Unit 2- Egyptian Literature

Historical Background

• The longest river in the world: Nile River

– It is 4,000 miles long (Egyptians only knew of 1,000 miles).

• The Nile flows from South to North.

• CATARACTS: waterfalls along the Nile River that protected the Egyptians from invasion.

• HERODOTUS called Egypt the “GIFT OF THE NILE:”

1. It was the only source of water in Egypt.

2.Without the Nile, the Egyptian culture would never have existed.

• PAPYRUS: a reed that grew along the Nile River used for making paper.

Egyptian Religion

• AMON-RE (RA): most important god; the sun god; depicted as a hawk headed man.

• OSIRIS: god of the Nile and the Dead; bearded green faced man in mummy wrappings.

• ISIS: wife of Osiris; wings, horns or hieroglyphics on head.

• SET (SETH): evil brother of Osiris; head of an unknown animal, a crocodile, a hippopotamus or a black pig.

• HORUS: sky god and son of Osiris/Isis who revenged the death of his father; falcon headed man.

• ANUBIS: guide of dead and god of embalming; dog or jackal head.

• HATHOR: goddess of motherhood, love, music and dancing; cow head.

• Aker – A god of the earth and the horizon[3]

• Ammit – goddess who devoured condemned souls[4]

• Amenhotep son of Hapu – A scribe and architect in the court of Amenhotep III, later deified for his
wisdom[5]

• Am-heh – A dangerous underworld god[5]

• Amun – A creator god, patron deity of the city of Thebes, and the preeminent deity in Egypt during
the New Kingdom[6]

• Amunet – Female counterpart of Amun and a member of the Ogdoad[3]

• Anat – A war and fertility goddess, originally from Syria, who entered Egyptian religion in the Middle
Kingdom[7]

• Anhur – A god of war and hunting[8]

• Anput - A goddess of the dead and mummification

• Nemty – Falcon god, worshipped in Middle Egypt,[9] who appears in myth as a ferryman for greater
gods[10]

• Anuket – A goddess of Egypt's southern frontier regions, particularly the lower cataracts of the Nile[12]

• Apedemak – A warlike lion god from Nubia who appears in some Egyptian-built temples in Lower
Nubia[13]

• Apep – A serpent deity who personified malevolent chaos and was said to fight Ra in the underworld
every night[14]

• Apis – A live bull worshipped as a god at Memphis and seen as a manifestation of Ptah[15]

• Arensnuphis – A Nubian deity who appears in Egyptian temples in Lower Nubia in the Greco-Roman
era[16]

• Ash – A god of the Libyan Desert and oases west of Egypt[17]

EGYPTIAN AFTERLIFE

• The Egyptians believed in life after death

• When you die, you go to the underworld where Osiris judges you

• He weighs your heart against a feather (symbol of truth)

• If heart is light (innocence), one goes to the OTHER WORLD, (Happy Field of Flood)

• If heart is heavy (guilt), one is fed to Ammit, the DEVOURER OF SOULS, crocodile shaped Eater of the
Dead

• Egyptians looked forward to their afterlife and planned well for life after death.

• PYRAMIDS: burial tombs for the kings.

• They would be filled with food and riches to go with them into the afterlife.

• Egyptian people worked on the building of the pyramids 3 months a year during flood season.

EGYPTIAN BURIAL PROCESS

MUMMIFICATION: process that preserved the body of the dead for entry into the afterlife.

• Remove brain through nostrils with a hook and throw away.

• Remove internal organs except for heart.

• Remove eyes and replace with artificial ones; organs, such as the liver, lungs, intestines and stomach
would be put in CANOPIC JARS (jars that held the organs.)

• Fill body with NATRON (a salt used to dry out body.)

• Fill body with spices and embalming fluid.

• Body would sit for 70 days.

• Paint face.
 • Wrap body in bandages with AMULETS (objects worn to bring good luck or avert bad luck.)

• ANKH: symbol of eternal life

• Place body in a SARCOPHAGUS (an ornamental coffin.)

