EMBRYOLOGY LECTURE 1

CELL DIVISIONS AND GAMETOGENESIS

Lecture plan

 Definition of embryology

 Cell divisions= mitosis/meiosis

 Gametogenesis= (oogenesis/spermatogenesis)

Embryology is the study of the origin and development of an organism. In

humans, development starts when an egg (oocyte) from female and a sperm
(spermatozoa) from male unite and give rise to a new organism, the zygote in a
process is called fertilization.

Cell division= two types of cell divisions

Mitotic division= the cell divides and give rise to two daughter cells with same
number of chromosomes as the mother cell

Meiotic division= cell divides and give rise to 4 daughter cells with half number
of chromosomes and half DNA material

Mitotic division=fig.1
Before the cell enters mitosis, each chromosome doubles its DNA and forms
two chromatids. The chromosomes become long and are widely spread in the
cytoplasm

Stages of mitosis

 PROPHASE: When mitosis begins, the chromosomes begin to coil,

contract and condense

 METAPHASE. The chromosomes line up in the equatorial plane

  ANAPHASE. Each chromosome undergoes a longitudinal division of the
cetromere and give rise to two daughter chromosomes. The daughter
chromosomes begins to migrate towards the opposite poles of the cell

 TELOPHASE. The daughter chromosomes are at the opposite poles of the

cell. The chromosomes uncoil and lenghthen, and the cell cytoplasm
divide and gives rise to two daughter cells

DAUGHTER CELL: Each daughter cell has same number of chromosomes as

the mother cell.

fig.1

Meiotic divisions=fig.2
  The germ cells replicate their DNA before the commencement of meiotic
division just like in mitotic division

 Purpose= 1, to allow exchange of genetic materials between homologous

chromosomes and 2, to reduce to half (23) the number of chromosomes
and DNA material

First meiotic division

 Purpose = to allow exchange of genetic material

 Before the 1st meiotic begin, the germ cell replicates its DNA as in mitotic

 There is pairing of homologous chromosomes in a process called

synapses which is exact and point to point, except for X-Y combination.

 The homologous pair contains 4 chromatids since each chromosome is

double structured containing 2 chromatids

 There is exchange of chromatids segments between the paired

homologous chromosomes. The point of interchange is known as the
chiasma. They then split longitudinally, having exchanged blocks of
genetic materials, and each chromosome migrate toward opposite poles
of the cell.

 Each of the two daughter cells has 23 double-structured chromosomes

and contains one member of each chromosome pair. The daughter cell
has the same amount of DNA as normal cell because each chromosome
is still double-structured.

Second meiotic division

 Purpose= to reduce to half (23) the number of chromosomes and DNA
amount

 2nd meiotic division starts immediately after the end of 1st meiotic
division and no duplication of DNA material
  The 23 double -structure chromosomes divides at the cetromere and
each daughter cell receive 23 chromatids. The DNA now is half that of
somatic cell

 Therefore, a germ cell is formed with haploid number of chromosomes

and half amount of DNA

Results

 In females, one germ cell gives rise to 4 daughter cells, and each has 22 +
1 X chromosomes. Only one out of the 4 matures into a gamete (tertiary
oocyte). The rest 3 become polar

 In male, one germ cell give rise to 4 daughter cells and all develop into
mature gametes. Two daughter cells contains 22+1 X- chromosomes ,
and the other two contains 22+1 Y-chromosomes

Things may go wrong during meiotic division= Abnormalities

 During the separation of homologous chromosomes in the first meiotic

division, each daughter cell is supposed to receive one component of
each pair. Sometimes separation does not occur (nondisjuction) and
both members of a pair move to one cell. The result is that one cell
receives 24 chromosomes and the other 22 chromosomes. Then, when a
gamete with 23 chromosomes fuses with a gamete with 24
chromosomes, the result is a cell with 47 chromosomes =trisomy. Eg
Downs syndrome is trisomy 21. A gamete with 23 chromosomes fuses
with a gamete with 22 chromosomes chromosomes= monosomy

 The nondisjuction can also occur during the 2nd meiotic division
 fig.2

GAMETOGENESIS= FORMATION OF MALE AND FEMALE GAMETES FROM

PRIMORDIAL GERM CELLS

 During the process the gametes undergo chromosomal and

morphological changes in preparation for fertilization

 The normal body (somatic) cell has 46 chromosomes = 23 pairs. One

chromosome of each pair from mother and the other from the father.
  Primordial germ cells have 46 chromosomes

Germ cells undergo changes in order to form gamete. First, the number of
chromosomes is reduced to half (23)= meiotic division. Second, there is
alteration in shape. The female germ cell in the ovary becomes larger as its
cytoplasm increases. The male germ cell in the testis becomes smaller as it
loose a lot of cytoplasm and develops a head, neck, tail.

OOGENESIS= Formation of female gametes= the maturation process from

primitive germ cell to mature gamete (tertiary oocyte)=fig.4

Before birth=Prenatal

 Primordial germ cells are formed in the epiblast during the second week
and appear in the wall of yolk sac at the end of the 3rd week. Fig.3

 Primordial germ cells from the wall of yolk sac migrate to the developing
ovaries where they arrive in the fifth week5th week and differentiate into
oogonia. These cells undergo a number of mitotic divisions and by end
3rd month, they are arranged in clusters and are surrounded by flat
epithelial cells.

