is often
been a lot of pressure on companies to im- that the attributes chosen to characterize
prove product development performance. costs related to a particular product are at-
They must develop products faster, at a tributes of unit products (such as direct la-
lower cost, and with better quality. Simula- bor hours per product) whereas many costs
tion and rapid prototyping techniques have (such as setup time) are related to batches
helped them meet these objectives. of products. ABC is based on the principle
Simulation is carried out to study the per- that it is not products that generate costs,
formance of a system, product, or process but the activities performed in planning,
before it has been physically built or imple- procuring, and producing products. Re-
mented. It involves development and test- sources necessary to support these activities
ing of a computer-based model of a part or result in costs being incurred. ABC calcu-
product. Rapid prototyping is production of lates product costs by determining the ex-
a physical prototype directly from a com- tent to which a product makes use of the
puter-based model of a part or product. activities.
The benefits of simulation come from the
use of computer-based models. There are
savings in reduced material costs. There also Tools and Techniques
are savings because defining the process for The goal is to develop the product that is
making the prototype—and then building it the best for function, manufacturing, reli-
and testing it—may no longer be needed. ability, and servicing. This is the ideal de-
Quality is improved because it is possible to sign, but one that is difficult to achieve.
define and test many more potential designs Thus, the process has to be managed in
using a computer-based model of the part steps, which ultimately have to be success-
than when using physical prototypes. fully integrated. Table 1-5 shows the vari-
Companies that do not use simulation and ous tools and methodologies and links them
rapid prototyping find their product devel- to the appropriate product development
opment cycles longer, and their development phase.
costs higher, than companies that do use
them. Both practices offer the advantages
of reduced development costs and cycles, and
REFERENCES
improved quality. Adler, Paul, Mandelbaum, Avi, Nguyen, Vien
Benchmarking is the continuous process and Schnerer, Elizabeth. 1996. “Getting the
of measuring products, services, and practices Most of Your Product Development Pro-
against a product development organization’s cess.” Harvard Business Review, March-
toughest competitors or those renowned as April: p. 134-151.
Cross, Nigel. 1994. Engineering Design land: International Society for the Science
Methods—Strategies for Product Design, of Engineering Design, WDK.
second edition. New York: John Wiley and Le’Mee, Jean. 1987. “Grammatical Ap-
Sons. proach to Design.” Proceedings of the In-
Dixon, John R. 1996. Design Engineering: ternational Conference on Engineering
Inventiveness, Analysis, and Decision Mak- Design, Boston.
ing. New York: McGraw Hill. Pahl, Gerhard, and Beitz, Wolfgang. 1996.
Finger, Susan and Dixon, John R. 1989. “A Engineering Design—a Systematic Ap-
Review of Research in Mechanical Engineer- proach. New York: Springer Verlag.
ing Design” (two parts). Research in Engi- Pugh, Stuart. 1991. Total Design—Inte-
neering Design. New York: Springer grated Methods for Successful Product En-
International. Vol. 1. gineering. Wesley, MA: Addison.
Graedel, T.E. and Allenby, B.R. 1996. Design Rackham, Neil. 1998. “From Experience:
for Environment. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Why Bad Things Happen to Good New Prod-
Prentice Hall. ucts.” Journal of Production and Innovative
Hubka, V. and Schregenberger, J.W. 1987. Management: 15: p. 201-207.
“Path Toward Design Science.” Proceedings Roozenberg, N.F.M. and Eekels, J. 1995.
of the International Conference on Engi- Product Design Fundamentals and Meth-
neering Design, Boston. Zurich, Switzer- ods. Chichester, UK: John Wiley and Sons.
Creativity involves the human mind ma- ing, and brainstorming are three procedures
nipulating past experiences by combining that apply to understanding creativity.
concepts to produce new ideas. Although
there is no single definition for creativity, Vertical Thinking
most definitions identify creativity as a com- Analytical thinking or deductive reason-
bination of experience, intelligence, and ing is also called vertical thinking. In ver-
motivation. These definitions are as shown tical thinking, the individual always moves
in Table 2-1.
forward in sequential steps only after a
positive decision has been made, based on
TECHNIQUES OF CREATIVE available information. Vertical thinking is
CONCEPT GENERATION analytical, judgmental, critical, and selec-
Creativity is important at various stages tive. If no positive decision can be made, the
of product development. It has been said that vertical-thinking pattern ends abruptly. Ver-
innovative ideas do not result from straight- tical thinking is then used to focus ideas into
forward analytical procedures or complicated real working solutions to problems. It moves
algorithms. Ideas come from the creativity in a straight line until it is stopped by a posi-
of designers. Vertical thinking, lateral think- tive or negative conclusion.
technique is the ability to leapfrog from one ply a list of modifiers to each attribute one
idea to another. It is also a common practice at a time to generate new alternatives.
to use a journal or newspaper to locate the
• What shape?
random word in a similar manner to the dic-
• How deep?
tionary method. Another idea that can be
• Are they adjustable?
used is picking a random picture in a maga-
• Are they removable?
zine or catalog. This kind of activity also can
be fun for participants. The difficulty with attribute listing is that
the designer must be familiar with the
Osborn’s Checklist product and its features. Attribute listing
looks at each parameter of a product in
Osborn’s checklist can help a group build
isolation, but ignores interactions between
on one another’s ideas (Osborn 1957). It is a
two attributes that might lead to a different
thinking technique based on the following set
solution.
of questions used to stimulate the mind to
change its perspective of the problem:
Morphological Analysis
• Adapt? How can the product be used? Morphological analysis is an organized
What are the other adapted uses of it? method that enables designers to make
• Modify? Can the shape, color, material, comparisons among various attributes of a
or focus of the product be changed? problem. It is a method for creating new
• Magnify? Can a new feature be added? forms of a design. The objective of the mor-
Can it be made longer, thicker, and phological chart is to encourage the de-
higher? signer to identify novel combinations of
• Substitute? Who else can use it? What elements and recombine them to derive a
else can be used? Where else can it be solution. It helps the designer generate the
developed? complete range of alternative design solu-
• Rearrange? Can parts be interchanged? tions for a product, and hence to widen the
Can the positive be changed to nega- search for potential new solutions. The
tive? What about a different pattern? steps involved in the morphological chart
• Combine? Can different components or method are as follows:
ideas be combined? Is there a compro-
mise? Can it be blended? 1. List the product’s essential features.
2. For each feature, list the means by
The nature of questions is not important. which it can be achieved.
Questions are merely a mechanism to 3. Prepare a chart that contains sub-so-
change an individual’s viewpoint of a prob- lutions.
lem. The leader often introduces a checklist 4. Identify possible combinations of the
or idea-stimulating questions during a group sub-solutions to make a product.
problem-solving session.
Nigel Cross discusses the generation of a
morphological chart for a forklift truck. The
Attribute Listing first step is to identify essential and com-
The first step in this technique is to write mon features (see Table 2-3). Table 2-4 shows
down all design attributes of the problem, that by combining different combinations of
similar to the process of writing down prod- the sub-solutions, unique design possibilities
uct specifications. The second step is to ap- can be created for differing environments.
Table 2-3. Morphological chart for the creation of an alternate forklift truck (Cross 1994)
Feature Means
Support Wheels Track Air cushion Slides Pedipulators
Propulsion Driven wheels Air thrust Moving cable Linear
induction
Power Electric Petrol Diesel Bottled gas Steam
Transmission Gears Belts Chains Hydraulic Flexible
and shafts cable
Steering Turning wheels Air thrust Rails
Stopping Brakes Reverse thrust Ratchet
Lifting Hydraulic ram Rack Screw Chain or
and pinion rope hoist
Operator Seated at front Seated at rear Standing Walking Remote
control
only expensive, but it also contributes to en- The first step is to define the problem in
vironmental problems. As a futuring exercise, a way that can be understood by the people
the group tries to imagine an ideal solution solving it. The problem solver initially ana-
where the product is not only profitable, but lyzes a strange situation to look for bits of
also does not produce any scrap. While gen- the problem that are familiar. Using small
erating solutions, participants should imag- and familiar pieces, the mind rearranges the
ine processes that have no waste. problem into a situation that it can visual-
ize. This step is known as problem-state-
Others’ Views ment formulation.
At times, it becomes easier to solve a prob- Synectics research recommends stopping
lem when it is examined from different view- once the problem statement is clearly for-
points. The problem definition then becomes mulated, instead of continuing to analyze it.
different, depending on whose viewpoint is Once the problem statement is understood,
selected. Scott Fogler and Steven LeBlanc it must be twisted into a totally different
give an example of differing viewpoints of a form. The main focus of synectics is its em-
problem with a space capsule (Fogler and phasis on distorting the problem so that the
LeBlanc 1995): perspective changes dramatically. It is like
• Problem: Space capsule burns upon making a familiar situation into a strange
entering the atmosphere. situation. By forcing a change in a view-
• Project manager: The project gets com- point, this technique generates very unusual
pleted on time. solutions.
• NASA accountant: Solve problem but Synectics research has generated four
keep cost low. mechanisms for idea generation. Each of
• Engineer: New material should not in- these mechanisms is intended to distort the
terfere with capsule performance. problem:
• Material scientist: Find a material that 1. personal analogy,
can handle the high temperature on re- 2. direct analogy,
entry. 3. symbolic analogy, and
• Astronaut: Does not care about the cap- 4. fantasy analogy.
sule, wants to return alive.
• Solution: Allow surface of the capsule Personal analogy. This is where an in-
to be destroyed protecting astronauts. dividual is placed in a position to study the
product. If the product being studied is an
Synectics elevator, the designer places himself inside
Synectics means joining together differ- the elevator driving mechanism to experi-
ent and apparently irrelevant elements. ence the movement of the carriage going up
Synectics deals with problem solving and the and down. The person is now able to get an
way that creative people think. It is a pro- inside view of the problem while looking out
cess that places the most emphasis on the at external forces.
emotional component and understanding of Direct analogy. This mechanism in-
the irrational element in decision-making. volves the ability to make comparisons be-
Synectics research has shown that creative tween similar but different technologies.
efficiency in people can be increased if they Biological systems provide a lot of compari-
understand the psychological process by sons between human biology and everyday
which they operate (Nierenberg 1986). engineering mechanics.
transportation. It can be used by every- to have sales appeal, a minimal service fac-
one for every purpose and by every age. tor, be easily transportable, and have a good
• Modify—modify design to a more ap- profit margin. The manufacturing group
pealing shape and color. Add more fea- may want it to be easily fabricated, have a
tures like water bottle, clock, timer, and low labor cost, be made with pre-approved
storage compartment. materials, and come from an existing sup-
• Substitute—use more durable tires and plier. These are varying preferences and
lightweight material. needs that may be difficult to satisfy.
• Combine—combine attractiveness with All viewpoints should be considered in a
usability. needs analysis. In addition, there are tech-
nical needs, time needs, and cost needs to
Color. It will provide a choice of three col-
be considered. The study of these factors
ors, each appealing to men, women, and
may take the form of a detailed benefit-cost
youth.
analysis or a detailed cost estimate of manu-
Tires. Standard tires are available with
facturing the design, including the profit and
option of street, race, or dirt track tires.
marketing costs. Most product-design prob-
Seat. There is an adjustable and replace-
lems have certain boundaries or constraints
able seat for different sizes of bicyclists.
within which the solution must be found.
Shape. There is a standard shape and size
Legal constraints on engineering design are
for all riders. Necessary modification can be
becoming increasingly important. Federal
made if needed.
and state regulations pertaining to environ-
mental pollution, energy consumption, pub-
DEFINING THE PROBLEM lic health, and safety are examples of these
A satisfactory definition of the problem limiting factors.
is crucial to its success. Time spent defining Problem definition is based on identify-
the problem properly, and then writing a ing the real needs of the customer and then
complete problem statement, results in ef- formulating them as product goals. The
ficient problem solving. It has been said that problem statement expresses what is sup-
a well-defined problem is critical to finding posed to be accomplished to achieve the
a workable solution. The goals of a product- goals. Design specifications are a major com-
design project should be expressed in very ponent of the problem statement. A key role
broad terms at the beginning. It is a mis- of the problem statement in the design pro-
take to plunge headlong into a problem so- cess is shown in Figure 2-1. The essential
lution before setting appropriate goals and elements of the problem statement are
finding the real needs. shown in Figure 2-2.
Product goals generally are derived from
needs analysis. The needs analysis process Find the Source
consists of listing the needs of the custom-
A few recommended tips for problem defi-
ers, contractors, marketing agents, trade
nition are:
associations, government agencies, techni-
cians, and servicing agencies. The product • Collect and analyze the information
designer has to understand and weigh each and available data.
of these basic needs. For example, the cus- • Consult people familiar with similar
tomer may want a product to be functional, products.
aesthetically appealing, durable, and inex- • Inspect the problem personally.
pensive. The marketing group may want it • Verify the collected information.
Figure 2-1. The role of the problem statement in the design process.
Explore
The five-point strategy (define, explore,
plan, act, and reflect) is a technique that
helps users to understand and define the real
problem. Based on the strategy, the follow-
ing steps can be used to explore a problem.
• Identify pertinent relationships among
inputs, outputs, and other variables of
importance.
• Recall past experiences.
Figure 2-2. Elements of the problem statement. • Discover real problems and constraints.
• Consider short-term and long-term
It is very important to find out if the prob- implications.
lem at hand reflects the real situation. To • Collect missing information.
find the real source of the problem, the fol- • Hypothesize, visualize, idealize, and
lowing questions should be asked. Where did generalize.
the problem originate? Who needs the prod- • If users cannot solve the proposed prob-
uct? Who initiated it? Can the person respon- lem, they should first solve some related
sible explain how they arrived at a definition problems or part of the problem.
of the need? Are the assumptions valid? • Sketch out a pathway that will lead to
Have all viewpoints been considered? a solution.
• After using some of the above activi- Because there is still a difference between
ties, write a statement defining the real the PS and the DS, it is necessary to revise
problem. the statements so that the gap between them
is narrowed. For example:
Define the Present State PS: The freshman dropout rate is high
and Desired State because students are only exposed
The present state (PS) and desired state to non-engineering courses such
(DS) technique helps an individual to visu- as mathematics and physics. Stu-
alize the starting point and where to pro- dents do not see a connection with
ceed. Then, an appropriate path can be the courses and the engineering
found to the desired state that represents profession.
solution goals. The designer should try to DS: First-year students need to be ex-
modify the statement of the present state posed to engineering principles in
or desired state until a satisfactory correla- combination with physics and
tion is found between them. It is important mathematics so that they can learn
that the present-state statement and the why engineering is interesting.
desired-state statement contain solutions
that go to the heart of the problem. The fol- There is a relationship between these two
lowing sections outline the use of the PS- statements. Differences between the two state-
DS technique. ments should be made clear enough though.
For example:
The Situation PS: The reason for the high freshman
In schools with engineering programs, it dropout rate is that students in the
is typical that the freshman year dropout engineering program are unable to
rate from such programs is high. There are see a connection between the
several ways this problem can be addressed. courses in engineering and other
Users of the PS-DS technique first verbal- courses such as physics and math-
ize where they are and where they want to ematics.
go. For example: DS: First-year students should be pro-
vided with integrated engineering
PS: The freshman engineering dropout courses, where engineering prin-
rate is high. ciples are taught in combination
DS: Increase the freshman retention with physics and mathematics as
rate in engineering programs. integrative learning blocks.
Since there is no one-to-one match here and
the PS does not have anything in common PS and DS Using the Dunker Diagram
with the DS, the statements need to be modi- Dunker diagrams help the designer exam-
fied. For example: ine possible paths from the starting point
PS: The freshman dropout rate needs to the desired state. By going through vari-
to be reduced. ous paths, it can also lead to solutions. There
DS: Make freshman courses more in- are two types of solutions:
teresting to increase the freshman 1. Examining the path to be followed and
retention rate in engineering pro- actions to be taken to achieve the de-
grams. sired state.
2. Solving the problem by making it ac- 2. Choose a word that has an explicit defini-
ceptable not to reach the desired solu- tion and substitute the explicit definition
tion. This transforms the DS until it in each place where the term appears.
matches the PS. This procedure elimi- 3. Make an opposite statement, change
nates the need to achieve the DS. positive to negative, and vice versa.
4. Replace persuasive and implied words
Figure 2-3a shows the principles of the in the problem statement (such as “ob-
three-stage Dunker diagram. The first stage viously” and “clearly”) with the use of
represents general solutions. The second such phrases as: “Is this reasoning
stage represents functional solutions. Func- valid?” “What is the evidence for such
tional solutions are possible paths to a de- reasoning?” and “If the reasoning is
sired state, but they need not necessarily invalid, how can we modify the state-
examine the feasibility of the solution. These ment of the problem?”
solutions consider “what if” situations. The 3. Express words in the form of an equa-
third stage represents specific solutions to tion or a picture and vice versa.
implement functional solutions. Figure 2-3b
presents a Dunker diagram that addresses An example from the aerospace in-
the problem of attracting high-school stu- dustry. Jet engine failure is sometimes the
dents to engineering. In this case, the cause of an airplane crash. It could happen
Dunker diagram analyzes two types of situ- because of many reasons. One is due to de-
ations: one that involves attracting more fects in the engine turbine blades. The de-
students to the engineering path, and one signer perceives a need for a methodology
that analyzes how to modify the desired to reduce the surface defects in the jet en-
state so it corresponds to the present state. gine turbine blades. Based on this informa-
tion, the initial problem statement is made
Statement-restatement Technique as follows:
The statement-restatement technique “Surface irregularities on the turbine
tries to achieve objectives by rephrasing a blades of a jet engine cause blade failure,
problem in a number of ways. Various prob- which creates a danger to the aircraft.”
lem-statement triggers can be applied such Trigger 1: Vary the stress pattern and
as varying the stress pattern on certain examine if the focus of the problem itself has
words, changing positive terms to negative changed. (Notice the different stress pat-
terms, substituting explicit definitions of terns in the following identical sentences.)
certain terms in the statement, etc.
The turbine blade failure is due to the
surface irregularities in jet engines for
Problem-statement Triggers
commercial aircraft.
A.F. Osborn has developed a technique The turbine blade failure is due to
where an individual uses words and ques- the surface irregularities in jet engines
tions to trigger different thoughts. The trig- for commercial aircraft.
gers focus on possible changes in a problem The turbine blade failure is due to
statement by rewording the concept state- the surface irregularities in jet engines
ment (Osborn 1957). Steps in the technique for commercial aircraft.
include:
Trigger 2: Substitute a word with a more
1. Vary the stress pattern; try placing the explicit definition in each place that a term
emphasis on different phrases and words. appears.
Figure 2-3. (a) Three-stage Dunker diagram; (b) Dunker diagram for an engineering career.
The physical surface characteristics cal terms; target specifications are estab-
of a jet engine component cause the en- lished; alternative product concepts are gen-
gine of an aircraft to fail. erated and evaluated; and one or more
concepts are selected. At this stage, the prod-
This makes Osborn users think about the
uct team explores various possibilities of
physical characteristics of the component
products to meet customer requirements.
and how it can be designed not to fail.
These include external as well as internal
Trigger 3: Change positive to negative and searches, brainstorming, and an exploration
vice versa. of various ideas. Such exploration requires
the involvement of most functions of the
How can designers find a way to
company, customers, outside suppliers, and
make worse surface characteristics so
government agencies.
that the engine always fails?
Figure 2-4 shows a four-step concept-gen-
This makes system users think about how eration methodology, starting with the first
to go about maintaining and measuring sur- step of clarifying the problem by breaking
face characteristics and how to control them. it into subproblems and focusing on those
that are critical. The second step involves a
Trigger 4: Change persuasive words—
Web-based information search, literature
such as “every” to “some,” “always” to
and patent search, customer feedback re-
“sometimes,” and “sometimes” to “never.”
ports, consultation, and benchmarking. The
This trigger assists users to basically chal-
third step involves a systematic exploration
lenge the fundamental assumption in the
of ideas, morphological classification, and
problem definition.
combination charts to investigate the best
The physical surface characteristic of possible scheme. The last stage examines
a turbine blade is always maintained to solutions, feedback, and revision of the prob-
prevent failure in the engine of an air- lem statement.
craft.
Concept Selection
Why shouldn’t the blade always be main- Using a Function Diagram
tained by 100% inspection? This opens new
Consider a problem statement for the elec-
areas of discussion.
trical receptacle diagrammed in Figure 2-5.
Trigger 5: Express words in the form of In a typical installation, two standard 15/20-
an equation or a picture and vice versa. amp receptacles are installed in the raceway
to allow the user to plug in an electrical de-
Surface roughness = F (cutting tool
vice. A new receptacle design would need to
geometry, vibration of the machine, ma-
be installed by electricians using common
chining process)
tools. It must meet all code requirements for
this type of device. It should also be easy to
DESIGN CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT install.
METHODOLOGY In Figure 2-5, the input is electrical en-
The concept development phase needs ergy and the output is the generation of
coordination among many functions. This power to switch the machine on/off. The
is the front end of the product development diagram shows how the problem can be de-
process. In the concept development phase, composed into subproblems. The function
the needs of the customer are identified; of the product is subdivided into two sub-
customer needs are translated into techni- functions:
Figure 2-6. Function diagram for a hand-held nailer (Ulrich and Eppinger 1995).
Concepts are classified, as shown in Fig- resistive sensors, and variable speed drives
ure 2-11, and used to identify alternative are available. In this solution, rechargeable
solutions to the energy source, which could batteries are used along with a combination
be electric, chemical, hydraulic, pneumatic, of torque sensors and a variable clutch.
or nuclear. The choice of an energy source is
narrowed down to three or four sub-con-
cepts. Multiple solutions arising from com- DESIGN FOR FUNCTION
bining the rechargeable batteries/power Design for function is of interest not only
pack, fuel cells with torque sensors/piezo- to product designers, but to the people involved
Figure 2-7. Multiple solutions for the hand-held nailer (Ulrich and Eppinger 1995).
material and manufacturing costs of indi- (Akiyama 1991). Examples are shown in
vidual parts (Miles 1972). Table 2-8. The function is simply defined
FAST identifies the functional relation- with two words: a verb and noun.
ship between parts at an individual part
level. This technique is less effective as a Verb: What does it do?
design tool for manufacturability because it Noun: To what does it do this action?
focuses on design at the individual part level. In the concept design stage, two things
Function analysis using verbal models was are known: function and form.
proposed by Kaneo Akiyama. The objective
of defining the function of a product is to Function: The designer specifies the
identify, in generic terms, the interrelation- function of the product by studying a
ship of that product with its environment customer’s needs and desires.
Form: The designer generates sev- 6. Use creative thinking techniques to gen-
eral different concept designs (forms) erate new concepts based on function.
that may satisfy the customer’s needs 7. Select a product design based on func-
to a greater or lesser degree. tion and form, using the concept selection
process.
Function Analysis for Product Design The importance of using a function de-
Function analysis provides a clear picture sign procedure is that it frees team mem-
of the objectives of design. It is a loosely bers from a vision of the old product and
structured methodology derived from pre- allows their minds to create a totally new
vious ideas. It is based on customer-derived product based solely on function.
functions rather than engineering-conceived
forms. Customer functions are translated Function Types
into product functions, manufacturability is There are six types of functions: use, ba-
evaluated through analysis, and alternate sic, secondary, aesthetic, necessary, and un-
products are created. Function-analysis necessary functions (see Figure 2-12). Each
methodology has seven major steps in the function type is defined as follows.
product-design process. The steps are:
• Use functions relate to functions involv-
1. Determine the needs, desires, and views ing the purposes or goals.
of the customer through a customer/ • Basic functions are the primary char-
competitor analysis. acteristics of a product or a part that
2. Establish a need for each product func- fulfills a user need.
tion from the perspective of the cus- • Secondary functions are required to
tomer. allow: a designer the choice of means
3. Translate the customer’s needs, desires, for accomplishing the basic function;
and views into a functional product. functions of a part that are not abso-
4. Develop a symbolic image of the prod- lutely needed for basic product func-
uct by constructing a function-family tion; and functions that satisfy only the
tree. user’s desires.
5. Perform design for assembly analysis to • Aesthetic functions provide only es-
identify manufacturability difficulties. teem appeal and occasional customer
preferences, and are intended to give view of function in a new perspective (see
sensory satisfaction to the user. Figure 2-13).
• Necessary functions are those de- The development of an FFT begins with
manded by the customer. a definition of the system boundaries at a
• Unnecessary functions satisfy neither level of interest. At the product level, sys-
the needs nor desires of a customer in tem boundaries are easy to distinguish. In-
today’s market. As designers consider the put of the user to the product represents the
cus-tomer’s perspective, it becomes ap- left boundary. The output of a product to its
parent that a category is needed for prod- environment represents the right bound-
uct features that may have been useful ary. At the product level, system boundaries
at one time, but today have no value. are the interface between the outside world
and the product.
The function of an overall product is first The function of the open/close circuit is
defined and then it is followed by a defini- to send current. The goal is to provide light.
tion of the subfunctional group of parts. This A means to the goal of providing light in-
is followed by detailed functions of each part. volves converting electricity to light and
A subfunctional group often utilizes a por- sending the current.
tion of parts in several subassemblies. Parts
may work together to perform a function Concept Selection
even though they are not assembled together
In the Pugh concept-selection methodol-
into the same subassembly. Subassemblies
ogy, product-design criteria are written in the
indicate only the order in which parts are
form of customer functions (Pugh 1981,
joined together on the assembly line, not the
1991). Product functions should be listed
functional relationships between the parts.
from the top down, starting with the primary
Function Family Tree functions, then the secondary functions, and
finally, the aesthetic functions. Concept
The function family tree (FFT) is a block
sketches should be arranged simply, in the
diagram indicating the functional relation-
order that they were generated. The descrip-
ship between a product and its environment,
tion of the function should be brief, open, and
or between various product segments. The
understandable by both the designer and the
FFT is particularly important in the prod-
customer. The function of a product is defined
uct concept phase because it allows for
clearly in a two-word, noun-verb descriptor.
breaking major products into smaller, more
The methodology consists of the following:
manageable design problems. It also gives
more freedom in design by removing any 1. Define the functions of the product based
visual form from the function, allowing a on the needs and desires of the customer.
est score is the one that should be used for UNDERSTANDING THE CUSTOMER
redesign (Pugh 1981, 1991).
The effects of a function analysis on prod- Customer-driven Product Development
uct design are summarized in Table 2-10. During the past two decades, the emer-
Product design using function analysis is an gence of a competitive global economy,
integration of different concept development markets influenced by customer product
techniques. The importance of using this preferences, and technological change has
methodology is that it frees team members caused a major shift in quality. The quality
from a vision of the old product and allows management practices of Japanese and
their minds to create a totally new product American companies provided an opportu-
based solely on function. nity to influence the cost and lead times of
new products. Early quality initiatives fo- One of the objectives of any company is to
cused on reducing process variability in bring new products or improved products to the
manufacturing. Later efforts focused on us- market with low cost and high quality sooner
ing concurrent-engineering philosophy in than its competitors. The procedure of QFD,
the company for product and process devel- based on the house of quality, provides a way
opment. Advantages that come from cutting to do this. QFD as an organized procedure is
the time to market and continuously devel- used for early product design. Basically, this
oping quality products are so great that the technique involves deploying customer re-
balance in some sectors is shifting in favor quirements and expectations into product
of companies that adopt new strategies. design characteristics and then monitoring
Companies that introduce new products and them through the stages of design, planning,
react quickly to external changes are racing and manufacturing. More precisely, QFD
ahead of their competitors. utilizes a conceptual map or group of matri-
One essential element affecting the entire ces known as the house of quality to relate
development process is the proper determi- customer attributes to product specifications
nation of customer needs. Worldwide com- and design operations.
petitiveness has brought a greater focus on In QFD, the term quality takes on a much
customers’ views. The customer needs analy- broader meaning than the more conventional
sis projects future needs, not merely current definition, which is limited to a product’s
needs from the marketing department. En- adherence to a manufacturer’s specification.
couraging the product design team to par- The basic definition of QFD, which is trans-
ticipate in customer needs analysis can lated from the Japanese words—hin shitsu
enhance its creative contributions. It enables ki nu ten kai—is “a system for translating
the team to see opportunities that it might customer requirements at each stage from
not see by simply reading a market report. research and product development, to engi-
Gathering information from customers in- neering and manufacturing, to marketing/
volves getting information from both internal sales and distribution.” Ultimately, the cus-
and external customers. Internal customers tomer receives a product that meets his or
are normally people that are connected with her demands with a minimal amount of de-
corporate management, manufacturing per- sign changes (Adams 1976).
sonnel, sales, and field service. External cus- What makes QFD a powerful tool in the
tomers are normally the end users of the manufacturing sector is direct input from
product. the customer, along with interdepartmental
communications between marketing, engi-
Quality Function Deployment neering, manufacturing, and management.
The quality function deployment (QFD) In a typical company, the interdisciplinary
methodology is ideally suited for support- group—usually referred to as the quality
ing a total quality initiative in a company. It team—is charged with the responsibility of
provides a framework for product or pro- integrating customer requirements into the
gram design, which starts with customers product design. This group usually meets on
and finds out what they want. It identifies a a regular basis and conducts brainstorming
mechanism so that the organization can re- sessions. The end result is a system that
spond to customers’ needs. QFD methods delivers a product meeting specific quality
are now employed by some larger U.S. com- standards.
panies to obtain better quality products in a QFD is totally driven by the concept of qual-
shorter cycle time. ity and results in the best possible product
being brought to the market. It requires a ity system aimed specifically at satisfying the
paradigm shift from traditional manufac- customer. Further, QFD allows customers to
turing’s quality control to product design prioritize their requirements and optimizes
quality control. The old paradigm involved those features that bring the greatest com-
quality control by inspecting physical prod- petitive advantage.
ucts through observation and measure-
ments; this is inspected-in quality. But the Phases
new QFD paradigm designs quality into The four phases of QFD are:
products and manufacturing processes so
that products are produced error-free; this 1. product planning,
is referred to as designed-in quality (see Fig- 2. part deployment,
ure 2-14.) 3. process deployment, and
The advantages of using QFD are: 4. product deployment (see Figure 2-15).
and product characteristics need to be listed The relative value that customers place on
on the axis across the top of the house (see these items also should be identified.
