The Expressive Macro Skills-Speaking

Nature and Purposes of Speaking

Nature of Speaking:

Speaking is an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves producing and

receiving information. Speaking refers to the realization of language as use in spoken
interaction and visual media since it is an activity which makes a good use of gesture, and
facial expression.

Speaking is an important instrument of communication. People use it almost constantly.

As human beings, especially as social creature we have a need to make meaning of our
surroundings. We have a need to express our thoughts, opinions, or feelings in order to be
accepted in social life. Speaking does not only make sound by the speech organs but
ideas and emotions.

http://repository.ump.ac.id/6277/3/CHAPTER%20II_LILIS%20SETYADI_PBI
%2714.pdf

https://text-id.123dok.com/document/nq7wnvknz-the-nature-of-speaking.html

Purposes of Speaking:

Informative speaking

Informative speaking seeks to inform. Its goal is that the listeners understand something
in the same way that the speaker understands that subject.

Invitational speaking

Invitational speaking is often similar to informative speaking, but adds judgment into the
mix. The 'invitational' element is hence an invitation to listeners in agreement or
evaluation of some sort. This evaluation may be of an idea, another person, an event, an
object of some kind, an event or anything else who which judgment may be applied.

Dispositional speaking

Dispositional speaking is more persuasive in intent than invitational speaking in that it

seeks to gain agreement on an attitude, value or belief.

Actuation speaking
Actuation speaking seeks to get people to act, to perform in some way. In practice this
can be easy for simple actions and hardest of all for actions that the person may not
normally undertake. In this way, actuation speaking can be considered to be the ultimate
in persuasive speaking.

http://changingminds.org/techniques/speaking/preparing_presentation/
purpose_speaking.htm

Mechanics and Process of Speaking

Speech, then, is produced by an air stream from the lungs, which goes through the
trachea and the oral and nasal cavities. It involves four processes: Initiation, phonation,
oro-nasal process and articulation.
The initiation process is the moment when the air is expelled from the lungs. In
English, speech sounds are the result of “a pulmonic egressive air stream” (Giegerich,
1992) although that is not the case in all languages (ingressive sounds).
The phonation process occurs at the larynx. The larynx has two horizontal folds
of tissue in the passage of air; they are the vocal folds. The gap between these folds is
called the glottis.
Through the oro-nasal process we can differentiate between the nasal consonants
(/m/, /n/, //) and other sounds
Finally, the articulation process is the most obvious one: it takes place in the
mouth and it is the process through which we can differentiate most speech sounds. In the
mouth we can distinguish between the oral cavity, which acts as a resonator, and the
articulators, which can be active or passive: upper and lower lips, upper and lower teeth,
tongue (tip, blade, front, back) and roof of the mouth (alveolar ridge, palate and velum).
So, speech sounds are distinguished from one another in terms of the place where and the
manner how they are articulated.

https://www.ugr.es/~ftsaez/fonetica/production_speech.pdf

Speech Styles and Registers

Speech style is the distinct variations or forms of the language used for the same purpose
by a particular situation or the form of language that the speaker uses. It is characterized
by the degree of formality.
Speech register
In linguistics, the register is defined as the way a speaker uses language differently in
different circumstances. They are determined by such factors as social occasion, context,
purpose, and audience.

1) FROZEN STYLE
 Also known as fixed speech
 It is most the most formal communicative style that is often used in respectful
situation or formal ceremony
 As most highly formal style, it uses the complex grammatical sentence structure and
vocabulary known only to experts in a particular field
 It invites the reader to enter into a personal experience of creative discovery such as
literary texts like poetry
 The writing reflects the efforts of revision
Examples:
● Pledge of Allegiance
● Shakespeare's Plays
● Weddings
● Introduction of each other between acquaintance

2) FORMAL STYLE
It uses formal words and expressions

Example: Formal

"Toyota’s sales bounced back in March as substantial discounts helped to win back
customers who had been shaken by the firm’s mass safety recalls.”
 Most often seen in writing than in speaking
 This speech style is expected to be presented in complete sentences with specific
word usage
 Its usually elaborate complex sentences and noun phrases are well structured,
logically sequenced, and strongly coherent
 It does not allow ellipsis (like omissions), contractions, qualifying modal adverbials
(like probably, possibly, evidently, surely, certainly and subjectivel

