5/8/2019 Railway engineering - AccessScience from McGraw-Hill Education

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Railway engineering
Article by:
Clarke, David B. Center for Transportation Research, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee.
Last reviewed: 2014
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1036/1097-8542.572000 (https://doi-org.ezproxy.umng.edu.co/10.1036/1097-8542.572000)

Content Hide
Characteristics of Rail Transportation
Vehicles
Propulsion
Types of railway systems
Industrial
Track Structure
Track systems
Track components
Track geometry
Clearances
Turnouts and track crossings
Bridges and tunnels
Signal and control systems
Terminals and facilities
Railway Location
Types of location studies
Location principles
Tools aiding the location process
Economic analysis of alternatives
Links to Primary Literature
Additional Readings

Railway engineering addresses the planning, design, construction, operations, and maintenance of rail
transportation systems. The practice includes aspects of civil, mechanical, environmental, electrical, computer, and
industrial engineering. Railway engineers typically have backgrounds in civil or mechanical engineering, and rely on
specialists in other disciplines to assist as necessary.

Characteristics of Rail Transportation

Railway transportation uses fixed steel rails in a track to support and guide vehicles (rolling stock) having flanged steel
wheels. Most railways have two rails placed at a fixed spacing, or gage.

Vehicles
Encompassing both freight and passenger designs, railway vehicles have a wide variety of sizes and configurations. Vehicle
size and weight are important to the design of track and supporting structures.

A vehicle is powered or unpowered, depending upon its capability to provide propulsion. Locomotives have the sole purpose
of powering trains. Railcars combine propulsion with a cargo- or passenger-carrying function. Unpowered vehicles, called cars
or wagons, move only while attached to locomotives or railcars. See also: Locomotive (/content/locomotive/388700)
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 5/8/2019 vehicles into trains offers advantages
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higher track capacity than operating vehicles
separately. Locomotive propulsion permits a reduction in car weight and complexity, while tailoring train size and composition
to meet demand. Trains often have lower unit labor and operating costs than vehicles operated individually.

Propulsion
Propulsion has important impacts on railway capital and operating costs, vehicle performance, and environmental effects. Two
propulsion sources dominate modern railways: internal combustion engines and externally supplied electricity.

Most railway internal combustion engines are diesel designs whose power and ruggedness are well suited to railway
applications. These generally power wheels via an electric or hydraulic transmission. Internal combustion has lower capital
costs than electric propulsion, and can operate on any track, but is impractical for high-speed operation, presents issues of air
quality, and uses petroleum fuels.

Trains on electrified railways receive centrally generated power through an overhead wire or adjacent third rail. Electric motors
drive wheel sets on the powered vehicles. With high starting torque and power, electric propulsion offers significant
advantages in train performance and, with no local emissions, is ideal for subways, long tunnels, and locations where air
quality is a concern. These advantages must be balanced against the considerable capital cost of installing the electric
distribution system, along with the cost of electric power.

Types of railway systems

A railway system includes track and associated structures (bridges and tunnels), rolling stock, terminal facilities, maintenance
depots, signal and control elements, and communications networks for voice and data. Optimal configuration of these
components needs a systems approach. The railway engineer must use design criteria and standards suitable to the type of
system desired. Railway systems fall into several categories, each tailored to particular needs.

Intercity or interregional
This category links major urban areas or regions, frequently forming networks that span large regions or nations. Principal
lines carry large volumes of traffic (freight or passengers) over long distances (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 Diesel-electric-powered intercity freight train, Wisconsin. (David B. Clarke) Full-size image 

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Intercity Railway engineering
railways are either conventional or high-speed. - AccessScience
Conventional linesfrom McGraw-Hill
can Educationof freight and passenger
have a mixture
service. Passenger train speeds range up to 125 mi/h (200 km/h) when conditions permit, though freight trains are much
slower. High-speed railways (HSR) permit speeds in excess of 125 mi/h; new Chinese lines reach 235 mi/h (380 km/h).
Strictly for passenger service, HSR competes with air travel up to 600 mi (970 km). HSR requires sophisticated infrastructure,
rolling stock, and control-system design, manufacture, and construction (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2 Electric CRH3C high-speed trains in station, Tianjin, PRC. (David B. Clarke) Full-size image 

Conventional intercity railways may be electrified or use internal combustion propulsion. High-speed operation requires
electrification.

