Experiments in Fluids 17 0994) 350-355 © Springer-Verlagz994
Refractive index matching methods for liquid flow investigations
R. Budwig
350
Abstract A difficulty common to most optical diagnostic
techniques that are applied to fluid dynamics studies is the
refraction of light passing through model and/or test section
walls. The method of choice to eliminate refraction problems in
liquid flows is to match refractive index. This paper presents
techniques for refractive index matching including, (i) arrange-
ment of test section and model, (ii) choice of solid and liquid
materials, and (iii) methods for tuning the match. In addition,
a new application of refractive index matching to liquid-liquid
droplet studies is presented.
1 For liquid flows the method of choice is to eliminate refraction
Introduction
Experimental flow studies are often conducted using optical
diagnostic techniques including qualitative flow visualization
methods, laser Doppler velocimetry (LDV), and more recently
full field methods such as particle image velocimetry (PIV), and
laser induced fluorescence (LIF) for concentration field meas-
urements. A difficulty common to all these methods is the
refraction of light passing through gas-solid or liquid-solid
interfaces at model and/or test section walls.
In LDV this can lead to unwanted displacement, rotation, and
distortion of the measuring volume or to misalignment of the
laser beams resulting in loss of the Doppler signal. With flat
walls the Doppler frequency is not influenced, but both the
location and length of the measuring volume are modified (see,
for example, Durrani and Greated, 1977). With curved walls the
problem is more complex. Equations to correct for location of
the measuring volume have been developed for specific
geometries such as pipe bends (Parry et al., 199o) and cylindrical
tubes (Boadway and Karahan, 1981; and Bicen, 1982). Durrett
et al. (1985) developed a correction lens for measurements in
a cylindrical tube.
Received." 9 December 1993/Accepted'. 30 April 1994
R. Budwig
Mechanical Engineering Department,
University of Idaho
Moscow, Idaho 83844, USA
The author would like to thank Rick ]ames and ]on Martinez for their
assistance in conducting the matching experiments and Professor Mickey
Gunter for his comments on refractometry. We are grateful to the United
States Department of Energy for financial support of the droplet work under
Grant DE-FGo7-86ER13572.
The problem in full field flow visualization can be quite
complex. Lowe and Kutt (1992) show that refraction through
a cylindrical tube wall can generate phenomena such as hidden
regions and multiple images. They proceed to develop a method
for determining the location of a tracer particle that requires
observation of the tube from two directions.
Flows with variable refractive index have similar problems.
McDougall (1979) has developed a method to eliminate refractive
index variation in a density-stratified liquid flow. Schmidt et al.
(1984) discuss the problem of LDV in convective heat transfer
studies where there can be large refractive index variation due
to non uniform temperature fields.
problems by using refractive index matching fluids. This paper
presents techniques for refractive index matching in liquid
flows and a novel method for tuning the match. A new applic-
ation of refractive index matching to liquid-liquid droplet
studies is presented.
2
Methods
2.1
Arrangement of test section and model
For the case of internal flow through a model with curved inside
and outside wails it is necessary to construct a box with flat
walls (view box) around the model. The view box is filled with
a quiescent matching fluid and a matching fluid is also pumped
through the model. The flow can now be viewed without refraction
errors from directions perpendicular to each face of the view
box. Durst et al. (1988)have used this method to conduct near wall
measurements in a turbulent pipe flow. They also discuss
methods for determining the LDV measuring position relative to
the wall when refractive index matching is employed. Duncan
et al. (199o) use the view box method to study flow through elastic
wall casts of aortic bifurcations where wall motions are present.
A second method is available for some internal flows where the