Figure 2-17). Step 2: customer requirement refine-
Interaction matrix. The product group ment. The customer requirements that a
combines the two axes into a correlation product be dependable and economical can
matrix identifying the strong, medium, and be expanded to more specific points (see Fig-
weak correlations. A set of symbols is used ure 2-19). This can be done with a “what-to-
to represent the relationship as shown in how” technique. A chart can be constructed.
Figure 2-17. If the matrix shows a majority The list should be expanded until each point
of weak relationship signs, it is an indica- is a measurable quantity.
tion that certain customer requirements Step 3: begin laying out the planning
have not been met. matrix.
Interaction between parameters. Step 4: fill out correlation matrix to
The roof of the house of quality should be determine how factors relate. Establish
developed by building a diagonal matrix positive changes to any one of the control
above the engineering characteristics. This characteristics that affects other members.
allows the product team to rate weak-ver- The product and process should be recon-
sus-strong relationships between different sidered if there are more negative than posi-
characteristics. Changing a parameter can tive effects.
influence other parameters. It is important Step 5: complete the relationship
to know the nature and strengths of these matrix and importance rating values.
interactions. A relationship between the “whats” and the
Target values and technical analysis. “hows” is established through a matrix that
The basement of the house of quality can be assigns weights. For example, 0-9, where 0
used when objective measurements need to is none, and 9 is very strong. The column
be made of competitors’ products and when values are added to give an importance rat-
it is necessary to compare the specifications ing. This should result in a few important
of a company’s product with a competitor’s features, and a few that are not important.
product. This kind of comparison provides Step 6: customer importance rating
an insight into the possibilities of product and market evaluations. The opinions of
improvement and assists in setting up new the customer (as collected in Step 1) are
target values to be followed. These compo- quantified in terms of the importance of the
nents also allow difficult-to-meet and impor- requirement’s “whats.” Numbers are en-
tant requirements to be passed from one tered in the customer importance rating
matrix to the next, thereby keeping a fo- column. Overall ratings for products of the
cused effort on design and manufacturing company and its competitor are ranked for
(see Figure 2-18). each requirement from poor to good. These
values are derived from information gathered
QFD/House of Quality Steps in Step 1 and are entered in the market
Step 1: voice of the customer. Identify evaluation column. The sections clearly
the customer’s needs, wants, and require- identify the strengths and weaknesses of the
ments. This ensures that product design de- product.
cisions will be based on the customer and Step 7: control characteristics’ com-
not just on the perceived customer needs. petitive evaluation. Competitor products
This step should involve all groups in a com- and the internal product are compared tech-
pany that get any feedback from customers. nically here. Performance criteria are shown
in terms of the final product’s control char- Step 8: evaluate the chart. The chart
acteristics. Values are entered in the control at this point contains enough information
characteristics’ competitive-evaluation sec- to do some critical evaluations. The control
tion of the chart, and are then ranked from characteristics’ competitive evaluation and
good to poor. When these numbers are com- the importance rating indicate items that
pared to numbers in the importance rating should be designated for a higher rating
row, the technical deficiencies of the prod- when the competitor product is rated better.
uct and its importance are clear. The candidates selected should be checked
blows air through the moist filter. This gen- compose music or design a product or pro-
erates moist, cool-air output from the air cess. It is difficult to reduce these facts and
cooler. The customer survey indicates the observations to a consistent set of state-
following requirements: ments and descriptions. Nam Suh proposed
the use of axioms to represent design based
• less noise during operation,
• smaller size, on the assumption that there is a fundamen-
• low overall cost, tal set of principles that represents good
• less maintenance cost, design practice (Suh 1989, 1990). There are
• safe operation, many similarities in the design methods of
• better appearance, diverse fields—such as industrial design,
• low power consumption, architecture, mechanical design, software
• portability, and engineering, and development of manage-
• adequate cooling. ment policies. In other words, it can be said
that there are a set of common factors in a
A planner could take this further by creat- good design. These common factors can be
ing a house of quality and developing a chart applied to other design situations like natu-
showing the relationship between the voice ral laws in science problems.
of the customer and the design require- Suh developed a set of axioms and corol-
ments. Based on the results of the QFD laries to represent design. These were re-
chart, he or she would formulate alternate duced to a set of two fundamental axioms,
ideas for the air cooler. which, if followed, would result in a good
design. This set is based on the following
AXIOMATIC DESIGN METHOD premises:
Many times, people identify a distinguish- • Axioms are fundamental truths that
ing piece of art or music, but find it difficult are always expected to be true.
to explain why a particular combination of • Corollaries are propositions that follow
elements in a work causes it to be excellent. from axioms.
In other words, these results lack an abso- • Functional requirements (FRs) are char-
lute frame of reference, which often leads acterizations of the perceived needs for
to differing opinions. Many results depend a product or process. In addition, they
on intuition and experience when humans are the minimum set of independent
Implementation of the independence de- Three types of design equations are used
sign axiom results in a case where every to represent the FR and DP relationships.
functional requirement is associated with a Type 1—uncoupled. The uncoupled de-
single design parameter. This is called the sign equation satisfies Axiom 1 (see Figure
uncoupled design and is represented by a 2-23).
diagonal matrix.
FR1 a11 0 0 DP1
FR1 X 000..0 DP1 FR = 0 a 0 DP (2-4)
FR 2 22 2
2 0 X 00..0 DP2 FR3 0 0 a33 DP3
M = 0 0 X .. M (2-3)
M .. .. .. .. M Type 2—coupled. The coupled design
FRn 0 0 0 0 X DPn equation always violates Axiom 1 (see Fig-
ure 2-24).
It can be observed from the first axiom that
for a design to be uncoupled, it requires that the
FR1 a11 a12 a13 DP1
number of FRs and DPs be the same.
FR2 = a21 a22 a23 DP2
(2-5)
When the matrix is triangular (for ex-
ample, Xnm = 0 when n ⫽ m and m > n), the FR3 a31 a32 a33 DP3
design is a decoupled design. Both uncoupled
and decoupled designs satisfy the indepen-
Type 3—decoupled. Here, Axiom 1 is
dence axiom. All other matrices, which do not
satisfied, and the independence of FRs is as-
satisfy Axiom 1, are called coupled designs. sured if DPs are arranged in a certain order
(see Figure 2-25).
Mathematical Relationships
Design parameters can be subdivided into
(DP1, DP2…DPn). Functional requirements FR1 a11 0 0 DP1
are also broken down into subfunctional re- FR = a a 0 DP (2-6)
quirements (FR1 …FRn). A matrix represen- 2 21 22 2
FR3 a31 a32 a33 DP3
tation of FRs and DPs is shown in Figure
2-22.
specifications, probability = 1, and the in- FR13 = control relative humidity to 50%
formation required to achieve the task = 0,
Decomposition of FR2:
since the manufacturing process can pro-
duce good parts each and every time. When FR21 = control chilled section tempera-
the probability < 1, additional information ture in the range of 45 to 55 °F (7
must be supplied by the operator or by some to 13 °C).
other source so that functional specifications FR22 = maintain uniform temperature in
can be met. the chilled section to within 2 °F
(1 °C)
Example of Refrigerator Design
To satisfy the second level FRs, a user has
Functional requirements and design pa-
to design DPs in such a way that DP11, DP12,
rameters can provide insight into the axi-
and DP13 satisfy FR11, FR12, FR13 and are
omatic-design application for a refrigerator. independent from each other.
The main requirement of the refrigerator is
to preserve food for long-term use and to Second-level DP domain.
keep some food at a cold temperature for DP11 = turn on/off compressor when air
short-term use without freezing (Suh 2001). temperature is higher or lower
Functional domain. than set values
FR1 = freeze food for long-term preser- DP12 = blow air into freezer section and
vation circulate it uniformly
FR2 = maintain food at cold temperature DP13 = condense return-air moisture
for short-term preservation when the dew point is exceeded
system design consists of the design of physi- The benefits of the production system
cal elements and operations required to pro- design decomposition are:
duce a product. A production system • an ability to concretely describe and
provides supporting functions to the manu- distinguish between various production
facturing system. It defines the performance system design concepts;
measures of the manufacturing system. The • an adaptability to different products
production system consists of the design of and manufacturing environments;
all of the elements and functions that sup- • an ability to design or create new sys-
port the manufacturing system. tem designs to meet new environments
Designing production systems for a prod- (for example, what happens when FRs
uct is crucial to understanding the relation- or DPs change, as in lean versus mass
ship between system design objectives and production?);
physical design implementation. It can pro- • portability of a production system de-
vide a framework for explaining why low-level sign methodology across industries;
decisions tend to affect the viability of an • an impact of lower-level design deci-
entire production system. Designing a sys- sions on the total system performance;
tem requires an understanding of what vari- • providing a foundation for developing
ables have negatively impacted the operation a new set of manufacturing perfor-
of the manufacturing system. The lean pro- mance measures from a system-design
duction system represents a new production perspective; and
design and therefore requires a new set of • making a connection between the ma-
performance and cost measurement criteria, chine-design requirements and the
which are inherently system-design based. manufacturing-system objectives.
Most production systems today are mea- Figure 2-27 illustrates the difference be-
sured in a way that causes their design to tween mass and lean production. The dif-
move in the opposite direction of meeting ference is the result of a change in design
lean production design objectives. Axiomatic parameters, which affect the functional re-
design helps define what the design system quirements of sales revenue, production
objectives are, and how they are to be ac- costs, and production investment. In mass
complished and implemented from a system- production, increasing sales revenue simply
design perspective. means making more products.
The development of production system Figure 2-28 shows how axiomatic think-
design decomposition is based on the power ing can be applied to show the differences
of axiomatic design. Two elements of axiom- between mass production and lean manu-
atic design are design axioms and zigzag- facturing. As shown, if the business objec-
ging. The idea of zigzagging means that any tive is to increase return on revenue, then
design, no matter how complex, may be de- FRs can be shown as sales revenue, pro-
composed into its constituent levels. Produc- duction cost, and production investment.
tion system design decomposition provides One component of lean manufacturing is in-
a systematic means for designing production creasing sales revenue. An increase in sales
systems. Its scopes include the functional revenue can be mapped out to maximize cus-
and physical domains of design. The func- tomer satisfaction.
tional requirements or objectives that are For mass production, the main aim is to
defined by the functional domain are mea- produce products at a minimum cost by
surable parameters of the production sys- maximizing the production output and ma-
tem design. chine utilization. In lean manufacturing, an
Figure 2-27. (a) Axiomatic thinking for the design of a mass production system and (b) a lean production system.
emphasis is placed on reducing defective rules to apply AD to QFD are explained. Fi-
products, increasing customer satisfaction, nally, a case study of a receptacle is used to
and achieving on-time delivery. In mass pro- demonstrate the concept.
duction, increased sales revenue (FR) means QFD deals with linking customer require-
maximizing production output (DP). In lean ments (CRs) to design requirements (DRs).
production, increased sales revenue (FR) In axiomatic design, this linking takes place
means satisfying the customer (DP). between functional requirements (FRs) and
design parameters (DPs). These ideas are
Axiomatic Design Applied expressed in Figure 2-29. QFD achieves this
to Quality Function Deployment (QFD) link through matrices—QFD matrix or re-
Axiomatic design methodology presents lationship matrix (RM)—and an axiomatic
a structured approach to streamlining the design referred to as a design matrix (DM).
design process. This allows products to be These matrices result from mapping one
designed with their functional objectives in domain to the other, both in axiomatic de-
mind. Quality function deployment (QFD) sign space and QFD space.
is a means of understanding the customer’s In QFD, an interdependency of design re-
needs and translating those needs into re- quirements is assessed using what is referred
quirements that will satisfy them. The ob- to as a correlation matrix (CM) (see Figure
jective of this section is to show how these 2-30). In AD, interdependency is achieved
two methods can be bridged together to fur- through a particular DM, which may be in
ther enhance and structure the design pro- the form of a coupled (C), decoupled (DC), or
cess. This section first examines some of the uncoupled (UC) format.
key similarities between axiomatic design Customer requirements are ranked with-
(AD) and QFD. Following this, some basic in QFD. This ranking helps pinpoint which
design requirements (DRs) are most impor- Figure 2-32. These equations represent the es-
tant with respect to the customers’ needs. sence of both methodologies. They are the
The ranking performed in QFD is achieved mathematical embodiment of the entire AD
through what is referred as a degree of im- and QFD processes at all levels.
portance (DOI) matrix (see Figure 2-31). The goal of the matrix in QFD is to for-
For AD, an application of ranking is not mulate, capture, and identify those design
so direct, and the ranking performed is pri- requirements (DRs) most significant to sat-
marily done for functional requirements isfying customer needs. For AD, this goal is
as opposed to customer requirements. To to capture and identify the nature of a par-
perform ranking in AD, the two design axi- ticular design (coupled, uncoupled, or de-
oms—functional independence and mini- coupled) with respect to its ability to satisfy
mum information content—are applied. The certain design objectives.
less information needed to implement a de- To start applying AD to QFD, a link first
sign, the better the design; and the more in- must be established between the FRs and
dependent its FRs, the better the design. DRs. To establish this link, the framework
AD methodology uses design equations depicted in Figures 2-33 and 2-34 is applied.
(DEQ) to show the relationship between FR This allows restructuring and mapping
and DP. In the same fashion, QFD can use simi- QFD-space DRs to AD-space FRs.
lar matrices to establish a set of prioritization Action is defined as being that singular
equations (PEQ). They are represented in task required to achieve a particular result;
Figure 2-31. Degree of importance matrices representing the QFD and AD spaces.
Figure 2-32. Prioritization equation and design equation for QFD and AD space.
object is defined as the entity requiring the analysis. The following details show how this
task; and criteria are the standards against can be done.
which the action will be measured. QFD space. To start, the team first for-
QFD and AD share similar traits. Because mulates and captures CRs and DRs as follows:
of this, both methods can be applied to en- CR1 = wiring too time consuming
hance the design process, thus taking advan- CR2 = modern look
tage of both the strengths of AD and of QFD. CR3 = low cost
Figure 2-35 summarizes this framework. CR4 = meets UL tests
DR1 = reduce time to wire
Electrical Receptacle Example DR2 = reduce number of process steps
In the QFD receptacle example shown in DR3 = use high-ranking jury
Figure 2-36, assume that the QFD team has DR4 = reduce cost to under $2.50
now decided to incorporate AD into its QFD DR5 = pass UL 498 test
The team then identifies the DRs that are DOI = [4, 4, 5, 5],
at least moderately satisfying the CRs. To
do this, it applies the following PEQ and DR1
99000 DR
then picks the DR terms with the largest ai 00900 2
or coefficient value. RM = and DRs = DR
00090
3
PEQ = [DOI] [RM] DRs (2-14) DR4
03009 DR
PEQ = a1DR1 + a2DR2 + a3DR3 5
+ … + anDRn (2-15)
where: PEQ = 36DR1 + 51DR2 + 36DR3
+ 45DR4 + 45DR5
PEQ = prioritization equation
DOI = customer degree-of-importance DRs that are found to have very large co-
matrix efficients should be chosen. The ones that
RM = relationship matrix appear to satisfy this criteria are DR2, DR4,
DRs = design requirements DR5 and should included in the AD analy-
an = relative weight of design require- sis. These DRs are the most significant DRs
ments to satisfy customer requirements. Since both
The house of quality shown in Figure 2-36 DR1 and DR3 are found to have moderately
lists the relationships between the “whats” large coefficients, these are selected as well
and “hows.” The quick-wiring requirement for inclusion into the AD analysis (see Fig-
has a positive ranking of 9, while meeting ure 2-37).
UL-test standards has a moderate relation- Finally, the DRs are converted into FRs.
ship of 3. The degree of importance is shown Once done, the team is ready to proceed over
to be (4, 4, 5, 5). Using Equations 2-14 and to its AD space to start analyzing design re-
2-15, the PEQ can be found. quirements as functional requirements.
Figure 2-35. Frameworks for applying axiomatic design analysis to QFD design requirements.
lem solving (TIPS). Genrich Altshuller de- speed. How can the same vehicle be designed
veloped the theory in 1946. He began with to run faster? TRIZ researchers found about
the hypothesis that universal principles 39 parameters, each of which could be in
serve as the basis for creative innovation contradiction with one another. The initial
across all scientific fields. If these principles step in using TRIZ is to find out which de-
were codified and taught, it would be possible sign parameters contradict one another.
to make innovation more predictable. To test Another technique, called the systematic
this theory, he reviewed about 200,000 pat- approach to engineering design (SAPB), has
ents submitted at that time in the Soviet a European origin and was developed by
Union. The analysis showed that most pat- Gerhard Pahl and Wolfgang Beitz (Pahl and
ents suggested a means for eliminating sys- Beitz 1988). SAPB states that design problem
tem conflicts. solving is a variant of general problem solv-
For a problem to be inventive, it has to ing. When designing, the designer usually
pose at least one contradiction. Such con- follows a path consisting of certain funda-
tradictions arise when a certain parameter mental activities—problem and requirements
cannot be improved without causing another formulation, a search for alternative solu-
parameter to deteriorate. A contradiction tions, evaluation and documentation, and
between speed and sturdiness is one ex- communication of results. Design methodolo-
ample. A sturdy automobile means more gies support this process by providing spe-
weight. More weight generally results in less cific design methods and design knowledge.
TRIZ methodology systematically inves- at correct conditions that may satisfy the
tigates the problem as an innovative solu- manufacturing process. In the case of dia-
tion and applies step-by-step guidelines to mond cracking, the splitting pressure will
generate solution alternatives—improving be much higher than the one used for bell
product parameters while maximizing prod- peppers. This has to be determined experi-
uct changes and costs. This procedure was mentally. Systematically codifying which
developed with a very limited knowledge of principles can help solve given combinations
other methodologies, but is based on a large of controlling parameters speeds up idea
empirical knowledge base of patents. The generation, instead of leaving it to trial and
concept has been adopted by many organi- error. The process of splitting and canning
zations as an effective concept-generating peppers was patented in 1968. The patent
tool. Apart from solving technological issues, given for crystal splitting was issued 20 years
it is capable of affecting key management later.
functions. The different elements of TRIZ/
TIPS are shown in Figure 2-38. Step-by-step TRIZ Process
For example, the engineering principle 1. Identify the problem. The engineering
used to split gems is also used to extract seeds system under consideration should be
from bell peppers so that they can be canned. identified—including its operating en-
In both cases, the objective is to break some- vironment, resource requirements, pri-
thing apart without breaking it. The proce- mary useful function, harmful effects,
dure involves placing the object in an airtight and ideal result.
container, gradually applying pressure, and 2. Formulate the problem in terms of
then suddenly releasing the pressure. A sud- TRIZ and contradictions. The problem
den pressure drop creates an explosion, which should be restated in terms of physical
splits the object along a fracture line. TRIZ contradictions, identifying problems
may assist in generating ideas and looking that could occur, and analyzing for tech-
of the radio component prevents theft. Con- apparent contradictions. Depending on the
tradicting design principles are reliable use nature of the problem, anywhere from five
and, at the same time, the least harmful side to 60 steps may be involved. From an un-
effect. In this case, reliable use can be inter- clear technical problem, the underlying tech-
preted as using the radio whenever the mo- nical problem can be revealed. Below is a
torist wants to. The harmful side effect is brief description of eight steps.
the theft of the car radio.
1. Analysis of problem: begin by making
Additional TRIZ Tools the transition from vaguely defined
statements of the problem to a simply
Problems of a more difficult nature are
stated mini-problem. This step also pro-
solved with the following precise TRIZ tools:
vides for the analysis of conflicting
• algorithm for inventive problem solv- situations (technical contradictions). A
ing (ARIZ); decision is made as to which contradic-
• SU-field analysis; tion is considered for further resolution.
• directed product evolution (DPE); and Once decided, a model of the problem
• anticipatory failure determination is formulated.
(AFD). 2. Analysis of problem model: a simplified
diagram that models conflict in the op-
ARIZ erating zone is drawn—the operating
ARIZ is an analytical tool of TRIZ. It pro- zone is a specified narrow area of con-
vides specific sequential steps for develop- flict. Then, an assessment of all the
ing a solution to complex problems without available resources is made.
3. Formulation of ideal final result (IFR): that permit quick modeling of simple struc-
usually the statement of the IFR reveals tures for SU-field analysis.
contradictory requirements to the criti- There are essentially four steps to follow
cal component of the system in the op- in making the SU-field model.
erating zone. This is called the physical
1. Identify the elements.
contradiction.
2. Construct the model. (After completing
4. Utilization of outside substances and
these two steps, stop to evaluate the
field resources: consider solving a prob-
completeness and effectiveness of the
lem by applying standards in conjunc-
system. If an element is missing, iden-
tion with a database of physical effects.
tify that element.)
5. Reformulation of problem: if the prob-
3. Consider the solutions from the stan-
lem still remains unsolved until this
dard solutions.
stage, ARIZ recommends returning to
4. Develop a concept to support the solu-
the starting point and reformulating
tion.
the problem in respect to the super sys-
tem. This looping process can be done
several times. Directed Product Evolution
6. Analysis of the method that removed Future characteristics of machines, pro-
the physical contradiction: the main cedures, or techniques are subject to predic-
goal of this step is to check the quality tion attempts using traditional forecasting
of the solution (with the physical con- techniques. They rely on surveys, simula-
tradiction removed). tions, and trends to create a probabilistic
7. Utilization of current found solution: model of future developments. Directed
this step guides users through an analy- product evolution (DPE) gives a forecast, but
sis of the effects the new system may does not precisely detail the technology be-
have on adjacent systems. It also forces ing forecast.
a search for applications to other tech- DPE is essentially a prediction based on a
nical problems. level of confidence in a technological achieve-
8. Analysis of steps that lead to solution: ment during a given time frame with a speci-
this is a checkpoint where the real pro- fied level of support. Most innovations of the
cess used to solve a problem is com- next 20 years will be based upon scientific
pared with that suggested by ARIZ. and technological knowledge existing now.
Deviations are analyzed for possible Difficulty lies in identifying what is of real
further use. significance. The role of DPE is to evaluate
today’s knowledge systematically, thereby
SU-field Analysis identifying how an achievable technological
advance can fulfill a human need.
SU-field analysis is a tool for expressing
The principle of DPE basically works on
function statements in terms of one subject
the following eight patterns of evolution:
acting on another subject. The objects are
called substances and the action is a field. 1. stages of evolution;
SU-field analysis is helpful in identifying 2. evolution toward increased ideality;
functional failures. By looking at actions as 3. non-uniform development of system
fields, undesirable or insufficient actions can elements;
be countered by applying opposite or intensi- 4. evolution toward increased dynamism
fied fields. There are 76 standard solutions and controllability;
Figure 2-41. The design process according to SAPB (Pahl and Beitz 1988).
should meet and about constraints. This phase sign problem is then formulated in an ab-
results in a detailed design specification. stract, solution-neutral form. This makes
the solution space as wide as possible, which
Conceptualize the Design serves to dispel prejudices that may tempt
The conceptual design phase starts with the designer to decide on a certain solution
an analysis of the specifications to identify before other alternatives have been consid-
essential problem(s) to be solved. The de- ered. The problem may then be decomposed
Fogler, Scott and LeBlanc, Steven E. 1995. ——. 1991. Total Design—Integrated Meth-
Strategies for Creative Problem Solving. ods for Successful Product Engineering. Lon-
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. don, UK: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.
Koestler, Arthur. 1969. The Act of Creation. Stein, Morris I. and Heinze, S.J. 1960. Cre-
New York: MacMillan. ativity and the Individual. New York: Free
Miles, Lawrence D. 1972. Techniques of Press.
Value Analysis and Engineering, 2nd Ed. Suh, Nam P. 2001. Axiomatic Design Ad-
New York: McGraw Hill, Inc. vances and Applications. Oxford, UK: Ox-
Nierenberg, G.I. 1986. The Art of Creative ford University Press.
Thinking. New York: Simon & Schuster, Inc. ——. 1990. The Principles of Design. Oxford,
Osborn, A.F. 1957. Applied Imagination. UK: Oxford University Press.
New York: Scribners. ——. 1989. “Design Axioms and Quality
Pahl, Gerhard and Beitz, Wolfgang. 1988. Control.” Report 6-22-89. Boston, MA: Mas-
Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach. sachusetts Institute of Technology Industrial
London, UK: Springer-Verlag. Liaison Program.
Pugh, Stuart. 1981. “Concept Selection—A Ternicko, J. Zusman and Zlotin, B. 1998.
Method that Works.” Proceedings of the In- Systematic Innovation: An Introduction to
ternational Conference on Engineering Design TRIZ. Boca Raton, FL: St. Lucie Press.
(ICED 81). Zurich, Switzerland: International Ulrich, Karl and Eppinger, Steven. 1995.
Society for the Science of Engineering De- Product Design and Development. New York:
sign, WDK: March. McGraw-Hill, Inc.
for specific orientations and if force is re- erate profit can be limited by specifying parts
quired to separate them. Operators may use requiring secondary and other miscella-
both hands to untangle components. neous operations. Design simplification and
Flexible—Flexible parts deform substan- designing a product for easy manufacturing
tially during assembly and manipulation. should be part of every product’s life cycle.
Operators may use two hands when han- The central issue in the design-for-manu-
dling paper, belts, felt gaskets, and cable facture system includes design guidelines
assemblies. that help designers optimize the number of
Handling difficulties—Components can parts. The ability of the designer to apply
present handling difficulties if they nest, these rules is a key factor in superior prod-
tangle, or stick together. This happens be- uct design.
cause of magnetic attraction, grease coatings,
or parts being slippery, delicate, or hot or cold. Design for Assembly Guidelines
Obstructed access—Obstructed access Common design for assembly guidelines
means that space available for assembly used by designers are listed in Table 3-1.
causes a significant increase in the assem-
bly time. The access could be for fingers to Part Count Reduction
reach or for tools used. The designer should go through the as-
Restricted vision—If the assembly envi- sembly process part by part and evaluate
ronment has restricted vision, an operator whether the part can be eliminated, combined
has to depend on tactile sensors during as- with another part, or if the job can be per-
sembly. formed in another way. To determine a theo-
Holding down required—If a part is un- retical minimum number of parts, a designer
stable after placement or insertion, it will re- should ask the following questions:
quire gripping, realignment, or holding down
• Does the part move relative to all other
before it is finally secured. Holding down is
moving parts?
also an operation intended for maintaining
• Must the part absolutely be of a differ-
the position and orientation of a part either
ent material from the other parts?
during its assembly or its pre- or post-as-
• Must the part be different to allow for
sembly operations.
possible disassembly?
Located—A part is said to be located if it
is partially located, and if it does not require The designer should simplify and reduce
holding down or realignment for the next the number of parts because, for each part,
activity. there is an opportunity for a defective part
Envelope—The envelope is the smallest and an assembly error. The probability of a
cylinder or rectangular prism that can com- perfect product goes down exponentially as
pletely enclose the part. The size is the the number of parts increases. As the num-
length of the longest side of the envelope. ber of parts goes up, the cost of fabricating
The thickness is the length of the shortest and assembling the product goes up. As parts
side of the envelope. are reduced, the cost of inventory and pur-
chasing are reduced. The use of manufac-
turing processes such as injection molding,
DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURABILITY extrusion, and metallurgy can bring about
METHODOLOGY part-count reduction. Table 3-2 gives ex-
The importance of design on manufactur- amples of how to reduce the number of parts
ing cannot be overstated. The ability to gen- in design for assembly.
Caution Caution
don’t don’t
Eliminate post-assembly
adjustments:
• easier positioning,
• reduced assembly time, and
• avoid tolerance demands on
mating parts.
Exaggerate symmetry
Technique to simplify
part insertion
Beta symmetry
β symmetry—is the rotational symmetry of a part about
its axis of insertion, or about an axis that is perpendicular
to the surface on which the part is placed. β-symmetry
depends on the angle through which a part is rotated
about the axis of insertion to repeat its orientation. For
a cylinder inserted into a circular hole, β = 0°; for a
square section inserted into a square hole, β = 90°.
Alpha 0° 180° 360° 180° 90° 360° 180° 180° 360° 360°
Beta 0° 0° 0° 90° 180° 360° 0° 90° 0° 360°
and by minimizing the axes of assembly. • Consider the use of a snap-on fit to re-
They should avoid complex orientation and place welded joints.
assembly movements made in various direc- • Evaluate other bonding techniques
tions in the following ways: such as adhesives. Match fastening
techniques to materials and product
• Part features should be provided such
requirements.
as chamfers and tapers.