Commuter
Commuter railways move passengers between cities and surrounding suburban areas, generally under 100 mi (160 km). High
traffic demands, frequent station stops, and the urban environment challenge design. Commuter railways are often compatible
with intercity railways, and may serve intercity type equipment. Both internal combustion and electricity are viable power
sources.

Rail rapid transit

Rail rapid transit (RRT) systems move passengers within large cities and their suburban areas. RRT operates on exclusive
right-of-way, usually lacking at-grade crossings with other railways or streets. Maximum speed may reach 70 mi/h (110 km/h),
though average speed is less. Electric power using third-rail distribution predominates (Fig. 3).

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Fig. 3 Electric rail rapid train, San Bruno, California. (David B. Clarke) Full-size image 

With little need to physically connect with other railways, RRT systems often have custom designs for both rolling stock and
physical plant.

Light rail transit

Light rail transit (LRT) systems provide passenger service in urban and suburban areas. Unlike RRT, LRT often shares right-
of-way in city streets with motor vehicles and has at-grade crossings with streets, bike and pedestrian trails, and tracks (Fig.
4). While RRT has higher speeds and more capacity than LRT, lower infrastructure costs make LRT attractive at ridership
levels below those needed for RRT.

Fig. 4 Electric light-rail train in station, Minneapolis, Minnesota. (David B. Clarke) Full-size image 

Though diesel designs are available, most LRT railcars receive electricity by overhead wire. Railcars operate singly or in short
trains.

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Some LRT lines handle freight cars betweenRailway
on-lineengineering
customers - AccessScience from McGraw-Hill
and connecting intercityEducation
railways, requiring infrastructure
compatibility with conventional intercity railway equipment. Otherwise, LRT design limits are well beyond those of intercity
railways.

Industrial
Industrial railways are an integral part of facilities like mines, mills, quarries, and manufacturing plants. Such railways that
exchange cars with conventional intercity railways employ compatible design standards. Otherwise, they can reflect the
unique needs of the owner.

Track Structure
Track supports and guides the railroad rolling stock, transferring loads to the ground or supporting structure without exceeding
the allowable limits. The track system must hold rail geometry to provide a safe and satisfactory ride.

Track systems
Railway track systems fall into three general categories: crosstie, longitudinal tie, and slab.

The dominant track system, crosstie track, uses cross members (crossties) perpendicular to the rails and spaced at regular
intervals along the track. Crossties support the rails, holding them in gage, alignment, and elevation. Crosstie track drains
well, is easily maintained, and holds rail geometry well. On the other hand, rail between ties may deflect under load, affecting
ride quality.

Longitudinal tie track has each rail attached to a continuous concrete or metal beam. Continuous support provides a smooth
ride but hinders drainage. Maintaining track geometry is more challenging when the two rail supports are independent. Once
dominant, longitudinal tie track is now limited to track-carrying structures.

Slab systems use a continuous prestressed concrete slab to support rails and secure them in precise horizontal and vertical
alignment. Slab costs more to build than other track systems, but has lower maintenance costs. The system finds much use in
HSR, RRT, and LRT systems.

A track system may be ballasted or ballastless. Ballast, usually stone or slag of specified sizes, distributes track and vehicle
loads to the ground or supporting structure, provides drainage, and restrains the track while permitting track adjustment.
Ballastless track distributes loads and maintains geometry without ballast. Most crosstie track is ballasted, while slab track is
ballastless.

Track components
These include rail and rail accessories, ties and slabs, and ballast.

Rail and rail accessories

Rails directly receive the loads of the vehicle wheels—up to 40,000 pounds (17,900 kg) per wheel under static conditions—
and experience the highest track component stresses. High-quality steel with carefully controlled amounts of carbon,
manganese, silicon, phosphorous, and sulfur produces rail of the needed strength, hardness, and toughness.

Rail is a rolled structural member. The rail head receives wheel loads and guides the wheel flange. The web carries the loads
from the head into the base. The base distributes loads to supporting rail supports.
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Unique Railway engineering
head, web, and base dimensions, including connecting - AccessScience fromaMcGraw-Hill
fillets, define Education
rail section. Weight in lb/yd (kg/m) is a basic
section characteristic. Most new rails follow section designs of the American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way
Association (AREMA) or the International Union of Railways (UIC), although many older rail designs remain in use.