model can be constructed with flat external wails. Budwig et al.
(1993a) have conducted flow studies through axisymrnetric bulges
in tubes using this method. The bulge models were machined from
rectangular blocks of acrylic plastic.
For external flow studies around solids with curved
surfaces the view box becomes a fluid channel through which
the matching fluid is pumped. Chen and Fan (1992) have
used this method to investigate the flow structure in fluidized
beds.
2.2
Solid and liquid materials
Table 1 shows the common materials that are used to construct
models and test sections. Refractive index data for this table
were obtained from Shannon and Wyant (1979), Kirk and
Othmer (1984), and from manufacturer's literature. The
important issues with regard to these materials are, ease of
model and test section construction, index of refraction,
optical clarity, scratch resistance, and price. Some projects
have special requirements such as models with flexible or porus
walls.
A list of liquids that are excellent candidates for matching in
flow studies is given in Table 2. There are many considerations
for successful use of matching liquids including index of
refraction, optical clarity, density, viscosity, material com-
patibility, chemical stability, safety, and price. In some special
cases other factors must be considered such as bio-compatib-
ility for flow over living cells and conductivity for
electrohydrodynamic studies. Handbooks are a good starting
point for selecting potential liquids (e.g. Weast 1988, or Perry
and Green 1984). Donnelly (1981) has compiled tables of
liquids that match the refractive index of borosilicate glass
and of acrylic plastic. However, care must be taken since
some of the tabulated liquids are unsafe to work with or
incompatible with typical flow loop materials. Liu et al. (199o)
use a mixture of oil of turpentine and tetraline whose density
and viscosity are similar to those of water and that matches
the refractive index of common clear cast acrylics used for
the fabrication of the geometrically complex test model. They
also give a number of references describing similar approaches.
An excellent reference for chemical compatibility is a table
compiled by the Little Giant Pump Company (1993) which lists
over 40o substances and their compatibility with common
flow loop materials.
2.3
Measurement and tuning of refractive index
After wall and model materials have been chosen, a matching
liquid must be developed. The liquid refractive index is tuned by
varying the ratio of components. The straightforward method
to tune the match is to use a refractometer to measure the
refractive index of the liquid. Refractometers are commercially
available laboratory instruments that operate on the principle
of total reflection of light rays beyond a critical angle at a
liquid-glass interface. The critical angle depends on the relative
refractive index between the liquid being tested and the glass
surface (a glass prism in the refractometer). Refractometers 351
normally are set up to measure refractive index in sodium light
(589.3 nm). The effects of dispersion, the variation of refractive
index with wavelength, are usually small over the visible light
spectrum. Table 3 illustrates typical dispersion characteristics
of solids and liquids. It can be important to tune the liquid at
the temperature at which experiments will be conducted since
index of refraction also varies with temperature. Refractometer
testing was conducted to develop the liquid system described
in section 3 below. Figure 2a illustrates typical refractometer
test results on a two-component solution.
Most refractometers can also be used to measure the refractive
index of a solid. A small sample of the solid with one flat
polished surface is placed in optical contact with the refracto-
meter prism. Optical contact is established by filling the gap
between the prism and the sample with a liquid whose index
of refraction is below that of the prism and above that of
the unknown. A gem (or jeweler's) refractometer can also be
used to measure the refractive index of a solid. Refractometry of
solids is described in more detail in Sinkankas (1966) and
Hurlbut (1984).
An alternative method to match index of refraction using
a laser light beam is as follows. The equation that describes