• The product’s design should enable as-
sembly to begin with a base component Part Handling
with a large relative mass and a low The manual handling process involves
center of gravity upon which other grasping, transportation, and orientation of
parts are added. parts or subassemblies before they are in-
serted into or added to the work fixture or
Assembly should proceed vertically with
partially built-up assembly. Guidelines for
other parts added on top and positioned with
the aid of gravity. This will minimize the need design for ease of part handling are given in
to reorient assembly and reduce the need for Table 3-7. When design function permits,
temporary fastenings and more complex make parts with functionally superfluous
fixturing. Table 3-6 provides examples of features that facilitate handling during as-
design for ease of assembly. A product that sembly.
is easy to assemble manually will normally A subassembly is considered a part if it
be easily assembled with automation. Auto- is added during assembly. However, adhe-
mated assembly will be more uniform, more sives, fluxes, fillers, etc., used for joining
reliable, and of higher quality. parts are not considered parts. Time spent
on assembly increases if the part requires
Design for Efficient holding down. Holding down is required if
Joining and Fastening the part is unstable after placement, inser-
tion, or during subsequent operations. A
Threaded fasteners (screws, bolts, nuts, part may require gripping, realignment, or
and washers) are time consuming to as- holding down before it is finally secured.
semble and difficult to automate. Designers Holding down also refers to a situation that
should: maintains the position and orientation of a
• Use standardization and minimize va- part already in place.
riety when using fasteners such as self- Parts can present handling difficulties if
threading screws and washers. they nest or tangle, stick together because
of magnetic force or grease coating, are slip- ration. Flexible parts are those that substan-
pery, require careful handling, etc. Parts that tially deform during manipulation and also
nest or tangle are those that interlock when require use of two hands. Examples of such
in bulk, but that can be separated by one parts are paper or felt gaskets, rubber bands,
simple manipulation of a single part. Ex- and belts.
amples of this concept include paper cups,
closed-end helical springs, and circlips (ring Part Location
washers). Parts that are slippery are those A part is considered located if it will not
that easily slip from ringers or standard require holding down or realignment for
grasping tools because of their shape and/or subsequent operations. A part is easy to
surface condition. Parts that require careful align and position if the position is estab-
handling are those that are fragile or deli- lished by locating features on the part or on
cate, have sharp corners or edges, or present its mating part and if insertion is facilitated
other hazards to the operator. Parts that nest by well-designed chamfers (see Table 3-6).
or tangle are those that interlock when in Resistance encountered during part inser-
bulk and require both hands to apply a sepa- tion can be due to small clearances, jam-
Avoid parts that interconnect Parts that interconnect Design barriers to prevent
interconnection
ming, wedging, hang-up conditions, or in- by assembly analysis, and then the design
sertion against a large force. For example, a improvement process. This method distin-
press fit is an interference fit where a large guishes between manual and automatic as-
force is required for assembly. The resistance semblies. Design improvement is focused
encountered with self-tapping screws is simi- on part-number reduction and shortening
larly an example of insertion resistance. the associated process times. The Hitachi
Assembly time can vary depending on method is an empirical method that suggests
whether the parts have clear access or ob- three basic steps, including product design,
structed access. Obstructed access causes a assembly evaluation, and comparisons. The
significant increase in assembly time. Re- Lucas method is also an empirical method
stricted vision causes the operator to rely like the previous two methods. It consists
mainly on tactile sensors during assembly. of six steps that include product specifica-
tion, design for assembly, functional analy-
STEP-BY-STEP METHODOLOGIES sis, handling analysis, fitting analysis, and
The Boothroyd-Dewhurst method starts redesign. The design-improvement process
by selecting an assembly method, followed results in a reduction in the number of parts
A redesign has to produce a better prod- tion to the Z-axis assembly direction to de-
uct with higher design efficiency. The most termine ␣ and  before entering the two-
effective way of improving design efficiency digit handling process code.
is through reducing the number of parts. In Enter the handling time for this opera-
the case of manual assembly, time reduction tion (found in Table 3-9) in Column 4.
is another way of improving efficiency. In Estimate the ease of assembly in Column
automatic assembly, the feeding and orient- 5, which can be determined by using Table
ing efficiency needs to be improved. 3-10 showing the estimated times for inser-
Step-by-step procedure. Features of the tion. Carefully consider the attributes—hold
design are examined in a systematic manner down, align, and position-insertion resis-
and design efficiency is calculated. The effi- tance—to determine the insertion times.
ciency is then used to compare different de- Enter the two-digit insertion-process code
signs. The technique involves two important in Column 5.
steps for each part in the assembly: Enter the insertion time (in seconds) in
1. the decision as to whether the part can Column 6. The total assembly-operation
be eliminated or combined with other time in seconds is calculated by adding han-
parts in the assembly; and dling and insertion in Columns 4 and 6, and
2. an estimate of the time required to multiplying this sum by the number of re-
grasp, manipulate, and insert the part. peated operations in Column 2.
Total operation time is placed in Column
Phase One. The assembly is first taken 8. Total cost in Column 10 is obtained by
apart. Each part is assigned a number. If the multiplying the time in Column 8 by a labor
assembly contains subassemblies, these are and overhead rate.
first treated as parts. Subsequently, the In Column 9, an estimate of the theoreti-
parts are analyzed in the subassemblies. cal minimum number of parts for the assem-
Phase Two. The product is reassembled. bly is determined for each part by answering
The part with the highest identification the following questions with practical feasi-
number is assembled first to the work fix- bility in mind:
ture, then the remaining parts are added
one by one. The addition of parts could be • During operation of the product, does
done by using one or two hands, or by using the part move relative to all other parts
a separate handling tool. Finally, an analy- already assembled? Only gross motion
sis of the assembly is done with the help of should be considered; small motions
Table 3-8. that can be accommodated by elastic
Enter the part identification number and hinges, for example, are not sufficient
part description. In Column 2, enter the for a positive answer.
number of times that identical part is used • Must the part be of a different mate-
at only this level of assembly. For example, rial or be physically isolated from all
if there are six ½-in. (12-mm) machine other parts already assembled? Only
screws used, there are six operations. It is fundamental reasons associated with
assumed that all screws are inserted indi- material properties are accepted.
vidually. Screws and washers are considered • Must the part be separate from all other
separate parts. parts already assembled? Necessary
In Column 3 the symmetry of the han- assembly or disassembly of separate
dling part from the Table 3-9 is listed. It is parts for service or repair may be ren-
important to always look at the part in rela- dered impossible.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Total Theoretical
Manual Manual Assembly Minimum
Part Number of α+ β Manual Handling Manual Insertion Time Number
104
Identification Part Identical Symmetry Handling Time Insertion Time (2) × [(5) + (7)] arts
of PParts
Number Description Operations (°) Code (seconds) Code (seconds) = Tm ( N m) Costs
Chapter 3—The Impact of Product Design
4/15/02, 9:28 AM
105
Table 3-9. Material handling—estimated times (seconds) (Boothroyd and Dewhurst 1987) Chapter 3—The Impact of Product Design
If the answer to any of these questions is one at a time. However, for bench as-
“yes,” then a “1” is placed in Column 9, ex- sembly and manual assembly lines,
cept where multiple identical operations are workers often handle two parts simul-
indicated in Column 2. If this is the case, taneously. Under these circumstances,
the number of parts that must be listed sepa- research has shown that assembly times
rately is placed in Column 9. can be reduced by one third. Thus, the
The remaining parts are added one by one design engineer can obtain a more ac-
to the assembly. The manual assembly analy- curate estimate of time by dividing the
sis worksheet is completed for each addi- derived number by 1.5.
tional part. • In preparing a time-and-motion analy-
When all of the rows of Table 3-8 are com- sis used to derive manual handling
pleted, the figures in Column 8 are all added time, it is often assumed that parts are
to determine the total estimated manual as- randomly oriented in bins at the assem-
sembly time. The figures in Column 10 are bly station. However, many parts are
added to give the total manual assembly cost, available in proper orientation in trays
and the figures in Column 9 are added to or magazines. If the engineer is aware
give the theoretical minimum number of of how these functions affect the assem-
parts for the complete assembly (or subas- bly time, he or she may incorporate this
sembly). data into the analysis.
Redesign. The initial design for assem-
bly analysis provides the designer with use-
ful information for product redesign in two Electric Switch Case Study
areas: Using the Boothroyd-Dewhurst method,
• Data contained in Column 9 of Table an existing electric switch (see Figure 3-2)
3-8 indicates where it might be possible is analyzed and later redesigned. Changes
to reduce the number of parts. in the number of parts as well as the design
• Columns 4 and 6 of Table 3-8 indicate efficiency are calculated.
those parts that are difficult to handle Existing design. The existing design for
or insert. the switch contains a total of 14 separate parts
and operations (see Table 3-11). The total
When the number in column 9 is less than assembly time is 183.11 seconds, and the cor-
that in Column 2, there is a possibility of responding design efficiency is calculated as
eliminating parts. A reduction in the part 15%. This switch assembly is a good candi-
count is usually the most effective means of date for the application of design for assem-
improving assemblability. In this way, design bly tools to obtain a more efficient design.
efficiency is greatly improved. Creative tech- Proposed redesign. The goal of redesign-
niques should be applied to groups of parts ing the switch is to minimize the number of
in the assembly that can be combined. Al- parts, while maintaining the functionality of
ternate group parts should be sketched. The the original design. Basic guidelines for de-
figures in Columns 4 and 6 indicate parts sign for assembly analysis are applied for
where there is the potential to decrease the each part. The new design is detailed in
handling time or insertion time. The design Table 3-12 and Figure 3-3.
of parts that pose difficulty in handling and
1. Switch base. The switch base was modi-
insertion should be reviewed.
fied in this example to incorporate a snap
• In the Boothroyd-Dewhurst design-for- fit into the switch cover. This eliminated the
assembly methodology, parts are added existing bent tabs used on the metal switch
6 Add grease — —
4 Add grease — —
Item
Tool Handling/ Item Total
Part Acquisition Acquisition Insertion Operating Total
Identification Item Repeat Minimum Time Time Time Time Operating
Number Type Name Count Parts (seconds) (seconds) (seconds) (seconds) Cost
114
1 Part Switch base 1 1 0 1.95 1.5 3.45 0.03
2 Part Wire-clinch terminal 2 2 0 1.80 5.0 13.60 0.11
3 Part Center terminal 1 1 0 1.80 5.0 6.80 0.06
Chapter 3—The Impact of Product Design
4/15/02, 9:28 AM
Ch03.p65
Table 3-14. Calculation of assembly time and design efficiency (original)
Item
Tool Handling/ Item Total
Part Acquisition Acquisition Insertion Operating Total
Identification Item Repeat Minimum Time Time Time Time Operating
115
Number Type Name Count Parts (seconds) (seconds) (seconds) (seconds) Cost
1 Part Switch base 1 1 0 2.73 1.5 4.23 0.04
2 Part Terminals 3 3 0 5.10 7.4 37.50 0.31
3 Part Terminal 1 0 0 4.80 7.4 12.20 0.10
center contact
4 Part Terminal rivets 3 0 2.9 4.80 11.2 50.90 0.42
5 Part Contact rocker 1 1 0 4.35 7.4 11.75 0.10
6 Operation Apply grease 1 — 3.0 — — 7.00 0.06
to area
7 Part Base cover 1 0 0 2.73 5.2 7.93 0.07
roduct Success
10 Part Switch toggle 1 1 0 1.50 2.6 4.10 0.03
11 Part Mounting cover 1 0 0 1.80 2.6 4.40 0.04
12 Part Mounting thread 1 0 0 1.80 5.2 7.00 0.06
4/15/02, 9:28 AM
13 Part Mounting washer 1 0 2.9 2.06 7.5 12.46 0.10
14 Part Terminal screws 1 0 2.9 1.80 9.2 13.90 0.12
Design efficiency = 15%
Chapter 3—The Impact of Product Design
115
116
Chapter 3—The Impact of Product Design
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Total Theoretical Total
Number Manual Manual Assembly Minimum Part
Part of Manual Handling Manual Insertion Time (2) × Number Cost
118
Identification Part Identical Handling Time Insertion Time [(4) + (7)] arts
of PParts Part (10) × (2)
Number Description Operations Code (seconds) Code (seconds) = Tm (Nm) Costs = TP
1 Terminal box 1 95 4.0 38 6.0 20.0 1 0
2 Blower 1 91 3.0 38 6.0 18.0 1 0
3 Bracket 1 95 4.0 49 10.5 29.0 0 0
Chapter 3—The Impact of Product Design
roduct Success
10 Rotor 1 99 9.0 92 5.0 28.0 1 0
11 Adapter 1 99 9.0 49 10.5 39.0 0 0
12 Stator 1 99 9.0 49 10.5 39.0 1 0
13 Rear cover 1 99 9.0 39 8.0 34.0 1 0
4/15/02, 9:30 AM
14 Right stabilizer 2 95 4.0 38 6.0 20.0 0 0
15 Left stabilizer 2 95 4.0 38 6.0 20.0 0 0
16 Frame 1 99 9.0 00 1.5 21.0 0 0
444.2 9 0
Design efficiency = 6.1%
Ch03.p65
Table 3-16. DFM worksheet for the redesigned motor
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Total Theoretical
Number Manual Manual Assembly Minimum
119
Part of Manual Handling Manual Insertion Time (2) × Number
Identification Part Identical Handling Time Insertion Time [(5) + (7)] arts
of PParts Part
Number Description Operations Code (seconds) Code (seconds) = Tm (N M) Costs
roduct Success
10 Stator 99 9 00 1.5 21 8.4 1
275 10
Design efficiency = 11%
4/15/02, 9:30 AM
Chapter 3—The Impact of Product Design
119
120
Chapter 3—The Impact of Product Design
121
Part of α+β Manual Handling Manual Insertion Time (2) × Number
Identification Part Identical Symmetry Handling Time Insertion Time [(5) + (7)] arts
of PParts
Number Description Operations (°) Code (seconds) Code (seconds) = Tm ( N m) Costs
roduct Success
10 Nose seal 1 16 4.80 01 2.5 7.30 1
11 Front screen 1 12 2.25 49 10.5 12.75 1
11 97.39 8
4/15/02, 9:30 AM
Design efficiency 24.6%
Chapter 3—The Impact of Product Design
121
122
Chapter 3—The Impact of Product Design
provides complete data on the components, the assembly of necessary parts takes 60%
their handling time, the time for insertion, of the assembly time. Standard operations
and the parameters needed to calculate the take the remaining amount of time.
efficiency index. The redesigned product shows a significant
DFA analysis of the shuttle valve indicates reduction in assembly time. Design efficiency
that there are candidates for elimination. is increased as a result of the redesign. The
Results of the analysis are as follows: new version has two sets of windows that
• design efficiency is 24.6%; allow flow to discharge from the valve; one
• total assembly time is 97 seconds; set is for the normal flow path and the sec-
• total number of parts is 11; and ond set is for the emergency flow path. Al-
• theoretical minimum number of parts though these two ports discharge into the
is 8. same downstream annulus, they are inter-
nally isolated by the poppet valve, except for
About 40% of the 97-second assembly time the minimal lapped leakage.
can be reduced. The three components that Redesign also causes additional opera-
took the longest to assemble in the example tions. In the redesigned valve, the rear body
were the locking screw (15.60 seconds), the is swaged inside the front body. The valve
barrel screen (13.88 seconds), and the spring moves inside the rear body to close off the
seat mounted in the rear body (14.50 sec- normal discharge flow path in an emergency.
onds). This requires that a discharge window be
Redesign. The redesign is focused on cut into both the rear and front bodies, add-
eliminating unnecessary parts and operations ing a machining operation. On the assem-
and on combining parts (see Table 3-18). The bly of the two bodies, the windows must line
most significant component redesigns are up perfectly to eliminate blocking the dis-
the poppet valve and return spring. A sepa- charge port. This adds additional assembly
rate spring seat mounted in the rear body is movement because the alpha and beta angles
seated against the poppet. An additional in the redesign are different and the com-
spacer supports the spring seat over the ponents require additional manipulation.
bleed screen. The assembly is then attached During the assembly process, additional fea-
to the rear body through a locking screw that tures create a perfect alignment in the rear
retains the internal screen, spacer, seat, and
and front body.
spring components. By combining parts, the
redesign eliminates the spacer and seat by
creating a spring-seat surface on the nose Mechanical Press Case Study
of the rear body, where it is swaged into the Presses provide a means of compressing
front body (see Figure 3-7). and shaping components by exerting high
A screen brazed to the rear body elimi- pressure. Mechanical presses use various
nates the locking screw. The poppet is rede- drive systems. In the screw press, a screw
signed to be of a stepped diameter, where spindle is rotated on a fixed nut, whereby a
the smaller outside diameter (OD) moves longitudinal force is transmitted through
within the rear body, and the larger OD the spindle to the workpiece. On larger
moves within the front body. The step sur- presses, the upper end of the screw spindle
face is utilized as a seat on which the spring has a large flywheel that, when rotating,
force is applied to the poppet. contains a large reserve of stored energy.
As shown in Table 3-19, the analysis pro- The assembly layout of a mechanical press
file indicates that for the redesigned part, is shown in Figure 3-8. The present design
123
Part of α+β Manual Handling Manual Insertion Time (2) × Number
Identification Part Identical Symmetry Handling Time Insertion Time [(5) + (7)] arts
of PParts
Number Description Operations (°) Code (seconds) Code (seconds) = Tm ( N m) Costs
roduct Success
Design efficiency = 47.1%
4/15/02, 9:30 AM
Chapter 3—The Impact of Product Design
123
124
Chapter 3—The Impact of Product Design
resistance to insertion. Therefore, the sec- not move relative to the other parts al-
ond digit of the insertion code is 9. An in- ready assembled.
sertion of 7.50 seconds corresponds to the 2. The column is a different material or
insertion code of 09. is physically isolated from other parts
The total operation time is the sum of the already assembled.
handling and insertion times multiplied by 3. The column need not be separate from
the number of items. For the part under con- other parts to facilitate assembly and
sideration, the total operation time is 9.45 disassembly.
seconds. The cost of an assembly depends
Since the answer to each of these questions
on the hourly cost of operators. The rate
is “No,” a 0 is placed in Column 9.
includes the overhead cost of an organiza-
The remaining parts are added one by
tion, which varies from region to region.
one to the assembly and the manual assem-
As discussed previously, the identification
bly analysis table is completed for each ad-
of the theoretical minimum number of parts
ditional part. The total number of parts is
is a way to identify whether the specific part
13 and there are two fastening operations
is a candidate for elimination under the
(items 4 and 14). The operations do not have
following conditions:
handling time associated with them and are
1. During the operation of the product, considered only as a separate insertion. To-
the specific part under discussion does tal assembly time is 87.62 seconds. The
127
Part Number α+β Manual Handling Manual Insertion Time (2) × Number
Identification Part of Symmetry Handling Time Insertion Time [(5) + (7)] arts
of PParts
Number Description Items (°) Code (seconds) Code (seconds) = Tm ( N m) Costs
roduct Success
10 Gear 1 540 20 1.80 00 1.5 3.30 1
11 Rack 1 720 30 1.95 09 7.5 9.45 1
12 Cover plate 1 540 20 1.80 08 6.5 8.30 1
4/15/02, 9:30 AM
13 Cap screws 4 360 10 1.50 00 1.5 12.00 0
14 Fastening Operation — — — 92 5.0 5.00 —
15 Rack pad 1 360 10 1.50 31 5.0 6.50 1
Total 13 87.62 8
Design efficiency = 27%
Chapter 3—The Impact of Product Design
127
128
Chapter 3—The Impact of Product Design
theoretical minimum number of parts is press. Table 3-23 outlines the improvements
eight; these are essential parts and cannot gained by the redesign.
be combined or eliminated. The assembly In redesign, the rotary set subassembly con-
design efficiency index for manual assem- sists of a sleeve, gear, handle, and ball end.
bly is obtained by using Equation 3-1:
Hitachi Method
3 Nm
Em = The Hitachi method, also known as the as-
Tm sembly-evaluation method, is an alternative
where: method used to assess the manufacturability
Em = manual assembly design efficiency % of a product. Manufacturability to a large
Nm = theoretical minimum number of parts extent depends on design, material costs,
Tm = total assembly time processing costs, and other indirect costs
3(8) (Miyakawa and Ohashi 1986).
Em = Some features of Hitachi methodology are:
87.62
Em = 0.27% • comparison of concept designs and con-
sideration of the advantages of each;
Some components used in the design can • ranking of concept designs and com-
be eliminated because they lack a functional parison to competitors’ products;
purpose. In redesign, the rack-and-pinion • ranking of product in terms of assembl-
combination is still being used, but there are ability;
only eight components. The column and • facilitation of design improvements on
cover plate are combined into a single ma- product;
chinable part. The redesigned subassembly • identification of key points that need
rotary set includes a sleeve, gear, handle, and improvement;
ball end. • estimation of effects of improvement;
Figure 3-9 and Table 3-22 provide design and
details and assembly data for the redesigned • assembly cost estimate.
Figure 3-10 shows the steps used in the semblies. This is because of the belief that
Hitachi method. there is a strong correlation between the
Assembly evaluation is generally carried degree of difficulty of manual and automatic
out with completed product design drawings. assembly.
However, evaluation of a conceptual design The assemblability evaluation procedure
is also part of process improvement. Design consists of the steps shown in Figure 3-11.
improvement is performed based on data
obtained by reviewing the evaluation results. 1. Preparation begins with collecting
Design after improvement is again subjected drawings, conceptual and completed
to an assemblability evaluation process with samples, etc. Evaluation results are
the purpose of evaluating the effects of im- more accurate if more precise drawings
provements. It is important to point out that and data are available.
assemblability evaluation does not distin- 2. The attachment sequence is deter-
guish between manual and automatic as- mined, and the names and numbers of
should perform a cost evaluation for If the organization can establish a product
assemblability, which will contribute family where identical components are used
greatly to a reduced design process. across a range of products, the Lucas meth-
• Simplification of parts production and odology becomes very efficient. Standardiza-
assembly operations, as well as auto- tion enables a single assembly system to be
mation, improves product and process used across a range of products. The prod-
reliability. uct family enables the creation of product
groups with a high enough demand to jus-
Lucas Design Method tify automated production and assembly.
The Lucas design method enables a de- Product groups keep assembly system de-
signer to identify nonfunctional and diffi- signs from becoming obsolete as long as new
cult-to-fit design elements, thus indicating products are within the product design pro-
areas that will benefit from further scrutiny file. The objectives are:
before the design is finalized (El Wakil 1998).
• Use standard parts for the product and
The technique highlights non-essential ele-
a range of products to maximize tool-
ments that result not only in part-number
ing and utilization and to minimize
reduction, but also advantages such as lower
variety.
inventories, assembly times, and production
• Assemble from the same direction and
control costs. The whole process can be di-
in the same sequence, eliminating the
vided into the following steps:
need for duplicate tooling.
1. product design specification, • Use common handling and feeding fea-
2. functional analysis, tures on larger components—again, to
3. handling analysis, minimize the degree of handling-tool
4. fitting analysis, and dedication.
5. redesign.
The Lucas methodology provides the ben-
Product Design Specification efits of keeping handling and tooling tech-
nology simple and low cost, while still
The product design specification (PDS) is
maintaining an acceptable level of versatil-
a crucial document for the purpose of analy-
ity within the system. The benefit of stan-
sis. It contains all of the requirements, in-
dardization is that a system can be rapidly
cluding customer and business data, which
the product must satisfy to be successful. A changed over between batches of different
well-researched PDS provides solutions for products.
frequently conflicting requirements of cus-
tomer need and component functionality. The Evaluation Procedure
PDS is considered a reference point for an The evaluation procedure consists of
emerging design. Every component must be three steps and is illustrated in Figure 3-12.
present for a definite purpose and the pur- 1. functional analysis;
pose must be outlined in the specification. 2. handling analysis (manual or auto-
A major factor in the Lucas method is the matic); and
determination of whether the product is 3. fitting analysis (manual or automatic).
unique or has a relation to other products
from the company, indicating there are simi- Functional analysis. Functional analy-
larities and opportunities for rationalization sis is the first element of the design itera-
and standardization of parts and procedures. tion procedure and it continually repeats
automated assembly, the feeding index has cost is the same as the calculation of the feed-
to be determined. If the index does not meet ing ratio. A useful measure of overall effec-
expectations, a redesign may result in an in- tiveness of product design from the feeding
dex reduction. The next important step in the point of view is the feeding ratio. Automati-
analysis is to determine how the components cally assembled parts are subject to a three-
and subassemblies are going to be assembled. step analysis for obtaining the automated
There are two modes to be considered: manual feeding ratio:
handling and automated feeding.
Manual handling. The manual handling 1. Determine whether the components are
analysis is based on: best transported in a retained orienta-
tion, or in the form of bulk supply that
• size and weight of the part, is reoriented at the input point.
• handling difficulties, and 2. Assess the general physical properties
• orientation of the part. of those components that will not be
For a manual assembly, a less complex pro- transported with a retained orientation.
cess is used than for automated assemblies. 3. Examine the suitability of a detailed
Automated feeding. For an automated as- design of those components proposed
sembly, calculation of the relative handling for automatic feeding.
Feeding indices. For the calculation of feed- of a product design from a fitting point of
ing indices, the feeding ratio is expressed as: view. In non-assembly situations, the proce-
Fc dure looks at an individual non-assembly
Feeding ratio = (3-4) process and identifies a relative cost that
AN contributes to the total assembly cost. Ex-
where:
amples of such processes would be tighten-
Fc = total relative feeding cost ing pre-placed screws, welding, and adhesive
AN = number of A parts bonding of pre-placed parts.
The fitting ratio is calculated as:
The total relative feeding cost can be ob-
tained by summing all the individual feed- Gc + Ii + Ni
ing indices A, B, and C. As shown in Figure Fr = (3-5)
AN
3-15, Stage A indices provide information on
parts not suitable for mechanical orienta- where:
tion. Stage B provides information on parts
that can be mechanically oriented and those Fr = fitting ratio
with end-to-end orientations. Stage C pro- Gc = gripping cost index
vides information on parts with rotational Ii = insertion and fixing cost index
orientations. Large numbers of experiments Ni = non-assembly cost index
have indicated that the feeding ratio for an AN = number of A parts
acceptable design is generally less than 2.5. In the analysis, an appropriate surface is
Fitting analysis. Fitting analysis follows one that enables a component to be carried
handling analysis and indicates what types at the required gripping force. A surface is
of gripping, insertion, and fixing operations said to be available when it is possible for the
are required. Each operation is rated and component to be assembled satisfactorily
the whole assembly task produces a fitting without the gripper obstructing the insertion
ratio. The analysis is primarily intended for process. Part characteristics (center of mass,
automated assembly, but if manual assem- gripping area, etc.) may be such that it is dif-
bly is required, then manual ratings are ficult to hold a part securely enough during
used. Fitting analysis assesses the relative transport accelerations and decelerations.
ease or difficulty of carrying out each task A measure of the effectiveness of a prod-
required to assemble the complete product uct design is its fitting ratio. For a good de-
from its constituent parts. This varies de- sign, the fitting ratio is less than 2.5, although
pending on whether a process is carried out the aim is to minimize this factor. The fit-
manually or by automated methods and is ting ratio is based on the gripping, insertion,
reflected in respective costs. Individual in- and non-assembly costs (see Figures 3-16,
dex values, experimentally determined as 1.5 3-17, and 3-18). After analyzing a product,
or greater, indicate the presence of a fitting certain aspects of its design, part feeding,
problem. and assembly are re-examined for more
A gripping assessment examines how each evaluation. Attention should to be paid to
part is held for transportation, from point the efficiency of the feeding components. All
of presentation within the automatic assem- B-category parts should be eliminated or
bly system, to the stage where insertion is combined with A-category components. Dur-
completed. This applies primarily to auto- ing the concept design stage, emphasis
mated assembly applications. A fitting as- should be placed on increasing the design
sessment examines the overall effectiveness efficiency rating by looking at the suitability
of the component part design for handling Fitting ratio analysis. In Figure 3-17,
and feeding. The result of a redesign should the fitting process, the process and volume,
be consistent with the gripping provisions access to the process, and aligning and in-
if automation is to be applied. In all events, sertion difficulties are identified. Table 3-
the product redesign stage must consider the 25 shows individual, as well as cumulative
task of actually assembling parts into their values of the insertion and fixing index for
final position. all 16 parts of the electric motor.
The fitting ratio is determined by calcu-
Electric Motor Case Study lating the sum of the gripping cost, inser-
Using the Lucas design method, the func- tion, fixing cost, and non-assembly cost
tional, handling, and fitting analyses are car- indices. In this case, the gripping-cost index
ried out on an electric motor. Charts for is zero because the component has an ap-
functional, handling, and fitting analyses are propriate gripping surface available during
drawn. The function analyses charts are used the insertion process (see Table 3-28).
to identify essential parts (A) and non-es- Using Equation 3-5 and substituting the
sential parts (B). Tables 3-24a and b list 16 indice values from Table 3-25:
components, of which nine are classified as
“A” parts. The design efficiency in this func- 0 + 45.9 + 72.5
Fr = = 13.15
tional analysis is identified as 56%. 9
The manual handling index and fitting
Table 3-29 outlines the improvement re-
ratios are calculated for the original design
alized from redesign of the electric motor.
and improved design of the electric motor
Although design efficiency has improved
(see Tables 3-24 to 3-28).
substantially, the manual handling and fit-
Handling analysis. As outlined in Fig-
ting ratios have not improved proportionally.
ure 3-14, the handling analysis consider-
ations include the size and weight of the
part (A), handling difficulty (B), and orien- COMPARISON OF DFM METHODS
tation of the part (C and D). The handling Different DFM techniques provide sys-
index is the sum of A, B, C, and D. Table 3- tematic and disciplined ways of raising the
24 shows the individual as well as cumula- importance of manufacturing and assembly
tive handling difficulties for all 16 parts of in the mind of the designer. The aim is to
the electric motor. concentrate early in the design stage on cre-
ating products that are easy to manufacture to develop an integrative prospective of de-
and assemble, before much effort and cost sign, manufacture, and assembly.
is expended in pursuing another design, The methods covered in this book, except
which might be unnecessarily expensive. for the axiomatic method discussed in Chap-
DFM methods provide the basis from which ter 2, apply mainly to mechanism-based
assemblies of sizes that can be conveniently provide any means of making judgments
assembled on a desktop. Typical products between centrally important tradeoffs posed
are tape/video recorders, car alternators, and by possible alternative choices of materials
water pumps. The methods are not appro- and processes.
priate for large products such as complete In the analysis stage, the Boothroyd-
cars. This is because there is a lack of data Dewhurst method has some strong points.
for these large products. This is because manufacturing guidelines
The Hitachi, Boothroyd-Dewhurst, and are invariably intended to make individual
Lucas methods are supported by computer processing steps as efficient as possible. The
software systems that provide step-by-step Boothroyd-Dewhurst method focuses atten-
instructions. An advantage of the software tion mostly on the handling and insertion
is that it aids the evaluation procedure by of parts, with detailed consideration given
prompting the user with help screens in con- to automation.
text, and by conveniently documenting the An evaluation of product designs for au-
analysis. The user can quickly assess the tomated assembly has real value to antici-
effect of a proposed design change by editing pate difficulties that would otherwise occur
a current analysis. The Boothroyd-Dewhurst during product installation. The design ef-
and Lucas methods distinguish manual from ficiency reflects the scope for parts reduc-
automatic assemblies, while the Hitachi tion and for improving the handling and
method does not. Based on a comparison insertion (manual) processes. Software for
analysis, it becomes clear that the axiom- the Boothroyd-Dewhurst method provides
atic technique cannot really be compared an extensive range of analysis output and
with other methods. This is because the axi- report formats for the user. It also facilitates
omatic technique gives a conceptual under- the freedom to present results in a number
standing of a product design, while the other of ways.
three methods give detailed assembly evalu- The most complete calculation of design
ations. efficiency is provided by the Boothroyd-
In the conceptual stage, the axiomatic Dewhurst method. It determines design ef-
method is superior. However, the axiom- ficiency that takes into account parts
atic approach has two major weaknesses reduction and handling and insertion im-
when manufacturing is considered in the provement. The Hitachi method calculates
early stages of product design. It does not design efficiency based on the insertion pro-
cess only, while the Lucas method is focused being that an assessment of a product de-
on a reduction of the number of parts. The sign for automated assembling is sensitive
axiomatic method does not deal explicitly to part configuration and is difficult to as-
with design efficiency. sess precisely at the early design stages.
