Amun

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Amun
Typical depiction of Amun during the New Kingdom, with
two plumes on his head, the ankh symbol and the was
sceptre.

Name in
hieroglyphs

Major cult center Thebes

Symbol two vertical plumes, the ram-headed

Sphinx (Criosphinx)

• Amunet
Consort
• Wosret
• Mut

Offspring Khonsu

Greek equivalent Zeus

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Amun (also Amon, Ammon, Amen; Greek Ἄμμων Ámmōn, Ἅμμων Hámmōn) was a major
ancient Egyptian deity who appears as a member of the Hermopolitan Ogdoad. Amun was
attested from the Old Kingdom together with his wife Amaunet. With the 11th dynasty (c. 21st
century BC), Amun rose to the position of patron deity of Thebes by replacing Montu.[1]

After the rebellion of Thebes against the Hyksos and with the rule of Ahmose I (16th century
BC), Amun acquired national importance, expressed in his fusion with the Sun god, Ra, as
Amun-Ra or Amun-Re.

Amun-Ra retained chief importance in the Egyptian pantheon throughout the New Kingdom
(with the exception of the "Atenist heresy" under Akhenaten). Amun-Ra in this period (16th to
11th centuries BC) held the position of transcendental, self-created[2] creator deity "par
excellence"; he was the champion of the poor or troubled and central to personal piety.[3] His
position as King of Gods developed to the point of virtual monotheism where other gods became
manifestations of him. With Osiris, Amun-Ra is the most widely recorded of the Egyptian gods.[3]

As the chief deity of the Egyptian Empire, Amun-Ra also came to be worshipped outside Egypt,
according to the testimony of ancient Greek historiographers in Libya and Nubia. As Zeus
Ammon, he came to be identified with Zeus in Greece.

Contents
 • 1Early history
• 2Temple at Karnak
• 3New Kingdom
o 3.1Identification with Min and Ra
o 3.2Atenist heresy
o 3.3Theology
• 4Third Intermediate Period
o 4.1Theban High Priests of Amun
o 4.2Decline
• 5Iron Age and classical antiquity
o 5.1Nubia and Sudan
o 5.2Libya
o 5.3Levant
o 5.4Greece
• 6See also
• 7References
• 8Sources
• 9Further reading
• 10External links

Early history[edit]

Statue of Ramesses II with Amun and Mut at the Museo Egizio of Turin, Italy.

Amun and Amaunet are mentioned in the Old Egyptian Pyramid Texts.[4] The name Amun
(written jmn) meant something like "the hidden one" or "invisible".[5]

Amun rose to the position of tutelary deity of Thebes after the end of the First Intermediate
Period, under the 11th Dynasty. As the patron of Thebes, his spouse was Mut. In Thebes, Amun
as father, Mut as mother and the Moon god Khonsu formed a divine family or "Theban Triad".

Temple at Karnak[edit]
Main articles: Precinct of Amun-Re, Karnak, and History of the Karnak Temple complex
The history of Amun as the patron god of Thebes begins in the 20th century BC, with the
construction of the Precinct of Amun-Re at Karnak under Senusret I. The city of Thebes does not
appear to have been of great significance before the 11th Dynasty.

Major construction work in the Precinct of Amun-Re took place during the 18th Dynasty when
Thebes became the capital of the unified ancient Egypt. Construction of the Hypostyle Hall may
have also begun during the 18th Dynasty, though most building was undertaken under Seti I and
Ramesses II. Merenptah commemorated his victories over the Sea Peoples on the walls of the
Cachette Court, the start of the processional route to the Luxor Temple. This Great Inscription
(which has now lost about a third of its content) shows the king's campaigns and eventual return
with items of potential value and prisoners. Next to this inscription is the Victory Stela, which is
largely a copy of the more famous Israel Stela found in the funerary complex of Merenptah on
the west bank of the Nile in Thebes.[6] Merenptah's son Seti II added two small obelisks in front
of the Second Pylon, and a triple bark-shrine to the north of the processional avenue in the same
area. This was constructed of sandstone, with a chapel to Amun flanked by those of Mut and
Khonsu.

The last major change to the Precinct of Amun-Re's layout was the addition of the first pylon and
the massive enclosure walls that surrounded the whole Precinct, both constructed by
Nectanebo I.