Mills produce rail in lengths convenient for shipment; for example, 80 ft (24 m) is standard in North America. Rails are
connected with compatible joint bars bolted to the rail ends. The rail joint is a weak spot prone to failures, so railways prefer
welding rails instead. Using the electric flash-butt process in welding plants, rails are joined into strings about one-quarter mile
(0.4 km) long. Once these strings are placed in the track, field welding, generally using the thermit process, joins the strings.
Such continuous welded rail (CWR) maintains ride quality with far less maintenance than jointed rail. See also: Welding and
cutting of materials (/content/welding-and-cutting-of-materials/743800)

Ties and slabs

Rails are secured to a material that withstands loads and holds the desired gage, surface, and alignment. Cost, use,
serviceability, and availability are key factors in material selection.

Conventional intercity and commuter railways overwhelmingly use crosstie track, and the system is common for LRT and
RRT. Timber is easy to handle and provides a good track structure, but wears and will decay without preservative treatment.
Prestressed concrete tie designs provide a stiff, good riding track. Concrete is favored for high-speed or heavy-axle-load
traffic. Steel and plastic ties are options where timber is scarce or has a short service life.

Precast and prestressed concrete slab panels form the basis of most modern slab track, though a slab can be cast in place.
Once placed and fastened together, prestressed panels behave as a continuous beam. The slab holds rail geometry to
extremely tight tolerances, but costs more initially than a similar length of crosstie track. See also: Precast concrete
(/content/precast-concrete/542100); Prestressed concrete (/content/prestressed-concrete/544100)

Ballast
When present in the track system, ballast withstands and distributes the weight of the train and track, maintains track
geometry, and allows drainage. A crushed rock, such as granite, that is tough and resistant to abrasion performs best, but
other materials may be suitable depending on track loading, traffic levels, climate, and cost. HSR track may require ballastless
designs to meet geometry standards.

Track geometry
Components of track geometry are gage, horizontal alignment, and vertical alignment.

Gage
Gage is the perpendicular distance between the inside faces of the rail heads, measured at specific points. The track must
hold gage within allowable tolerances to prevent derailments.

Gage controls track structure width, and thus the vehicle size and carrying capacity. Narrow gages are less expensive to build
and allow sharper curves, while broad gages are more stable and permit higher speeds. A uniform gage simplifies the transfer
of equipment between railways. Modifying gage is costly, requiring changes to track, vehicles, and trackside clearance
obstructions.

“Standard” (56.5-in. or 1435-mm) is the most common gage, used for intercity railway networks throughout North and Central
America, Europe, and China. Other popular gages include Russian (1520-mm), Cape (42-in. or 1062-mm), Meter (1000-mm),
and Indian Broad (66-in. or 1676-mm).
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rizontal alignment Railway engineering - AccessScience from McGraw-Hill Education

The horizontal alignment consists of lines and connecting curves. A tangent is a straight section of track. Curves may be
simple with constant radius (Fig. 5), or compound, having two or more consecutive simple curves of differing radii in the same
direction.

Fig. 5 Elements of a simple railroad curve. Full-size image 

Compound curves permit better fit of the alignment to terrain features. Reverse curves consisting of two consecutive curves of
opposite direction are not desirable in alignments.

Engineers use degree or radius and central angle to describe curves. Degree is the central angle subtended by a 100-ft (20-
m) chord. As radius decreases, curve degree gets larger.

Spirals are curves whose radius changes at a constant rate over the length. The spiral connects a simple curve to a tangent
or other curve. Spirals change curve-related lateral force gradually, improving ride quality, and introduce and remove
superelevation. Curves with speeds over 15 mi/h (25 km/h) should have spirals.

Curvature is a key alignment control. Equipment cannot physically traverse curves below a certain radius, and sharp curves
hinder coupling vehicles. Curves also have major effects on train performance, and increase track and vehicle maintenance.
Table 1 provides some representative limits on curvature for various railway types.