Examples:
● Job Interview
● Business Trip

3) CONSULTATIVE STYLE

 Known as the Third Level of language

 It is unplanned speech
 This speech style uses listener participation and feedback
 The two defining features of this style are:
(a) the speaker supplies background information
(b) the listener participates continuously
 Less appropriate for writing
Examples:
● When a student is talking to his/her teacher
● When a student recites in class
4) CASUAL OR INFORMAL STYLE

 This style is used in conversations between friends and insiders who have
something to share and have shared background information
 There is free and easy participation of both speaker and listener
 It is marked by various degrees of implicitness because of intimacy between speaker
and listener
 A simple greeting with those you know well might probably be the causal:
▪ “Hey”
▪ “What’s up?”
 Casual or informal style have ellipsis, allows the use of slang, profanity, and
unconventional English words
 The diction or vocabulary is informal (colloquial)

5) INTIMATE STYLE

 This style is used in conversations between people who are very close and know each
other quite well because having a maximum of shared background
 It is characterized by an economy of words, with a high incidence of significant
nonverbal communication, such as gesture, facial expression, eye contact and so on.
 There is free and easy participation of both the speaker and listener, and is far more
elliptical
Examples:
● Telling your bf/gf that you love them
● Telling your best friend your deepest and darkest secrets

6. PASSIVE

 Individuals who use the passive communication style often act indifferently, yielding
to others.
 Passive communicators usually fail to express their feelings or needs, allowing others
to express themselves. Frequently, a passive communicator’s lack of outward
communication can lead to misunderstanding, anger build-up or resentment.
 Passive communicators often display a lack of eye contact, poor body posture and an
inability to say “no.” Passive communicators also act in a way that states “people
never consider my feelings.”

7. AGGRESSIVE

 It’s often apparent when someone communicates in an aggressive manner. You’ll

hear it. You’ll see it. You may even feel it.
 The aggressive communication style is emphasized by speaking in a loud and
demanding voice, maintaining intense eye contact and dominating or controlling
others by blaming, intimidating, criticizing, threatening or attacking them, among
other traits.
 Examples of phrases that an aggressive communicator would use include:
 ● “I’m right and you’re wrong.”
● “It’s all your fault.”

8. PASSIVE-AGGRESSIVE

 Passive-aggressive communication style users appear passive on the surface, but

within he or she may feel powerless or stuck, building up a resentment that leads to
seething or acting out in subtle, indirect or secret ways.
 Most passive-aggressive communicators will mutter to themselves rather than
confront a person or issue. They have difficulty acknowledging their anger, use facial
expressions that don’t correlate with how they feel and even deny there is a problem.
 Ultimately, passive-aggressive communicators are aware of their needs, but at times
struggle to voice them.
 Examples of phrases that a passive-aggressive communicator would used include:
● “That’s fine with me, but don’t be surprised if someone else gets mad.”
● “Sure, we can do things your way” (then mutters to self that “your way” is
stupid).

9. ASSERTIVE

 Thought to be the most effective form of communication, the assertive

communication style features an open communication link while not being
overbearing.
 Assertive communicators can express their own needs, desires, ideas and feelings,
while also considering the needs of others. Assertive communicators aim for both
sides to win in a situation, balancing one’s rights with the rights of others.
 One of the keys to assertive communication is using “I” statements, such as “I feel
frustrated when you are late for a meeting,” or, “I don’t like having to explain this
over and over.” It indicates ownership of feelings and behaviors without blaming the
other person.
 Examples of phrases an assertive communicator would use include:
● “We are equally entitled to express ourselves respectfully to one another.”
● “I realize I have choices in my life, and I consider my options.”
● “I respect the rights of others.”