Amon-Ra (l'esprit des quatre elements, lame du monde matérial), N372.2., Brooklyn Museum

New Kingdom[edit]
Further information: High Priests of Amun
Bas-relief depicting Amun as pharaoh

Identification with Min and Ra[edit]

Amun depicted as Amun-Ra.

Fragment of a stela showing Amun enthroned. Mut, wearing the double crown, stands behind
him. Both are receiving offerings from Ramesses I, now lost. From Egypt. The Petrie Museum of
Egyptian Archaeology, London

When the army of the founder of the Eighteenth Dynasty expelled the Hyksos rulers from Egypt,
the victor's city of origin, Thebes, became the most important city in Egypt, the capital of a new
dynasty. The local patron deity of Thebes, Amun, therefore became nationally important. The
pharaohs of that new dynasty attributed all of their successes to Amun, and they lavished much
of their wealth and captured spoil on the construction of temples dedicated to Amun.[7]
Amun depicted as Amun-Min.

The victory against the "foreign rulers" achieved by pharaohs who worshipped Amun caused him
to be seen as a champion of the less fortunate, upholding the rights of justice for the poor.[3] By
aiding those who traveled in his name, he became the Protector of the road. Since he upheld
Ma'at (truth, justice, and goodness),[3] those who prayed to Amun were required first to
demonstrate that they were worthy, by confessing their sins. Votive stelae from the artisans'
village at Deir el-Medina record:

[Amun] who comes at the voice of the poor in distress, who gives breath to him who is
wretched..You are Amun, the Lord of the silent, who comes at the voice of the poor; when I call
to you in my distress You come and rescue me ... Though the servant was disposed to do evil, the
Lord is disposed to forgive. The Lord of Thebes spends not a whole day in anger; His wrath
passes in a moment; none remains. His breath comes back to us in mercy ... May your kꜣ be kind;
may you forgive; It shall not happen again.[8]
Amun-Min as Amun-Ra ka-Mut-ef from the temple at Deir el Medina.

Ka-mut-ef, "Bull of His Mother" as a ram-headed lion in the Avenue of Sphinxes at Karnak
Temple

Subsequently, when Egypt conquered Kush, they identified the chief deity of the Kushites as
Amun. This Kush deity was depicted as ram-headed, more specifically a woolly ram with curved
horns. Amun thus became associated with the ram arising from the aged appearance of the Kush
ram deity, and depictions related to Amun sometimes had small ram's horns, known as the Horns
of Ammon. A solar deity in the form of a ram can be traced to the pre-literate Kerma culture in
Nubia, contemporary to the Old Kingdom of Egypt. The later (Meroitic period) name of Nubian
Amun was Amani, attested in numerous personal names such as Tanwetamani, Arkamani, and
Amanitore. Since rams were considered a symbol of virility, Amun also became thought of as a
fertility deity, and so started to absorb the identity of Min, becoming Amun-Min. This
association with virility led to Amun-Min gaining the epithet Kamutef, meaning "Bull of his
mother",[9] in which form he was found depicted on the walls of Karnak, ithyphallic, and with a
scourge, as Min was.

Amun-Ra
in hieroglyphs
Re-Horakhty ("Ra (who is the) Horus of the two Horizons"), the fusion of Ra and Horus, in a
depiction typical of the New Kingdom. Re-Horakhty was in turn identified with Amun.

As the cult of Amun grew in importance, Amun became identified with the chief deity who was
worshipped in other areas during that period, namely the sun god Ra. This identification led to
another merger of identities, with Amun becoming Amun-Ra. In the Hymn to Amun-Ra he is
described as

Lord of truth, father of the gods, maker of men, creator of all animals, Lord of things that are,
creator of the staff of life.[10]

Atenist heresy[edit]

Hieroglyphs on the backpillar of Amenhotep III's statue. There are two places where Akhenaten's
agents erased the name Amun, later restored on a deeper surface. The British Museum, London

During the latter part of the eighteenth dynasty, the pharaoh Akhenaten (also known as
Amenhotep IV) disliked the power of the temple of Amun and advanced the worship of the Aten,
a deity whose power was manifested in the sun disk, both literally and symbolically. He defaced
the symbols of many of the old deities, and based his religious practices upon the deity, the Aten.
He moved his capital away from Thebes, but this abrupt change was very unpopular with the
priests of Amun, who now found themselves without any of their former power. The religion of
Egypt was inexorably tied to the leadership of the country, the pharaoh being the leader of both.
The pharaoh was the highest priest in the temple of the capital, and the next lower level of
religious leaders were important advisers to the pharaoh, many being administrators of the
bureaucracy that ran the country.
The introduction of Atenism under Akhenaten constructed a monotheist worship of Aten in
direct competition with that of Amun. Praises of Amun on stelae are strikingly similar in
language to those later used, in particular, the Hymn to the Aten:

When thou crossest the sky, all faces behold thee, but when thou departest, thou are hidden from
their faces ... When thou settest in the western mountain, then they sleep in the manner of
death ... The fashioner of that which the soil produces, ... a mother of profit to gods and men; a
patient craftsman, greatly wearying himself as their maker ... valiant herdsman, driving his cattle,
their refuge and the making of their living ... The sole Lord, who reaches the end of the lands
every day, as one who sees them that tread thereon ... Every land chatters at his rising every day,
in order to praise him.[11]

Originally, Amun was depicted with red-brown skin but after the Amarna period, he was painted
with blue skin, symbolizing his association with air and primeval creation. Amun was also
depicted in a wide variety of other forms.

When Akhenaten died, the priests of Amun-Ra reasserted themselves. Akhenaten's name was
struck from Egyptian records, all of his religious and governmental changes were undone, and
the capital was returned to Thebes. The return to the previous capital and its patron deity was
accomplished so swiftly that it seemed this almost monotheistic cult and its governmental
reforms had never existed. Worship of Aten ceased and worship of Amun-Ra was restored. The
priests of Amun even persuaded his young son, Tutankhaten, whose name meant "the living
image of Aten"—and who later would become pharaoh—to change his name to Tutankhamun,
"the living image of Amun".
Theology[edit]

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In the New Kingdom, Amun became successively identified with all other Egyptian deities, to
the point of virtual monotheism (which was then attacked by means of the "counter-
monotheism" of Atenism). Primarily, the god of wind Amun came to be identified with the solar
god Ra and the god of fertility and creation Min, so that Amun-Ra had the main characteristic of
a solar god, creator god and fertility god. He also adopted the aspect of the ram from the Nubian
solar god, besides numerous other titles and aspects.

As Amun-Re, he was petitioned for mercy by those who believed suffering had come about as a
result of their own or others' wrongdoing.

Amon-Re "who hears the prayer, who comes at the cry of the poor and distressed...Beware of
him! Repeat him to son and daughter, to great and small; relate him to generations of generations
who have not yet come into being; relate him to fishes in the deep, to birds in heaven; repeat him
to him who does not know him and to him who knows him ... Though it may be that the servant
is normal in doing wrong, yet the Lord is normal in being merciful. The Lord of Thebes does not
spend an entire day angry. As for his anger – in the completion of a moment there is no
remnant ... As thy Ka endures! thou wilt be merciful![12]

In the Leiden hymns, Amun, Ptah, and Re are regarded as a trinity who are distinct gods but with
unity in plurality.[13] "The three gods are one yet the Egyptian elsewhere insists on the separate
identity of each of the three."[14] This unity in plurality is expressed in one text:

All gods are three: Amun, Re and Ptah, whom none equals. He who hides his name as Amun, he
appears to the face as Re, his body is Ptah.[15]

Henri Frankfort suggested that Amun was originally a wind god and pointed out that the implicit
connection between the winds and mysteriousness was paralleled in a passage from the Gospel
of John: "The wind blows where it wishes, and you hear the sound of it, but do not know where
it comes from and where it is going."[John 3:8][16]

A Leiden hymn to Amun describes how he calms stormy seas for the troubled sailor:

The tempest moves aside for the sailor who remembers the name of Amon. The storm becomes a
sweet breeze for he who invokes His name ... Amon is more effective than millions for he who
places Him in his heart. Thanks to Him the single man becomes stronger than a crowd.[17]

Third Intermediate Period[edit]

Theban High Priests of Amun[edit]

Main article: Theban High Priests of Amun

While not regarded as a dynasty, the High Priests of Amun at Thebes were nevertheless of such
power and influence that they were effectively the rulers of Egypt from 1080 to c. 943 BC. By
the time Herihor was proclaimed as the first ruling High Priest of Amun in 1080 BC—in the 19th
Year of Ramesses XI—the Amun priesthood exercised an effective hold on Egypt's economy.
The Amun priests owned two-thirds of all the temple lands in Egypt and 90 percent of her ships
and many other resources.[18] Consequently, the Amun priests were as powerful as the pharaoh, if
not more so. One of the sons of the High Priest Pinedjem would eventually assume the throne
and rule Egypt for almost half a decade as pharaoh Psusennes I, while the Theban High Priest
Psusennes III would take the throne as king Psusennes II—the final ruler of the 21st Dynasty.
This Third Intermediate Period amulet from the Walters Art Museum depicts Amun fused with
the solar deity, Re, thereby making the supreme solar deity Amun-Re.