Table : Properties of wall and model materials

Materials Model n Scratch Comments

construction resistance
methods

Glass
borosilicate or aluminoborosilicate glassblowing fusing 1.47 to 1.49 + + + available in sheet, tubes, rods and
(Pyrex) special fittings
optical glasses grinding polishing 1.45 to 1.96 + to + + + available in fiats and lenses
expensive to purchase and to work
with
Plastic
pre-cast or extruded machining, bonding, bending, available in sheet, tubes, and rods
and polishing
acrylic 1.49 +
(Plexiglass or Perspex)
polycarbonate (Lexan) 1.58 ÷ +
Casting resins can be machined after casting
(except silicon)
epoxy based 1.56 +
urethane based 1.49 ++ cure at 65 °C
acrylic based 1.49-1.53 +
silicon elastorner 1.43 + elastic walls, Duncan et al. (1990)
 Table 2. Properties of matching fluids. P0 and #0
are the density and absolute viscosity of water plpo #lpo References and comments
at zo °C
Aqueous solutions
glycerin 1.33-1.47 1 1.26 1-1490
zinc iodide 133-1.62 Hendricks and Avram (1981), range
of V/Vo is 1 to 10
sodium iodide 1.5 60% Chen and Fan (1992)
NaI by wt.
potassium thiocyanate 1.33-1.49 1-1.39 1-2.4 Jan et al. (1989), mix with glycerin
to increase viscosity
ammonium thiocyanate 1.33-1.50 1-1.15 1-2.1 Hooper (1992)
sodium thiocyanate 1.33 1.48 1-1.34 1-7.5 Duncan et al. (1990)
352
Organic liquids
kerosene 1.45 0.82 Bovendeered et al. (1987)
silicone oil mixture 1.47 1.03 190 Edwards and Dybbs (1984)
mineral oil (paraffin oil) 1.48 0.85
turpentine 1.47 0.87 1.49
solvent naphtha 1.50 0.67
soybean oil 1.47 0.93 69
olive oil 1.47 0.92 84
castor oil 1.48 0.96 986
tung oil 1.52 0.93
cassia oil 1.60 Sinkankas (1966)
dibutylphthalate 1.49 Fiendricks and Avram (1981):
caution, experteratogen
Mixture of oil of turpentine Liu et al. (199o)
and tetrahydronaphtalene
(Tetraline)

Table 3. Typical dispersion characteristics of solids and liquids 1958). This equation reveals that, if the refractive indices are
perfectly matched (n~ = nz), the reflected beam will disappear.
Refractive index at light wavelength Figure 1 illustrates the apparatus to perform refractive index
tuning based on equation (1). First, solution components must
486 nm 589 nm 656 nm
be chosen such that it is feasible to achieve a match to the
Acrylic Plastic 1.497 1.491 1.489 refractive index of the solid. Next, a flat sample of the solid
Fused silica 1.4632 1.4585 1.4564 material with one polished surface is held in a stirred tank of the
Water 1.3372 1.3330 1.3312 liquid mixture. The sample is held so that reflected beam is
Olive oil 1.4825 1.4763 1.4738 just a few degrees away from backward reflection. The reflected
beam is projected onto an index card or, if more precision is
required, onto a photodetector. Finally, a match is achieved by
varying the constituent ratio of the liquid mixture until the
reflected beam intensity attains a minimum.

Indexcordor 3
pholodetec~r A liquid-liquid system application
I----
When performing optical flow or mass transfer studies with
[_ -t immiscible liquid-liquid systems it is necessary to match the
LQser Cleor rectmngulor
t7 ~ } I_7 refractive index of the two liquids to avoid similar refraction
problems that occur with to liquid-solid systems. Budwig et al.
Magnetic stirrer 0993b) have conducted experiments to investigate the hydro-
dynamic and mass transfer behavior of stationary and oscil-
Fig. 1. Apparatus to perform refractive index tuning lating droplets in a liquid-liquid system. Qualitative flow
visualization was conducted by the particle pathline method
(3 ~tm diameter polystyrene particles were added to the liquids).
b a c k w a r d reflection of light f r o m a dielectric surface is, Full field concentration measurements of Rhodamine B dye
R = [ (1 -- nfln2)/(1 + nl/n2) ]2, (1)
molecules were conducted by planar laser induced fluorescence
(PILF). Figure 3 is a schematic of the experimental set-up.
w h e r e R is t h e ratio of reflected b e a m p o w e r to i n c i d e n t b e a m Illumination for both flow visualization and PLIF measurements
power, nl is t h e refractive i n d e x of t h e liquid, a n d n2 is t h e was accomplished with an argon-ion (5x4 nm) laser light
refractive i n d e x of the dielectric solid (see for example, Strong, sheet passing through the diametral plane of the droplet. The
 1.L6 1.46-

