"A Historical Survey of Literary Criticism"

A Historical Survey of Literary Criticism

Practical Criticism: in its most general sense, what readers have been doing since the emergence of the first work of
literature, be it oral or written. Today it also includes the practical function of critics.Theoretical Criticism: what
theoreticians of literature do. In the west, it is assumed to have begun in the 5th century BCE Athens.The
performance of Aristophanes’ play, The Frogs in 405 BCE as a part of a contest dates the beginning. The play was
subjected to the judgement of some kind of an authority who decides the best play, with respect to certain criteria.
The authority here is supposed to have given a start to the ongoing debate “about the nature and function of
literature”, introducing “the formal study of literary criticism”.

The Antiquity Plato (c. 427 – 347 BCE)

Works of criticism: Among others, in Ion, Crito and The Republic he expressed his ideas that “laid the foundation for
many […] of the pivotal issues of philosophy and literature, including concepts of truth, beauty, and goodness; the
nature of reality; the structure of society; the nature and relations of being (ontology); questions about how we know
what we know (epistemology); and ethics and morality.Main concepts: His doctrine of ideas, also known as
essences, or forms. According to it:Ultimate reality is spiritual, which he calls The One. It is composed of “ideal”
forms that exist beyond this world and common human understanding.Our physical world is composed of the
shadows, replicas, or imitations of these ideal forms.For instance: the idea of a chair precedes the existence of a
physical chair.His techniques for discovering truth are logic and reasoning.

As we have seen, for Plato the ultimate reality is in the world of ideas, and the physical world is but an imitation of it.
So, for poets are the imitators of the physical world, their practice is based upon imitating these imitations. Thus, the
productions of poets are twice distanced from the ultimate reality. In addition, poets do not make use of logic and
reason, but use inspiration. As a result, a poet’s craft does not lead people to the ultimate reality. Just the opposite,
it embodies the danger of setting bad examples before people. This is the reason for Plato’s famous banishment of
poets from the society he prospects. Actually, he admits them into the state, as long as they “are themselves good
and also honourable in the state”. With this, Plato refers to “poetry’s function and value in and for his society”,
recognising its effect on citizens. If poets are “mere imitators of reality”, namely, good liars, they are to be sent to
exile from the state. If they sing the praises of loyal Greeks, they may stay.

Main area of interest in criticism: The function of poetry

Main area of interest in criticism: The function of poetry (namely, literature)Influence: Plato initiates the still-existing
debate on the value, nature, and worth of literature, and of those who produce works of literature.The catchphrases:
Poetry is the imitation of the imitation.Poetry is twice distanced from the ultimate reality.

Aristotle (384 – 322 BCE)Works of criticism: In Poetics, Aristotle states the general principles of tragedy, as he saw
them at the time, in accordance with his principles of philosophy.Main concepts: Mimesis, which gathers all the arts
under the roof of imitation. In this, Aristotle agrees with Plato. However, as Plato sees the art of poetry as a potential
threat against the order in society, for Aristotle it may prove helpful in the improvement of society.

This disagreement has its roots in the differing approaches of these two philosophers towards the idea of imitation.
Against Plato’s idea that “imitation is two steps removed from the truth or realm of the ideal”; Aristotle deems “that
poetry is more universal, more general than things as they are” for “ ‘it is not the function of the poet to relate what
happened, but what may happen –what is possible according to the law of probability or necessity’ ”. Comparing it
with history, Aristotle concludes that poetry is a more philosophical and therefore higher thing. This is because the
historian writes of what has already happened, whereas the poet writes of what could and should happen. Aristotle
explains it as the tendency of poetry to express the universal (with respect to universal truth); as history tends to
express the particular (namely, what happened in a particular case).