On the other hand, the Hitachi technique These aspects should be dealt with at later
gives a process overview of assembly, se- design stages.
quence, and insertion operations. There is The Lucas method is based on a symbolic
no explicit criterion for a minimum parts logic programming paradigm. The advan-
count. The Hitachi method does not offer tage of this is that it is easier to encode and
direct analysis for parts feeding and orien- derive the design for assembly rules embod-
tation. For this reason, design for automated ied in the method and, at the same time, pro-
assembly is not an option, the argument vide the user with generalized suggestions
for possible design changes as the evalua- All methods are useful to create products
tion proceeds. The Lucas method adopts with superior quality levels, shorter market-
aspects of both the Hitachi and Boothroyd- ing times, and low costs.
Dewhurst methods by dealing with handling Table 3-30 gives an evaluation of the vari-
and insertion with some consideration of au- ous DFM methods.
tomation. It gives a good overview of the as- The Boothroyd-Dewhurst method shows
sembly process. The design efficiency of the an excellent feasibility score compared to
Lucas method is based solely on the scope other methods. It is straightforward and
for reducing the number of parts in a prod- relatively well documented with step-by-step
uct design and is not as comprehensive as instructions. The Lucas method has similar
the Boothroyd-Dewhurst method. advantages, while the Hitachi method does
143
1 Terminal box 2 0 0 0 0.7 0 2.7 5.5
2 Blower 2 0 0 0 0 0 2.0 5.5
3 Bracket 2 0 0 1.5 0.7 0 4.2 5.5
4 Stiffener 2 0.1 0 0 0.7 0 2.8 5.5
5 Brake linkages 2 0.1 0.7 0 0 0 2.8 5.5
6 Magnet 2 0 0 0 0 0 2.0 4.0
7 Magnet support 2 0 0 0 0 0 2.0 4.0
8 Bearing stand 1 0.1 0 1.5 0.7 0 3.3 5.5
9 Sheave 2 0.1 0 1.5 0.7 0 3.3 1.5
roduct Success
12 Stator 2 0.1 0 1.5 0.7 0 4.3 4.0
13 Rear cover 2 0.1 0 0 0.7 0 2.8 5.5
14 Right stabilizer 2 0.1 0 0 0.7 0 2.8 5.5
4/15/02, 9:31 AM
15 Left stabilizer 2 0.1 0 0 0.7 0 2.8 5.5
16 Frame 1 0 0 0 0 0 1.0 0
45.9 72.5
Insertion and fixing index = 45.9
Non-assembly index = 72.5
Gripping index = 0
Fitting ratio = 13.15
Chapter 3—The Impact of Product Design
143
144
Chapter 3—The Impact of Product Design
not follow the sequential steps of the other with. The axiomatic method offers the right
two techniques and is not well represented methodology to manage a design process in
in technical literature. The axiomatic method the conceptual stage. The other three meth-
is based on a fixed set of axioms and looks ods do not provide such features.
at a design from a conceptual, rather than a
design for assembly point of view. The de- REFERENCES
pendency of functional requirements and Boothroyd, Geoffrey. and Dewhurst, Peter.
design parameters is analyzed fundamen- 1987. Product Design for Assembly Handbook.
tally, giving the designer a solid base to start Wakefield, RI: Boothroyd-Dewhurst, Inc.
El Wakil, Sherif, 1998. Processes and Design Proceedings of the First International Con-
for Manufacturing. Second edition. Boston, ference on Product Design for Assembly.
MA: PWS Publishing Company ITP. Newport, RI: April.
Hartley, John R. 1992. Concurrent Engineer- Zlatko, Strbuncelj. 1995. “A Study in the
ing. Portland, OR: Productivity Press. Comparative Analysis of DFM Methods.”
Masters thesis in Mechanical Engineering.
Miyakawa, S. and Ohashi, T. 1986. “The
University of Hartford, CT.
Hitachi Assemblability Evaluation Method.”
SYSTEMATIC PROCESS SELECTION tion may require the use of a different manu-
It is extremely important to make good facturing process to satisfy new require-
manufacturing decisions early in the design ments.
process. Such decisions can influence the cost Typically, a product consists of assemblies
of the product and the selection of the ap- and components. An air conditioner consists
propriate process. A systematic procedure of a set of assemblies that includes a com-
can be established for process selection that pressor, fan, cooling unit, frame to mount,
considers all processes and eliminates those etc. The process selection in this instance
that cannot satisfy the design requirements. generally takes place at the component level.
Process-selection charts with capable data- Each component is considered individually.
bases are useful in ranking processes based The manufacturing process capable of eco-
on their costs. nomically making each component is then
In the early stages of product design, com- identified.
puter-aided design tools help with product- The design process starts with identifying
modeling geometry and selection criteria for the market need and it proceeds through the
manufacturing and assembly. Close interac- stages of conceptual design, refinement, and
tion between designers and those involved detail. The output of these stages leads to a
in manufacturing is essential for making the set of specifications or constraints, which
right manufacturing decisions. Product de- dictate how the product should be made. In
signers should be aware of the manufactur- the conceptual stage of design, little infor-
ing consequences of their decisions, since mation is available and few constraints are
minor changes in design during the early specified—so all possible manufacturing
stages can often prevent major manufactur- processes can be considered. As the design pro-
ing problems later. For example, a product cess progresses, more information on the
might be required to perform a completely product becomes available. This information
new function or satisfy a need not previously is used to recommend the best processes that
filled. The identification of the most eco- can be used to make the product. As a design
nomical manufacturing process is one of the reaches its final stages and becomes detailed
major prerequisites for making a competi- enough to allow a cost evaluation to be per-
tive product. Similarly, a product modifica- formed, a single process can be selected.
Figure 4-1. General cost relationship of various degrees of accuracy and finish (Tanner 1991).
Manufacturing Processes and Attributes the design is broken down into components.
The process-selection procedure consists of Then the ranking phase follows, which ranks
an initial screening phase based on the pro- the processes based on cost.
cess class, type, and attributes. The attributes Figure 4-2 shows the breakdown of pro-
are matched with the design attributes and cesses into classes such as deformation,
Casting (Centrifugal)
Working
orking
Electrical Discharge
Investment Casting
Powder Metallurgy
Injection Molding
Machining (EDM)
Sheet Metal W
Blow Molding
Sand Casting
Casting (Die)
Extrusion
Grinding
Forging
Rolling
Milling
Material
Low-carbon steel — E — E E G E E G G G E G —
High-carbon steel — E — E E G E E G G G E G —
Low-alloy steel — E — E E G E E G G G E G —
Stainless steel — G — E E — — E G G G E G —
Malleable iron — E — E E G E E S S S E G —
Alloy cast iron — E — E E G E E S S S E G —
Zinc alloys E — — G S — S E S S G E E —
Aluminum alloys E E — E E E G E E E E E E —
Titanium alloys — — — — S — S E G S S E — —
Copper alloys G E — E G E G E E E E E E —
Nickel alloys — E — E G — S E S G G E G —
Tungsten alloys — — — — G — S E S — — E — —
ABS — — — — — G G — — — E — — G
Nylons — — E — — G G — — — G — — G
Polystyrene — — E — — G G — — — E — — G
PVC — — — — — G G — — — E — — G
Polyurethane — — — — — G G — — — G — — G
Polyethylene — — E — — G G — — — E — — E
Acrylics — — — — — G G — — — S — — —
Epoxies — — E — — G G — — — S — — —
Silicones — — — — — — — — — — S — — —
Polyester — — — — — G G — — — S — — —
Rubbers — — E — — — — — — — S — — —
E = Excellent—material is most suitable for the process.
G = Good—material is a good candidate for the process.
S = Seldom used—material is seldom used in the process.
—= Unsuitable—material is not used or is unsuitable for the process.
Dimensional Accuracy
rojected Area)
Surface Roughness
Production Rate
Production Run
(Projected
Relative Cost
Complexity
Attributes
Size (P
Process
Pressure die casting L H H H/M H H M/L
Centrifugal casting M M M L M/L H/M H/M/L
Compression molding L H M H/M H/M H/M H/M/L
Injection molding L H H H/M H/M H/M/L M/L
Sand casting M M L H/M/L H/M/L H/M/L
Shell-mold casting L H H H/M H/M H/M M/L
Investment casting L H H L H/M/L H/M M/L
Machining L H H H/M/L H/M/L H/M/L H/M/L
Grinding L H M L M/L H/M M/L
EDM L H H L L H M/L
Sheet metalworking L H H H/M H/M H/M/L L
Forging M M M H/M H/M H/M H/M/L
Rolling L M H H H H/M H/M
Extrusion L H H H/M H/M H/M M/L
Powder metallurgy L H H H/M H H/M L
Units in. (mm) in. (mm) parts/hour parts ft (m2)
2
machining, and molding. This breakdown is satisfy design requirements. These processes
further subdivided into a set of processes, are again ranked by cost. A procedure for
such as different casting methods. Each in- cost-based ranking of successful processes
dividual process has its own attributes, is very useful.
which are matched with the design need. Table 4-4 gives the approximate relative
The successive application of some tables costs to achieve different grades of surface
based on part size, shape, and complexity can finish with different cutting operations.
narrow the material choice to a short list of Rough-machining operations involve stan-
viable processes. The presence of additional dard unit costs; other processes are compa-
features such as holes, threads, undercuts, rable to rough machining.
bosses, and re-entrant shapes—items that An increase in the cost of attaining a
cause manufacturing difficulties or that re- greater degree of accuracy and finer surface
quire additional operations to produce—add finish is illustrated by the curve rising to
to the complexity of the component. The the right in Figure 4-3. However, when a
tables have obvious limitations, but they do manufactured component consists of an as-
provide an initial, at-a-glance, graphical sembly of parts, the cost of assembly and
comparison of the capabilities of various fabrication will usually be reduced if more
manufacturing processes, and thus, can be accurate parts are used. This is reflected in
used as a quick reference for designers. the curve falling to the right in Figure 4-3.
The costs of manufacturing are a major A combination of two effects leads to an
criterion. Certain factors that influence the optimum where the overall cost of manu-
final cost—material cost, batch size, produc- facturing and assembly is the least amount.
tion rate—can be built into models. It is very The shape of this curve is similar to the re-
difficult to build in other costs, such as ex- lationship observed in the calculation of op-
perience, idle plant costs, and the cost of timum cost versus machining speed in
holding stock. The output of the screening machining economics. A similar type of op-
stage is a short list of possible processes that timum relationship occurs in reliability cal-
Table 4-4. Surface finish and cost comparison sign not only to serve the function, but also
for various cutting operations to facilitate the process of fabrication. The
Root Mean material selected largely dictates the manu-
Square (RMS) Relative facturing processes used. Certain manufac-
Surface FFinish
inish µin. ((µ
µm) Cost turing processes allow for the creation of
complex shapes. For example, metal casting
Very rough 1,969 (50) 1
and plastic molding are bulk deformation
(machined)
processes. These processes lend themselves
Rough 1,024 (26) 3 easily to any changes in shape. The design
Semi-rough 512 (13) 6 of a part should be such that it takes full
Medium 256 (6.5) 9 advantage of the particular manufacturing
Semi-fine 126 (3.2) 13 process. There are certain parameters that
Fine 63 (1.6) 18 the designer should keep in mind (see Table
Coarse (ground) 32 (0.8) 20 4-5).
This section examines the current state
Medium 16 (0.4) 30
of the art in design for disassembly and looks
Fine 8 (0.2) 35 at existing methodologies applicable to prod-
Super fine (lapped) 4 (0.1) 40 uct design. A new methodology using a com-
bination of tables outlining damage, tool,
reuse, and access-area ratings is also ex-
plained. General guidelines for efficient
manufacturing are outlined in Table 4-6.
Raw material 1. Choose raw material that will result in minimum component cost.
2. Use raw material in standard forms supplied.
Cylindrical components 1. Try to ensure that diameters of cylindrical surfaces increase from the
exposed face of the workpiece.
2. Ensure that the diameters of internal features decrease from the exposed
face of the workpiece.
3. Avoid internal features for long components.
4. Avoid components with large or very small length/depth ratios.
5. For internal corners on components, specify radii equal to the tool radius.
Avoid undercuts.
Provide tapers.
Avoid undercuts.
parts being greater than the cost of carry- In the automobile industry, certain rating
ing out the operation. Often, costs can ex- criteria are used for recyclability and for the
ceed revenue. This is because of the low ability to separate the material. The recyc-
value that materials have when they are lability of a part is considered if the part is
recycled. Material-selection strategy is the remanufacturable (examples include starters
first area of the design process that ad- and alternators). If the materials in the part
dresses DFD. Broader material options make are recyclable (examples would be metals),
the high-volume disassembly and recycling the rating would be two. Materials that can
of a product more attractive. not be recycled would have a recyclability
rating of three. If the material can be re- screw types and sizes can minimize the num-
cycled with additional techniques, the rating ber of attachments required to disassemble
would be four, while organic materials (ex- the product. Brute force disassembly can be
amples would be wooden components) would achieved by simply pulling screws out of
have a recyclability rating of five. their bosses, but the screw must still be
Similarly, a material separation rating of tracked. If it is still attached to one part and
one would be used if the material can be dis- not removed, it can cause serious damage
assembled easily in a minimum amount of to resin reprocessing equipment. Either
time (for example, a steering column cover). method, however, requires that the screw be
If the material separation is done with a accessible.
minimum amount of effort in just a few min- Metal inserts, if used in the design, cre-
utes, the rating would be two. If the material ate an additional part for disassembly. As
is disassembled with more effort and by me- with fasteners, access to the insert is criti-
chanical means (an example would be an en- cal. Not only must the fastener be removed
gine), the material separation rating would from the product, but the metal insert must
be three. If the part cannot be disassembled, also be removed. Currently, most inserts are
the rating would be four. removed with brute force—either punched
out with a hammer stroke or cut out (along
Joining Processes with some plastic) and thrown away. Ultra-
Joining and fastening are at the heart of sonic inserts may offer some opportunity for
DFD. The areas of fastening are well-identi- reverse assembly, but the cost of fixtures
fied during the process of designing, but an must be offset by high-volume disassembly
additional step is needed to decide whether operations. As with screws, inserts intended
disassembly is accomplished through reverse for reverse assembly should be standardized
assembly or brute force. In reverse assem- to facilitate the disassembly.
bly, a fastener, such as a screw, should be Adhesives typically create more problems
unscrewed. If two parts are snap-fit together, than they solve. Unless adhesives are water
they should be snapped apart. Brute force or solvent soluble, brute force is the only
is much less acceptable, but is often the most efficient method of disassembly.
efficient disassembly method. Parts are Thermal methods such as ultrasonic weld-
pulled or cut apart, depending on the ing, spin welding, vibration welding, hot-plate
strength of the fastening method. Two ques- welding, and hot-gas welding all involve melt-
tions are noted, regardless of how the join- ing thermoplastic to form a strong bond. With
ing is done: current technology, these are not reversible
processes because they require brute force for
1. Which method of disassembly should be disassembly. However, since thermal meth-
used? ods typically bond similar materials, there
2. Given the method of disassembly, are may be no reason to separate parts, except
fastening (separation) points accessible? for disassembly operations.
Threaded fasteners are considered by Induction welding is one of the quickest
many people to be inherently contrary to the thermal assembly processes, even though it
goals of DFD, one of which is to reduce the leaves metal inside the part. However, it does
amount of parts and fasteners. Screws offer offer the option of reverse assembly, since
the option of reverse assembly through the the metal is still in the part and can be re-
utilization of a drill with an attachment to heated simply by energizing an electromag-
back the screw out. The standardization of netic field around the metal.
structed to determine the sequence depen- As the designer physically disassembles the
dency of the disassembly process, as well as product, the reverse-fishbone diagram char-
the parts that need not be disassembled. acterizes each disassembly step by its fixturing
This procedure allows disassembly to focus needs (the symbol “F” indicates that fixturing
only on those items that must be removed is required; reorientation requirements are
to be decomposed into desired parts. A nor- indicated by a circular arrow; and removal
mal approach to constructing the reverse- directions are indicated by straight and rota-
fishbone diagram is to go from the top to tional arrows). The diagram also can include
the bottom. other symbols or markers indicating the
component fate category, time-penalty fac- aiding the capacity planning of product re-
tors, and the connection-separation method tirement facilities. Improvements in the dis-
(break, pop, and unscrew). The tool require- assembly steps and procedures are another
ment and removal difficulty should be in- important goal of reverse-fishbone analysis.
cluded, as these symbols facilitate rapid visual
evaluation of the disassembly difficulty. The Design for Assembly Analysis Method
initial steps of the reverse-fishbone show a The design for assembly method described
short series of disassembly steps as the first in Chapter 3 also can be applied to DFD. This
set of fasteners and the product skin is re- procedure is based on determining the mini-
moved. Then, the fishbone generates a layer mum number of parts required for a given
of sequentially independent steps, followed design. The major elements of this process
by a series of sequence-dependent steps to are assembly time and part count. It takes
the next layer, and so on. into consideration the minimum number of
parts; the part shape, size, and symmetry;
Examination of Reverse-fishbone Results
handling; orientation; and insertion difficul-
The designer can generate additional in- ties. The contribution of this method to iden-
formation about the design’s performance tify assembly operations and simplify them
under different product retirement scenarios through the use of Z-axis assembly, self-lo-
on the basis of results. Reverse-fishbone cating components, and minimum handling
analysis can provide the designer with early also applies to design for disassembly. The
guidance in the following areas: methods can be reversed in the disassembly
• identification of retirement components; process, leading to similar operational ben-
• matching the retirement component efits (Boothroyd and Dewhurst 1983).
with the market demand for reused Part consolidation is a major achievement
components; of design for assembly. The incorporation of
• identification of potential improvements multiple parts into a single part reduces the
in disassembly steps and procedures; number of materials to be processed in dis-
• identification of intercomponent connec- assembly and recycling. However, a consoli-
tions that pose disassembly difficulties; dation of parts might lead to such a complex
• retirement cost/revenue stream projec- single part that disassembly of associated
tions; and components would be difficult and time con-
• identification of special disassembly suming, indicating that part consolidation
tooling and fixturing requirements. is counterproductive.
The reverse fishbone graphically char-
acterizes the difference between sequence- Evaluation-chart Method
dependent and sequence-independent Evaluation charts have also been used to
disassembly specifications. Analysis may evaluate the efficiency of DFD. Ehud Kroll
reveal that additional work is required to proposed a method based on the degree of
make the disassembly process more se- difficulty and types of tools used in disassem-
quence-independent. It helps the designers bly. As shown in Table 4-9, the procedure for
to identify the strategic components that are evaluation is based on a spreadsheet-like
candidates for retirement early in the de- chart that uses a database of task difficulty
sign process. scores (Kroll 1996). The scores are derived
The analysis also leads to an estimation from work-measurement analysis of stan-
of relative volumes of the traffic stream, thus dard disassembly tasks and they provide a
169
1 0 4 U Z I 1 2 2 1 1 7 28,
Screw
2 0 1 F Z II 1 1 1 1 2 6 6
3 1 1 P Z III 1 1 3 1 1 7 7
4 1 1 C Z IV 1 1 3 1 1 7 7
5 1 1 R Y III 1 1 1 1 1 5 5
Tasks Tools
P = push/pull U = unscrew I = Phillips-head screwdriver
C = cut W = pry out II = large gripper
R = remove F = flip III = gripper
G = grip IV = wire cutter
roduct Success
4/15/02, 9:33 AM
Chapter 4—Manufacturing, Disassembly, and Life Cycle
169
170
Chapter 4—Manufacturing, Disassembly, and Life Cycle
means of identifying weaknesses in the de- • Task: Is the task to remove the part
sign and comparing alternatives quantita- difficult?
tively. Time-and-cost estimates provide an • Tool: Is tooling required, and if so, how
idea about the dismantling sequence. difficult is it to obtain the tooling?
In the evaluation chart, there are columns • Time: How long does it take to perform
identifying the task type, the number of rep- the step?
etitions for disassembly to take place, the type
of tools needed, and the degree of difficulty Once an evaluation has been completed,
to each category, ranging from easy to most the method provides an overall design score.
difficult. The subtotal adds these values and The score gives a grade ranging from 0–
100%. The perfect score of 100% is very dif-
the total multiplies the subtotal by the num-
ficult to achieve. There is no right or wrong
ber of repetitions that must be carried out
score; however, a good score should exceed
for a particular procedure. The overall diffi-
75%. This can be achieved from a series of
culty of disassembly is identified, telling the
designer which area needs to be improved. ratings that are automatically calculated
After changes are incorporated, a second dis- from the information entered during the
assembly evaluation chart is prepared. design review. There are a total of six crite-
ria that make up the overall design score.
Design for Maintenance, They are:
Disassembly, and Recyclability Method • number of parts,
Another method proposed by Devdas • time,
Shetty and Ken Rawolle measures the prod- • access rating,
uct for factors such as design for mainte- • reuse rating,
nance, disassembly, and recyclability. The • damage rating, and
method is based on the premise that main- • tooling rating.
tenance, disassembly, and recyclability can It is important to account for potential
easily be integrated. A part that is easier damage to a part during disassembly. The
to disassemble will be easier to maintain ability to reuse a part without any rework
and recycle. For proper maintenance of a gives the best disassembly results.
product, users must be able to remove the Part score is calculated by dividing the
parts, disassemble them, and recycle unser-
time measured by the total time. If there
viceable parts. The method is easy to use
are 12 steps and a total of 24 parts utilized,
and provides consistent results. Analysis
the part score is 50%. (This step assumes that,
can be performed quickly. It also provides
for the best design, only one part is needed
information that identifies corrective ac-
for each step.) The weighted average is cal-
tions to improve design. This methodology
culated for each step based on the total num-
carefully examines the influencing factors
ber of parts versus the number of parts in
for accessibility, recyclability, task, tool, and
that step. The contribution of each step is
time (Shetty and Rawolle 2000). Factors
determined by multiplying the weighted av-
include (see Table 4-10):
erage by the rating and time scores. The rat-
• Accessibility: Is the location easy to ing score is determined by obtaining the sum
work in with your hands? of the four rating scores divided by 12. (In
• Recyclability: Can the removed part be this case, 12 is considered a perfect score.)
immediately reused; is reconditioning The results are multiplied by the parts’
required or will it go to the landfill? weighted average.
171
1 Part 1 1 1 3 3 1 66.7 91 91 1 2
2 Part 2 2 3 2 3 1 75.0 367 734 2 3
3 Part 3 2 2 1 1 1 41 349 698 2 1
4 Part 4 3 0 2 0 0 16 322 966 3 3
5 Part 5 1 1 2 3 2 66.7 479 479 2 1
Average 1.8 1.4 2 2 1 52.8 321.6 593 2 2 90%
Damage Rating
3 = Task is easily accomplished with little concern for part damage.
2 = Task is easily accomplished. However, this part is considered fragile and can be easily damaged without proper care.
1 = Typically, the part is damaged during the task and great care is taken during its removal to prevent additional damage.
0 = Destructive assembly is used to remove the part. Part cannot be reused for the same purpose after removal.
roduct Success
1 = Special tooling/equipment are required and there is no delay.
0 = Special tooling is required. There is a delay to acquire the tool.
Reuse Rating
3 = Part can be reused with no conditioning required (part is not damaged).
4/15/02, 9:33 AM
2 = Part can be reused after conditioning.
1 = Part can be reused after reconditioning and special treatment.
0 = Part cannot be reused because it is too expensive to recondition.
Accessibility Rating
3 = The area is easy to work in. Tools are easily accessible.
2 = There is restricted access and the part can be removed without damage.
1 = There is restricted access and vision, and special care is needed.
0 = It is difficult to access the area and special tooling. Extreme care must be taken to prevent damage.
Chapter 4—Manufacturing, Disassembly, and Life Cycle
171
172
Chapter 4—Manufacturing, Disassembly, and Life Cycle
Time rating is computed by multiplying the of quality of concept, quality of design, and
time required to perform a step by the required quality of ownership (Stoll 1997).
number of parts. For example, one team may The process can be explained by looking
be consistently faster or slower than another. at engineering design. The engineering de-
This method highlights the parts in a design sign process begins with general knowledge
that consistently take longer to install than of what is required and ends with specific
others, regardless of who is doing the disas- detailed information about how it will be ac-
sembly. A correction factor is found that ac- complished. Design decisions made during
counts for the condition when more than one this process determine, in large measure, the
part is required and where a group of parts product’s cost, quality, ease of manufacture,
is difficult to remove. If the time to perform and ease of support in the field. The process
the step is within 10% of the average, then a begins by conceiving a physical concept as
value of one is used. If the time to perform shown in Figure 4-6 for the product based
the step is between 1.1 and two, then a value on customer needs and a product specifica-
of two is used. If the time to perform the step tion, and then creating a preliminary layout
is greater than a factor of two, the ratio of of the design, which embodies the physical
measured time with the average time is used. concept. It is preliminary because, at most,
If it is not possible to measure the time, a only key dimensions and relationships be-
value of one, two, or three is chosen, depend- tween parts have been specified; actual size,
ing on the degree of similarity between this shape, and detail features of parts are, as
step and other steps. yet, either undefined or only partially de-
The information from Table 4-10 is used fined.
to calculate the overall design score. It helps to A preliminary layout is then developed
identify whether there are too many parts, into a completed design. During detail de-
or whether damage ratings, tooling, reuse, sign, the preliminary layout changes and
and access ratings are high. The rating score evolves iteratively as questions are answered
is the overall average in column H, which is and uncertainties resolved. The end result
obtained by summing columns D, E, F and is a definitive layout or final design. The lay-
G divided by 12. The time score is calculated out contains the design information required
by dividing the total number of parts by the to fabricate and assemble parts. Combining
total time rating. For satisfactory DFD the concept of design for life-cycle manufac-
implementation, the rate, time, and part ture and the engineering design process
scores should all be greater than 80%. yields the following critical observations:
• Physical concept—the physical concept
DESIGN FOR embodies the way in which the prod-
LIFE-CYCLE MANUFACTURE uct performs or provides its intended
Major considerations in design for life- function. The key to achieving success
cycle manufacture are: in the marketplace often lies in identi-
fying and selecting the right (or best)
• physical concept of the product,
physical concept for the product. This
• part decomposition, and
well-known fact is a primary motiva-
• total product quality.
tion for creativity and innovation in
Breaking down design for life-cycle man- product design. It is also motivation for
ufacture into these components examines many research and development activi-
the concept of total product quality in terms ties conducted by manufacturing firms.
• Part decomposition—for many prod- design concept to ensure high total product
ucts, identifying and selecting the right quality and low total cost and time. The
part decomposition may be just as or steps are:
even more important than the physi-
1. Develop a physical concept and prelimi-
cal concept itself (see Figure 4-7).
nary layout for the product.
Part decomposition determines the ease 2. Develop and optimize the part decom-
of assembly, testability, and serviceability of position.
a product. It also determines the number 3. Develop and optimize the detail design.
and complexity of designed parts, which in
The general flow of the design-for-manu-
turn, influence material and manufacturing-
facture approach is shown in Figure 4-8.
process selection, tooling cost, and a myriad
In Step 1, front-end activity is aimed at
of other factors. For many products, there-
identifying and selecting the best physical
fore, it is decomposition into parts, more
concept for the product. Step 2 focuses on
than any other factor, which determines
identifying the most appropriate part decom-
profitability. The physical concept and part
position from the strategic, assembly, com-
decomposition together determine product
ponent manufacturing, functional, and quality
functionality and manufacturability (Ettlie
points of view. Step 3 supplies the detail in-
and Stoll 1990).
formation required to fully specify a design.
Step 1, which is the most important step,
Step-by-step Approach
can be further broken down in the general
The design for life-cycle manufacture flow of activities as illustrated in Figure 4-9.
methodology is essentially a step-by-step
prescription for performing the engineering Design for Total Product Quality
design process. It focuses on systematically
As discussed in Chapter 2, achieving opti-
identifying, developing, and evolving the
mal total product quality requires a conscious
and systematic focus on quality as a design
objective. To facilitate this, total product qual-
ity is resolved into three components. These
depend on the product design and can be used
to help guide design decisions at each step of
the design for life-cycle approach. The compo-
nents are based on the following key concerns:
Figure 4-7. Design concept (physical concept + part • What will cause the customer to select
decomposition). or purchase the product?
• What will make it worthwhile for the engineering design. By understanding how
firm to design and sell the product? each quality can be maximized, the design
• What will delight and satisfy the customer team is able to consciously and systemati-
as an owner and user of the product? cally design for total product quality. The
strategy to define the relationship between
These considerations define the three pri-
engineering design and total product qual-
mary design-related components of total
product quality: concept, design, and own- ity consists of:
ership (see Figure 4-10). Each of these quali- • determining what factors or design con-
ties is determined by decisions made during siderations affect or contribute to each
quality component;
• defining an acceptable quality level for
each factor; and
• determining how each factor can be
adjusted or controlled by a design to
maximize the quality.
Quality of Concept
In essence, quality of concept is a reflec-
tion of how well a product satisfies customer
requirements. For most products, factors
that contribute to the quality of concept in-
clude performance, features, aesthetics, er-
Figure 4-10. Three design-related components of total gonomics, and serviceability (see Figure
product quality. 4-11).
Quality of Ownership
Quality of ownership relates to the experi-
ence the customer has as a result of owning
and operating the product. Considerations
such as ease of use, operating cost, reliabil-
ity, serviceability, maintainability, condition
Figure 4-11. Quality of concept reflects how well the of product when purchased, and customer
product satisfies customer requirements. service all influence quality. High quality of
ownership is important because it is what
causes a customer to become a repeat buyer
Quality of Design
and an advocate of the product in the mar-
Some characteristics of a successful prod- ketplace. Also, quality of ownership contrib-
uct are an inherent ease of manufacture and utes to and sustains, over time, the firm’s
assembly; consistent product characteristics reputation for manufacturing and selling
from product to product; insensitivity to high-quality products.
hard-to-control disturbances; and minimal Quality of ownership depends on how sat-
scrap rates, rework, and warrantee claims. isfied the customer is with the product, how
Such characteristics imply high quality of available the product is over its useful life,
design (see Figure 4-12). and how costly the product is to own and
Good design is when: use. These considerations can be grouped to
1. The part decomposition and associated form three primary subcomponents: cus-
production planning are appropriate for tomer satisfaction, product availability, and
the quantity required. operating costs as shown in Figure 4-13.