Sources:
● "Types of Speech Style" by Cesumnida Largado, SlideShare.net
● https://online.alvernia.edu/articles/4-types-communication-styles/
●https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://
jurnalmahasiswa.unesa.ac.id/index.php/languagehorizon/article/download/
18260/16648%23:~:text%3DSpeech%2520style%2520is%2520a%2520variation,people
%2520communicate%2520with%2520other%2520people.%26text%3DAccording
%2520to%2520Joos%2520(1976)%2520speech,this%2520style%2520into%2520five
%2520styles.&ved=2ahUKEwjc5_iBtPzuAhUCFogKHWdwAp4QFjANegQIAhAG&us
g=AOvVaw3AcHiHVILh7S_z7M7CJ3ni
● https://www.thoughtco.com/register-language-style-169
AUSTIN AND SEARLE’S SPEECH ACTS

This concept was proposed by John Langshaw Austin in 1962 one of the founders of
pragmatic and later developed by John R. Searle in 1969 , both philosophers of language ,
they believe that language is not only used to inform or to describe things , it is often
used " to do things " , to perform acts . In other words actions performed via utterances
are generally called speech acts .
He further distinguished three acts in one single speech act or event we perform.
 Illocutionary acts are the real actions which are performed by the utterance. We
form an utterance with some kind of function in mind. This communicative force
of an utterance is known as illocutionary force. (Intention/desire of the speaker.
 Locutionary act is the basic act of utterance, or producing a meaningful
linguistic expressions. We can say performing an act of saying something or
physical utterances of words.
 Perlocutionary act is the effect produced on the listner when they listen a
locutionary act or this is the hears response.

This theory was further classified by John Searle. He states that the taxonomy used by
Austin is defective, especially in its lack of clear criteria for distinguishing one kind of
illocutionary force from another.
Searle divides illocutionary acts into five basic types.
 Directive, it is conversation between 1st and 2nd person here the speaker tries to
make the hearer do something, with such words as: ask, order, command, request,
beg, plead, pray, entreat, invite, permit, advise, demand etc.
Ex: Give me your pen. Leave the town immediately.
 Commissive, the speaker commits himself or herself to the future course of
action, with verbs such as: guarantee, promise, swear, refuse, threating etc.
Ex: I will repay the money. I swear to tell the truth.
 Representative, the speaker asserts a proposition to be true, using such verbs as:
affirm, believe, conclude, deny, report, state. etc
Ex: The earth is round. I think, he is saying the truth.
 Declarative, the speaker alters the external status or condition of an object,
situation or context solely by making the utterance.
Ex: Class dismissed. You are fired. We find defendant not guilty.
 Expressive, the speaker expresses an attitude to or about a state of affairs, using
such verbs as: thanks, congratulate, apologize, praise etc.
Ex: I am sorry for being late. What a great day! Congratulation! Wala

Source: M.Ali Soomro, M.A English Linguistics 2015-17,”Austin & Searle’s Speech
Act”
Review on Segmentals, Suprasegmentals, Modes of Communication,
Types of Speech Delivery

Introduction:
In linguistics, a segment is "any discrete unit that can be identified, either physically or
auditorily, in the stream of speech".[1] The term is most used in phonetics and phonology
to refer to the smallest elements in a language, and this usage can be synonymous with
the term phone.
 Segmentals
In phonology, there is a subfield of segmental phonology that deals with the analysis of
speech into phonemes (or segmental phonemes), which correspond fairly well to phonetic
segments of the analysed speech.
The segmental phonemes of sign language (formally called "cheremes") are visual
movements of hands, face, and body. They occur in a distinct spatial and temporal order.
The SignWriting script represents the spatial order of the segments with a spatial cluster
of graphemes. Other notations for sign language use a temporal order that implies a
spatial order.
 Suprasegmentals
Suprasegmental, also called prosodic feature, in phonetics, a speech feature such as
stress, tone, or word juncture that accompanies or is added over consonants and vowels;
these features are not limited to single sounds but often extend over syllables, words, or
phrases. In Spanish the stress accent is often used to distinguish between otherwise
identical words: término means “term,” termíno means “I terminate,” and terminó means
“he terminated.” In Mandarin Chinese, tone is a distinctive suprasegmental: shih
pronounced on a high, level note means “to lose”; on a slight rising note means “ten”; on
a falling note means “city, market”; and on a falling–rising note means “history.” English
“beer dripped” and “beard ripped” are distinguished by word juncture.