Decline[edit]

In the 10th century BC, the overwhelming dominance of Amun over all of Egypt gradually
began to decline. In Thebes, however, his worship continued unabated, especially under the
Nubian Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt, as Amun was by now seen as a national god in Nubia.
The Temple of Amun, Jebel Barkal, founded during the New Kingdom, came to be the center of
the religious ideology of the Kingdom of Kush. The Victory Stele of Piye at Gebel Barkal (8th
century BC) now distinguishes between an "Amun of Napata" and an "Amun of Thebes".
Tantamani (died 653 BC), the last pharaoh of the Nubian dynasty, still bore a theophoric name
referring to Amun in the Nubian form Amani.
Iron Age and classical antiquity[edit]

Depiction of Amun in a relief at Karnak (15th century BC)

Nubia and Sudan[edit]

In areas outside Egypt where the Egyptians had previously brought the cult of Amun his worship
continued into classical antiquity. In Nubia, where his name was pronounced Amane or Amani,
he remained a national deity, with his priests, at Meroe and Nobatia,[19] regulating the whole
government of the country via an oracle, choosing the ruler, and directing military expeditions.
According to Diodorus Siculus, these religious leaders were even able to compel kings to
commit suicide, although this tradition stopped when Arkamane, in the 3rd century BC, slew
them.[20]

In Sudan, excavation of an Amun temple at Dangeil began in 2000 under the directorship of Drs
Salah Mohamed Ahmed and Julie R. Anderson of the National Corporation for Antiquities and
Museums (NCAM), Sudan and the British Museum, UK, respectively. The temple was found to
have been destroyed by fire and Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) and C14 dating of the
charred roof beams have placed the construction of the most recent incarnation of the temple in
the 1st century AD. This date is further confirmed by the associated ceramics and inscriptions.
Following its destruction, the temple gradually decayed and collapsed.[21]

Libya[edit]

In Libya there remained a solitary oracle of Amun in the Libyan Desert at the oasis of Siwa.[22]
The worship of Ammon was introduced into Greece at an early period, probably through the
medium of the Greek colony in Cyrene, which must have formed a connection with the great
oracle of Ammon in the Oasis soon after its establishment. Iarbas, a mythological king of Libya,
was also considered a son of Hammon.
According to the 6th century author Corippus, a Libyan people known as the Laguatan carried an
effigy of their god Gurzil, whom they believed to be the son of Ammon, into battle against the
Byzantine Empire in the 540s AD.[23]

Levant[edit]

Amun is mentioned as a deity in the Hebrew Bible, and in the Nevi'im, texts presumably written
in the 7th century BC, the name ‫ נא אמון‬No Amown occurs in reference to Thebes:[24]

The Lord of hosts, the God of Israel, said: "Behold, I am bringing punishment upon Amon of
Thebes, and Pharaoh and Egypt and her gods and her kings, upon Pharaoh and those who trust in
him."

— Jeremiah 46:25 (KJV)

Greece[edit]

Zeus Ammon. Roman copy of a Greek original from the late 5th century BC. The Greeks of the
lower Nile Delta and Cyrenaica combined features of supreme god Zeus with features of the
Egyptian god Amun-Ra. Staatliche Antikensammlungen Munich.

Amun, worshipped by the Greeks as Ammon, had a temple and a statue, the gift of Pindar (d. 443
BC), at Thebes,[25] and another at Sparta, the inhabitants of which, as Pausanias says,[26] consulted
the oracle of Ammon in Libya from early times more than the other Greeks. At Aphytis,
Chalcidice, Amun was worshipped, from the time of Lysander (d. 395 BC), as zealously as in
Ammonium. Pindar the poet honored the god with a hymn. At Megalopolis the god was
represented with the head of a ram (Paus. viii.32 § 1), and the Greeks of Cyrenaica dedicated at
Delphi a chariot with a statue of Ammon.