Figure 4-13. Quality of ownership involves customer satisfaction, product availability, and operating costs.
Magrab, Edward. 1997. Integrated Product Stoll, Henry. 1997. Design for Quality and
and Process Design and Development—The Life-cycle Manufacturing: Concurrent Prod-
Product Realization Process. Boca Raton, uct Design and Environmentally Conscious
FL: CRC Press. Manufacturing. New York: American Soci-
ety of Mechanical Engineers. De-Vol. 94
Pahl, G. and Beitz, W. 1996. Engineering
(MED-Vol. 5).
Design: A Systematic Approach. Berlin, Ger-
many: Springer Verlag. Tanner, John. 1991. Manufacturing Engi-
neering: An Introduction to the Basic Func-
Shetty, Devdas and Rawolle, Ken. 2000. “A
tions, Second Edition. New York: Marcel
New Methodology for Ease of Disassembly
Dekker.
in Product Design.” Advances in Design for
Assembly. New York: ASME Press. Also pre- Voland, George. 1999. Engineering by De-
sented at Orlando, FL, ASME 2000 Inter- sign. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley.
national Mechanical Engineering, Congress,
and Exposition, November.
circuit boards, they must be taken as whole Example 3. Product mix problems occur
numbers, X = 7; Y = 5. The maximum out- when several products are produced in the
put of 12 units is more realistic. same production plant. For example, a re-
With the constraints the same as above, finery may have two crude oils. Crude A
assume the objective function to be maxi- costs $30 a barrel with 20,000 barrels avail-
mized is the profit. For maximum profit, Z able. Crude B costs $36 a barrel with 30,000
= 120X + 60Y. It is obvious the maximum barrels available. The company manufac-
profit will be equal to $1,200 if X = 10 and tures gasoline and lube oil from crude. The
Y = 0. Thus, to maximize the profit, it is yield and sale price per barrel of the prod-
best to make board X only. uct and market are shown in Table 5-3. How
The slack-variable method can be used to much crude oil should the company use to
maximize the output and the profit. To maxi- maximize its revenue?
mize the output of X and Y boards: The objective function is defined as:
Output = X + Y (5-13) (0.6X)$50 + (0.4X)$120 + (0.8Y)$50
+ (0.2Y)$120 = Z
To maximize the profit of X and Y boards:
0.6X + 0.8Y ⱕ 20,000 (5-17)
Combination profit = 120X + 60Y (5-14)
0.4X + 0.2Y ⱕ 10,000
As in Equation 5-11, both objective func- X ⱖ 0; Y ⱖ 0
tions are subjected to constraint functions.
When slack variables S1, S2, and S3 are 78X + 64Y = Z
introduced into the constraint equations, where:
they are modified as,
X = crude A
8X + 4Y + S1 = 80 (5-15) Y = crude B
Z = revenue
3X + 4Y + S2 = 60
X = 20,000
X + 3Y + S3 = 24 Y = 10,000
In this case, there are m = 3 (equations) and However, this maximizes revenue, not profit.
n = 5 (unknowns). Table 5-2 sets two vari- If the goal is to maximize profit, the objec-
ables to zero in each instance and shows tive function can be written as,
calculations for the objective functions.
Profit = 0.6($50 – 30)A + 0.4 (5-18)
There are 10 possible combinations of these
where possible combinations are calculated ($120 – $30)A + 0.8($50 – $36)
using the formula, B + 0.2($120 – $36)B
Profit = 48A + 28B
n! (5-16) 0.6A + 0.8B < 20,000
m!(n − m)!
0.4A + 0.2B < 10,000
The objective functions are optimized if at
least (n – m) variables are set to zero. Gradient Search Procedure
Item number 9 in Table 5-2 shows the maxi- The gradient search procedure finds the
mum output and profit since none of the vari- optimum point by using the method of steep-
ables have a negative number and the output est ascent/descent. It is based on the theory
and profit are both positive quantities. that the fastest way of finding an optimum
Table 5-3. Example 3 The basic steps of the gradient search pro-
cedure are:
Yield
Crude Crude Sale PPrice
rice 1. Evaluate the objective function at the
Product A B per Barrel Market starting point.
2. Compute the direction of the gradient
Gasoline 0.6 0.8 $50 20,000 from the starting point.
Lube oil 0.4 0.2 $120 10,000
3. Perform a search in the computed gra- to the partial derivative of the objective func-
dient direction for determining mini- tion with respect to the corresponding inde-
mum function along a direction. pendent variable. For two inputs, X and Y,
4. Evaluate the objective function at a components of the gradients are defined as:
point (x + 1) from the previous step.
5. When the optimum is reached, the ∂z
Gx =
search procedure is terminated. ∂x (5-19)
Figure 5-5 shows some of the constant ∂z
Gy =
contours of an objective function Z. The map ∂y
generated by plotting the relationship be-
tween the objective function (performance where:
index) and input variables appears like a Gx and Gy = components of the gradients
geographical survey map. The figure shows in the X and Y directions on
the plot generated for two variables, X and the response surface
Y. These constant contour lines are also
known as the response surface. G = G xi + Gy j (5-20)
The optimum point is the combination of where:
X and Y values at which the objective func-
tion is optimized. i and j = unit vectors parallel to the X and
Many techniques looking for an optimum Y axes
are based on gradient techniques. The gra- The gradient proceeds in the direction of
dient is a vector quantity with components the steepest slope. Moving along the direc-
along axes of independent variables X and tion of steepest slope is a reasonable strategy
Y. The magnitude of the component is equal to reach the top of the response (objective)
surface. The magnitude (M) of the gradient
is a scalar quantity given by:
1
∂z 2 ∂z 2 2
M = + (5-21)
∂x ∂y
The magnitude of the point is defined at
a particular point P on the X-Y surface.
The direction of the gradient (D) is de-
fined as a unit vector:
G
D= (5-22)
M
As the gradient search proceeds from the
starting point toward optimum, the sequence
of moves to seek optimum is represented by
a trajectory. The definitions of gradient, mag-
nitude, and direction can all be extended to
Figure 5-5. Trajectory followed by the gradient search functions with more than two independent
technique. variables. As the gradient search proceeds
New y = old y + C G2
M
where:
C = a scalar quantity that determines the
size of the step move
The search continues until optimum is
Figure 5-6. Gradient search strategy. reached. At the optimum value of the objec-
tive function, or performance index, the gra- For cycle 2, calculate Z2. At x = 6.057 and
dient has a value of zero. Quite often, the y = 9.895,
gradient changes direction abruptly indicat-
New x = 6.057 + 4(0.4695) = 7.935
ing values in the opposite direction.
Example. Suppose that the response sur- M = 10.407 D = 0.4695i + 0.883 j
face for a certain manufacturing process was
defined by: New y = 9.895 + 4(0.8830) = 13.427
Z = 17x + 27y – x2 – 0.9y2 (5-25) For cycle 3, calculate Z3. At x = 7.935 and
y = 13.427,
The method of steepest ascent is used to
determine the approximate optimum oper- dz
= 17 – 2(7.935) = 1.13
ating point. The starting point of the search dx
should be x = 2, y = 3 and the step size
dz
should be C = 4 (Groover 1980). = 27 – 1.8(13.427) = 2.831
dy
dz dz
= 17 − 2 x = 27 − 1.8 y (5-26)
dx dy M = 10.407 D = 0.4695i + 0.883 j
dz New x = 7.935 + 4(0.371) = 9.419
= 17 − 2(2) = 13
dx New y = 13.427 + 4(0.929) = 17.143
dz For cycle 4, calculate Z4. At x = 9.419 and
= 27 − 1.8(3) = 21.6
dy y = 17.143,
dz
M = 132 + 21.62 = 25.21 = 17 − 2(9.419) = −1.838
dx
D = 0.51571 + 0.8568 j
dz
where: = 27 − 1.8(17.143) = −3.859
dy
M = magnitude of the gradient
D = direction of the gradient There is a change in slope. Reduce the step
size to C = 2.
New x = 2 + 4(0.5157) = 4.063
New x = 9.419 + 2(1.43) = 8.56
New y = 3 + 4(0.8568) = 6.427
New y = 17.143 + 2(–0.903) = 15.34
For cycle 1, calculate Z1. At x = 4.063 and
2
y = 6.427, z = 17(8.56) + 27(15.34) – (8.56)
– 0.9(15.34)2
dz
= 17 − 2(4.063) = 8.874 z = 274.64
dx
dz When the vicinity of the optimum is
= 27 − 1.8(6.427) = 15.431
dy reached, it is better to reduce step size. When
the gradient direction changes and the ob-
New x = 4.063 + 4(0.4985) = 6.057 jective function does not change apprecia-
M = 17.8 D = 0.1985i + 0.867 j bly, it is an indication that the vicinity of
the optimum point is located. The objective
New y = 6.427 + 4(0.8670) = 9.895 function tends to fluctuate. The user should
repeat the last step until no further improve- method to study its economics, especially if
ment of the objective function results. the new product has similar work content.
As an organization gains experience in manu-
LaGrange Multiplier Method facturing a product, the resource inputs re-
The LaGrange multiplier method provides quired per unit of output diminish over the
an approach for determining the optimum life of the product. Labor times that go into
values in multi-variable problems subject to manufacturing the first unit of a new auto-
functional constraints. The method consists mobile are typically much higher than those
of transferring objective and constraint func- needed for unit 100. As the cumulative out-
tions into a single constraint-free function put of the model grows, labor input contin-
called the LaGrange expression. The opti- ues to decline. It is just like performing a
mum values of the variable are obtained by repetitive task with the result that perfor-
solving the equation (Dieter 2000). mance keeps improving. The performance
time drops off rather dramatically at first,
Dynamic Programming Method and it continues to fall at some slower rate
until performance reaches a constant. This
The dynamic programming method is an
learning pattern applies to groups and indi-
approach for optimizing the design systems
viduals as well. If people perform the same
that are configured in stages. The sequence
operation over and over again, it takes them
of design decisions is made in each stage.
less and less time to do it.
The word “dynamic” has no relationship to
The general shape of this curve, called the
the changes denoted with respect to time.
learning curve, is shown in Figure 5-7. This
This method is useful in situations involv-
exponential curve becomes a straight line
ing at least four stages with several design
when plotted on logarithmic coordinates as
options available at each stage. Dynamic
opposed to arithmetic coordinates. In this
programming converts a large and compli-
example, the initial unit requires 60 labor
cated optimization problem into a number
hours to manufacture. As output and expe-
of interconnected minor problems. Each
rience continue, labor hours diminish to
minor problem contains few variables and
about 23 for unit 20. The general equation
results in a series of partial optimizations.
for this curve is:
b
Nonlinear Optimization Method Y = Ki (5-27)
Multivariable optimization of nonlinear where:
problems has been a topic of extensive re-
Y = labor hours required to produce the
search and many computer-based methods
ith unit (or the production time per
of accomplishing this process are available.
unit after producing a number of
Out of the two types of methods, the direct
units equal to i)
method relies on the evaluation of the objec-
K = labor hours required to produce the
tive function. Indirect methods require infor-
first unit
mation about derivative values to determine
i = ordinal number of unit, that is, 1st,
the search direction for optimization.
2nd, 3rd, and so on (number of units
produced)
LEARNING CURVE ANALYSIS b = index of learning (a constant that
When a new model of a product is intro- depends on the constant percentage
duced, learning curve analysis is a useful reduction)
P
= 2b
100
or
P
Log
b= 100 (5-31)
Log2
The exponent, b, is a negative number
with an absolute value less than 1, which
defines the rate at which the average cost
decreases as quantity increases. Exponent
values for typical learning curve percentages
Figure 5-7. Learning curve. are given in Table 5-4.
For an 80% learning curve, y2 = 0.8y1 for
By convention, the learning rate is speci- i2 = 2i1.
fied as a percentage. A 90% curve means that
Example 1
each time the cumulative output doubles,
the most recent unit of output requires 90% For a product under evaluation, the first
of the labor input of the reference unit. If unit cost in terms of man-hours is shown as
unit one requires 100 hours, unit 2 requires 1,200 hours. In this case, experience has
90% of 100 labor hours, or 90 hours; unit 4 shown that an 88% learning curve can be
requires 90% of 90 hours, or 81 hours, etc. anticipated. Projected costs for the first 50
The value of b in Equation 5-27 for a given units and for the 100 units following the first
learning curve (P%) can be found as follows. 50 units are calculated as follows (Tanner
Each time production quantity doubles, aver- 1985).
age cost is reduced by a constant percentage, Using Equation 5-27, Y = Kib
which defines slope. The slope percentage is
Taking logarithm on both sides,
shown as,
b Log (Y) = Log(K) + b Log(i).
P = 2 x100 (5-28)
Users have to determine b, given P = 88%.
where:
P = learning curve percentage
b = index of learning Table 5-4. Exponent values
b for typical learning curve percentages
Assume that initially, Y = Ki for unit i = ia.
For double the unit number, that is, i = 2ia, Exponent
time is reduced to Y = PYa/100. Lea rning Curve %, P
earning b
Substituting this in Equation 5-27,
65 –0.624
b
Ya = Kia (5-29) 70 –0.515
PYa 75 –0.415
= K (2ia )b (5-30) 80 –0.322
100
85 –0.234
Dividing Equation 5-30 by Equation 5-29
90 –0.074
results in,
performance each time it is used under all The following summarizes Taguchi’s ap-
intended operating conditions, throughout proach:
its intended life. The traditional concepts of • Design quality into the product. Do not
reliability and dependability are part of the use inspection to sort out the poor-qual-
definition of quality. This definition of qual- ity products.
ity can easily be extended to processes as
• Set a target. The cost of quality is the
well as services.
deviation from target values.
The cost of delivering a product is broken
• Make the product insensitive to uncon-
into three areas: operating cost, manufactur-
trollable external factors.
ing cost, and research and development cost.
Operating cost consists of the cost of energy These goals are achieved by optimizing
needed to operate the product, environmen- product and process designs to make them
tal control, maintenance, and inventory of minimally sensitive to various causes of varia-
spare parts and units. A manufacturer can tion. This is called parameter design. How-
greatly reduce operating cost by minimizing ever, parameter design alone does not always
product sensitivity to environmental and lead to sufficiently high quality. Further im-
manufacturing variation. Important ele- provement can be obtained by controlling the
ments of manufacturing cost are: equipment, causes of variation where it is economically
machinery, raw materials, labor, scrap, re- justifiable, typically by using more expensive
work, etc. Robust manufacturing can reduce equipment, higher-grade components, better
manufacturing cost by reducing process sen- environmental controls—all of which lead
sitivity to manufacturing disturbances. to higher product cost, or operating cost, or
Research and development takes time and both. Benefits of improved quality must jus-
a substantial amount of resources. Its costs tify added product cost.
can be kept low by adopting a robust design
approach, resulting in more efficient genera- Example
tion of information needed to design prod- Consider an example where a tolerance
ucts and processes and reduced development specification is given as 0.50 in. ± 0.02 in.
time and resources needed for development. In this case, it would be immaterial whether
Higher quality results in lower operating the actual figure is 0.48, 0.50, or 0.52; the
cost and vice versa. specifications would be equally satisfied.
Taguchi defines quality as product unifor- factors with a minimum number of test runs
mity around a target value. Here the target (see Table 5-5).
value is 0.50 in., and the actual values The first step in constructing an ortho-
achieved closer to the set target value would gonal array for a specific case study is to
be better than the values further away from count the total degrees of freedom that de-
the target. termine the minimum number of experi-
ments that must be performed to study all
the chosen control factors. For example, a
Conducting a Robust three-level control factor counts two degrees
Design Experiment of freedom because, for a three-level factor,
The first step in conducting a robust de- the experimenter is interested in two com-
sign experiment is to identify the factors that parisons. In general, the number of degrees
influence the process. There are two factors of freedom associated with a factor is equal
that influence a process: noise and control to one less than the number of levels for that
factors. The number of control factors is factor. Table 5-6 gives examples of commonly
determined by the complexity of the process. used orthogonal arrays.
After both factors have been determined, Table 5-7 shows an example of 4 × 3 or-
parameter settings are selected for all fac- thogonal array for a manufacturing process
tors. Then an orthogonal array (explained involving a machining operation. The re-
in the next section) is constructed using all sponse to be monitored in this example is
the factors and levels for each factor that surface quality. The control variables are
have been predetermined. The experiment feed rate, spindle speed, and type of tool.
is performed according to the parameter Each of the variables has two identified lev-
settings of each row in the orthogonal array els that can be tried experimentally. The
with or without replications. table shows control factors and the construc-
Replication of the experiment depends on tion of the orthogonal array. Table 5-8 shows
how long the experiment takes, the avail- the example of a molding machine, where
ability of samples, and financial consider- control variables are injection pressure,
ations. After the experiment, analysis by row mold temperature, and set time.
has to be done first to study the variability Steps in a robust design experiment.
and its bias on the data recorded. The detail The robust design experiment steps include:
in the analysis to be studied varies depending 1. Identify the main function, side effects,
on the type of target response. There are and failure modes. This step requires
three types of target response: larger the bet- engineering knowledge of the product or
ter (for example, stiffness), nominal the best process and the customer’s environment.
(for example, surface roughness), and smaller 2. Identify noise factors and testing con-
the better (for example, drag coefficient in ditions for evaluating quality loss. Test-
cars or planes). ing conditions are selected to capture
Orthogonal arrays. An orthogonal ex- the effect of more important noise fac-
periment helps us to understand the simul- tors. It is important that testing condi-
taneous influence of many factors on tions permit a consistent estimation of
product or process quality. Orthogonal ar- sensitivity to noise factors for any com-
rays need to be constructed or selected for bination of control factor levels.
this. They relieve the major burden of de- 3. Identify quality characteristics to be
signing a fractional factorial experiment and observed and the objective function to
allow the experimenter to evaluate several be optimized.
4. Identify control factors and their mul- experimental region, the experimenter
tiple levels. The more complex a prod- can identify “good” regions as well as
uct or a process, the more control factors “bad” regions for control factors.
it has, and vice versa. Typically six to 5. Design the matrix experiment and de-
eight control factors are chosen at a fine the data analysis procedure. Using
time for optimization. For each control orthogonal arrays is an efficient way to
factor, two or three levels are selected, study the effect of several control fac-
out of which one level is usually the tors simultaneously. The factor effects
starting level. The levels chosen should thus obtained are valid over the experi-
be sufficiently far apart to cover a wide mental region and the array provides a
experimental region because sensitiv- way to test for inclusion of the factor
ity to noise factors does not usually effects. The experimental effort needed
change with small changes in a control is much smaller when compared to other
factor setting. Also, by choosing a wide methods of experimentation like trial
Table 5-7. Control factors of the process ment to the next in a matrix experiment.
and 4 × 3 orthogonal array Properly setting the levels of various
(three factors each at two levels) control factors is essential. When a par-
Factors Level 1 Level 2 ticular factor has to be at level 1, it
should not be set to level 2 or 3. Do not
A = feed rate 6.6 in./min 15 in./min worry about small perturbations that
(168 mm/min) (381 mm/min) are inherent in experimental equip-
B = spindle 85 rpm 290 rpm ment. Any erroneous or missing experi-
speed ments should be repeated to complete
the matrix.
C = tool type High-speed Tungsten 7. Analyze the data, determine optimum
steel coated levels for control factors and predict
Trial Number A B C performance under these levels. When
a product or a process has multiple
1 1 1 1
characteristics, it may become neces-
2 1 2 2 sary to make some trade-off. In robust
3 2 1 2 design, however, the primary focus is on
4 2 2 1 maximizing the S/N (signal to noise)
ratio. The observed factor effects to-
gether with the quality loss function can
and error. The choice of using an or- be used to make a rational trade-off.
thogonal array for a particular project 8. Conduct the verification experiment
depends on the number of factors and and plan future actions. The purpose
other practical considerations. of this final and crucial step is to verify
6. Conduct the matrix experiment. The that optimum conditions suggested by
levels of several control factors must be the matrix experiments give the pro-
changed when going from one experi- jected improvement. If observed and
identified in Table 5-9. The optimal settings an iterative technique that promotes sys-
for the instrument are shown in Table 5-10 tematic thinking when a new product or
(Shetty 1990). system is developed in terms of what could
In many industry situations, the robust go wrong with the product, how bad will be
design method is successfully used to deter- the influence of the error, and what needs
mine the optimum setting of the system. to be done to prevent failures.
Application of the method in the electron- FMEA methodology was first developed
ics, automotive products, photography, and by the National Aeronautics and Space Ad-
many other industries has been an impor- ministration (NASA) and later was intro-
tant factor in rapid industrial growth. It duced in industries such as nuclear power
proves to be useful and easy to implement and automotive. It has now become a criti-
in the design process. Furthermore, the cal step in the design process for many
method allows the designer to investigate world-class manufacturers and has been in-
every possible variable and its effects in the corporated as a design standard. FMEA is
application. It also reduces the time required used to detail the effects of each individual
to complete experiments. possible failure mode and evaluate its rela-
tive importance. FMEA can be performed
FAILURE MODES on the system, subsystem, assembly, or com-
AND EFFECTS ANALYSIS ponent levels. The standard FMEA format
Failure modes and effects analysis is used to evaluate single-point failures only.
(FMEA), a methodology used in product de- Since a failure in one component may influ-
velopment, identifies and prioritizes possible ence the failure of an interconnected com-
failure modes of a specific system. FMEA is ponent, FMEA analysis can be modified to
encompass common cause failures (CCF), in
which redundant or interdependent ma-
Table 5-9. PParameter
arameter settings chines are likely to fail within a short period
for the surface analyzer of one another, due to similar reactions to the
Parameter Level 1 Level 2 operating environment. FMEA provides a
practical approach well suited for products
Laser angle 20° 30° and systems where there are not many hu-
Background surface Glossy Non-glossy man interface or software-driven concerns.
FMEA should be completed with the in-
Distance from laser 4.5 in. 5.5 in.
to workpiece (114 mm) (140 mm) put of several disciplines that have knowl-
edge of or experience with the system to be
Background lighting Off On analyzed. Some functional disciplines that
would normally be involved are design engi-
Table 5-10. Optimal settings neering, quality control, manufacturing, and
for the surface analyzer service. The analysis should be performed
so that as many different perspectives are
Parameter Condition accounted for as is practically possible. The
Laser angle 25° analysis is generally performed because of
Background surface Non-glossy
a desire to improve the reliability of a com-
ponent or system, to reduce or eliminate
Distance from laser 4.5 in. (114 mm)
failures, to document failure modes for fu-
to workpiece
ture use, or to use as input for other analy-
Background lighting Off ses. Usually, FMEA is performed early in
be listed out. Similarly, when failure modes Over time, this could result in a loss of cus-
have been defined, the effects of each type tomer loyalty to the company, so the sever-
of failure are documented. In Table 5-14, ity ranking (SR) for this effect is fairly high;
notice that a single item can have multiple the SR for total fluid loss is an 8. The sec-
functions, which can have multiple failure ond effect, “major spill on user of hot fluid,”
modes, which can have multiple failure ef- could result in lawsuits against the company
fects, etc. and is a safety hazard for the user. The SR
assigned is a 10, the highest.
Failure Effects and Severity Ranking Once the failure effects have all been docu-
The failure mode of “cover comes off un- mented and their severity ratings are as-
expectedly” has two similar, but significantly signed, it may be necessary to break away from
different effects (see Table 5-14). In the first, the FMEA worksheet to determine the causes
“total loss of fluid,” the user will be irritated, of the failure modes listed. The information
especially if the failure repeats frequently. might be gathered from prior experience, test
Severity
Ranking (SR) Severity Effect
1 Minor: no effect on system performance
2, 3 Low: slight effect on system performance
4, 5, 6 Moderate: failure causes some system performance deterioration
7, 8 High: system malfunctions
9, 10 Very high: system safety compromised or noncompliance with codes
Occurrence
Ranking (OR) Probability of FFailure/Event
ailure/Event (Quantitative PProbability)
robability)
1 Remote: failure unlikely (0.000001)
2, 3, 4 Low: relatively few failures (0.00005, 0.00025, 0.001, respectively)
5, 6 Moderate: occasional failures (0.00025, 0.0125, respectively)
7, 8 High: repeated failures (0.025, 0.05, respectively)
9, 10 Very high: failure is almost certain (0.125, 0.5, respectively)
Detection
Ranking (DR) Detection Likelihood
1, 2 Very high: program will almost certainly detect potential failure cause
3, 4 High: program has a good chance of detecting potential failure cause
5, 6 Moderate: program may detect failure cause
7, 8 Low: program is not likely to detect failure cause
9 Very low: program probably will not detect failure cause
10 None: program can not detect failure cause
201
Cover To restrain Cover Small 5 Poor fit 5 SPC on 3 75 Analyze design Temperature 5 3 3 45
fluid from leaks spills due to cup and and process control
uninten- on user tolerance cover to improve module on
tional or design dimensions fit molding
spillage machine
updated for
better control
roduct Success
Cover Total 8 Poor fit 4 SPC on cup 3 96 Analyze design Temperature 8 2 3 48
comes loss of due to and cover and process control
off un- fluid tolerances dimensions to improve it module on
Chapter 5—
5—T
4/15/02, 9:34 AM
better control
Failure
Failure Failure Mode Design Recommended Actions/
Chapter 5—
5—T
Item Function Mode Effect SR Cause OR Verification DR RPN Action Results SR OR DR RPN
202
material material QC and certifies
used inspection alternative material is
suppliers correct;
has SPC
in place
Major spill 10 Poor fit 4 SPC on cup 3 120 Analyze design Temperature 10 2 3 60
on user of due to and cover and process control
hot fluid tolerances dimensions to improve it module on
or design molding
machine
Tools and Techniques of Product Design
updated for
better control
Uneven 6 Reliability 4 240 Review material Materials with 1 4 40
expansion testing selection same thermal
due to of assembly compatibility expansion
roduct Success
Wrong 5 No incoming 10 500 Review supplier’s New supplier 1 1 10
material material QC and certifies
used inspection alternative material is
suppliers correct;
has SPC
in place
To provide Air vent Poor 4 Mold 6 SPC on 3 72 Analyze Molding cavity 4 2 1 8
4/15/02, 9:34 AM
smooth, or fluid fluid flashing cover molding and process
controlled opening flow in hole dimensions process and refined with
fluid flow blocked equipment minimal
for drinking or insuf- flashing;
ficient added mesh-
ing removal
step as
needed
Ch05.p65
Table 5-14. (continued)
Failure
Failure Failure Mode Design Recommended Actions/
Item Function Mode Effect SR Cause OR Verification DR RPN Action Results SR OR DR RPN
203
Too small 1 Calculation 2 8 No action No action 1 2 8
by design and proto-
type testing
To slow Does not Fluid 5 Poor 3 Reliability 4 60 Review material Material with 5 2 4 40
fluid heat retain cools material testing of selection acceptable
loss heat ef- too design assembly compatibility thermal
fectively quickly insulation
properties
roduct Success
large
SR = initial severity ranking
Chapter 5—
4/15/02, 9:34 AM
Tools and Techniques of Product Design
203
204
Chapter 5—
5—TTools and Techniques of Product Design
data, other types of analyses, such as root were also developed and addressed in order
cause analysis (RCA) or fault tree analysis of the assigned priorities.
(FTA), or from a combination of these and
many other sources. Results of this effort Action and Results
are then fed back into the FMEA worksheet The results of the review regarding wrong
in the failure mode cause column. Each of material were that this was a process prob-
these causes is then rated based on the fre- lem traced to a combination of a poor sup-
quency or probability of occurrence. plier and lack of inspection of material upon
In Table 5-14, three failure mode causes receiving it. The company changed to an-
are listed twice. Each cause is repeated next other supplier with good quality control
to each of the two failure mode effects. This methods in place and installed someone who
is done for calculation purposes, due to the would certify the material on each shipment.
two effects having different severity ratings. With these changes in place, along with ad-
In this particular case, the failure has two ditional changes from the other efforts, RPNs
possible causes that are design related—one were all recalculated. Nothing changed the
being fits and tolerances—the other mate- severity rankings of any of the failure modes,
rial selection. The third cause is process re- because none of the failure modes were
lated—the wrong material being used in the eliminated. However, with the changes de-
cover molding. The occurrence ranking (OR) scribed in place, it was determined that the
ratings are based on the knowledge avail- occurrence and detection rankings for some
able with respect to frequency of the par- failures were significantly reduced. This re-
ticular causes. sulted in a considerable decrease in the new
RPN rankings for wrong material, dropping
Design Verification them to the bottom of the list, essentially
The ability of the design or process under implying that the failure mode in question
scrutiny to uncover failure causes prior to the was no longer a concern.
product reaching the end user is addressed Once the process has been completed for
under the column “design verification” (see all failure mode causes and each RPN has been
Table 5-14). In this column, the actions, pro- recalculated, the process may be repeated un-
cedures, or checks in place to catch any er- til all RPNs are at an acceptable level, or the
rors are recorded. These are then ranked analysis may be considered complete and
according to their ability to successfully de- documented for future reference. What con-
tect the flaws in question. At this point, the stitutes an acceptable level is solely the de-
rankings are multiplied to yield the initial termination of those conducting the analysis.
risk priority numbers (RPNs). The failure FMEA can be a highly effective tool for
mode causes with the highest RPNs can then reliability assurance. As seen in this ex-
be focused on; improvements in these areas ample, it is extremely efficient when applied
will provide the greatest payback. to analysis of elements that cause a failure
The four highest-ranking RPN issues of the entire system. Flexibility allowed by
shown in Table 5-14 involve an inappropri- the FMEA format makes it especially easy
ate material being used. An action plan was to use in a wide variety of situations. The
devised to review the supplier’s quality and drawback of this analysis, however, is that
to research other suppliers. For any other it quickly becomes very cumbersome when
issues that were thought to be within con- applied to complex systems with many com-
trol of the design or process, action plans ponents or multiple operating modes.