Table 1 - Typical curve limits

Conventional Intercity or Commuter Railroad

D ≤ 2° Mild curvature—little speed impact

2° < D ≤ 8° Medium curvature—affects speeds

8° < D ≤ 12° Sharp curvature—low speed, operational impacts

D ≥12° Extreme curvature—very low speed

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Conventional Intercity or Commuter Railroad

High-Speed Railroad

D ≤ 0.25° Desired

0.25° < D ≤ 0.5° Acceptable, may reduce speed

Rail Rapid Transit

D ≤ 8° Permits most equipment

8° < D ≤ 10° Check equipment capabilities

D ≤ 19° AREMA recommendation for design

D = 72°(R = 85′) Limit for some legacy systems

Light Rail Transit

R = 400′ Minimum without special curve hardware

R = 250′ AREMA recommended minimum

R = 110′ Desirable minimum for LRT

R = 82′ Limit for most modern LRT vehicles

R = 35′ Limit for historic streetcars

D = degree of curve (imperial). R = radius of curve.

Curvature reduces maximum train speeds. Allowable curve speed depends on vehicle characteristics, curve radius or degree,
and the outside rail superelevation. Large-radius curves permit higher speeds.

Curves induce an average drag force of 0.8 lb/ton of train weight/degree of curve (0.3 kg/metric ton of train weight/metric
curve degree), based on that portion of the train in the curve. To accelerate or maintain a constant speed, the train requires
additional power to overcome curve-related drag.

Ve r t i c a l a l i g n m e n t
Track vertical aspects include centerline elevation profile and track vertical surface. Like horizontal alignment, vertical
alignment uses tangents connected by curves.

In a vertical tangent, the grade, or rate at which elevation changes relative to horizontal distance, is constant. Railway
engineers express grades in percent—the vertical rise (fall) in ft (m) per 100 horizontal ft (m), the vertical rise (fall) in m per
km, or the ratio of one to the number of horizontal units required for a unit vertical rise (fall).

Grades induce a force of 20 lb/ton of train weight/percent (10 kg/metric ton of train weight/percent), decelerating the train
when upgrade and accelerating downgrade. Grade effects on train performance are significant. Severe grades can greatly
increase railway operating costs.

A train's ability to ascend a grade depends on train power and weight, grade length and magnitude, rail and wheel conditions,
and approach speed. Sustained grades can slow or stop the train. A weight reduction or additional power may be necessary
to meet service standards. Descending grades present problems in keeping train speed under control. Table 2 provides some
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representative grade limits for various railwayRailway
types.engineering - AccessScience from McGraw-Hill Education

Table 2 - Typical grade (G) limits

Conventional Intercity or Commuter Railroad

G ≤ 0.25% Gentle—little impact on train braking, power

0.25% < G ≤ 0.75% Moderate—some effects on heavy trains

0.75% < G ≤ 1.5% Heavy—operational impacts for heavy trains

G > 1.5% Severe—restricts operations of heavy trains

G = 3% Recommended limit for commuter, passenger operations

High-Speed Railroad

G ≤ 2% Minimal effect on operations

2% < G ≤ 4% Can accommodate, may require some speed reduction

Rail Rapid Transit

G ≤ 2% Minimal effect on operations

2% < G ≤ 4% Can accommodate, may require some speed reductions

Light Rail Transit

G ≤ 4% Minimal effect on normal operations

4% < G ≤ 10% Can accommodate, may impact operations

Vertical curves join grade tangents. Parabolic curves are normal, though simple circular curves see use. Curve length affects
the rate of change of grade between the two tangents, and is the major design property. Adequate length precludes excessive
in-train forces and adverse effects on ride quality.

The track must hold surface—the relative vertical orientation of the two rails—within allowable limits to maintain ride quality
and ensure safe operation. At any point, the rails in a tangent should have the same elevation; in superelevated curves, the
outside rail is higher than the inside rail. Superelevation increases the allowable curve speed, and is held constant within the
curve. Spirals introduce or remove superelevation.

Clearances
With a fixed guideway, railway vehicles cannot swerve to avoid obstructions, so clearances around a railway track are
important. Tracks must permit the passage of trains without interference from trackside structures or equipment on adjacent
tracks. Clearance obstructions will prevent increases in equipment size. Removing obstructions can be costly and time
consuming.

Turnouts and track crossings

Special trackwork allows the rolling stock to change tracks or to cross an opposing track.
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rails Education
in the switch direct wheels to the desired
path. Switch operation may be manual or motorized to permit remote control. Wheel flanges pass through the opposing rail at
the frog (crossing point). The frog angle limits speed during movement to a diverging track; lower angles increase speed, but
lengthen the turnout.