Such was its reputation among the Classical Greeks that Alexander the Great journeyed there
after the battle of Issus and during his occupation of Egypt, where he was declared "the son of
Amun" by the oracle. Alexander thereafter considered himself divine. Even during this
occupation, Amun, identified by these Greeks as a form of Zeus,[27] continued to be the principal
local deity of Thebes.[7]
Several words derive from Amun via the Greek form, Ammon, such as ammonia and ammonite.
The Romans called the ammonium chloride they collected from deposits near the Temple of
Jupiter-Amun in ancient Libya sal ammoniacus (salt of Amun) because of proximity to the
nearby temple.[28] Ammonia, as well as being the chemical, is a genus name in the foraminifera.
Both these foraminiferans (shelled Protozoa) and ammonites (extinct shelled cephalopods) bear
spiral shells resembling a ram's, and Ammon's, horns. The regions of the hippocampus in the
brain are called the cornu ammonis – literally "Amun's Horns", due to the horned appearance of
the dark and light bands of cellular layers.

In Paradise Lost, Milton identifies Ammon with the biblical Ham (Cham) and states that the
gentiles called him the Libyan Jove.

See also[edit]
• List of solar deities

References[edit]
1. ^ Warburton (2012:211).
2. ^ Dick, Michael Brennan (1999). Born in heaven, made on earth: the making of the cult image in
the ancient Near East. Warsaw, Indiana: Eisenbrauns. p. 184. ISBN 1575060248.
3. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Arieh Tobin, Vincent (2003). Redford, Donald B. (ed.). Oxford Guide: The
Essential Guide to Egyptian Mythology. Berkley, California: Berkley Books. p. 20. ISBN 0-425-
19096-X.
4. ^ "Die Altaegyptischen Pyramidentexte nach den Papierabdrucken und Photographien des
Berliner Museums". 1908.
5. ^ Hart, George (2005). The Routledge Dictionary of Egyptian Gods and Goddesses. Abingdon,
England: Routledge. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-415-36116-3.
6. ^ Blyth, Elizabeth (2006). Karnak: Evolution of a Temple. Abingdon, England: Routledge. p. 164.
ISBN 978-0415404860.
7. ^ Jump up to: a b One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication
now in the public domain: Griffith, Francis Llewellyn (1911). "Ammon". In Chisholm, Hugh
(ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 860–861. This
cites:
▪ Erman, Handbook of Egyptian Religion (London, 1907)
▪ Ed. Meyer, art. "Ammon" in Roscher's Lexikon der griechischen und römischen
Mythologie
▪ Pietschmann, arts. "Ammon", "Ammoneion" in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopädie
▪ Works on Egyptian religion quoted (in the encyclopædia) under Egypt, section Religion
8. ^ Lichtheim, Miriam (1976). Ancient Egyptian Literature: Volume II: The New Kingdom.
Berkeley, California: University of California Press. pp. 105–106. ISBN 0-520-03615-8.
9. ^ Hart 2005, p. 21
10. ^ Budge, E.A. Wallis (1914). An Introduction to Egyptian Literature (1997 ed.). Minneola, New
York: Dover Publications. p. 214. ISBN 0-486-29502-8..
11. ^ Wilson, John A. (1951). The Burden of Egypt (1963 ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of
Chicago Press. p. 211. ISBN 978-0-226-90152-7.
12. ^ Wilson 300
 13. ^ Morenz, Siegried (1992). Egyptian Religion. Translated by Ann E. Keep. Ithaca, New York:
Cornell University Press. pp. 144–145. ISBN 0-8014-8029-9.
14. ^ Frankfort, Henri; Wilson, John A.; Jacobsen, Thorkild (1960). Before Philosophy: The
Intellectual Adventure of Ancient Man. Gretna, Louisiana: Pelican Publishing Company. p. 75.
ISBN 978-0140201987.
15. ^ Assmann, Jan (2008). Of God and Gods. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press.
p. 64. ISBN 978-0-299-22554-4.
16. ^ Frankfort, Henri (1951). Before Philosophy. Penguin Books. p. 18. ASIN B0006EUMNK.
17. ^ Jacq, Christian (1999). The Living Wisdom of Ancient Egypt. New York City: Simon &
Schuster. p. 143. ISBN 0-671-02219-9.
18. ^ Clayton, Peter A. (2006). Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-reign Record of the Rulers
and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. London, England: Thames & Hudson. p. 175. ISBN 978-
0500286289.
19. ^ Herodotus, The Histories ii.29
20. ^ Griffith 1911.
21. ^ Sweek, Tracey; Anderson, Julie; Tanimoto, Satoko (2012). "Architectural Conservation of an
Amun Temple in Sudan". Journal of Conservation and Museum Studies. London, England:
Ubiquity Press. 10 (2): 8–16. doi:10.5334/jcms.1021202.
22. ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece x.13 § 3
23. ^ Mattingly, D.J. (1983). "The Laguatan: A Libyan Tribal Confederation in the Late Roman
Empire" (PDF). Libyan Studies. London, England: Society for Libyan Studies. 14: 98–99.
doi:10.1017/S0263718900007810.
24. ^ "Strong's Concordance / Gesenius' Lexicon". Archived from the original on 2007-10-13.
Retrieved 2007-10-10.
25. ^ Pausanias. Description of Greece. ix.16 § 1.
26. ^ Pausanias. Description of Greece. iii.18 § 2.
27. ^ Jeremiah. xlvi.25. Missing or empty |title= (help)
28. ^ "Eponyms". h2g2. BBC Online. 11 January 2003. Archived from the original on 2 November
2007. Retrieved 8 November 2007.