8 So, for Aristotle, poets do not imitate the physical world as it is, but create an imitation of it as it should be, and
this paves the way that gets to the ideal as near as possible.Comedy versus tragedy: In its most general sense, a
comedy imitates the actions of the ones who are inferior to the audience. It does not reflect those people’s vices,
however, but merely what is ridiculous, caused by “some error or ugliness that is painless and has no harmful
effects”.A tragedy, however, analysed in detail in the Poetics, is defined as:“an imitation of a noble and complete
action, having the proper magnitude; it employs a language that has been artistically enhanced by each of the kinds
of linguistic adornment, applied separately in the various parts of the play; it is presented in dramatic, not narrative
form, and achieves, through the representation of pitiable and fearful incidents, the catharsis of such pitiable and
fearful incidents”.

Tragedy is an organic whole, which means that it has a beginning, a middle and an end; and its parts are all
interrelated. The three unities of time, place and action all serve to this sense of wholeness.Tragic hero is a noble
man of a positive character, but he is not faultless. So, his misfortunes and ultimate downfall are caused by some
error or frailty in his own character. This is what we call his tragic flaw, or hamartia.Catharsis is the aimed emotional
effect of a tragedy on its audience. It is the purgation, or purification of the emotions of the audience by the end of
the play.Main area of interest in criticism: Literary formInfluence: Literary criticism’s concern with the compositional
elements of a work began with Aristotle’s Poetics. It set the standard with respect to which literary works (especially
in drama) are judged for ages, including the Renaissance and the 18th century.The catchphrase: Poetry tends to
express the universal, not the particular.
Horace (65 – 8 BCE)Works of criticism: From Ars Poetica (The Art of Poetry) and a personal letter it is possible to
gain an understanding of his views with respect to literature.Main concepts: In these texts Horace aims to provide a
guideline on how to be a good writer. His advices basically include that poets:Should imitate other poets, especially
the poets of the past, and particularly the Greeks.Should write about traditional subjects in unique waysShould avoid
all extremes in subject matter, diction, vocabulary and style; gaining mastery in these skills by reading and following
the examples of the classical Greek and Roman authors.Should avoid appearing ridiculous and must therefore aim
their sights low, not attempting to be a new Virgil or Homer.

Literature’s ultimate aim is to be “sweet and useful” (dulce. et

Literature’s ultimate aim is to be “sweet and useful” (dulce et utile), and therefore it is the task of the poet to aim for
the both in his works. He should aim to teach and delight.Main area of interest in criticism: Literary taste (namely,
the features that makes a literary work good)Influence: His views on literature “became the official cannon of literary
taste during the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and partly in the Neoclassic period.The catchphrase: Literature’s
ultimate aim is to teach and delight.

Longinus (lived in the 1st century)

Work of criticism: On the SublimeMain concepts: One cannot accurately judge a literary work, unless one is
exceedingly well-read.What is great in a work, Longinus names as sublime. This is an aspiration for higher, for
“something more divine than we”. All readers possess the innate capacity to recognise it. The harmonious response
of our intellects, emotions and wills to a work of art means that we have been touched by the sublime.The author
must possess a great mind and a great soul.The text must be composed of dignified and elevated diction, disposing
the reader to high thoughts.The reader’s reaction to a work matters only if as the audience they are learned enough.

Main area of interest in criticism: Single elements of a text

Importance: He is the first literary critic to quote in his writings from a different tradition than his own (from Hebrew).
In that he deserves the title of the first comparative critic in literary history.He is also the first critic to define a literary
classic.His critical method and concepts can be seen as foreshadowing various schools of literary criticism that
emerged in the 20th century (including New Criticism and reader-oriented criticism).

Plotinus (204 – 207)Works of criticism: He penned 54 treatises, (most probably) posthumously collected, edited and
given the name The Enneads.Main concepts: Unity with The One is the goal of humanity, for humanity exists in
other forms of being (such as intelligence, Soul and Matter) that stem from but are separate from it.All particular
souls form only one Soul.Influence: He is the founder of neo-Platonism.Thinkers and authors of the subsequent
centuries adopted and adapted his philosophy into their own systems of thought (from St Augustine and Boethius in
the 4th and 5th centuries to the American Romantics Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson) .The way
the West has come to perceive Plato and his works depends mostly on the writings and teachings of Plotinus.