Regardless of the field or industry, RCA important when working in teams that ev-
operates on the premise that there are no eryone begins with the same understanding
such things as isolated incidents and that of what occurred and where the focus lies.
every incident is an indicator of a prior prob-
lem. Each incident is viewed as the tip of Preserve and Collect Data
the iceberg; there are many underlying cir- The single most important step of the
cumstances yet to be known and understood. entire analysis is preserving and collecting
Some refer to RCA as making order out of data. If a poor job is done, recovery is nearly
chaos, and assert that everything happens impossible. By contrast, if a good job of data
for a reason and usually many errors occur collection is done, but analysis later proves
before an undesirable outcome happens. faulty, a new analysis can be performed on
Failures are often regarded not as problems the same collected data. Usually, a failure
that take away from the bottom line, but as
opportunities to improve quality and prof-
itability. Table 5-15. RCA tools and techniques
There are numerous ways to undertake an Generating Ideas
RCA, and there are many tools available to
Brainstorming
assist in logically proceeding from a failure Force-field analysis
event to its root cause. Table 5-15 lists some Team forming
of the more common tools and categorizes Five whys
them into the basic steps of the analysis. The
Prioritizing Data or Action
effectiveness, thoroughness, flexibility, and
Histogram
ease of use of these tools are the main selec- Pareto charts
tion criteria for choosing which one to use.
Solution selection diagram
Many of these tools come complete with
Nominal group techniques
brainstorming exercises, forms, and even
final report formats. Action Planning
Storyboarding
RCA Steps Solution selection diagram
There are six basic steps to performing a Grouping techniques
Nominal group techniques
successful root cause analysis. The steps are
as follows: Finding PPatterns
atterns and Relationships
Cause-and-effect diagram
1. Identify and define the problem. Scatter diagram
2. Preserve and collect data. Failure modes and effects analysis
3. Analyze the data. Event tree analysis
4. Identify and verify the root causes. Force-field analysis
5. Communicate findings and recommen- Guide data collection
dations. Statistical methods
6. Implement corrective actions. Storyboarding
Function analysis
Identify and Define the Problem Process analysis
A clear and complete statement of the pre- Examining Results
cise nature and scope of the failure event de- Five whys
fines the focus of the analysis. It is especially Root cause test
event will leave parts, data, paperwork, or this task.” Recommendations should relate
some other type of physical evidence behind. directly to the root cause, be actionable, veri-
It is crucial to preserve these items at the fiable, and should not create unacceptable
onset of an investigation or risk its being risks.
lost forever. Interviews with the people in-
volved, review of the procedures used, and Implement Corrective Actions
reviews of the site of the failure are key ele- It may or may not be within the author-
ments of good data collection. ity of the RCA team to implement correc-
tive actions, which is why it is important to
Analyze the Data build a strong case for the recommendations
made. Occasionally, there will be circum-
The type and importance of the failure,
stances where the cost of the recommenda-
as well as the level of effort required for
tion will outweigh the cost of living with the
the analysis will determine the specific
failure event. This becomes a business deci-
analysis tools used. If the example consid-
sion and, hopefully, the cost of prevention
ered is that of a hydraulic power transmis-
will never outweigh the cost of human life
sion system, the cause-and-effect diagram,
or injury.
also known as the fishbone diagram, will be
used. What is critical to success of the analysis PRODUCT MODELING
is to keep digging until the root cause is found.
USING CAD/CAM
Anything less than the root cause is just a
symptom. Computer-aided design (CAD) and manu-
facture is one of the fastest growing areas in
Identify and Verify Root Cause engineering. The words computer-aided de-
sign and drafting (CADD) are used to empha-
Once the root cause has been identified, size the drafting task. The use of computers to
it should be tested and verified. When safety extend the application to manufacturing re-
and cost allows, this could mean recreating sulted in computer-aided manufacturing
the failure. When safety and/or cost are an (CAM). The slash between CAD and CAM
issue, modeling, calculation, or other simi- in CAD/CAM is intended to reinforce the
lar means may verify the root cause. shared functions of design and manufactur-
ing using a common database. Significant
Communicate Findings technological advances have been occurring
and Recommendations in computer-aided design and computer-
The findings and recommendations must aided manufacturing, which has resulted in
be communicated to those in positions of productivity increases. CAD/CAM systems
power to facilitate informed decisions. It is help the designer to design a product by us-
important to be clear, concise, and make rec- ing the speed and efficiency of a computer.
ommendations that are specific to eliminate The first commercial computer-aided system
the root cause from recurring. General rec- emerged in the 1960s, when companies like
ommendations such as, “operator should use GM, Boeing, and Lockheed developed main-
caution when performing this task” should frame computer-based design systems. Un-
be avoided, as they are ambiguous and im- til this time, design of a complex part or
possible to confirm or enforce. A more use- device was very time consuming. Design it-
ful recommendation would be, “operator erations and performance testing were im-
should confirm that locks are engaged and possible to complete on time and under
safety screen is in place before performing budget (Chryssolouris 1992).
In the automotive and aerospace indus- companies often deal with personal com-
tries, the design phase represents the most puter systems that are useful to customers
critical aspect of a project. The final prod- with specialized design and automation
uct has to be cost effectively built to strict needs. The last group consists of service
specifications. However, because of the high bureaus. These organizations specialize in
cost of early CAD systems, only large engi- performing CAD/CAM work for other com-
neering firms afforded their use until the panies that have minimal or periodic needs.
introduction of mini-computers in the 1970s. The number of service bureaus is growing,
In recent years, the introduction of personal as they are often the best solution for com-
computers, workstations (intelligent termi- panies that do not have their own CAD/CAM
nals), and sophisticated software has made systems.
CAD available to a broader spectrum of us-
ers. Design and engineering personnel are CAD Systems
able to use stand-alone systems with a large CAD, as used in mechanical design and
choice of input/output devices without the manufacturing, allows the choice of using
expense associated with mainframes. Often two- or three-dimensional (2D or 3D) pro-
the stand-alone systems are interfaced to a cedures to create the design. The user in-
central computer, thereby increasing the puts 2D drawings of the intended product
storage capabilities for CAD software. In model, usually needing more than one view
addition, such systems improve speed and to describe the intended 3D product. This
performance, and result in greater overall means re-entering the same intrinsic data,
productivity. Today, CAD/CAM is used for ev- originally and to accommodate downstream
erything from air-traffic control systems to changes. Mimicking the drafting board, de-
weapons design and research, and from cir- signers use simple 2D information on ge-
cuit design to computerized photography. ometry to construct points, lines, circles,
CAD/CAM systems are not only used in elec- arcs, and possibly conic sections together
tronic design, but in areas such as architecture, with some type of free-form curves. Two-
civil engineering, and aerospace engineering. dimensional systems rarely distinguish a
There are different kinds of CAD devel- model geometry line from a drafting con-
opers in the marketplace. First, there are struction line.
subsidiary divisions that sell CAD/CAM Selecting 3D CAD opens additional possi-
technology to different departments or di- bilities: 3D wire frame, solids modeling, sur-
visions of a larger corporation. The second face modeling, parametric solids modeling,
group is established turnkey CAD vendors. variational modeling, feature-based model-
These companies specialize and offer a wide ing, or a mix. To create 3D geometry, many
range of CAD systems. Having been involved systems use 2D views with the third dimen-
in CAD/CAM technology for several years, sion controlled perpendicular into and out
these companies have established reputa- of the screen. A given product’s lack of any
tions in development of new technology. The one of the foundation technologies may limit
third are entrepreneurial CAD system de- design choices.
velopers. These companies tend to be small,
young, and very innovative. Although their 3D Wireframe
market share is small, they excel in provid- Building geometry using 3D-wire frame
ing single, high-quality products to a nar- involves representation of the model using
row market segment. The entrepreneurial lines, arcs, and curves. Although this tech-
nology cannot interpret model data for speci- the user to directly alter geometric shapes
fications such as area or volume due to dif- by adding or subtracting other 3D geometry.
ficulties in representation, the user can still Parametric systems can represent 3D model
benefit from model interaction that closely dimensions, lengths, or angles as drivers con-
resembles drafting. trolling model shape. If you change a driving
dimension value, the whole 3D-model shape
Solids Modeling updates. Non-driving dimensions found
Solids modeling is best implemented by only on model drawings merely reflect a re-
defining 3D volumes, both the model’s in- sulting shape measurement. Most paramet-
ner material and outer envelope. In solids ric systems are restricted to solids geometry.
modeling, the basic techniques are Boolean Surface models and their mathematical pro-
operations: union (add shape), subtract (re- cedures do not offer representations of para-
move shape), and intersect (combine shape). metric values, though some products claim
Benefits include calculating full mass prop- limited capabilities. Some parametric model-
erties, true cross sections, interference ing products help the user define and remem-
checking between models, realistic graphics, ber non-dimensional geometric constraints,
and moving to such applications as finite ele- such as parallel and perpendicular. The ad-
ment analysis, generating numerically con- ditional features of recognizing geometric
trolled machine codes, and stereolithography. constraints add to the overall ease of use
New Internet-based applications—including while capturing important design consider-
viewing, marking up, and technical docu- ations. Other hybrid modeling systems al-
mentation—require at least a data-viewing low users to mix explicit and parametric
mechanism, which solids modeling provides. modeling conditions in one part model.
inaccuracies, and inconsistencies are very of- Requirements of a good graphics system are
ten revealed only after the system has been in to provide a complete set of graphics tools
use for some time. Therefore, potential users and make those tools easily accessible to the
should have clear and reasonable expectations user.
for minimum performance requirements of Graphics systems are either menu-driven
software function and reliability. and/or command-driven. Menu-driven sys-
CAD/CAM software can, in general, be tems are easier for the novice to learn. How-
divided into three categories: operating sys- ever, these systems tend to be slower than
tems, graphics software, and applications as command-driven systems, especially if each
shown in Figure 5-10. menu is entered through the keyboard
The operating system controls the lowest rather than through a mouse or light pen.
level of system operations. It is divided into More efficient menu-driven systems are
three categories: equipped with different levels of menu op-
eration (for example, novice to expert level).
1. System controls, which include setting Command-driven systems also include a
job priorities and supervising CPU time; complete set of training aids. Some systems
2. Processing tasks, which include sys- include help and error messages along with
tems utilities such as language trans- complete documentation. Recent systems
lation; and make extensive use of icons to make on-
3. Data management, which controls the screen display symbols. Another improve-
organization and access to all on-line ment in the graphics system is the use of
data. solid modeling as opposed to wire-frame
The graphics system is that part of the modeling.
CAD/CAM software with which the user in- Wire-frame modeling is completely ad-
teracts directly. This group of programs cre- equate for two-dimensional representations.
ates and manipulates the graphics data on For three-dimensional objects modeling, it
which application of the system depends. is rather limited and sometimes produces
confusing views, which can be interpreted in
many different ways. This problem is overcome
if the wire-frame graphics system includes
automatic hidden line removal. In solids mod-
eling, the models are displayed as solid ob-
jects to the viewer, involving more realism,
especially when color is added. Solids model-
ing requires more computation, which places
demands on system memory and speed.
Application software can stand by itself as
an independent component or act as an or-
ganized set of independent tools, each fulfill-
ing a portion of the overall integrated
production plan. Each application is designed
to meet the CAD/CAM needs of a defined in-
dustry.
In an integrated CAD/CAM system, addi-
tional features need to be considered. De-
Figure 5-10. CAD/CAM operation system. sign analysis is an important task that can
be handled automatically by CAD systems. In the design process, once the design goal
Modeling is a very powerful tool for conduct- is fixed, a certain know-how is needed to go
ing product simulation. By use of primitive through the design methodology. The pro-
shapes such as triangles, cones, circles, and cess of designing produces information that
rectangles, most models can be constructed can be documented and used in production.
and manipulated by the system automatically Quite often, the environment influences
using features such as shading, scaling, skin- design activity, and the design process is of-
ning, rotating, cross-section, and merging to ten considered an integral part of a higher-
emulate virtually any design idea. level process. Design is an iterative process
Solid modeling results in a complete solid that includes steps such as identification of
object, consisting of mathematical represen- need, problem definition, problem synthe-
tations, which can be studied as though it sis, analysis and optimization, evaluation,
were an actual manufactured object. The and the presentation of results. It is a series
designer is able to simulate the product of evolutionary steps along which the de-
model’s physical characteristics and view signer proceeds from recognition of needs
realistic pictures that can be used in creat- to desires to be fulfilled. Certain product
ing exploded views, part details, and characteristics are determined heuristically
manufacturing drawings. Also, solids mod- at an early stage on the basis of incomplete
eling allows computation of physical factors knowledge about their effect on the design.
such as weight, density, center of gravity, vol- Synthesis is an attempt to refine the model
ume, and sensitivity to heat and stress, in such a way that subsequent analysis may
among many other factors. An extremely im- produce better results.
portant engineering objective facilitated by In a typical engineering application, a pre-
modeling is analysis by the finite-element liminary design is manually synthesized and
method. Individual parts are broken up into then subjected to some form of analysis. This
discrete physical elements, which can be ana- analysis procedure involves extensive cal-
lyzed independently with regard to required culation and human judgment. CAD is a stan-
stresses and displacements. This process dard tool in many design offices and in
helps to optimize the design and keep part operations such as geometrical modeling, en-
failure to a minimum. gineering analysis, design review, and evalua-
tion. Automated drafting is efficiently
Environment performed by the modern computer-aided de-
The engineering design process has been sign-and-drafting system. A graphics-assisted
traditionally carried out on drafting tables. design system, which can present proper
The design process consists of arrival at the tools for image creation and manipulation,
final shape and size of the desired product, can make a designer much more productive.
design of its relevant components, prepara- Figure 5-11 shows the progress of the de-
tion of component drawings, and final assem- sign activity in a computer-aided design en-
bly layout. Similar procedures are followed vironment. A computer-aided design system
in structural design, chemical plant design, can be executed through either a large-scale
electrical component design, aerospace and central computer on batch mode or a dedi-
automotive design, etc. As an individual cated microcomputer-based CAD system in
component is designed, its physical dimen- interactive mode. The interactive graphics
sions are identified, and its physical proper- system provides an immediate response to
ties and characteristics are specified. inputs by the user. The system and designer
are in direct communication with each other, possible to construct non-imaginable parts
and the designer uses commands and responds using wire-frame models, requiring human
to questions posed by the computer system. intervention to resolve the ambiguity.
CAD systems also handle non-graphic appli- A solid model can describe a part com-
cations such as display of engineering data pletely. The physical attributes of the object
(Zeid 1991). consist of solid primitives, such as blocks,
cylinders, cones, spheres, and edges. These
Modeling System shapes are considered basic geometric rep-
One of the issues concerning any applica- resentation. The primitives are combined
tion of computer modeling is the representa- through the use of Boolean operators of
tion of geometric data. Most two-dimensional union, difference, and intersection. A tree-
wire-frame models are created from graphi- like data structure describes how an object
cal primitives such as points, lines, arcs, and is built up from simpler objects. Using these
curves used in manual drafting and layout. descriptors, the part can be specified as a
Two-dimensional wire-frame models, how- combination of shapes or features oriented
ever, have many of the disadvantages of a in a specific way.
two-dimensional drawing procedure. At Boundary representation schemes require
times, they are ambiguous and difficult to the designer to draw the boundary of the
interpret and can be inadequate for compli- object, so a relatively solid image can be de-
cated shapes. The primary limitation is that veloped. Some transformations and editing
all lines that define edges (and contoured features are used to modify the model to a
surfaces) of the model are displayed. If the desired shape. The boundary representation
three-dimensional system has no provision is especially useful when some unusual
to eliminate hidden lines, the lines that de- shapes are to be represented, which are dif-
fine the edges at the rear of the model show ficult to create by use of solid modeling tech-
right through the foreground surfaces. It is niques. During manufacturing, each part is
facilitated by the ability of the CAD system ductivity of designers who use solid modeling
to perform tasks like automatic dimension- systems. The procedure involves considering
ing, tolerancing (designer can zoom into a the design attributes from the point of view
part), interference, and viewing from various of how the product gets fabricated. Feature-
angles. Calculation of materials and volume based design and modeling systems have the
is also performed in CAD. The automated ability to group entities into form features
drafting process includes the ability to print such as ribs, bosses, flanges, and pockets.
a hardcopy of the drawing from CAD and the This way, the designer is not required to
creation of a manufacturing database (see specify the individual primitives needed for
Figure 5-12). a complex product.
CAD systems are used with the intention of: The data available in geometric models is
of microscopic nature. Lines, curves, and
• increasing the productivity of the de-
solids represent the general models. Bool-
signer, which is accomplished by help-
ean operations are used in constructive solid
ing the designer to visualize the product, geometry (CSG) and solid primitive repre-
component, and subassemblies of the sentations. In boundary representation, the
part, thus reducing the time required for models are represented in terms of edges,
synthesis, analysis, and documentation; faces, and vertices. In the conventional geo-
• improving the quality of the design metrical modeling system, there is no macro-
through analysis and a number of de- scopic information or design intent. Parametric
sign alternatives to reduce design errors; modeling systems are a slight improvement.
• improving communication; and They are dimension-driven models. That is,
• creating a database for manufacturing the geometry is defined using parameters
(see Figures 5-13 and 5-14).
or variables to specify the dimension of an
entity. Mathematical relationships between
Feature-based Design and Modeling the variables and entities are important. The
Feature-based design and modeling is variable values are solved sequentially or by
the process of creating a product model on the using simultaneous equations.
basis of features and how they are related. A feature represents the engineering
This idea was developed to enhance the pro- meaning or significance of the geometry of
a part or assembly. A feature is any perceived of form features. A feature model is a data
geometric or functional element, or property structure that represents a part or an as-
of an object useful to understand its func- sembly in terms of its component features.
tion, behavior, or performance. A feature can Features can be broken down into form fea-
be mapped to a generic shape and has engi- tures, tolerance features, assembly features,
neering significance. It has predictable prop- functional features, and material features.
erties. Feature-based design and modeling Form features are portions of a part’s ge-
systems allow users to define their own sets ometry that keep happening again and
again. Tolerance features are deviations ——. 1982. Japanese Manufacturing Tech-
from the norm; assembly features represent niques: Nine Hidden Lessons in Simplicity.
a grouping of some feature types to define New York: The Free Press.
assembly relations; functional features are
Shetty, Devdas and Neault, Henry. 1993.
related to specific function or performance;
United States Patent. “Method and Appa-
and material features are related to the com-
position and condition of materials. ratus for Surface Roughness Measurement
Using Laser Diffraction Pattern.” Patent
Number: 5,189,490; Feb. 23, 1993.
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Computer-aided Manufacturing. Englewood
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Siddal, James N. 1990. Expert Systems for
Chicoine, Troy, 2000. “Failure Mode and Ef- Engineers. New York: Marcel Dekker.
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Transmission Systems.” Hartford, CT: Uni- Suzaki, Kiyoshi. 1987. The New Manufactur-
versity of Hartford. Masters Thesis, May. ing Challenge: Techniques for Continuous
Improvement. New York: The Free Press.
Chryssolouris, George. 1992. Manufacturing
Systems—Theory and Practice. New York: Taguchi, G. 1993. Taguchi on Robust Tech-
Springer-Verlag. nology Development. New York: ASME
Press.
Dieter, George. 2000. Engineering Design:
A Materials and Processing Approach, 3rd Tanner, J.P. 1985. Manufacturing Engineer-
Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. ing: An Introduction to the Basic Functions.
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Groover, Mikell P. 1980. Automation, Produc-
tion Systems, and Computer-aided Manufac- Voland, George. 1999. Engineering by De-
turing. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, sign. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley.
Inc. Womack, James P. and Jones, Daniel T. 1996.
Imai, Masaaki. 1986. Kaizen: The Key to Lean Thinking: Banish Waste and Create
Japan’s Competitive Success. New York: Wealth in Your Corporation. New York:
McGraw-Hill, Inc. Simon & Schuster.
Padke, Madhav. 1989. Quality Engineering: Womack, James, Jones, Daniel T., and Roos,
Using Robust Design, AT&T Bell Laborato- Daniel. 1990. The Machine that Changed the
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York: Harper Perennial.
Schonberger, Richard. 1986. World Class
Manufacturing: The Lessons of Simplicity Zeid, Ibrahim. 1991. CAD/CAM Theory and
Applied. New York: The Free Press. Practice. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Job-shop Layout
In a job-shop layout, as shown in Figure
6-1, machines with the same or similar ma-
terial processing capabilities are grouped
together. They are usually general-purpose
machines, which can accommodate a large
variety of part types. In this structure, the
component moves through the system by
visiting different work centers, according to
the part’s process plan. Material handling
must be very flexible to accommodate many
different part types, which is why it is usu-
ally done with manually controlled imple-
ments such as forklifts and handcarts. This
is advantageous for a number of reasons
(Chryssolouris 1992), including:
• Each operation can be assigned to a
machine that yields the best quality or
best production rate. Figure 6-1. Job-shop layout.
Project-shop Layout
In a project shop (see Figure 6-2), a
product’s position remains fixed during manu-
facturing because of its size and/or weight.
Materials, people, and machines are brought
to the product as needed. Facilities organized
as product shops can be found in the air-
craft and shipbuilding industries and in
bridge and building construction.
Cellular Layout
In manufacturing systems organized ac-
cording to a cellular plan (see Figure 6-3),
equipment or machinery is grouped accord-
ing to the process combinations that occur in
the family of parts. Each cell contains ma-
chines that can produce a certain family. The
material flow within the cell may differ for
different parts of a part family. Intracellu-
lar material flow takes place either auto-
matically or manually.
Continuous System
In contrast to other types of systems that
manufacture discrete parts, continuous sys-
tems (see Figure 6-5) produce liquids, gases,
or powders. As in a flow line, processes are
arranged according to the processing se-
quence of products. The continuous system
is the least flexible type of manufacturing
Figure 6-2. Project-shop layout. system.
moves from one station to the next. At each weld. Clearly, there must be some interplay
location, a portion of the total work is per- between what the designer specifies and
formed. The slowest station determines the what certain processes can actually achieve
line production rate. This bottleneck station economically. Specifications of tolerances
limits workstations with a faster pace. Trans- and surface finishes required must be con-
fer of product along the line is usually accom- sidered when different manufacturing meth-
plished by a mechanical transfer device or ods are compared as alternative production
conveyor system, although some manual lines methods. Linked to such considerations is
simply pass the product by hand between sta- the question of overall economics. Savings
tions. Production lines are associated with arising from one or two operations early in
mass production. If product quantities are a production sequence may be lost altogether
very high and work can be divided into sepa- if expensive finishing operations are re-
rate tasks assigned to individual worksta- quired later. The number of parts produced,
tions, then a production line is the most design complexity, capital and labor costs,
appropriate manufacturing system. and parts per assembly play important roles
There can be many combinations of de- when deciding production methods and as-
sign, materials, and manufacturing, even sembly modes.
without one best route from the design stage Job shops are more suitable for low-vol-
to inspection and sales. If one or even two ume production of multiple, but dissimilar,
of these three elements are fixed (for ex- part types. They possess general-purpose
ample, a fixed design with fixed materials), machines and a flexible, manual material
there may still be a number of acceptable handling system, which is ideal for this situ-
alternative manufacturing routes. This may ation. Cellular systems are most suitable for
depend on the number of parts to be made, manufacturing in low-to-medium production
the availability and quality of raw materi- volumes and lot sizes of part types with
als, the number and capabilities of existing enough similarity to be clustered into part
machines in the factory and, of course, the families. Flow lines are best suited to the
resulting cost per part. high-volume, high-lot-size production of a
The design of a product can be influenced single-part type or few very similar part types.
by the process of manufacturing and by the This is a consequence of having dedicated
production route it takes in a manufactur- machines and material handling equipment.
ing facility. In some cases, the desired prop-
erties of a product can be attained through
the use of a specific process. For example, the
FLEXIBILITY IN MANUFACTURING
forging process is one of the most important Flexibility is a cornerstone and key con-
methods of manufacturing items for high- cept used in the design of modern automa-
performance uses. It changes the shape of a tion. It can be defined as a collection of
piece of material by exerting force on it. One properties of a manufacturing system that
of the characteristics associated with cold support changes in production activities or
forging is that it increases the yield strength capabilities. The changes are due to both in-
of the component. ternal and external factors. Internal changes
Sometimes it may be nearly impossible to could be due to equipment breakdowns, soft-
manufacture an article using particular ware failures, worker absenteeism, and vari-
materials due to production difficulties. Cer- ability in processing times, etc. To absorb
tain materials can cause severe problems if uncertainties due to product-design changes,
they are extremely difficult to machine or the manufacturing system must be able to
produce a variety of part types with mini- part buffer, a tool changer, a pallet changer,
mal cost and lead times. etc. Such an augmented system is also
The types of production systems are: known as a flexible manufacturing module.
Some of the features are:
1. high-volume, low-variety (H-L) produc-
tion systems (transfer line); • It has the highest level of flexibility; any
2. stand-alone computer numerical con- job can be processed, provided it is
trol (CNC) machines; and within the process capabilities of the
3. mid-volume, mid-variety production CNC machine.
systems: • There is low utilization and production
volume.
a. manufacturing cell;
• The unit cost of production is much
b. special manufacturing system; and
higher than for similar products manu-
c. flexible manufacturing system.
factured on a transfer line.
Two extreme production situations are
H-L and low-volume, high-variety (L-H). Be- Mid-volume, Mid-variety
tween these two extremes, there is an im- Production Systems
portant mid-volume, mid-variety (M-M) Between the extremes of one or two part
production situation. Figure 6-6 shows vol- types produced on a transfer line and a large
ume-variety relationships used to categorize variety of parts produced on a stand-alone
production systems. machine, there is an important category of
mid-volume, mid-variety parts, which con-
H-L Production Systems stitute approximately 75% of discrete-parts
An example of a H-L manufacturing sys- manufacturing. The simultaneous require-
tem is a transfer line. It can also be referred ments of flexibility and production volume
to as a fixed automation manufacturing sys- place more emphasis on system integration
tem, where dedicated processing and mate- and automation. Mid-volume, mid-variety
rial-handling equipment are used. The parts parts systems are classified into the follow-
ing types:
produced are limited to one or two variet-
ies. Some of the features are: • manufacturing cells,
• special manufacturing systems, and
• Machines are dedicated to the manu-
• flexible manufacturing systems (FMS).
facture of one or two product types; this
system permits no flexibility at all. Manufacturing Cell
• There is maximum utilization and a
very high production volume. The design of manufacturing cells is based
on the concepts of group technology. The
• Direct labor involvement is minimal.
objective is to process some families of parts
• There is a low unit cost for production. on a group of CNC machines within a cell so
that intercellular material-handling effort
Stand-alone CNC Systems is minimized. Selection of parts for process-
Stand-alone CNC machines can produce ing on machines may be both sequential and
a variety of parts. Processing requirements random. In a typical cell, the CNC machines
of parts should be within a machine’s capa- are often linked together by a direct numeri-
bility. An L-H production system normally cal control (DNC) system. Some of the fea-
consists of a CNC machine augmented by a tures are:
• The system handles a low-to-mid vol- Parts move on the material-handling system
ume of parts. in sequence from machine to machine. This
• A variety of parts is manufactured in system also has a high production rate. Some
batch mode. features are:
• A manufacturing cell is a FMS without • A fixed path material-handling system
a central control. links machines together.
• A cell is more flexible than a FMS, but • This is the least flexible category of
has a lower production rate. computer-integrated manufacturing
(CIM) system.
Special Manufacturing System • This system uses multi-spindle heads
In a special manufacturing system, ma- and a low-level controller.
chines are laid out to manufacture a family • This system has a high production rate
of parts based on a sequence of operations. and a low unit production cost.
Step 1
Information
What is it?
What does it do?
What does it cost? Step 2
What is it worth? Speculation
Get all the facts. What else might Step 3
do the job? Analysis
Get information Seek new What does that cost? Step 4
from best source. information. Development
Get all available Eliminate the Put money on each What will satisfy the users’
costs. function. main idea. needs? Step 5
What is needed to Presentation
implement it? and follow -up
follow-up
Work on specifics Simplify. Evaluate by Use specialty vendors What is recommended?
not generalities. comparison. and processes. Who has to approve it?
What was done?
How much did it save?
Define the functions. Blast and refine. Evaluate by function. Use specialty products. Use good human
relations.
Use creative Use experts. Use standards. Spend the organization’s
techniques. money as you would
your own.
Use your own judgement. Monitor progress of
review and
implementation.
Substantiate conclusions.
Prepare implementation plan.
purchased parts, and process selections. environments, because layouts provide for
Benefits are also typically found in design, efficient flow of material through the facil-
tooling and setups, materials handling, pro- ity. Production scheduling is also reduced due
duction and inventory control, process plan- to cells, since there are less production cen-
ning, and employee satisfaction. ters to schedule. Manufacturing lead times
For design purposes, existing parts with and work-in-process are reduced because of
matching codes can easily be retrieved and fewer setups and efficient material handling
modified, if needed, rather than redrawing procedures. By setting up a solid part clas-
a part. In group-technology environments, sification and coding system, an automated
tooling is designed for group fixtures and jigs process-planning system can be put into
to accommodate different members of a place. Another key aspect to group technol-
parts family. Since there is a similarity in ogy is employee satisfaction. Operators can
the parts on fixtures, there is typically little visualize the contributions of their cell, lead-
to any setup required for changeover. Mate- ing to improved attitudes and higher levels
rial handling is reduced in group technology of job satisfaction.
sum of all of the work elements to be com- methods used to solve line balancing prob-
pleted. Workstation process time is the sum lems are:
of the times of work elements performed at
1. largest candidate rule,
a station. A workstation consists of one or
2. Kilbridge and Wester method, and
more individual work elements. Cycle time
3. ranked positional weights method.
(Tc) is the time interval between parts com-
ing off of the line. These methods are heuristic and mostly
A precedence diagram is a graphical rep- based on common sense and experimentation
resentation of a work element sequence, as rather than on mathematical optimization.
shown in Figure 6-10. The sequence is de-
fined by the precedence constraints. If the History
work elements can be grouped so that all of Value Stream Mapping is based on a
the station times are exactly equal, there will Toyota Production System (TPS) method
be a perfect balance on the line and smooth called “material and information flow map-
production flow can be expected. The goal ping.” The TPS uses this method more as a
in the line balancing procedure is to distrib- means of communication between individu-
ute the total work load on the assembly line als who are learning through hands-on ex-
as evenly as possible among workers. Three perience. It is used to illustrate current and
future states of processes needed to imple- The purpose of a current state map is to
ment lean systems. The focus at Toyota is make a clear representation of production
to establish a flow, eliminate waste, and add by drawing a map of material and informa-
value. Toyota teaches that there are three tion flows. The current state map depicts the
types of flow in manufacturing. These types process initially present when the study be-
include: gan. The map begins with a shipment from
the supplier. Once material is received, it
1. material flow,
flows through possible routes for the first
2. information flow, and
few stations.