• CARTOUCHE (oval nameplate) - deceased king or queen’s name would be written on it to protect pharaoh
from evil spirits.

• Place body in pyramid with possessions.

EGYPTIAN GOVERNMENT

• PHARAOH: the ruler of ancient Egypt. It means “Great House.” He was all powerful and claimed to be a
living god, a descendant of the sun god, Amon-Re.

• DYNASTY: ruling family.

• VIZIER: a chief minister (government official) who helped the pharaoh rule by supervising the business of
government.

• 2 Kingdoms of Egypt:

*Lower Egypt: (North of Thebes)

*Upper Egypt: (South of Thebes)

• 3100 B.C.: MENES: the first pharaoh, united Upper and Lower Egypt.

Egyptian Literature

Egyptian literature traces its beginnings to ancient Egypt and is some of the earliest known
literature. Indeed, the Egyptians were the first culture to develop literature as we know it today, that is,
the book.

• The ancient Egyptians wrote works on papyrus as well as walls, tombs, pyramids, obelisks and
more.

• AUTOBIOGRAPHY has been called the oldest form of Egyptian Literature.

• The first examples of Egyptian writing come from the Early Dynastic Period (c. 6000- c. 3150
BCE) in the form of Offering Lists and autobiographies; the autobiography was carved on
one's tomb along with the Offering List to let the living know what gifts, and in what quantity,
the deceased was due regularly in visiting the grave.

• In the 18th century, literature especially the libraries, thrived under the New Egypt brought
about by the Muslim conquerors. Important changes occurred during that time which affected
Egyptian writers. Papyrus was replaced by cloth paper, and calligraphy was introduced as a
writing system.
 •  Hieroglyphics ("sacred carvings") a writing system combining phonograms (symbols which
represent sound), logograms (symbols representing words), and ideograms (symbols which
represent meaning or sense). 

• Hieratic (“sacred writings”) was based on hieroglyphic script and relied on the same principles
but was less formal and precise.

• In c. 700 BCE hieratic was replaced by demotic script ("popular writing") which continued in use
until the rise of Christianity in Egypt and the adoption of Coptic script c. 4th century CE.

Literature in the Old Kingdom

● The Offering Lists and autobiographies, though not considered "literature", are the first
examples of the Egyptian writing system in action. 
● The Offering List was a simple instruction, known to the Egyptians as the hetep-di-nesw ("a
boon given by the king"), inscribed on a tomb detailing food, drink, and other offerings
appropriate for the person buried there. 
● The autobiography, written after the person's death, was always inscribed in the first person as
though the deceased were speaking.
● Some of these autobiographies and lists of virtues were brief, inscribed on a false door or
around the lintels.

Middle Kingdom Literature

● The Middle Kingdom is considered the classical age of Egyptian literature.

● During this time the script known as Middle Egyptian was created, considered the highest form
of hieroglyphics.
● The Middle Kingdom also produced the poetry known as The Lay of the Harper (also known
as The Songs of the Harper), which frequently question the existence of an ideal afterlife and the
mercy of the gods and, at the same time, created hymns to those gods affirming such an
afterlife.
● The most famous prose narratives in Egyptian history - The Tale of the Shipwrecked
Sailor and The Story of Sinuhe  both come from the Middle Kingdom as well. 

● HYKSOS: invaders from West Asia that conquered Egypt. They were the first to use horse
drawn chariots. They ruled Egypt for 200 years. They taught the Egyptians military skills but
were conquered in 1570 B.C.

Literature in the New Kingdom

● The memory of the Hyksos "invasion" remained fresh in the minds of the Egyptians and was
reflected in the political policies and the literature of the period.
● During the New Kingdom works were largely hymns, prayers, instructions in wisdom, praise
songs, love poems, and stories.
● The best-known piece of literature from New Kingdom texts, however, is  The Book of Coming
Forth by Day, commonly known as The  Egyptian Book of the Dead. 
 ● The Egyptian Book of the Dead is a series of "spells" which are instructions for the deceased in
the afterlife to help them navigate their way through various hazards and find everlasting peace
in paradise. 