The Italians The Middle Ages: Dante Alighieri (1265 – 1321)

Works of criticism: Letter to Can Grande della Scala, originally a letter, in which he explains his literary theory.Main
concepts: The language spoken by the people (the vernacular) is an appropriate and beautiful language for
writing.Allegory and symbolic language, techniques used in religious writings, can be used in secular works, as well
(as he said that he did in The Divine Comedy).Main area of interest in criticism: The proper language for
poetryInfluence: The common tongue became an acceptable means of expression in literature, thus paving the way
for an increase in audience.

Giovanni Boccaccio (1313 – 1375)

The Renaissance:Giovanni Boccaccio (1313 – 1375)Works of criticism: On the Genealogy of the Gods of the
Gentiles (1374), which makes it possible for us to catch a glimpse of the literary criticism of the period.Main
concepts: The purpose of poetry is to improve life by revealing both truth and God.Poets are similar to philosophers
in that they seek truth through contemplation rather than reason.Poets are equal to theologians in that they seek
knowledge about God himself, and find it in allegory.Main area of interest in criticism: The function of
poetryInfluence: His defence of poetry had been effectual throughout the Renaissance.He is frequently quoted by
the authors of the subsequent centuries, such as Chaucer, Spenser, Jonson, Milton and Shelley.His defence paved
the way for Sidney’s Defense of Poesy.

The English The Renaissance: Sir Philip Sidney (1554 – 1586)

Works of criticism: An Apology for Poetry (originally Defense of Poesy, 1595) is the definitive formulation of
Renaissance literary theory and the first influential piece of literary criticism in English history. Sidney’s sources
include Plato, Aristotle, Horace and several of his own contemporary Italian critics.Main concepts: Poetry is an art of
imitation, as defined by Aristotle with the concept of mimesis.Poetry is not a mindless or immoral activity.Poetry’s
chief concern is to “teach and delight”.

Poetry is more valuable than history, law, and philosophy; and it embodies the truth above all other arts and
sciences.The unities of time, place and action are elemental in a tragedy.Creative poetry is similar to religion for
both function through stirring the emotions of the reader.Poets affirm morality, blend truth with symbolism, and give
delight.Main area of interest in criticism: The function of poetryInfluence: The English tradition and history of literary
criticism begins with Sidney.

The Neoclassical Period (1660 – 1700):

John Dryden (1631 – 1700)Works of criticism: An Essay of Dramatic Poesy (1668)Main concepts: A drama must
stick to the three unities.The language of a play must observe “proper” speech.The violent actions should not be
shown onstage, it would be quite “improper”, and therefore against decorum.English drama is better than the
French.Shakespearean tradition in drama is defended.The rhymed verse in drama is more valuable than the blank
verse.Main area of interest in criticism: The appreciation of literary works by their audience

Influence: Dryden develops the study of literature in and of itself, not with respect to morality or religion.He creates a
natural, simple prose style which Dryden develops the study of literature in and of itself, not with respect to morality
or religion.He creates a natural, simple prose style which is still effectual on writing in general, as well as on literary
criticism.He brings the best insights of various schools of criticism together (from Greek to French), by making use
of these critical perspectives.He advocates for the establishing of objective principles of criticism, at the same time
moving the focus of criticism from merely the formal features of a work, into a more modern issue, namely the
appreciation of the texts by readers and critics.The key concepts: concepts such as decorum, politesse (namely,
courteous formality), clarity, order, decorum, elegance, cleverness, wit are definitive of Dryden’s style, as well as the
period he produces his works.

Also called the Augustan Age (after the Roman Emperor Augustus)
The Age of Reason:Also called the Augustan Age (after the Roman Emperor Augustus)Joseph Addison (1672 –
1719)Works of criticism: His essays published in the newspaper he started with Richard Steele, namely, The Tatler
and The Spectator. These essays were the readings of classical and contemporary literary works.Main concepts:
Philosophy, through common sense, can mould the humankind.The past critics (the Ancient ones) have already said
all there is to say, thus contemporary criticism must rely on and justify their ideas.