 Majority of oogonia continue with mitotic division while some

differentiate into much larger primary oocyst. The primary oocyst
replicates their DNA and enters the prophase of the 1st meiotic division,
and they are surrounded individually by flat epithelial cells. A primary
oocyte, together with its surrounding flat epithelial cells is known as a
primordial follicle.

 Mitotic division continues and by 5th month of development, the total

number of germ cells reaches its maximum estimated at 7 million. Then
cells degeneration (atresia) starts, for both oogonia and primary oocyst.
By 7th month, majority of oogonia have degenerated and the surviving
primary oocytes have entered the prophase of the 1st meiotic division.
However, they don’t proceed into the metaphase but, rather they enter
into a resting phase during prophase called dictyotene stage.
Fig.3

AT BIRTH AND AFTER= postnatal

At birth, all primary oocytes have finished the prophase of the 1st meiotic
division. Primary oocytes remain in prophase and do not finish their first
meiotic division before puberty is reached. Their number is estimated at 0.7 to
2 millions. During childhood, majority of the primary oocytes degenerate and
at puberty, their number is approximately 40,000.

 With the onset of puberty, (1) a number of primordial follicles begin to

mature with each ovarian cycle and (2), the primary oocytes complete
their first meiotic division. The primary oocyte, still in dictyotene stage
increases in size while the surrounding flat epithelial cells, the follicular
cells change from flat to cuboidal. The follicle is now called the primary
follicle. The primary oocyte is initially in intimate contact with the
surrounding follicular cells but later, a layer of acellular material called
 zona pellucida develops In between the follicular cells and the primary
oocyst.

 As growth continues, the follicular cells proliferate, forming a thick

cellular layer around the oocyte. In between follicular cells, fluid filled
cavities are formed which later coalesce to form one big cavity= follicular
antrum. The follicular cells that remain surrounding the oocyte are
known as cumulus oophorus. A mature follicle is called tertiary or
vesicular follicle. It is surrounded by two layers of connective tissues; an
outer fibrous layer called theca externa, and an inner layer called theca
interna, which is rich in blood vessels.

 With each ovarian cycle, a number of follicles begin to develop but only
one reaches maturity while the other degenerate. As soon as the follicle
is mature, the primary oocyte resumes its first meiotic division. The
results are 2 daughter cells= (i)secondary oocyte, which receive almost
all the cytoplasm, and (ii)the polar body, which hardly receive any
cytoplasm. The secondary oocyte is shed from the ovary and it will only
complete its 2nd meiotic division if it is fertilised, otherwise it
degenerates approximately 24 hours after ovulation.

fig.4; OOGENESIS
SPERMATOGENESIS= the maturation process from primordial germ cell to
mature male gametes-fig.5

fig.5

 The primordial germ cells in males migrate to the sex cords of the testis
and they don’t differentiate until puberty unlike in females where
differentiation begins in the third month. At birth, the germ cells can be
recognised and are surrounded by supportive cells, which later becomes
the sunstentacular or sertoli cells.

 Shortly before puberty, the sex cord acquires a lumen and becomes the
seminiferous tubules. At the same time, the primordial germ cells give
rise to spermatogonia. Spermatogonia differentiate into primary
 spermatocytes. The primary spermatocytes replicate their DNA and then
enter the prophase of the 1st meiotic division. The prophase lasts about
16 days, and then the following phases are completed and two
secondary spermatocytes are formed. Each of these cells enter the 2nd
meiotic division and results in production of two spermatids.

Spermiogenesis= conversion of spermatid to spermatozoa

 The spermatid undergoes series of changes which results in production

of the spermatozoa. The changes include; formation of acrosome,
condensation of nucleus, formation of neck, body, tail, shedding of most
of cytoplasm. It takes approximately 61 days for a spermatogonia to
develop into a spermatozoa.

 When fully formed, spermatozoa are pushed from seminiferous tubules

and are stored in the epididymis where they are capacitated=become
motile.

 Abnormal spermatozoa are often seen; giant, dwarf, deformed head, tail,
sometimes joined. If abnormality affects more than 25% of spermatozoa,
fertility is usually impaired.

Events occurring during the first and second maturation divisions. A. The
primitive female germ cell (primary oocyte) produces only one mature gamete,
the mature
oocyte. B. The primitive male germ cell (primary spermatocyte) produces four
spermatids,
all of which develop into spermatozoa.
Reference

Foundations of Embryology, 1st ed., Carlson (1998), New Yolk

An introduction to embryology, B.I balinsky, Sauder College

Text book for medical embryology: Normal and Abnormal development, 1sr ed,
F. Fasana (2008), KLB, NRB

Longmans medical embryology, 6th ed, T.W. sadler (1990),

Patterns-Bruce M, McGraw Hill

E resources- http://www.med.unc.edu/embryoimages