Tales

The Tale of Shipwrecked Sailor

This tale from Ancient Egypt was written down in hieroglyphics 4000 years ago. It's one of the oldest
stories to have come down to us. In fact, it is really several stories all framed within a story.

A ship returns to Egypt from a long voyage. The merchant owner of the shipper is afraid that the
pharaoh will be angry with him because his business has not prospered. His attendant tells him a story
of an earlier journey, in which he was shipwrecked and met a giant serpent. The attendant means to
show that it's not so much what you do, but how you tell it that counts. The master is not so sure.

The Tale of Prince Setna

A tale from a Ptolemaic record relates that zetna Khaemwaset –who was Ramsses II's son, Ptah's Chief
Priest during the Nineteenth Dynasty and an able soldier– heard that the Book of Thuth was put in the
tomb of Neferkaptah, the man who had died while stealing it. Though warned of the consequences of
taking the book, Setna showed persistence by playing a game with Neferkaptah, who put a spell on him
and hit him repeatedly over the head with the game-board at each victory. After the talisman of his
father Ptah and his magic books were brought to him, Setna freed himself from Neferkaptah; and taking
the Book of Thuth, he ran off the tomb taking with him the tomb's light, leaving Neferkaptah and his
wife in darkness. Although Setna received another caution from his father, Ramses II, against the
dangers of that book, he insisted on reading it to others. Later, Setna beheld a pretty woman that turned
to be Tabubu, daughter of a priest of Bast. Hungered for satisfying his personal delights, he offered her
ten pieces of gold if she would sleep with him. After she agreed on the condition that he would go to her
home, he hastened by boat to Bubastis. In her house, they spent their time talking and feasting. To yield
to his desires, she conditioned that he must write a letter in which he would promise to maintain her
and to give her all his wealth.

After he willingly agreed, she ordered his children be recalled to sign the document and to desist their
birth-right. However, it seems that she had other wishes that must be materialized first. Next, she
desired that he killed his children so as to be the sole owner of his properties and to avoid any potential
fight with them after his death. To respect her wishes, he slain them and threw their bodies off the
window leaving the street dogs satisfy their hunger with their flesh. When he prepared himself for
obtaining some physical pleasures in return, she left him naked alone. When Ramses II beheld his son in
this shameful appearance, he reproved his gross deeds; advised him to return to Memphis where he
would find his children alive; and recommended that the Book of Thuth should be returned. At entering
the tomb with the book, Neferkaptah blamed Setna for not listening to his previous warnings and his
wife said that the book was brought back safe thanks to Ptah then she sent Setna to find the bodies of
his wife and son to be summoned with their spirits in his tomb. After he restored the book, the tomb
was once more lightened.

The Tale of Sinuhe

The Tale of Sinuhe  is presented as a first-person account of Sinuhe's life that has been inscribed on the
walls of his burial pyramid. The story begins with Sinuhe, a royal courtier, becoming overcome with
panic and fleeing Egypt upon hearing of King Sehetepibre's death. He travels for several months before
meeting a Palestinian prince named Amunenshi, who rules upper Retjenu (Canaan and Syria). After
Sinuhe displays his loyalty to the new king of Egypt with lengthy praise, Amunenshi marries Sinuhe to his
daughter and sets him up as a tribe leader in a fertile area called Iaa. Sinuhe has children and lives a
comfortable life, developing a reputation as a beloved warrior hero in Retjenu. In his old age, Sinuhe
longs to return to Egypt. His wish is answered with a decree from King Senwosret, who requests that
Sinuhe return to be buried in the place he was born. Sinuhe lives out his last days living in luxury near
the Egyptian palace, overseeing the burial pyramid the king has ordered constructed for him. Sinuhe
ends the story by reflecting on how he, a lowly man, has been given an afterlife befitting a great ruler all
because of the king's generosity.