Fig. 6 Railroad turnout. Full-size image 

Track crossings allow two tracks to cross at grade. Wheel flanges pass through opposing rails at frogs. Slip switches combine
turnout and crossing functions, permitting flexibility and efficient use of space in terminals.

Bridges and tunnels

Bridges and tunnels are common in railway systems, but are significantly more costly than conventional track, and can restrict
operations.

Bridges carry track over watercourses or terrain features. Bridge selection receives careful economic and engineering
analysis. Bridge design capacity and clearances should anticipate future equipment that is larger or heavier. While engineers
generally prefer earthworks to bridges, many new HSR use long sections of elevated track to meet alignment standards. See
also: Bridge (/content/bridge/095500)

Tunnels allow a railway to penetrate terrain obstacles, avoiding larger grades or additional route length. Tunnel improvements
to track alignment must be weighed against high capital and maintenance costs and inherent clearance restrictions. Tunnels
present ventilation problems for internal combustion power, and require special protection against fire. Despite these
concerns, many of the world's longest transportation tunnels serve railways.

Signal and control systems

Signal and control systems are necessary to direct railway traffic on a line, handling conflicts and preventing collisions. They
oversee track segments, railroad crossings, junctions, and rail-highway crossings. The railway engineer selects the signal and
control system to permit the desired train speed and provide track capacity, while ensuring safe operations.

Signal and control systems are critical to railway safety. To prevent collisions, a train may occupy a critical track only as
authorized. The control system must prevent conflicting authority from being simultaneously granted to two (or more) trains.
Trains also need spacing that permits stopping short of a collision. This distance depends upon the track profile, operating
speed, and train braking system characteristics. To be conservative, the worst case is used when multiple train types operate
within a corridor.

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Railway Railwayverbal-based
control systems vary in type from simple, engineering - AccessScience
systems tofrom McGraw-Hill
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electronic systems that employ
digital control circuitry and radio and/or fiber optic communication links. Because signal electronics are safety critical, rigorous
design, manufacture, performance, and testing standards apply. See also: Railroad control systems (/content/railroad-
control-systems/571900)

Terminals and facilities

Railways require specialized terminals and facilities to sort, store, service, and inspect rolling stock; build and disassemble
trains; load or unload passengers and cargo; provide connections with other modes; store equipment and materials; and
house operating functions. Terminal location and design decisions greatly affect railway service levels and costs, and warrant
careful consideration. Yards, depots, and shops that handle rolling stock must be near the track right-of-way, and, for
efficiency, are often combined into a single complex that handles many tasks. With modern communications systems,
administrative and control facilities housing people may be at any convenient location.

Railway Location
Location is the position of a railway line relative to accepted geodetic and geographic references and ultimately staked out on
the ground. The location process defines the necessary land for the railroad right-of-way and facilities.

Types of location studies

Engineers conduct various location studies to plan and design railways. Projected location studies consider the overall
desirability and feasibility of constructing a railway between two points. Reconnaissance studies employ field and office
activities to develop a general corridor. Preliminary location surveys develop one or more paths (400–1000 ft in width) along
the general corridor. A final location study results in a detailed field survey and alignment design. The construction location
study verifies plan compliance for the route, establishes construction stakes, and reflects as-built quantities.

Location studies are done to build new railways or modify existing ones. In the developed world, conventional intercity railway
construction is largely limited to line relocations that improve operating economics or address external factors (for example, a
reservoir project). In developing countries, complete new conventional intercity railways are being constructed, with China
being a notable example. However, HSR passenger mainlines will likely dominate new intercity railway projects for many
years to come. Worldwide, new construction of RRT and LRT systems will also continue at a steady pace.

Location principles
Several key design controls guide railway location. The route selected must serve target traffic sources. Construction costs
must meet the capital budget. Revenue sources, including subsidies, must support projected railway operating and
maintenance costs. Train performance must satisfy desired top and average speeds, tonnage or passenger capacity,
schedule, and frequency. And land use and environmental impacts must be acceptable.