Greatness of literature (also called the sublime) is not mechanical superiority, but the potential of a work to display
the immensity of life in a way that transcends imagination.The aim of the critics should be to set bridges between
common people and great works of literature and criticism. The means to do it includes well-written prose and
wit.Main area of interest in criticism: The value and function of literatureInfluence: Literature and criticism became a
matter of interest for the common people.The catchphrase: “To enliven morality with wit and to temper wit with
morality”.

Alexander Pope (1688 – 1744)Works of criticism: Essay on Criticism (1711), in which he attempted to codify
Neoclassical literary criticism, and therefore addressed primarily to literary critics.Main concepts: The golden age of
criticism is the classical age, the age of Homes, Aristotle, Horace, and Longinus, who discovered the truth about
“unerring nature”.A good poet needs to be natural genius, adorned with a knowledge of classics and an
understanding of the rules of poetry; balancing himself through politeness and grace in terms of style. His emphasis
on defining the boundaries of style makes his literary theory a rhetoric one.

The works of such a poet seeks to reaffirm truths or absolutes already discovered by the classical writers. This
makes his theory of criticism mimetic.The task of the critic is to validate and maintain classical values in the ever-
shifting flux of cultural change. Thus, he is the one who defines and defends good taste and cultural values.Main
area of interest in criticism: Literary tasteImportance: Examining his Essay on Criticism, it is possible to gain an
insight into the 18th century thought and literary criticism.

The Romantics: William Wordsworth (1770 – 1850)

Works of criticism: In his preface to the second edition of Lyrical Ballads (1798), Wordsworth explains the new vision
of poetry he shares with Coleridge, giving us a glimpse of the beginnings of a radical change in literary theory.Main
concepts: The subject matter for his poetry is driven from common life.The” proper” language of poetry is as it is
really used by people.The manner is the natural state of excitement.The poets do no longer need to follow a
prescribed set of rules, for the aim is that they freely express their own individualism.Readers are to decide in
accordance with their own feelings, not having to base their judgements upon that of others.

Main area of interest in criticism: The elements and subject matter of literature
Influence: Imagination is valued over reason in the composition of poetry, which resulted in new definitions of poetry
and poet, as well as new judging criteria on behalf of the reader.The mimetic and rhetorical theories of the past
centuries are shifted towards expressive theories. Highlighting the individuality of the artist and carrying readers into
a privileged position in the appreciation of literature.The catchphrases: “All good poetry is the spontaneous overflow
of powerful feelings”.Poetry takes “its origin from emotion recollected in tranquillity”

Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792 – 1822)

Works of criticism: A Defence of Poetry (1821), as an answer to an attack on Romantic poetry.Main concepts:
Shelley blends Plato’s concept of the Ideal Forms with his own understanding, and the result is that poetry is the
best way to reach at these Forms and at the ultimate truth.Individual and imagination are defended against the
Neoclassicism’s emphasis on order and reason.Plato’s Forms go hand in hand with the Romantic ideal of
imagination. Thus, poetry is less concerned with reason and rationality; and, more concerned with the spiritual and
the transcendental.The basic criteria for the judgement of poetry are the imagination and the emotions; not didactic
structural elements.Poetry is a teacher and a guide to Truth, and it is embodied in nature and the individual, not in
science, reason, or philosophy.Main area of interest in criticism: The function of literatureImportance: Shelley
represents the shift in thought from the Age of Reason or Neoclassicism to Romanticism, manifesting itself in literary
criticism.

The 19th Century and the Early 20th Century:

Hippolyte Adolphe Taine (1828 – 1893)Works of criticism: The History of English Literature (1863) that can be seen
as the first example of the approach we today call the historical approach.Main concepts: To study only the text
without considering the author and his/her inner psyche would result in an incomplete analysis. So, the text and the
author should be examined together.
The environmental causes that should be taken into consideration in the process of analysis are:
Race: authors’ inherited and learned personal characteristicsMilieu / surroundings: authors’ culture, intellectual
concernsMoment /epoch: the time period in which the work is writtenDominant faculty: each author’s individual
talent that differentiates it from othersMain area of interest in criticism: The meaning of the textInfluence: The text
can now be approached as a literary object that can be dissected to discover its meaning. Literary works are now
seen as the results of their histories.The catchphrase: A work of art is “the result of given causes”.