Love Songs/Poems

The following excerpts of ancient Egyptian love poetry are from the love songs called “The Great
Dispenser of Pleasure” or “The Great Leisure” depending on the translation. They are part of the Chester
Beatty I Papyrus housed in Dublin.

The full poem is composed of 7 stanzas, each one sung by either a man or a woman. They tell of two
people who fall in love and are not able yet to unite together.

She has stolen my heart with her embrace,

Ancient Egyptian Love Poetry – The Great
Leisure, Stanza One
(the man sings)
Sister without rival,
most beautiful of all,
she looks like the star-goddess, rising
at the start of the good New Year.
Perfect and bright, shining skin,
seductive in her eyes when she glances,
sweet in her lips when she speaks,
and never a word too many.
Slender neck, shining body,
her hair is true lapis,
her arm gathers gold,
her fingers are like lotus flowers,
ample behind, tight waist,
her thighs extend her beauty,
shapely in stride when she steps on the earth.
She has made the neck of every man
turn round at the sight of her.
Whoever embraces her is happy,
he is like the head of lovers,
and she is seen going outside
like That Goddess, the One Goddess.
Ancient Egyptian Love Poetry – The Great
Leisure, Stanza Two
(the woman sings)
My brother overwhelms my heart with his
words,
he has made sickness seize hold of me.
Now he is near the house of my mother,
and I cannot even tell that he has been.
It is good of my mother to order me like this,
‘Give it up out of your sights’;
see how my heart is torn by the memory of him,
love of him has stolen me.
Look what a senseless man he is
– but I am just like him.
He does not realize how I wish to embrace him,
or he would write to my mother.
Brother, yes! I am destined to be yours,
by the Gold Goddess of women.
Come to me, let your beauty be seen,
let father and mother be glad.
Call all my people together in one place,
let them shout out for you, brother.
The poem continues for 5 more stanzas with the
last one shows clear desperation on the part of
the young man. He is love sick and hasn’t seen
the object of his affections for a whole week.
Here’s that last stanza but from a different
translation of the poem, just to give you
another flavor of ancient Egyptian poetry.
Ancient Egyptian Love Poetry – The Great
Leisure, Stanza Seven
(the man sings)
Seven days to yesterday
I have not seen the sister,
And a sickness has invaded me.
My body has become heavy,
Forgetful of my own self,
If the chief of physicians come to me,
my heart is not content with their remedies;
the lector priests, no way out is in them-
My sickness will not be probed.
To say to me:
“Here she is!” is what will revive me;
Her name is what will lift me up;
The going in and out of her messengers
is what will revive my heart.
More beneficial to me is the sister
than any remedies;
She is more to me than collected writings
My health is her coming in from outside
When I see her, then I am well.
If she opens her eye,
my body is young again
If she speaks, then I am strong again
When I embrace her,
she drives evil away from me –
But she has been gone forth from me for seven
days!

Legends and Myths

1. The Story of Re 

Also known as the Myth of Creation, the Story of Re revolves around an egg that named all the living
beings, including mankind. Once all the living creatures were named, it turned into a man that served as
the 1st Pharaoh of Egypt for years on end. The Egyptians then began making fun of him that he was
getting too old to be their Pharaoh. However, things quickly cooled down once the Isis intervened.

2. The Isis and Osiris 

As the son of Re, Osiris married Isis, after which he became Egypt’s sole ruler. While he was well-liked,
his brother Set wasn’t fond of him. He thereby tricked Osiris and killed him which left his beloved wife
distraught.

Nonetheless, she used magic to put his body back together, embalmed him and laid him to rest. From
then on, embalming the dead became an Egyptian tradition for years after. The logic behind this was for
their souls to come back to the earth when Horus who was the son of Osiris, avenged his father.
3. The Battle of Set and Horus 
Upon the embalming of Osiris, his son Horus was magically conceived. After the death of Osiris, his
brother Set took over as the ruler of Egypt. However, Horus challenged him to the throne. Therefore, a
battle ensued between Horus and Set.