Data to support location studies include characteristics of existing and potential traffic sources; land features (topography,
watercourses, location of floodplains and natural hazards, geology, and soil conditions) that affect alignment and construction;
existing and future land uses and transportation systems; existing plant and animal species, cultural features, and baseline
environmental conditions; and costs for land, materials, and construction. While costly and time-consuming to collect and
organize, quality data results in the best location decision. Compiling or converting data to digital form enables use with
computer applications.

Tools aiding the location process

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Modern railway engineers use sophisticated Railway
softwareengineering - AccessScience
in location from McGraw-Hill
studies. Geographic Education systems (GIS) manipulate
information
data with spatial characteristics (such as topography, land use, hydrology, soil types). GIS can combine data layers for
analysis, find relationships, and produce maps of results. Computer-aided design and drafting (CADD) software permits rapid
evaluation of route alternatives, simplifying many design calculations (such as alignment, cross-sections, material quantities,
and areas). Design visualization systems, often compatible with CADD, render realistic images showing the finished railway in
its surroundings. Computer simulation models examine vehicle and infrastructure interaction. Train performance calculators
(TPC) predict the speed profile, fuel and energy use, and emissions for trains on a proposed line. Other simulation uses
include signal system design, schedule development, and terminal analysis. See also: Geographic information systems
(/content/geographic-information-systems/757430)

Economic analysis of alternatives

Railway location decisions undergo rigorous economic analysis. Railways are high-capital-cost projects, and continuing
operations and maintenance (O&M) costs are also high. A railway project should cover capital and O&M costs and yield a
profit from revenues (though some receive subsidies for social or political reasons). The railway engineer should provide the
most economically sustainable location.

Most location studies produce a set of feasible alternatives, including a “do nothing” option. The engineer carefully details
projected costs and revenues for each alternative. Capital expenses include right-of-way and other land, grading, structures,
track, signal and communication systems, stations and other facilities, environmental mitigation, and regulatory costs. Annual
O&M costs reflect train operations (fuel/energy, crews, dispatching), equipment maintenance, track and facility maintenance,
administrative overhead, and taxes. The revenue stream is based on traffic gained or retained by the project, along with
related appreciation of railway real estate. The benefits of avoiding highway or airport construction, reduced congestion and
pollution, travel time or freight charge savings, job creation, and increased real property values may justify public investment
or subsidy. Accurately quantifying revenues/benefits and costs is critical.

The location process should maximize return on investment. Benefit-cost (B/C) analysis is one technique for comparing
alternatives. Identifying the size and timing of financial streams and applying an appropriate discount rate permits expression
of each alternative and an equivalent present-day cost and benefit. No alternative that does not achieve a targeted return rate
will be further considered, and any feasible alternative must have a B/C ratio greater than 1.0. Comparing pairs of feasible
alternatives using incremental differences between B/C permits selection of the project having the highest overall marginal
benefit.

In many nations, economically feasible projects must still pass rigorous environmental review. Many environmental and
cultural factors are not easily expressed in cost terms, and B/C review poorly addresses them. Environmental reviews
normally involve regulatory agencies, and public participation is often a requirement. Obtaining project approvals and permits
requires resolution of issues found during the review process. See also: Transportation engineering
(/content/transportation-engineering/706700)

David B. Clarke

Links to Primary Literature

D. Connolly, A. Giannopoulos, and M. C. Forde, Numerical modelling of ground borne vibrations from high speed rail lines on
embankments, Soil. Dyn. Earthquake Eng., 46:13–19, 2013 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2012.12.003 (https://doi-
org.ezproxy.umng.edu.co/10.1016/j.soildyn.2012.12.003)

Additional Readings
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 5/8/2019 Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way
American Railway engineering - AccessScience
Association, from McGraw-Hill
Manual on Railway Education
Engineering, 2011, supplemented
annually

American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association, Practical Guide to Railway Engineering, 2003

J. H. Armstrong, The Railroad: What It Is, What It Does, 5th ed., Simmons Boardman, 2008

W. W. Hay, Railroad Engineering, 2d ed., Wiley, 1982

A. D. Kerr, Fundamentals of Railway Track Engineering, Simmons Boardman, 2003

C. F. Bonnett, Practical Railway Engineering, 2d ed., Imperial College Press, London, UK, 2010

J. S. Mundrey, Railway Track Engineering, 4th ed., Tata McGraw-Hill Education, New Delhi, India, 2010

C. B. Smith, Railway Engineering, Ulan Press, San Diego, CA, 2012

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