Sources[edit]
• David Klotz, Adoration of the Ram: Five Hymns to Amun-Re from Hibis Temple (New
Haven, 2006)
• David Warburton, Architecture, Power, and Religion: Hatshepsut, Amun and Karnak in
Context, 2012, ISBN 9783643902351.
• E. A. W. Budge, Tutankhamen: Amenism, Atenism, and Egyptian Monotheism (1923).

Further reading[edit]
• Assmann, Jan (1995). Egyptian Solar Religion in the New Kingdom: Re, Amun and the
Crisis of Polytheism. Kegan Paul International. ISBN 978-0710304650.
• Ayad, Mariam F. (2009). God's Wife, God's Servant: The God's Wife of Amun (c. 740–
525 BC). Routledge. ISBN 978-0415411707.
• Cruz-Uribe, Eugene (1994). "The Khonsu Cosmogony". Journal of the American
Research Center in Egypt. 31: 169–189. doi:10.2307/40000676. JSTOR 40000676.
• Gabolde, Luc (2018). Karnak, Amon-Rê : La genèse d'un temple, la naissance d'un dieu
(in French). Institut français d'archéologie orientale du Caire. ISBN 978-2-7247-0686-4.
 • Guermeur, Ivan (2005). Les cultes d'Amon hors de Thèbes: Recherches de géographie
religieuse (in French). Brepols. ISBN 978-90-71201-10-3.
• Klotz, David (2012). Caesar in the City of Amun: Egyptian Temple Construction and
Theology in Roman Thebes. Association Égyptologique Reine Élisabeth. ISBN 978-2-
503-54515-8.
• Kuhlmann, Klaus P. (1988). Das Ammoneion. Archäologie, Geschichte und Kultpraxis
des Orakels von Siwa (in German). Verlag Phillip von Zabern in Wissenschaftliche
Buchgesellschaft. ISBN 978-3805308199.
• Otto, Eberhard (1968). Egyptian art and the cults of Osiris and Amon. Abrams.
• Roucheleau, Caroline Michelle (2008). Amun temples in Nubia: a typological study of
New Kingdom, Napatan and Meroitic temples. Archaeopress. ISBN 9781407303376.
• Thiers, Christophe, ed. (2009). Documents de théologies thébaines tardives. Université
Paul-Valéry.
• Zandee, Jan (1948). De Hymnen aan Amon van papyrus Leiden I. 350 (in Dutch). E.J.
Brill.
• Zandee, Jan (1992). Der Amunhymnus des Papyrus Leiden I 344, Verso (in German).
Rijksmuseum van Oudheden. ISBN 978-90-71201-10-3.

External links[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Amun.

• Wim van den Dungen, Leiden Hymns to Amun

• (in Spanish) Karnak 3D :: Detailed 3D-reconstruction of the Great Temple of Amun at
Karnak, Marc Mateos, 2007
• Amun with features of Tutankhamun (statue, c. 1332–1292 BC, Penn Museum)

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