Modes of Communication

Verbal Communication
Verbal communication depends on words to deliver meaning. It is further subdivided into
written communication and oral communication. Written communication can involve
anything from words on a page to emails, to text messages. Oral communication involves
spoke words. This can be done in person, through the phone, or over video chat. Oral
communication is often quicker than written communication although meaning can be
shaded using tone, inflection, and volume.
Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication occurs when meaning or messages are sent or received
without the use of words. Nonverbal communication can be intentional or unintentional.
Physical nonverbal communication can be displayed through body language, facial
expressions, touch, or eye contact. Nonverbal communication can also be used to modify
the meaning of verbal communications. Some researchers believe that nonverbal
communications account for 55 percent of all communication.
Visual Communication
Our third and final means of communication, visual communication, utilizes drawings,
illustrations, pictures, colors, graphs, charts, and signs to share meaning. Visual
communication can be used in conjunction with verbal communication, or it can stand on
its own. Visual communication is frequently used in advertising, art, and entertainment.
Often, this form of communication can be left further up to interpretation than other
forms of communication. In these cases, it is often the recipient of the communication
who imparts at least some meaning on the message.

There are three modes of communication:

Interpretive Communication
 Students comprehend written, oral, or visual communication on a variety of topics
without any active negotiation of meaning. In the Sonrisas Spanish curriculum
students engage in this mode by listening to stories, reading brief text excerpts
and viewing images in various activities, and reading instructions for portfolio
activities.

Interpersonal Communication
Students engage in two-way oral or written communication with active negotiation of
meaning to share information, feelings, and opinions. This is the meat of the Sonrisas
lessons. In every segment—Circle Time, Story Time, Art Time, and Partner Time—
students have the opportunity to engage in interpersonal communication with the teacher
and their classmates. Students engage in this mode by singing songs, playing games,
doing lesson activities, engaging in shared reading, conversing about art projects, and
completing Partner Time activities.

Presentational Communication
Students present spoken or written information that is prepared for an audience. In the
Sonrisas lessons students present completed art projects, they share information from
Partner Time activities, and they present written work from portfolio activities.

Types of Speech Delivery

There are four primary types of speech delivery: Manuscript, Memorized, Impromptu,
and Extemporaneous
Manuscript speaking, like it sounds, involves reading your speech word-for-word from
its written form. The advantage to delivering a speech this way is that you can perfectly
plan and control the wording of your speech. This sounds like it is ideal, but really it is
not. For one thing, as discussed in the section of this website on writing the speech body,
in most speeches you should be striving for an informal, conversational delivery style.
Reading prevents that, as well as eye contact. Also, with set wording, you can’t adapt the
speech if the audience isn’t following or interested in your speech.
Memorized, like it sounds, involves committing your entire speech to memory. Once
again, this sounds great. But, practically speaking, who has time to memorize even a
short speech? And like a manuscript speech, you can’t adapt to feedback from the
audience.
An Impromptu speech is one that you are asked to deliver with little or no preparation.
Chances are, that if you’re on this site, impromptu speeches aren’t what you are expected
to deliver.

Finally, the Extemporaneous speech is a speech delivered with some prepared structure,
such as notes or an outline, but is otherwise delivered off-the-cuff. In most cases, this is
going to be your best choice. The notes allow you to structure your speech, without
handcuffing you in the event that your audience needs you to adapt. Also, you will sound
more natural and conversational, and this will help hold audience attention.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segment_(linguistics)?
fbclid=IwAR0ZBuAMhBYpYasrOMsR3UCRcdtpUpf2HMMoI8unhtvBCF-
jzviDR79zXNw

SPEAKING FORMATS

1. Talk as Interaction
Our daily communication remains interactional with other people. This refers to what
we said as conversation. It is an interactive communication which done
spontaneous by two or more person. This is about how people try to convey his message
to other people. Therefore, they must use speaking skill to communicate to other person.
The main intention in this function is social relationship.
2. Talk as Transaction
In talk as transaction is more focus on message that conveyed and making others
person understand what we want convey, by clearly and accurately. In this type of spoken
language, students and teacher usually focus on meaning or talking what their way to
understanding.
3. Talk as Performance
 In this case, speaking activities is more focus on monolog better than dialog.
Function of speaking as performance happened at speeches, public talks, public
announcements, retell story, telling story and so on.