3. people/process flow.
Value Stream Mapping is based on the first Step 3—Plan
two. The goal of lean manufacturing is to plan
ahead. It is important to plan so that one
Implementing Value Stream Analysis process makes only what the next process
To implement value stream analysis, the needs, and only when it needs it. The cus-
following steps are taken: tomer defines the value here because the
1. select a product family, product is delivered at the right time and
2. draw a current state map, price.
3. plan, The principles of concurrent engineering
4. identify standard work, are applied systematically for each process
5. draw the future map, and to plan a lean value stream. Areas to be ad-
6. standardize. dressed include:
• standard work,
Step 1—Selecting a Product • takt time,
In step 1, a product that needs to be • pull system (see Figure 6-11),
streamlined and process mapped is selected. • Kaizen philosophy,
The selection process can consider a diverse • one-piece flow,
range of products with a range of benefits. • cellular manufacturing, and
For instance, results from previous automo- • cycle-time reduction.
tive industry case studies have outlined well-
established material and information flow Step 4—Standard Work
lines resulting from the implementation of Identifying standard work is the process
value stream mapping. of determining how to achieve the maximum
performance with the minimum amount of
Step 2—Current State Map waste. Standard work eliminates variabil-
Step 2 of a value stream analysis is to ity from a process by establishing a routine
draw a current state map. In evaluating the for work. By implementing standard work,
current state of the process, several improve- problems are exposed and waste is identified.
ments will be made, including implementa- Takt time. Takt time can be defined as
tion of: cellular manufacturing, one-piece how frequently products must be finished
flow, automation, and waste minimization. to meet customer requirements. It sets the
The processes used to attain the improve- rhythm for standard work. Takt time is cal-
ments are then mapped to help determine culated by dividing the available time by the
the future state of the process. customer demand.
next process needs, and only when it needs Waste is identified and eliminated in the
it. The first guideline is to know the takt future-state value stream. Several questions
time. It sets the rhythm for production based are asked to improve the process flow. These
on sales. questions address takt time, continuous-
Continuous flow should be developed flow processing, the production process that
wherever possible. This means producing one sets the pace, pull systems, production mix
piece at a time and passing it immediately at the pacemaker process, increments of
from one process step to the next, without work at the pacemaker process, and process
stagnation. This is the most efficient way to improvements.
produce. However, continuous flow some- Sample questions and answers include:
times should be limited, because combining
Q.What is the takt time based on the avail-
flows into a continuous flow can merge all
able working time of the downstream
lead times and downtimes. First In, First
processes closest to the customer?
Out (FIFO) inventory methodology also can
be used to maintain the flow between two A. Takt time is calculated by subtracting
processes. non-working time from available work-
The next guideline is to send the customer ing time, and dividing this value by
schedule to only one production process: the customer demand.
pacemaker process. This process point then Q.How can a company use continuous
sets the pace for all upstream processes. flow processing?
Material transfers from the pacemaker pro- A. Continuous flow can be achieved by
cess to the finished goods downstream. This rearranging equipment and/or respon-
needs to occur as a continuous flow. Continu- sibilities so that the cycle time for each
operator’s total activities is under the
ous flow may be difficult upstream from the
takt time ceiling.
pacemaker process, because other processes
Q.What production process needs to be
may be far away, and may operate at faster
scheduled?
cycle times. Also, there may be a changeover
for multiple value streams, or they may have A. The pacemaker process is the first pro-
long lead times. A pull system should be in- cess downstream to be scheduled. All
stalled where continuous flow is interrupted, subsequent process steps are down-
so the upstream process can still operate in stream of the pacemaker process and
a batch mode. Another solution is to level must occur in a flow.
production mix evenly over time at the pace- Q.What process improvements will be
maker process. By leveling the mix, the up- necessary for the value stream to flow
stream storage can be much smaller. This as the future-state design specifies?
A. The purpose of this final question is to
will reduce total lead time.
start on process improvements with a
Step 6—Standardize clear understanding of why they are
needed.
The first pass at implementing a future-
state value stream should not consider the The basic steps to be investigated to cre-
inherent waste from product design, the ate a future state map are shown in Figure
current processing machinery, or the loca- 6-13.
tion of some activities, since these changes The value stream plan shows what a user
may require a great deal of work and will plans to do and when; it also has measur-
not change immediately. These conditions able goals, checkpoints with deadlines, and
should be addressed in later iterations. a reviewer.
As stated earlier, a value stream plan like a variation of a Gantt chart (see Figure
helps to break the implementation of a fu- 6-15). The key to successfully implement-
ture-state concept into reasonable steps ing the value stream is incorporating it as a
(see Figure 6-14). The future state value part of normal business practice.
stream map can be divided into segments
or loops. It lists objectives and measurable
Macro Value Stream Mapping
goals for each objective. A typical pattern
for implementing improvements is to start Macro value stream mapping extends be-
with developing a continuous flow based on yond plant-level maps. Macro mapping can
the takt time. This tends to be the simplest be done after creating current and future
place to start and typically provides the big- state maps for the facility. These maps are
gest bang for the buck by eliminating Muda created for several reasons. First, a large
and shortening lead times. The next step is portion of costs can be attributed to pur-
to implement a pull system. The pull sys- chased materials. Downstream inconsisten-
tem will provide production instructions for cies can threaten leanness inside the facility.
continuous flow. Once the order for imple- Added costs downstream can also negate in-
mentation has been decided, the elements ternal cost savings. This can affect whether
need to be written down for the yearly value or not sales grow. The whole picture allows a
stream plan. The value stream chart looks user to identify major asset reconfigurations
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Objective Objective Measurable Responsibility Team (Date)
237
Design for PProduct
Figure 6-15. Value stream chart.
roduct Success
4/15/02, 9:36 AM
237
Chapter 6—Streamlining Product Creation
238
Chapter 6—Streamlining Product Creation
A value stream includes all value and non- Cudney, Elizabeth. 2000. “Investigation into
value-added activities required to manufac- Value Stream Mapping and its Application.”
ture a product. The purpose of Value Stream Masters Thesis. Hartford, CT: University of
Mapping is to identify waste and eliminate Hartford.
it. By creating the current state map, future
Cudney, Elizabeth, and Shetty, Devdas. 2000.
state map, and the value stream plan, ma-
Value Stream Mapping. Proceedings of the
terial and information flow can be estab-
16th International Conference on CAD/
lished throughout the process. Value Stream
CAM, Robotics and Factories of the Future.
Mapping is a complete view of the process;
June. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Institution of
therefore, the entire flow is apparent, as is
Electrical Engineers.
waste in the process. It is a valuable tool to
identify waste and areas for improvement. Goldratt, Eluyahu and Fox, Jeff. 1992. The
As with other lean methodologies, Value Goal: A Process of Ongoing Improvement,
Stream Mapping should be an ongoing ef- Second Edition. New York: North River
fort. However, without a clear understand- Press.
ing of its techniques and philosophies—such
as the Toyota Production System, pull sys- Groover, Mikell P. 1980. Automation, Produc-
tems, kanbans, just-in-time, standard work, tion Systems, and Computer-aided Manufac-
one-piece flow, etc.—Value Stream Mapping turing. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,
will not provide benefits. Inc.
Rother, Mike and Shook, John. 1998. “Learn-
REFERENCES ing to See: Value Stream Mapping to Add
Chryssolouris, George. 1992. Manufacturing Value and Eliminate Muda.” Version 1.1.
Systems—Theory and Practice. New York: Brookline, MA: Lean Enterprise Institute.
Springer-Verlag.
project. Companies like United Technologies needs analysis must project future needs,
and IBM commission product development along with providing current needs state-
teams, called independent business units, to ments from the marketing department
develop new and innovative products with (Womack 1996).
complete autonomy. Development teams should participate in
Hewlett-Packard used a team approach to the analysis of customer needs. Encourag-
develop a color printer. Many major compa- ing development teams to participate in
nies competing in the international market analysis can enhance their creative contri-
have found that organizational structure, butions by enabling opportunities that
with its accompanying lack of responsibil- might not be seen by merely reading a re-
ity for the product, is not a means of being port from a distant market analysis group.
competitive when pitted against global com- For example, one data-storage firm estab-
petition. In some cases, the product deliv- lished a customer advisory board to provide
ery systems can be very inflexible and create direct customer input into the design pro-
bottlenecks in product delivery. A single de- cess. The board was composed of technically
velopment team is an essential element for astute customers, such as data-center direc-
world-class product development. tors and systems engineers. The firm pro-
Since the single team is responsible for a vided advance notice of new products and
product throughout its development, it solicited suggestions for product changes
must be comprised of members with the and improvements from the advisory board.
proper skill mix and experience to complete Design engineers attended meetings to an-
the job effectively. Various team members swer questions and receive direct feedback
must have design, manufacturing, market- from customers (Wilson and Kennedy 1989).
ing, testing, and other skills needed to de-
velop a product successfully. An effective Convergence of Information
team controls all aspects of a project, in- at Product Definition
cluding definition and specifications, from
technology selection through the first six Convergence of marketing, engineering,
months of manufacturing. and manufacturing information and goals
is essential in the process of creating an ad-
equate product definition (see Figure 7-1).
User-oriented Product Development This information convergence assures that
Another essential element affecting the marketing, engineering, and manufacturing
entire product development process is the issues are considered simultaneously as a
proper determination of customer needs, or product is defined. Simultaneous consider-
user-oriented product development. In a ation of these issues enables project leaders
development context, proposed products to agree on a common set of product goals
must provide a competitive solution to cus- and action plans. This, in turn, enables par-
tomer needs at a future time period, start- allel product and process development to
ing with the product introduction and occur with a minimum of conflict. If com-
continuing at least until the product devel- mon goals and plans are not developed, si-
opment costs are recovered. Customer-needs multaneous engineering of the product and
projections developed from this analysis are process is likely to cause divergence, result-
used during the product-definition stage to ing in major product and process reworking
establish product specifications. A customer- late in the product’s development.
of making an offer that is difficult to grievous error can occur when the com-
fulfill. It also tends to preclude any mis- pany needs to commit capital resources
understandings between customers and to obtain capacity. The group should
vendors about what constitutes the suc- compare its capacity with the needs of
cessful delivery of a product. the customer. This is usually done con-
3. Produce engineering drawings and currently with the internal evaluation
specifications (design specifications). of capacity. New products need to be
After the abstract phase is complete, the introduced in a timely manner to take
team needs to create a first iteration of advantage of market opportunities.
a design that is relatively producible. 6. Determine product cost. Profits have to
Simulation techniques may avoid some be realized for a company to remain in
trial and error, but real manufacturing existence. The team, led by marketing
with real production equipment is still and finance representatives, takes all
needed to test the process. data, calculates potential profit, and
4. Define a method for manufacturing the verifies that a new product will match
product (build a prototype and test it). the company’s strategic plan. It takes
Here, the team will be heavily influenced corrective action to achieve a required
by the capabilities of the company. For margin and still meet customer require-
instance, what type of equipment does ments. If unsatisfactory results are in-
it possess and have strength in using? dicated by profit calculations, the team
Companies strong in metalworking must reconsider all of its options to see
would naturally favor metal, rather if the project can be saved.
than plastic, for the base material. A 7. Launch the product. The product is re-
group will develop a bill of materials leased for manufacturing, after all of the
and routing to determine the total cost. internal and external requirements are
This is the phase where economic vi- determined to be achievable. Senior man-
ability for full production is deter- agement may decide to stop, hold, refine
mined. A prototype is structured for some more, or commence a launch. The
manufacturing and necessary vendor team monitors the production and sales
supply-chain relationships are estab- progress, and it takes corrective action
lished. as required. Each member needs to
5. Evaluate the capacity to make this monitor the early progress of commer-
product, along with all other products cialization to ensure that everything is
requiring the same capabilities (manu- running smoothly.
facturing capacity development). This
step, often overlooked, is led by manu-
MANAGEMENT PHASES
facturing engineering staff. The team
has a design, a process, plans for proto- OF PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
types, and an idea of sales potential. Successful product development requires
Many companies, liking what they see, effective project management that can re-
will plunge here into selling a product sult in high quality, low-cost products by
and disregard all previous commit- making the best use of time, money, and
ments that require factory resources. other resources.
If the capacity is insufficient and cus- The integrated product development
tomers are time-sensitive, another (IPD) phases are as follows:
Figure 7-2. New product development process (Dahan and Srinivasan 2000).
processes for group review and feedback. Examples of web-based product develop-
Users can add real-time animations to the ment tools include iMANTM, ProductVisionTM,
virtual product and edit them to indicate oneSpaceTM, and FirstSpaceTM. Some of the
part paths and sequences, as well as check advantages and disadvantages of a web-
for collision and clearances. Cross-disciplin- based system are listed below.
ary collaborative design reviews can quickly Advantages of web-based product devel-
evaluate individual ideas in the context of opment tools include:
overall product assembly, maintenance, and
• shortens the product-definition phase
usability.
involving the customer, marketing, and
The use of IPS models in early focus-group
design engineering;
sessions can yield more effective feedback
• provides instantaneous access to knowl-
from potential customers, leading to higher
edge and experience from different lo-
market acceptance for the ultimate product.
cations and disciplines during the design
To accomplish this, designer, engineers, and
and development stages to achieve high-
marketers collaborate in the development of
quality results quickly;
a virtual product to be evaluated by poten-
• on 3D models, allows instant online
tial customers during focus sessions.
model changes, design optimization,
A concern of product manufacturers today
and lower manufacturing costs through
is the coordination of disparate design teams.
immediate understanding of impact
Traditional communication and collaboration
and implications of design alternatives;
methods often result in significant expenses
• explores and builds on ideas in the prod-
for travel, personnel relocations, and telecom-
uct implementation stage involving
munications. IPS addresses most of these
trade-off decisions between manufac-
needs by enabling real-time linking of mul-
turing, tooling, and design engineering;
tiple sites in one virtual product. The result
and
is a far more efficient use of time than tra-
• improves design coordination with re-
ditional meetings.
mote and non-remote partners.
The Internet provides an extremely inex-
pensive and widely distributed format for Disadvantages of web-based product de-
product feedback. Distributing an IPS model velopment tools include:
via local networks, wide-area networks, or the
• Internet security,
Internet is very easy. Web access is simple and • bandwidth, and
intuitive with the help of the standard brows- • exposed proprietary information.
ers available today. IPS software uses stan-
dard editors (for example, Hypertext Markup The emerging trend in web-based product
Language [HTML]) to add text and graph- development has created more focus, not only
ics, and it can convert animations and cam- on functional and behavioral simulation, but
era views with simple procedures. Examples also on Internet security. New software up-
of new technologies available on the web in- grades constantly grow in size and provide
clude systems that allow visual, auditory, and more functions. Simulation of product func-
tactile information to be distributed and re- tionality and behavior is becoming an increas-
trieved. The low cost of distributing product ingly important feature of software. Future
designs via the Internet makes assembly and products will have multi-modal user inter-
disassembly sequencing, training, and feed- faces to use the complex functionality pro-
back on testing an attractive alternative to vided by such software. This means that
traditional methods for product designers. the design and testing of user interfaces will
require powerful, flexible tools for simulat- Lee, Kunwoo. 1999. Principles of CAD/CAM/
ing and testing multiple design alternatives. CAE Systems. Boston, MA: Addison Wesley.
One of the main advantages of virtual
prototyping is that it can produce a large Rivera, Jim. 2001. Discussion on PDP Guide-
number of consecutive prototype versions lines. Otis Elevator Co. United Technologies
very rapidly, unlike conventional prototyping Corp., May.
based on physical prototypes. This means Singh, Nanua. 1996. Systems Approach to
that the simulation of virtual prototypes of Computer-integrated Design and Manufac-
complex products consisting of multiple com- turing. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
ponents have to be executed in a distributed
manner. At the same time, valuable simula- Ulrich, Karl T. and Eppinger, Steven D. 1991.
tion models should be downloadable over a Product Design and Development. New York:
network, without compromising proprietary McGraw-Hill.
information.
Usher, John, Utpal, Roy, and Hamid, Parsaei,
REFERENCES ed. 1998. Integrated Product and Process De-
velopment: Methods, Tools, and Technolo-
Dahan, Ely and Srinivasan, V. 2000. “The
gies. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Predicting Power of Internet-based Product
Concept Testing Using Visual Depiction and Wilson, Clement and Kennedy, Michael.
Animation.” Journal of Product Innovation 1989. “Some Essential Elements of Superior
Management, 17:99-109. Product Development.” Paper 89-WA/DE-7.
Ghee, Steve. 1987. “The Virtues of Virtual San Francisco, CA: American Society of
Products.” Mechanical Engineering, June, Mechanical Engineers (ASME), Winter An-
pp. 60-63. nual Meeting.
Hall, Robert. 1987. Attaining Manufactur- Womack, James P. and Jones, Daniel T. 1996.
ing Excellence: Just-in-Time—Total Qual- Lean Thinking: Banish Waste and Create
ity, Total People Involvement. Homewood, Wealth in Your Corporation. New York:
IL: Dow Jones-Irwin. Simon & Schuster.
The group approach is a successful tool of users of the CAD system to ensure that these
concurrent engineering for product design departments’ requirements are addressed.
purposes. This chapter examines the impor- Product design groups can be classified
tance of groups for product development and as either core groups or work groups. A core
it identifies group characteristics. It also re- group is the lead group assigned to a new
views the stages a team must go through as design project. The function of the core
it matures. There have been several studies group is to direct project planning and imple-
on the effectiveness of the group approach. mentation. For larger projects, work groups
This chapter identifies the methodologies are formed for follow-up. Generally, the core
and techniques that have contributed to its group is responsible for the direction and
success in design and development. implementation of the overall project, and the
work group is responsible for specific por-
WHAT IS A tions of it, taking guidance from the core
PRODUCT DESIGN GROUP? group. Group members, of both the core and
A product design group is defined as a work groups, serve dual roles. They not only
team of people working together to achieve serve as members performing the tasks of
a common goal by using their combined their respective groups, but they also op-
skills, talent, and knowledge. A group may erate as employees of the functional de-
consist of members of the same organiza- partment from which they were selected.
tion, or it may represent members with dif- These dual roles, as well as an association
ferent backgrounds from other units of the with the parent department, represent one
organization. A cross-functional group is of the challenges of successful group perfor-
created when goals cover more than one mance. Very large projects may require aux-
department. For example, if a company is iliary groups to direct program portions.
making preparations for the acquisition of
a major computer-aided design/computer- Group versus Individual Decisions
aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM) system, Groups tend to make better decisions than
the situation might require the creation of individuals, especially in situations that are
a company-wide team from different divi- relatively broad-based for the company—
sions. Members of this group would be se- such as strategic planning or issues that
lected from departments that are primary apply to everyone. Diversity in background,
experience, and skill levels of group mem- • There must be clearly defined goals.
bers allows a group to consider a wider range • It should have budget and staffing pri-
of alternatives to solving problems and to ority.
be more creative. In group meetings, mem- • It should begin with a small, manage-
bers work to achieve consensus with other able problem.
group members. Unfortunately, reaching a • There must be a balanced representa-
consensus as a group takes longer than indi- tion of appropriate disciplines from
vidual decision-making. This is not necessar- within the company.
ily bad, however, because issues assigned to • Members should have good communi-
a group generally require more careful and cation skills and professional respect for
detailed analysis. When dealing with sensi- all of the group members.
tive issues, a group has more potential power • There must be an atmosphere that is
than any one of its constituents. conducive to free thinking.
Within a group, members are usually • Management should select a group
more comfortable expressing issues and con- leader and set objectives.
cerns openly. Management will view the is- • The leader should participate in the
sue in question as a group opinion, rather selection of the group members.
than associating it with an individual. Group composition is important and
A lot of financial investment and risk-tak- should include all those involved in the deci-
ing are involved when a company goes ahead sion process. Typical product design groups
with new product development. Groups tend include motivated individuals from various
to make more systematic decisions than in- company areas who have never worked to-
dividuals, who tend to be more concerned gether, but are responsible enough to carry
with the consequences of decisions. Groups out an important project. Group members
are more comfortable with the decision-mak- with challenging and opposing views can
ing process since they have a broader knowl- create an atmosphere of true innovation;
edge base. Individuals that comprise a group however, if too much time is spent arguing,
are less fearful because they have support less work will be achieved. Once basic ob-
from fellow team members. Thus, the qual- jectives are known, the group defines design
ity of the group’s decision is better. A higher, criteria and sets goals.
more sustained energy level results from the
support that group members give one an- Group Selection
other, despite that the work of product Group success depends to a large extent
groups is more exhaustive. Overall, manage- on the selection of players who will serve on
ment support plays a crucial role in decision- the team. Groups with the right combina-
making. tion of individual skills, attitudes, and lead-
ership have a positive impact on the outcome
Building Effective Groups of a project. It is also important to have a
good understanding of how groups can work
Various studies have identified several together to meet goals.
points as crucial to the success of product
development groups. The characteristics of Group Membership
an effective group are:
Selection of the right group leader is criti-
• There must be strong leadership within cal to a project’s success. A group leader has
the group. a major influence on the performance of the
entire group. The leader needs a combina- ics. Alternately, external consultants, an in-
tion of knowledge and qualities that bring ternal education department, or other quali-
out the best in the group. fied personnel could do the job.
When selecting group members, it is nec-
essary to consider the knowledge and skills Allocation of Activities between
that are important to the process from the Group Members and Others
functional areas of design, production engi- Group work comes from the combined
neering, purchasing, sales and marketing, contributions of the group, and contribu-
field service, fabrication, assembly, quality, tions from other organization members. The
suppliers, cost accounting, and other special- roles of group members are discussed in the
ties. The main question is, “What knowledge following sections.
and skills are needed for the group?” The Group leader. The role of a group leader
answer will determine the functional depart- includes the following:
ments that should be represented. Members • helps a group focus on continuous im-
should be chosen based on the size of project provement;
and the skills needed during product cre- • reminds the group of the long-term
ation. Group members should be chosen in outlook;
a fashion similar to the selection of their • stays uninvolved in the daily work of
leader. The selected leader should play a the team; and
major part in interviewing and choosing • uses periodic reviews with the team to
other members. help it focus on measures.
Characteristics of good group leaders and
members are: Facilitator. The role of the facilitator
includes the following:
• good people skills;
• strong written and oral communication • could be a member of the group;
abilities; • participates in all meetings;
• assertiveness; • does work that is part of what the team
• good listening skills and an open-minded does;
attitude; • is a person trained in group dynamics
• excellent analytical abilities and a good who assists the group with problem-
understanding of product design and solving tools; and
costing functions; • communicates, coordinates, and facili-
• determination and persistence; tates various activities within the team
• an understanding of manufacturing and between the team and others.
processes and costing; Business leader. The role of a business
• an understanding of the organization leader includes the following:
and the roles of various functional
• leads development of 1–5-year plans for
groups; and
company growth, machinery invest-
• knowledge of the specific product de-
ment, and people development;
sign procedure. • develops and enforces policies to guar-
Once members have been recruited, vari- antee fair treatment to all;
ous group training activities should be con- • presents overall company measures in
sidered. Depending on the size and resources a timely fashion to the leadership team;
of an organization, the group leader could and
perform selected training in team dynam- • sets up annual goals.
Any team can use huddles as part of its team should be a diverse group, comprised
communications plan. It is important to of people in marketing, sales, manufactur-
agree on frequency, length, timing, and a ing, and other departments.
normal agenda for the huddle.
Guidelines for successful group meetings Steps for Improvement of Group Work
are as follows: A team should:
• A meeting facilitator should be ap-
• Prepare a list of what is being done well
pointed.
now.
• An agenda should be followed.
• Ask what is working; this can build on
• Everyone should be encouraged to par-
basic ideas.
ticipate; structured brainstorming
• Be responsible for action, measure-
should be used.
ment, and monitoring what is done.
• Ground rules should be set and leaders
• Step back from daily actions and evalu-
empowered to use them.
ate the team’s work.
• The leader should set the process and
• Look at its success over a long period
follow-up mechanism.
of time.
• Decisions should be recognized.
• Identify areas that need to be improved.
• Detailed notes should be kept.
• Work together to redesign the process
• Progress from last meeting should be
and get better results.
reviewed.
• Seek clarity and then follow through.
• Who will do what by when should be
• Record good ideas and use them as
decided.
steps for improvement.
• The meeting should end by agreeing to
the next steps.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SELF-
Monitoring the Group DIRECTED WORK GROUPS (SDWG)
Working in groups may be a new concept Among the most successful product groups
for many. As a result, there will be some de- are those that are self-motivated. An impor-
gree of uncertainty along the way. Here, co- tant aspect of the motivated group is its abil-
operation goes a long way. Team members ity to understand and focus on major goals,
should focus on treating each other with including improving quality, reducing cost,
respect. Group work also needs to be moni- and delivery. Each group monitors what it
tored. The following questions should be does best on a daily basis to affect quality,
asked: “When will this team meet next?” cost, and delivery. Some companies form
“Who will lead this meeting?” and “How SDWGs and emphasize training and educa-
should the team prepare for the meeting?” tion for these groups. The success of SDWGs
The team should document its decisions as results largely from continuous changes tak-
it goes. It should measure, track, and present ing place in the company.
its results on a regular basis. Work-group-oriented companies recognize
Daily communication on customer needs manufacturing tasks have evolved at a rate
and product flow is useful. As a team is re- requiring high skill levels for entry-level
sponsible for action, measurement, and employees and skill upgrades as experience
monitoring (control) of what it does, some- levels increase. In many industries, SDWGs
one needs to be responsible for continuous have evolved from employee-involvement
improvement. The continuous improvement programs. For example, the techniques of
such cases, individuals do not receive infor- Table 8-1. Communication barriers
mation they need to do their jobs well. Prod-
Horizontal Barriers
uct success depends to a large extent on
management’s ability to communicate stra- • Departmental walls
tegic plans and objectives, so that everyone • Poor communication
focuses in the same direction. Employees • Physical separation of employees
should keep management informed about
their progress, achievements, problems, and Vertical Barriers
concerns. Effective communication channels
• Poor downward communication
must exist between and among team mem-
bers, teams, and functional organizations. • Fear of reprisals
Barriers to good communication can exist
horizontally and vertically within a com-
pany. Communication between peers and result in decisions without sufficient infor-
peer organizations (horizontal barriers) can mation. Intelligent decision-making and
be as bad or worse than communication be- plan execution depends on the complete
tween management layers and between knowledge of related facts and issues. Peer
management and the work force (vertical communication provides, in particular, in-
barriers). formation too detailed and technical to be
Companies with a strong functional struc- communicated normally through vertical
ture sometimes build up significant inter- lines and over departmental boundaries.
departmental problems. Meetings and joint
activities can become adversarial proceed- Departmental Walls
ings. In such cases, departments may com- Concurrent engineering philosophy for
municate with each other only when they new product design encourages breaking
have no alternative. Introduction of cross- down departmental walls. As with virtually
functional teams can be effective in remov- all other communication barriers, top man-
ing these barriers. It is important to note, agement must take the lead. Without its
however, that team members will experience assistance and strong encouragement, such
some new challenges as well. They may find cultural changes cannot be successfully
themselves torn between allegiances to their implemented. For many reasons, individual
functional managers and other team mem- departments tend to become isolated and
bers. An individual used to working alone or remote from each other. They erect commu-
in relative isolation can feel uncomfortable nication walls between them as depicted in
working closely and interacting on business Figure 8-1. Information exchange tends to
and personal levels with team members. move up the departmental chain, until it
Thus, the transition may be difficult for arrives at the department head, over the de-
some. partmental barrier, to the head of the other
Several common types of barriers to good department, and then back down the chain
communication are listed in Table 8-1. until it reaches the intended recipient. As a
result of this circuitous route, information
Horizontal Barriers gets delayed, distorted, and embellished
There are numerous barriers to good hori- along the way.
zontal communication. These barriers re- Managers may focus heavily on their
strict the interchange between peers, and department’s goals, even when doing so is
clearly to the detriment of the goals of the to appreciate the benefits of team dynamics
corporation or other departments. They may and activities. Their innate fear or resistance
jealously guard their internal resources and must be overcome. If these individuals can-
assets. Frequently, they keep their problems not be convinced of the merits of teamwork
to themselves. By hiding problems as long and cooperation, it may be better to place
as possible from peer organizations, they them in positions where individual contri-
increase the impact these problems may butions are desired. Not everyone can be
have on the company. made to function successfully in a team en-
The following are some causes of depart- vironment.
mental walls:
• fear of embarrassment; Physical Separation of Employees
• lack of interdepartmental trust; The effectiveness of communication be-
• organization emphasis on the indi- tween employees is related to the relative
vidual, rather than group or team goals; distance between their offices. The frequency
• compensation system based on indi- of communication, especially face-to-face,
vidual performance, rather than group decreases rapidly as distance increases. De-
accomplishments; pendency on e-mail, telephone, and written
• interpersonal conflict between peers; communications subsequently increases. It
• fear of management reprisals for un- is important to have frequent face-to-face
expected problems; and contact between team members. When team
• belief that problems will be solved be- members work closely together, they develop
fore the rest of company needs to be social as well as business relationships. It is
informed. much easier to work and cooperate with
someone who is known personally. Physical
The Lone Wolf closeness fosters such relationships.
Some individuals prefer to work alone,
rather than as part of a group. Such work- Vertical Barriers
ers can be poor communicators, resisting Good vertical communication lines are
requests for information or task sharing. important to the success of any company.