Matthew Arnold (1822 – 1888)Works of criticism: In his essays “The Study of Poetry” and “The function of Criticism
at the Present Time” Arnold assumes a position that combines the ancient theories of criticism with the current
emphasis on the objectivity of knowledge.Main concepts: Poetry can provide necessary truths, values, and
guidelines for society.The best poetry is of a “higher truth and seriousness” than history – or any other human
subject or activity, such as religion, science, and philosophy.Literature reflects the society in which it is written, and
for this reason presents its values and concerns.A classic work of literature belongs to the “highest” or “best” class.

Seriousness goes hand in hand with moral excellence.

The critic is to be objective, not having an interest in worldly affairs such as politics, which may breed bias. Thus,
paving the way for high culture will be possible.The critic is to refer to the ideas and expressions of the masters of
the antiquity, using them as the chief criterion in the judgement of poetry.Main area of interest in criticism: The
function of poetryInfluence: Arnold’s aim for an objective criticism results in the opposite direction. Now, the critic is
not only an interpreter of literary texts, but also has a duty as the authority on values, culture, and tastes of the
society.

Henry James (1843 – 1916)Works of criticism: In his essay “The Art of Fiction” (1884), James states that the English
novel “had no air of having a theory, a conviction, a consciousness of itself behind it – of being the expression of an
artistic faith, the result of choice and comparison”. For this reason, in this essay he assumes the task of providing
the novel with a theory of its own.Main concepts: A definition of the novel as: “a personal, a direct impression of life:
that […] constitutes its value, which is greater or less according to the intensity of the impression”.A novel must be
interesting.Readers do not suspend their disbelief (against what Coleridge claimed) as they read a literary text. So,
a novel must be realistic.A work of art is organic, with a life of its own, not a mere collection of realistic data.Third
person narration is preferable rather than omniscient narration. It creates a greater sense of illusion.It is the reader
who decides the value of a text, not the critics.Main area of interest in criticism: Criticism of novel as a
genreInfluence: The genre of novel became a respectable topic for literary critics.His emphasis of realism started a
debate which has not concluded yet.

Mikhail Bakhtin (1895 – 1975)Works of criticism: Problems of Dostoyevsky’s Poetics (1929), Rabelais and His World
([1946] 1968), The Dialogic Imagination: For Essays by M.M. Bakhtin (posthumously, 1981) and in his essay
“Discourse in the Novel” he applies his ideas to the novel.Main concepts: The concept of the dialogic is central to his
critical theory, which proposes that all language is a dialogue in which a speaker and a listener form a
relationship.Another key term is heteroglossia (from Russian, literal meaning: “other or different tongues”), which
demonstrates the multiplicity of languages that operate in any given culture. This term is not limited to the spoken
language, but encompasses a wider scope. It includes all the forms of social speech that people use in their daily
activities. Each varying act of speech, Bakhtin calls a dialogic utterance.

The term polyphony, in its most basic sense, proposes that multiple viewpoints coexist in the body of a single novel.
This implies that there are many truths, not one, and none of which is particularly certain. The multiplicity of truths,
claims Bakhtin, creates a carnivalistic atmosphere, a sense of joyful relativity. In polyphonic novels, there exists a
carnival sense of the world, a sense of joyful abandonment where many voices are simultaneously heard.Main area
of interest in criticism: The language of the textInfluence: Bakhtin’s ideas have become the starting point for often
conflicting multiplicity of voices in contemporary cultural theory.

Modern Literary Criticism

In the 20th century, the tendency among the various new schools of criticism has been the abandonment of the
holistic approach of the former ages, which investigated, analysed, and interpreted all elements of the artistic
situation. This former tendency has been replaced, instead, by theories that concentrate on one or more specific
aspects (such as focusing on the text only).

Prepared by:

JENNIFER B. ABELLANIDA