Resources: Jack C. Richards, Teaching Listening and Speaking; From Theory to

Practice http://funspeaking.blogspot.com/2012/11/the-function-of-speaking.html

LESSON DESIGN IN TEACHING SPEAKING

The teaching and learning of speaking are a vital part of any language education
classroom; not only does the spoken language offer ‘affordances’ for learning as the main
communicative medium of the classroom, but it is also an important component of
syllabus content and learning outcomes.
Speaking is highly complex and dynamic skill that involves the use of several
simultaneous processes – cognitive, physical and socio – cultural and the speaker’s
knowledge and skills have to be activated rapidly in real time. It is important, therefore,
that speaking should be taught explicitly in language classrooms – simply ‘doing’
speaking through a series of activities is not the same as learning the knowledge, skills
and strategies of speaking.
To teach speaking holistically and comprehensively, it is valuable for the teachers to be
knowledgeable about what speaking competence involves on how different aspects of
speaking competence relate to each other.

 Knowledge of Language and Discourse – requires mastering the sound patterns of

language, knowing the grammar and vocabulary of language and understanding
how stretches of connected speech are organized, so that they are socially and
pragmatically appropriate.
 Core Speaking Skills – refers to developing the ability to process speech quickly
to increase fluency. It also involves being able to negotiate speech, as well as
managing the flow of speech as it unfolds.
 Communication Strategies – involves developing cognitive strategies to
compensate for limitations in language knowledge, metacognitive strategies, and
interaction strategies.

It is important that teachers guide learners systematically, introducing activities that are
integrated and sequenced and that allow them to raise their awareness of the knowledge,
skills and strategies needed for different types of interaction and discourse.

Teaching Speaking Cycle

 Use a wide range of speech enabling skills
 Develop fluency in expression and meaning
 Use grammar flexibility to produce a wide range of utterances that can express
meaning precisely
 Use appropriate vocabulary and accurate language forms relevant to their
speaking needs
  Understand and use social and linguistic conventions of speech for various
contexts
 Employ appropriate oral communication and discourse strategies
 Manage and self-regulate their own speaking development

1. Focus learner’s attention on speaking

2. Provide input and/or guide planning
3. Conduct speaking task
4. Focus on language/skills/strategies
5. Repeat speaking tasks
6. Direct learner’s reflection on learning
7. Facilitate feedback on learning

Materials and Resources in Teaching Speaking

Materials development for teaching speaking has changed over time in response to
methodological developments in the English language teaching profession. A wide range
of materials is needed to address learners' needs for both social and academic language. 

Speaking Aids
Why use speaking aids
In contrast, we often expect that our students have the right mood to speak without
having anything that would help them to be in the right mood to speak, or any prompt
that would help the flow of ideas. These small prompts or small speaking aids get
especially important when children get into the age when they want to speak about
themselves

1. Post-it notes
Post-it notes are great conversation starters. Get them to write a name, a date and a place
that is important to them. These three things should come from three different stories or
events in their lives.
2. Colored paper
Colored paper can be used as a metaphor that represents the choice of the student. Here is
how you do it:

 Lay a good selection of different colored paper out on the floor or on a big table in
the middle of the classroom so that all the colors are visible to the class. Call out a
 subject e.g. something you like to eat. Everyone takes a color that corresponds to
something they like to eat.

 Give students 1 to 2 minutes to talk to each other about the subject then ask students
to put the colored paper back.

 Change the subject and at the same time, ask students to change partners and find the
colour that they associate with the new subject.

 Using these little, inexpensive speaking aids has the following advantages:

 Students get prepared for talking as they are thinking about the prompt, e.g. which
object to choose, what to write or where to stand. So there is thinking time with an
outcome that later will help talking.

 Students concentrate on the subject through concentrating on the prompt.