Throwing a “lone wolf” into a team struc- They provide vehicles for management to
ture or culture without proper preparation inform the work force of company objectives,
and training can be disastrous to the indi- goals, policies, programs, status, etc. In ad-
vidual and team. Lone wolves must be made dition, managers use vertical channels to
give work direction, provide performance veyed to obtain their personal perceptions.
feedback, and improve departmental com- Internal (human resources personnel) or
munication. Similarly, employees need good external (outside consultants) resources can
vertical communication lines to management. conduct these surveys. It is important that
These channels are used to give feedback on the people used are unbiased, and that they
employee concerns such as morale, reaction feel free to report facts as they find them.
to policy changes, suggestions for job and Issues concerning fear as a barrier to open
work improvement, and ideas for new prod- communication are particularly pertinent.
ucts and services. Employees should regu- For this reason, many companies elect to use
larly communicate to management on job outside consultants for fact-finding and re-
assignments, problems encountered, and porting.
concerns. Having determined the issues and con-
cerns, a program must be developed to ad-
Poor Downward Communication dress them. A program must address all key
issues. For example, the practices of top-level
Inadequate communication from top man-
management may be among the major de-
agement is a frequent cause of missed plans
terrents to good communication. Address-
and objectives. Management must make its
ing changes here will require the support
desires and intentions clear so that energies
and commitment of top management people.
are properly tailored to meeting the right
Changes in management style and culture
goals and objectives. If the company has a
cannot be effected overnight. They require
well-defined roadmap, it should be properly
continuous and dedicated effort. Periodic
disseminated within the organization. For
progress checks should be made and pro-
example, how can management expect the
grams developed to address these issues and
core team to make the right decisions in se-
provide for perpetual modification. Manage-
lecting products for development if manage-
ment commitment should be clear and well
ment has not clearly stated its financial and
communicated. Staff and individual con-
marketing objectives?
tributors must understand and accept the
Planned periodic management communi-
objective of free and open communication.
cation meetings can help create a company
A team focus on major goals produces sub-
culture characterized by free and open com-
stantial gains in product yields and reduc-
munication. Management communication
tions in cycle times. Teams result in greater
meetings should extend throughout the en-
customer focus, more work force coopera-
tire work force. Two-way communication
tion, greater participation and involvement,
during these meetings should be strongly en-
and accelerated improvement. Employees on
couraged. The objective is to create an envi-
teams must receive proper training in group
ronment in which employees view open
dynamics (social training) and problem-solv-
bilateral communication as routine and ex-
ing techniques (technical training). This
pected.
training is essential to develop a high-per-
formance product team.
Breaking Down Barriers In addition to traditional approaches to
There is no magic formula to creating an training, industry also uses another success-
environment that fosters good communica- ful technique called experiential learning.
tion. The first step should be to determine Experiential learning focuses on learning from
the barriers that exist in a company. Man- experience. This training technique begins
agers and employees alike should be sur- with the formation of a group of employees,
usually an established team or natural work • The people in a group believe that those
group. A training facilitator assigns the who do the work should be involved and
group a problem-solving task, also called an empowered to improve processes.
initiative, with various resource constraints • Members of a group know that a sus-
and a timeline for initiative completion. An tainable and competitive advantage can
initiative begins following an instructional only come through the utilization of the
period when the facilitator informs the group unique skills, the work habits, and the
members of constraints for that initiative. inventions of its people.
Learning begins during the debriefing peri- • Group members encourage everyone in
ods via reflection on what has transpired. the organization to do their daily tasks
This reflection on experience allows for self- and contribute to the company’s ongo-
discovery to occur. The overall training ing and continuous improvement.
method has been effective in developing de- • They recognize that time pressures cre-
sired behaviors in employees. Group mem- ate tension.
bers must subsequently apply skills they • Members of a group recognize that al-
learn and then develop them continuously though there is sometimes a need for
to create a successful work environment. dramatic action such as a redesign,
steady improvement is a better, less
risky approach.
CONCLUSION • Group members believe that most
Product design groups can be beneficial to people want to do a good job.
problem-solving. A group consists of people • Those in a group believe in positive
using their combined skills to work toward a goals, clear measures, and performing
common goal. Diversity in the composition honest work.
of group members makes for a wider range • Members of a group believe that people
of alternatives and the solutions are naturally should measure and report on their
more creative. Groups make better decisions own results.
than individuals, who are usually more con-
cerned with decision consequences. REFERENCES
Dieter, George. 2000. Engineering Design—
APPENDIX: BELIEFS OF PROACTIVE A Materials and Processing Approach, 3rd
PRODUCT GROUP MEMBERS edition. New York: McGraw Hill.
• Members of a group believe in respect- Clemson University. 1997. “High Perfor-
ful treatment of all people. mance Work Teams—Advanced Team Strat-
• Members of a group believe communi- egies.” Conference Proceedings. Orlando,
cation is critical to success, even when FL: Clemson University, Aug.
it is clearly a challenge. Caltech Industrial Relations Center. 1999.
• Group members approach change as a “Creating Breakthrough Products.” Confer-
necessity. They recognize that the risk ence Proceedings. Pasadena, CA: Caltech
involved in change can create fear. Industrial Relations Center, June.
Case Studies
Figure 9-1 outlines the adoption of im- • with a high level of quality; and
proved technology to produce an aircraft en- • at low enough cost so the manufacturer
gine. The figure shows an example of an can make a profit.
improved manufacturing process. A simple
and economical grinding operation was devel- Techniques at Boeing used to make sure
oped for the turbine airfoil. The manufactur- the 777 is able to be produced are the fol-
ing cells have the characteristics of one-piece lowing:
flow and eliminate non-value-added opera- • simplification—reduces the number
tions. and types of parts and part features;
• standardization—having standard
Get it Right the First Time parts, tolerances, and part families;
A product’s manufacturability is a mea- • component selection—selecting pre-
sure of how easily it can be manufactured: ferred sizes, weights, materials, and a
near net shape;
• with engineering drawings; • repairability—having a product that re-
• on schedule; quires as little maintenance as possible;
• the use of available high-quality, low- and testing phases of a project. Boeing’s use
cost, low-risk manufacturing methods of design and build teams resulted in the com-
and processes; and pany optimizing every aspect of the aircraft
• the use of qualified and controlled ven- to meet customer requirements. At the same
dors. time, the aerospace company was able to
make sure the product was producible, main-
Integrated Product Team tainable, and within budget.
An integrated product team (IPT) must
meet the following criteria: 3. Computer-aided Design
• 10 or fewer members on a team; In recent years, the main mode of repre-
• members must volunteer to serve on sentation of designs has shifted from draw-
the team; ings created by computer, to 3D computer-aided
• members should serve on a team from design (CAD) models. These CAD models
the beginning stages of design; exhibit design as a representation of 3D fea-
• members are assigned full time to a tures. The use of CAD methodology allowed
team; Boeing and its suppliers to design entirely on
• members report solely to the team leader; computer, saving on manufacturing and pro-
• the team has a member from each func- duction costs. Designers were able to make
tional organization (marketing, finance, sure all parts fit together properly before
design, purchasing, manufacturing, and anything was made; the design changes were
repair); and made on a computer before production be-
• members are located relatively close to gan. The benefits included the ability to vi-
each other. sualize 3D forms of design, and an ability to
automatically compute properties such as
Development Techniques Learned mass and volume. Historically, the aerospace
The seven guidelines discussed in the fol- industry has used a full-scale prototype of a
lowing sections are easily adapted to other plane to detail geometric interference, using
industries and an excellent blueprint for a structural elements and components. Using
solid product development process (see Fig- CAD technology, once a digital mock-up of the
ure 9-2). aircraft is made with CAD, conflicts between
the aircraft’s structure, brackets, tubing,
1. Understanding the Market ductwork, and electrical wiring runs can be
Boeing assembled representatives from identified and corrected before the parts are
leading airlines around the world to first actually manufactured.
identify the market for the new 777 aircraft.
It let the airlines tell them exactly what they 4. Continuous Improvement
wanted. This should be true in any indus- Over the years, the concept of quality has
try; it is important to let customers define changed in the aerospace industry. Instead
their market, and what type of product ful- of inspecting quality at the end of an entire
fills their requirements. project or process, it is built-in from the very
start through the team approach. Today,
2. Integrate Product Teams both the customer and life-cycle cost drive
Personnel from various functional organiza- quality improvement. Continuous improve-
tions and the customer work together through- ment philosophy focuses on the product’s
out the design, development, manufacturing, infrastructure. It emphasizes that the only
meet niche and emerging markets with tion, manufacturing, assembling, reliability,
minimal manufacturer investment is an and servicing. At the same time, there is in-
important concept for all industries. creased pressure to get products of higher
quality to the market in a shorter time. The
6. Advances in Technology product performance to price ratio is scru-
The airframe manufacturer incorporated tinized more carefully. The traditional ap-
the latest advances in avionics, propulsion, proach to product design resulted in an
wing design, flight entertainment systems, insufficient definition of the product, an in-
passenger comfort features, etc., into the adequate cost analysis, and an inability to
design while the engine manufacturer pro- make design changes. That approach has
vided fuel-efficient, reliable engines for the been replaced by modern product design
777. It was important for Boeing to provide techniques that compete effectively in the
airlines with the latest technologies avail- global market.
able. This is true for any industry; the cus- The new approach initiates the design of
tomer expects to get the best reliable and a product and its associated processes. Stud-
affordable technologies. ies show that time spent early in the design
stage, when prototyping takes place, is more
7. Reliability, Maintainability, and Cost than compensated for by a savings of time
No matter how technically advanced a later in the process. Some characteristics of
product is, a customer demands a high level this approach are:
of reliability, simple maintenance, and prod-
uct within a certain cost. Boeing had to de- • a better definition of the product, with-
sign redundant systems into the 777 so that, out late changes;
• process knowledge and how to effect
if one failed, another could perform the job.
product development; and
IMPROVEMENT USING ASSEMBLY • precise and accurate cost estimates.
ANALYSIS (CASE STUDY 2) Design is a complex process. It requires a
This case examines an approach to evalu- wide variety of knowledge that a single per-
ate the installation of a product by highlight- son does not possess. For that reason, it is
ing the strengths and weaknesses of an imperative to form multifunctional design
assembly process. It discusses the assembly teams for product success. Such design teams
analysis technique as a tool for installation have to create a product that addresses the
of a new product. The merits are explored requirements of robustness, design for
with help from industrial case studies. The manufacture and assembly, reliability, and
first example considered is the field instal- the environment. Using concurrent engi-
lation of a product. The second example is neering principles as a guide, the designed
packaging and handling. product is likely to meet the four basic re-
quirements of quality, cost, just-in-time to
Introduction market, and customer satisfaction. The prod-
Customer satisfaction is a primary factor uct cost is greatly affected by decisions made
in successful product development. The mod- in the design stage. Some popular design and
ern product development process uses basic analysis techniques are the assembly analysis
customer expectations for input and concur- method (Boothroyd and Dewhurst); the as-
rent engineering as a design approach. The sembly evaluation method (Hitachi); the
goal is to develop the best product for func- Lucas Method; and the axiomatic method.
In recent years, as design for assembly, In this case study, a comparative analysis
disassembly and recycling has gained more of an existing and a modified electrical con-
recognition, a number of organizations have duit (also known as a raceway) is undertaken.
devised their own sets of suitable guidelines Initially, customer feedback using quality-
for design practice. Research in life cycle function deployment is used to identify prod-
engineering, product design, modeling, and uct features. The new design investigated has
integration has received significant atten- a special feature that isolates the communi-
tion. Most previous adaptations of design for cation section from the power transmission
manufacturing and assembly were limited section. Other highly ranked features of the
to product redesign. These procedures are product are its low installation costs, and flex-
aimed at minimizing the product assembly ibility in addition and manipulation of the
time and the number of components. The device on the communications side.
current study is an attempt to use an as-
sembly analysis technique for the field in- Method
stallation of a product, thereby making the
installation more efficient. The assembly analysis method is an ana-
There have been some industrial efforts lytical technique designed to evaluate the
to extend design for manufacturing and as- potential for automation of an existing prod-
sembly programs to more engineering opera- uct or new product designs after engineering
tions, such as design for installation in the drawings or prototypes have been developed.
elevator industry. The elevator and escala- It is an empirical method. Selecting an as-
tor industries have unique requirements; sembly method followed by assembly analy-
the final assembly installations must take sis and design improvement is basic to the
place at the building sites. Work conditions process. It distinguishes between manual
include weather exposure, confined spaces, and automatic assemblies. Design improve-
and ergonomic hazards, besides large sub- ment is focused on part-number reduction
assemblies requiring lifting devices. The in- and shortened associated process times. In
stallation is fundamentally an assembly assembly analysis methodology, a classifica-
process. tion and coding system determines the han-
Although the major goal of design for in- dling, insertion, and fastening times of parts
stallation techniques is to improve design- to evaluate the efficiency of the assembly.
related processes such as handling and This methodology provides a graphical in-
insertion, the techniques are also effective terface for the user to input physical char-
for design-independent process improve- acteristics of the assembly items and display
ments. The elevator industry has shown that analysis results—such as design for assem-
the design for installation procedure is not bly efficiency, assembly time, and cost—in
just design for assembly in a construction the form of a report.
environment. The design for installation strat- The designer has to evaluate the geom-
egy shown in Figure 9-3 can provide infor- etry of each component in the product or its
mation on design-independent improvements subassemblies and then show the difficulty
such as improved packaging to eliminate on- of part handling and insertion. The results
site reworking, and better documentation of would include an estimated assembly cost
electrical power transmission layout. It also and a direction for a redesign to improve the
provides information on installation cost product. The main goal of the technique is to
drivers and their variation from location to minimize the cost of product within the con-
location (Orelup et al. 1997). straints imposed by design features. The best
way to achieve this goal is to reduce the num- can be achieved when the appropriate assem-
ber of components to be assembled and then bly method has been selected.
to ensure that the remaining components Design efficiency is determined by using
are easy to install or assemble. In the early the appropriate formula. Manual assembly
stage of design, the designer must evaluate design efficiency is obtained by using the
the assembly cost, which means that he or following equation:
she should be familiar with the assembly
NM
processes. The designer should have a logi- EM = 3 × (9-1)
cal explanation for requiring parts that re- TM
sult in a longer assembly time, and should
be aware that a combination of two or more
parts into one will eliminate an assembly
operation. Design efficiency is judged on the
basis of the strength of an assembly. The
whole procedure, shown in Figure 9-4, con-
sists of three basic steps:
1. assembly method selection,
2. assembly analysis, and
3. design improvement.
Due to differences in using human opera-
tors versus automated assembly lines for as-
sembly, there are also significant differences
between manual and automatic assemblies.
The cost is related to both the product’s de-
sign and assembly. A product’s minimum cost Figure 9-4. Stages in design for assembly.
Figure 9-5. Original raceway and modified reaceway with separated communication and power lines.
Table 9-1. Assembly sequences for installation of raceway device in the field
Theoretical
Minimum Assembly
Number Number Time,
Name Description of Items of Items Seconds
Example 1A: Single Co. Main assembly — — —
Compartment base Add and thread 1 1 14.4
Clip Add and snap fit 2 0 7.2
Wire Add 1 1 3.2
Wire insertion 1 Operation 3 — 30.0
Wire cutting 1 Operation 3 — 8.0
Bracket Add and snap fit 1 0 3.6
Subassembly; device Add 1 — 4.8
Wire Add 1 1 3.2
Wire cutting 2 Operation 3 — 8.0
Stripping insulation Operation 6 — 14.0
Device Add 1 0 3.3
Wire insertion 2 Operation 3 — 6.0
Screw Add and thread 3 0 32.0
Apply adhesive tape Operation 1 — 5.0
Wire cutting 3 Operation 3 — 8.0
Stripping insulation Operation 6 — 14.0
Connecting 9 wires Operation 3 — 17.0
Device placement Operation 1 — 7.0
Screw Add and thread 2 0 22.9
Measure with tape 1 Operation 2 — 12.0
Cutting cover 1 Operation 2 — 15.0
Cover placement 1 Add and snap fit 2 1 24.8
Trim ring Add and snap fit 1 0 3.6
Face plate Add 1 0 3.3
Face screw Add and thread 1 0 12.2
Blank face plate Add 1 0 3.3
Internal elbow Add and snap fit 1 0 3.6
1 Obtain order: pick up the product from the cart and place it on the handling table.
2 Verify order.
6D, E Erect the carton/envelope: USPS Priority Mail envelope, large carton.
7 Pick up accessories.
8A, B, C Dispose both product and accessories into the carton/envelope: FedEx carton—small,
medium, large.
8D, E Dispose both product and accessories into the carton/envelope: USPS Priority Mail
envelope, large carton.
8F Dispose both product and accessories into the carton/envelope: bag #5 envelope.
8G, H, I Dispose both product and accessories into the carton/envelope: corrugate carton—small,
medium, large.
9 Remove the strip on the carton/envelope to expose adhesive and close the carton/
envelope.
10 Label the carton/envelope with the addressee section after applying adhesive.
observations: The folding-side playpen pres- accidents reported as well. The most com-
ently on the market has been associated with mon occurrences have resulted in back in-
the deaths of several infants up to the age juries to the caretaker when he or she bends
of 12 months. The deficiency in the present to lift the infant. Based on this criteria and
playpens is that if the mesh side is either the data obtained from the Consumer Prod-
down or up, but not locked, an infant may uct Safety Commission (CPSC), a definition
slip over the edge of the playpen flooring and of the problem is made. It is proposed that
then become trapped and suffocate in the the design of a safer playpen will success-
slash mesh. There are a number of caretaker fully address the above observations.
they do not change, unless a fundamen- For example, possible solutions for design-
tal and radical philosophical change in ing a safer playpen would be:
the view of the world’s scientific com- • improving the latch mechanism, which
munity takes place. The professional would lock even if the caretaker were
engineer must be proficient in these to be negligent;
principles. • the design of a detachable, rather than
2. Factual—this represents the kind of foldable, playpen, which would require
information to be found in handbooks, assembly;
such as properties of substances. It is • the design of a swinging-door playpen;
the sort of information that keeps grow- and/or
ing and changing as new substances are • an inflatable playpen design.
invented and new products are devel-
oped. Evaluation of options. Once a designer
3. Methodological—this represents a link has generated solutions, he or she must
between the above two categories. It is evaluate the various alternatives and make
the knowledge of the methods and ways a decision. Selection of a particular solution
that conceptual information can be ap- is based on understanding the relationship
plied to generate factual or more con- between it and the ecological, social, politi-
ceptual information. It is a skill, a set cal, and cultural world in which it takes
of attitudes and procedures, which can place. Values play a strong role in this step.
only be acquired experientially. The method to evaluate proposed solu-
tions is to answer the following questions
The information needed for a safer play- for each option:
pen design would be:
• Does the solution satisfy the basic ob-
• information on the biomechanics of jective of the project?
human anatomy, such as the principles • Is the solution theoretically feasible?
that govern human body movements; • Is the solution practical?
• information obtained from different • Is the cost within the means?
surveys found in journals or publica- • Is the proposed solution safe to operate?
tions from CPSC; and • Is it the optimum solution?
• information on the use of existing play- • Does it satisfy the constraints?
pens and their deficiencies. • Does the solution satisfy all the human,
social, and ecological factors involved?
Generating Options and Solutions • Is the solution aesthetically acceptable?
• Is the solution legal?
The goal of generating options and solu- • Can the project be completed in the
tions is to accumulate many potentially use- time allotted?
ful solutions to the problem. Designers need
to be innovative and should maintain an Feasibility study of the preferred
open, receptive mind to new ideas. An ap- option(s). At this stage, a feasibility study
preciation for the unusual or extraordinary has to be prepared. The study is a short pro-
is also important. This ability comes from a posal outlining what the designer believes
great deal of practice as designers continue is necessary to analyze. The proposal should
to develop this skill throughout their ca- indicate:
reers. Solutions have to be feasible and well • what solution(s) is being investigated;
posed with respect to the problem. • the reasons for these selections;
• coordination with other groups work- • size, dimensions, and framework of the
ing on the project; solution;
• what constraints, assumptions, theo- • materials of construction;
ries, principles, variables, and param- • the biomechanical analysis of the care-
eters are being used; taker;
• what the goal is of the analysis; • a safety analysis;
• the elements of the problem; and • a hazard analysis;
• how transformed information resulting • a cost analysis; and
from the analysis will be used by the • the marketability.
group and disseminated to other groups
(publication, patent, and secrecy need HEADER ATTACHMENT IN A HEAT
to be thought of at this stage).
EXCHANGER (CASE STUDY 4)
Ranking of options. In this step, the A major step in the product realization
designer needs to identify the first-, second-, process is the evaluation of alternate con-
and higher-order impacts of the solution on cepts from the viewpoint of design require-
society and human beings. Then, based on an ments. In this example, a design problem
understanding of the value issues associated with a number of possible solutions is ex-
with these impacts, he or she should try to amined to find the best possible solution.
rank alternatives based on the benefits and This case is about the joining method of a
costs or risks for each. header in a heat exchanger. A heat exchanger
A useful method for ranking each solu- is a device in which two or more fluids ex-
tion is the creation of a decision table with change thermal energy through a heat-
the following ranking scheme: transfer surface. Heat exchangers are found
• 1: yes/acceptable/good; in applications such as space heating, air-con-
• 0: fair; or ditioning, power production, waste-heat re-
• –1: no/unacceptable/poor. covery, and chemical processing. The header
is an integral part of the heat exchanger. This
A designer can also devise his or her own case study analyzes and determines the best
ranking system. method of attaching low-pressure headers to
Selection of preferred options. After the core, taking into consideration the cus-
alternative solutions have been evaluated tomer requirements, and ultimately result-
and ranked, the designer chooses the alter- ing in reduced product cost.
native that maximizes the benefits and mini- The heat exchanger typically has four
mizes the costs and risks. This is quite headers welded to the brazed core. Hot and
complicated, since any quantification is cold fluids enter and are exhausted through
based on the values that vary among indi- the headers. The core is made of thin fins,
viduals and groups. A solution need not be brazed to channels for support. Two end
the only choice; additional judgment and plates hold the assembly together. Core
intuition could lead to a more acceptable bands are welded at four places to the end
solution. plates. The core band provides structural
Detailed analysis of preferred op- support to the assembly. Headers are welded
tion(s). This step involves separating the to the core bands. Due to the frequent need
possible solution into meaningful elements. for inspection and repair of the fins, head-
The chosen solution for the playpen design ers have to be removed and replaced (see
is broken down into subcomponents: Figure 9-10).
Most headers are welded to the body. The • proper fit in the core,
disadvantages of removing welded headers • avoidance of core damage,
and re-attaching them are many. The re- • ability to meet leakage requirements,
moval of a welded header can cause core dam- • reduction of assembly setup for the
age, which is difficult to repair. Additional header joint,
finishing work is needed after attachment. • cost effectiveness,
Feedback from the customer indicates • durability,
that the present design needs improvement
• no increase in weight, and
and there is a need to replace it with an al-
ternate. The new design should take the sim- • ease of manufacture.
pler approach of attaching headers that Based upon identified customer needs, a
would not only reduce the overall cost of house of quality matrix provides some idea
rework and repair, but also increase the pro- about the relationship between different
ductivity of the unit. design requirements (see Figure 9-11).
Requirements for the header connection
are: Identifying the Best Alternative
• easy assembly, The key factors to be considered in the
• easy removal, new design, as assessed from customer re-
• easy repair of fins, quirements, are:
• ability to withstand operating condi- • The header should be easy to assemble.
tions, • The assembly setup time should be re-
• no change of material, duced.
Figure 9-11. House of quality matrix for the header attachment in a heat exchanger.
• The header-joining method should not turing the prototype and testing it are not
damage the core. expensive. Table 9-3 shows ten possible al-
• The header-joint design should meet ternatives that can be used to attach the
leak criteria. header to the heat exchanger.
• The header joint should be free from Concepts are selected based on the follow-
welding. ing criteria:
• The header should be easily removable.
• interchangeability,
• The header should withstand operat-
• ease of heat-exchanger repair,
ing conditions (pressure/temperature).
• cost effectiveness,
After the generation of concepts, one or • process capability,
more designs are selected for further prod- • durability,
uct development. More than one concept is • weight, and
sometimes chosen in cases where manufac- • ease of manufacturing.
1. With the help of sketches, show the basic 7. Select a product with less than 15 parts;
concepts that can be used for the devel- estimate the total cost. What types of
opment of a product. Draw the func- products are more suitable for direct
tional diagram of the whole product. For marketing immediately after the design
a typical product known to you, illustrate phase, rather than after the conventional
how you would use the process of mor- customer test with prototypes of prod-
phology to produce alternate designs. ucts?
2. Explain how you would select a team to 8. What are the characteristics of a prod-
undertake the product design for a uct that has a high design-efficiency in-
multi-component product. What strate- dex? Is it possible to design a product
gies would you use to produce an effec- that has a 100% design-efficiency index?
tive design as speedily as possible? 9. The following are ideas for efficient de-
3. What role does research play in product sign for manufacturing:
design? Indicate four courses of research
• facilitate part handling,
and the desired information that could
• standardize parts,
be expected from each source.
• minimize part count,
4. How are prototypes used in the product- • eliminate adjustments in assembly, and
design process? Describe, with sketches, • use self-locating screws.
two rapid prototyping methods, identi-
fying the benefits of each. After examining these ideas, identify
situations in each case that may conflict
5. Using web-based research, identify five
with the other ideas.
corporations and their product lines. In
what way do these products support the 10. Provide short answers to the following
corporate strategy? questions:
6. During the concept selection stage, how a. What are the major characteristics of
would you use a group of 15 designers to each of the following three assembly
participate in the concept-development analysis methods: Boothroyd–Dew-
work? Can any computer-based tools as- hurst method, Lucas method, and
sist in this process? Hitachi method?
b. Explain how the design for disassem- 12. Show by means of a figure, the elements
bly methodology can facilitate recy- of a Quality Function Deployment (QFD)
cling and promote environmental chart. Explain how a cascade of the QFD
consciousness. Explain both ideas charts may be utilized to cover the total
with the aid of a fishbone diagram. design and development process.
c. Briefly describe interrelationships, if 13. Form a conceptual design team to come
any, among a product’s architecture up with a number of concepts for a po-
and its material, manufacturing-pro- tato peeler.
cess selection, and life-cycle mainte- a. Show a simple QFD-matrix relation-
nance and reliability. Give examples of ship identifying three customer re-
products where only one or two of the quirements and three design features.
factors are dominant.
b. Show how to apply the four-step meth-
d. List five considerations that have to odology to the problem.
be taken into account when designing
14. Design a manual-assembly line for a new
a machined part to ensure efficient
cellular phone produced by a new com-
manufacturing and easy assembly.
pany. This product has an annual de-
e. What are the considerations that must mand of 100,000 units. The line will
be taken into account when designing operate 50 weeks per year, 5 shifts per
a section for extrusion (a metal-form- week, and 7.5 hours per shift. Work units
ing operation)? will be attached to a continuously mov-
f. What three questions form the crite- ing conveyor. Work content time will be
ria for eliminating a part from the as- 42.0 minutes. Assume the line efficiency
sembly or for combining it? is 0.97, the balancing efficiency is 0.92,
g. Why is standardization important and the repositioning time is 6 seconds.
when you assemble a product? Find:
h. What suggestion should be offered if a. the hourly production rate to meet the
the designer cannot make the part demand; and
exactly symmetrical? b. the number of workers required.
i. Can screws be considered an essential 15. Suppose a manufacturing firm is capable
part of a product? of producing three different products in
j. What design attributes of LEGO
® its factory. Fabricating each product re-
blocks make the product popular? quires several manufacturing opera-
tions. Table A-1 shows the time required
11. Selecting a product from the list that
for each operation, per unit of each prod-
follows, provide a proposal, outlining a
uct manufactured. Also shown is the unit
step-by-step product-design procedure.
profit and the maximum available time
The answers should contain: customer
per day for each operation. Set up the
requirements through the house of qual-
relevant constraint equations.
ity, problem definition by the techniques
learned, concept generation, and a func- 16. A manufacturing firm is capable of pro-
tion diagram. (The product chosen could ducing two different products in its fa-
be one of the following: solar-powered cility, each requiring three production
car/boat, air conditioner, electric stapler, operations. The company can sell all that
typical lawn equipment, or sports bi- is produced and is considering increas-
cycle.) ing the production capacity. However,
Table A-1.
Product 1 Product 2 Product 3 Operation
Time/Unit Time/Unit Time/Unit Capacity
Operation (minutes) (minutes) (minutes) (minutes)
Machining 1 2 1 430
Welding 3 0 2 460
Casting 1 4 0 420
Profit/Unit ($) 3 2 5
there are constraints on the operation. ample. (For example, if considering the
These constraints, along with other data, design of an air-conditioner, the func-
are shown in Table A-2. Determine the tional requirements could be providing
product mix that maximizes profit. clean air, keeping the room clean, low-
17. A cup is drawn in 3.5 in. (90 mm) diam- maintenance cost, etc.)
eter, 1.0 in. (25 mm) deep and 0.06 in. (1.5 20. What is meant by the “slope” of a learn-
mm) thick material using a deep-draw- ing curve, and what determines the de-
ing manufacturing process. Estimate: gree of slope for a given learning curve?
a. the maximum punch force. 21. A company producing defense missiles
b. the blank diameter (or ultimate ten- spent 125,000 hours to produce the first
sile stress of the material equal to unit. Units two and three were produced
47,325 psi [325 N/mm2]). with an 86% learning factor. Assuming
the same learning factor and at the rate
18. A 0.5 gal (2 L) jug is manufactured in of $40 per hour, what would the cost be
large numbers as a consumer product. for the fourth unit?
Sketch design alternatives for:
22. Sketch the format of a Failure Mode and
a. plastic. Effects Analysis (FMEA) chart showing
b. metal. Detail four differences between the various column headings. State how
the designs due to manufacturing re- the chart is employed for improving
quirements. product design.
19. Show the axiomatic representation of a 23. Briefly explain what is implied by ro-
product indicating coupled, uncoupled, bust design for a product. Construct an
and decoupled designs. Provide an ex- orthogonal array for the robust design
Table A-2.
er Unit
Time Required PPer
Product Operation 1 Operation 2 Operation 3 Cost ($) Selling PPrice
rice
5000 series 1.2 2.3 4.5
6000 series 2.3 6.8 1.9 80 95
Hours available 24 32 24 110 130
Figure A-1. Two-position cordless screwdriver. Figure A-2. Cart wheel assembly.
Table A-5.
Component Dimensions
Number Name in. (mm) Quantity
1 Axle 6.7 (170) length, 0.6 (15) diameter 1
2 Tire 9.8 (250) diameter, 2.4 (60) thick 1
3 Front spring plate 2.4 (60) diameter, 0.2 (5) thick 1
4 Front spring 5.3 (135) length, 2.0 (50) diameter 1
5 Hex bolt 1.0 (25) length, 0.7 (18) diameter 4
6 Front pillar 11.4 (290) length, 4.7 (120) diameter 1
7 Wheel bracket 12.2 × 8.7 × 5.5 (310 × 220 × 140) 1
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