It entailed appealing to a myriad of deities, contests, shape-shifting, and even lascivious frenzies
between the two. Nonetheless, there was no conflict resolution between the two men. The story
thereby sets the tone for the duality that’s pre-eminent in Egyptian myths.

4. The Underworld and Anubis 

Anubis was the other son of Osiris from his sister Nephthys. She was a protective Goddess that was a
representation of the death experience, just like her brother Osiris marked the birth experience. In some
ancient Egyptian temple myths, she was referred to as the ‘Excellent Goddess’ or ‘Useful Goddess.’

Anubis served as a guardian for the underworld and was the head of a jackal. So, after someone passed
on, he would take their soul to the afterlife and witness a ceremony known as the Weighing of the
Heart.

It entailed the heart being weighed on the Scale of Truth against the feather of the Goddess of Truth. If
the heart weighed less than the feather, then the soul was allowed in the underworld. However, if it was
heavier, then it would be devoured by a demon, and the person would ‘die again.’

5. Ra 
As the God of the Sun, Ra was associated with fire. The Egyptians believed that Ra sailed on a boat,
daily.

Every morning, before he could rise from the east, Ra would go head-to-head with Apep, the opponent
of truth and light who was depicted as an enormous serpent.  They believed that on the days when
eclipses occurred, and there was darkness, Ra lost the battle and his boat was swallowed by Apep.

6. Hatshepsut 
Thoth prophesized her to be Egypt’s 1 st female Pharaoh. The prophecy stems from the fact that Ra
wished for a female Pharaoh that would bring the world together.
He believed that the only person who was capable of uniting the world was the daughter of Thutmose,
the Pharaoh. Nonetheless, the plan didn’t come to fruition because Thutmose passed on before the
conception of Hatshepsut. As a result, Ra impregnated Thutmose’s maiden, Ahmes, via his divine breath.

7. The Prince and the Sphinx 

As a favorite, nearly everyone plotted against Hatshepsut’s great-grandson. So, amped up to prove
himself, he escaped the court and embarked on a journey across the desert until he encountered the
sphinx. It was designed solely for Khafra, the Pharaoh, who turned out to be just like his father in every
way.

According to his predictions, Thutmose would be an excellent Pharaoh. However, he first needed to free
him from the desert. Thutmose promised to do so once he became the Pharaoh. True to that, he
became one of Egypt’s greatest Pharaohs.

8. The Book of Thoth 

It’s believed to be a book that’s packed with the profound knowledge and wisdom that the Gods of
Egypt had. The Book of Thoth is tucked away on the floor of the Nile River in a locked set of boxes and is
safeguarded by serpents.

Over the years, a multitude of Pharaohs has attempted to get their hands on it. However, their efforts
have proved futile because the knowledge that the book holds is not meant to be possessed by humans.

9. Khonsu 
The God of the Moon, Khonsu, symbolizes the passage of time with one of the ancient Egyptian deities
named Thoth. Khonsu means traveler, concerning the nightly traverses of the moon across the sky.

The Egyptians believed that the appearance of a crescent moon meant that women gave birth.
Therefore, Khonsu was the marker of childbirth. He was depicted as a hawk-headed man who wore a
lunar disk.

10. Bes 
Unlike the other Egyptian Gods, Bes is depicted from head-to-toe as a bandy-legged, grotesque dwarf
with his tongue constantly sticking out. He was the symbol of entertainment and fun times but also
regarded as the God of childbirth. Bes also protected the Egyptians from savage animals and the
demons of the night.

Fun Facts:

• JEAN CHAMPOLLION: the French scholar who deciphered hieroglyphics.

• Napoleon Bonaparte’s soldiers discovered in Egypt in 1799 the ROSETTA STONE: a slab of black rock in
which a message was written in 3 languages (hieroglyphics, demotic and Greek) used to decipher
hieroglyphics.

• Knowing Greek, Champollion deciphered the message unlocking the mystery of hieroglyphics for the
world!