 It is easier to start talking as these prompts communicate first, so they break the ice
before the students start talking.

 They develop thinking skills such as forming an opinion, finding similarities and
differences and using metaphors.

 They are very flexible and easily adaptable to different levels, ages and teaching
aims.

 Their use often triggers imagination and/or brings back memory, so it helps creative
expression, personalization and originality in speaking.

Materials in Teaching Speaking

Flashcards
Even in this age of computers and internet-based learning materials, flashcards can be
particularly useful for students with learning disabilities such as dyslexia. Printing high-
frequency words, also known as sight words, on the front of flashcards with short
definitions on the back can create a good learning tool for students who have auditory or
visual learning styles.
Visual Aids
Visual aids can be teaching tools designed for the entire classroom, such as posters
showing basic site words, class rules, or key concepts about important holidays or
lessons.

Games
Games can be useful in teaching students everything from money and grammar to social
skills. For example Twenty questions. Twenty questios is also another well worn activity,
but one that never gets old. An added bonus is that it can be used to review target
vocabulary. It’s good as a warmer to get them comfortable with speaking English again.
 
https://rinaaghna.wordpress.com/2012/11/28/teaching-material-development-speaking-2/
https://www.thoughtco.com/tlm-teaching-learning-materials-2081658
https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/speaking-aids

Performance-Based Assessment in Teaching Speaking

Performance-Based Assessment in Teaching Speaking Performance assessment is

an increasingly common assessment method that offers significant advantages over
traditional high-stakes testing.

What is a performance assessment?

• Performance assessment is a summative assessment tool that is used as a substitute for
high-stakes testing. It’s intended to focus more on practical or applied skills—more “do
you know how to use your knowledge?” versus “tell me what you know.” Other common
terms include “authentic assessment” or “performance-based assessment.”
• The assessment itself can be an individual or group project, a portfolio (with potentially
one or more pieces foregrounded) or an open-ended response exercise. The creation
process of the work is then graded according to a set of pre-agreed criteria or a checklist,
shared with the student in advance.
• This is the “performance” part of the “performance assessment”—and this
accountability for the process is what sets it apart from grading a regular assignment.
• In performance—based assessment, the assessment of the learners’ speaking abilities
can be measured through the use of rubrics. According to Arter & McTighe (2001),
rubrics measure learners’ performance in a way that. goes beyond the information
gathered by the traditional standardized testing.
 How to assess your students speaking abilities?
1. Oral Interview
2. Class Presentation
3. Role Play
4. Cloze Exam
5. Fill in the Blank
6. Writing Sample
7. Portfolio
8. Online Qui
9. Multiple Choice Exam
10. True or False Quiz

https://tophat.com/blog/performance-assessment/
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
318459515_The_Assessment_of_Speaking_Skills_at_the_Tertiary_Level#:~:text=In
%20performance%E2%80%94based%20assessment%2C%20the%20assessment%20of
%20the%20learners%E2%80%99,the%20information%20gathered%20by%20the
%20traditional%20standardized%20testing
https://m.busyteacher.org/7082-top-10-ways-to-assess-your-students.html

FEEDBACKING IN ASSESSING SPEAKING

Here's how you can evaluate speaking:

Create a rubric
Most teachers will be familiar with the concept of grading with a rubric, a table with
different criteria and a grading scale. If you have never created a rubric before, it’s really
quite easy. Simply choose the criteria on which you will grade students and list them
along the left side of the page. Then create an even number of columns along the top of
the page.

Pronunciation
Pronunciation is a basic quality of language learning.

Vocabulary
Vocabulary comprehension and vocabulary production are always two separate
banks of words in the mind of a speaker, native as well as second language.
Accuracy
 Grammar has always been and forever will be an important issue in foreign
language study. Writing sentences correctly on a test, though, is not the same as accurate
spoken grammar.
Communication
Assessing communication in your students means looking at their creative use of the
language they do know to make their points understood.
Interaction
Being able to say what you mean with a foreign language is one thing, being able to
interact with others is another.
Fluency
Fluency may be the easiest quality to judge in your students’ speaking.

https://m.busyteacher.org/4836-how-to-evaluate-speaking.html