1./.4 1.44-

1.l,2 1.42-

1.40 ~ 1.40-
C
1.38 - 1.38-

1.36. 1.36-

1.3/,. 1.34- 353

1.32 1.32
2'0 /~0 6'0 8'0 100 10 1o 6'o 8~0 100
a b
Ao(%) As(%)
1.6 t.6-

1.4- 1.4

2, 1.2

1.0
1.2

1.0
/
0.8 . . . . . . . . 0,8
0 20 Z,0 60 8'0 100 0 io ' io 100
c Ao(%) d As(%}
Fig. 2a-d. Properties of freon-octanol and sucrose-water mixtures used in
the droplet experiments. Notation is defined in section 3 of the text

droplet was levitated and oscillated ultrasonically by the
methods described in Marston and Goosby 0985).
A sucrose-water continuous phase; trichlorotrifluoroethane-1-
octanol (hereafter referred to as freon-octanol) droplet phase
liquid-liquid system was developed for the experiments. The first
requirement of the system was that the components of each
phase be soluble in each other but practically insoluble in
the other phase. The second requirement was a system where
both refractive index and density between the phases could be
matched. A description of the tuning process as well as results
on the importance of matching refractive index are presented
below. Density was matched so that the droplet could be
levitated at a low acoustic power level to avoid continuous phase
cavitation and to minimize droplet shape distortion. Additional
requirements of the liquid-liquid system were: (i) a fluorescent
dye soluble in both phases (for the PLIF measurements),
and (ii) phases that are compatible with glass, silicone
sealer, and silver electrodes on the piezoelectric ultrasonic
transducer.
Refractive index and density between the droplet and
continuous phases were matched by varying the constituent
ratio of each phase. A refractometer (Bausch and Lomb 33-45-56)
was used to measure refractive index and a pycnometer to meas-
ure density of the freon-octanol mixture. The sucrose-water data
were obtained from Weast 0988). Figure z shows refractive
index and density curves that were obtained to accomplish
the match. Polynomials were fitted to the refractive index and
density data as follows.
nfo = 1.3570 + 0.001299 Ao--7.901E-6 A2o+ 1.897E-8 A3o (2)
nsw= 1.3332 + 0.001391 A, + 6.980E-6 A2 (3)
Pfo = 1.573 - 0.01367 Ao + 8.398E-5 A2 -- 2.196E-7 A3o (4)
Psw= 0.9986 + 0.003771 As + 1.702E-5 A2 (5)
Here, n is the refractive index, p the density in g/cm 3, and Ao the
weight percent of octanol (i.e., weight of octanol over total
freon-octanol solution weight), and As the weight percent of
sucrose (i.e., weight of sucrose over total sucrose-water solution
weight). Subscript fo is for freon-octanol, sw for sucrose-water,
o for octanol, and s for sucrose. These equation along with
the following match equations for refractive index and for
density can be solved iteratively for a desired match.
nfo=Clnsw (6)
Pfo=C2psw (7)
Here, C1 is the refractive index match parameter, and C2 the
density match parameter. A match in both density and refractive
index is achieved by setting C1= C2= 1. The resulting fluid
system has Ao=37.6%, As=37.8%, pc=pa---1.165 g/cm 3, and
 [• Camera
conditions at the time of droplet formation are zero dye con-
centration in the droplet phase and uniform dye concentration
in the continuous phase. The PLIF technique is designed
Ilmage r ' ~ ~ Lens so that light intensity in the film plane is a quantitative measure
processing of dye concentration. In Fig. 4 (a) refractive index has been
computer ~ Droplet matched using the above sucrose-water mixture as the con-
tinuous phase and freon-octanol mixture as the droplet phase.
Argon- on I!oserl I The thin bright ring adjacent the interface inside the droplet
in Fig. 4(a) is due to the accumulation of dye that has been
Topview transported through the interface. Furthermore, a dark region
~ Droplet where dye has been depleted is visible just outside of the
354 interface.
In Fig 4(b) the continuous phase was pure water (no= 1.333,
pc = o.999 g/cm 3) and the droplet phase was a freon-octanol
mixture that matched density, but did not match refractive index
(ha =- 1.411). There are two undesirable effects that occur when
refractive index is not matched. The first is the lens effect
transducer of the droplet on the incident laser light sheet, illustrated in
Fig. 4(b) by the dark regions on the back side of the droplet (the
Fig. 3. Apparatus to perform PLIF measurements of acoustically droplet is illuminated from the right). The second is the
manipulated droplets. distortion of the image of the diametral plane of the droplet
when it is transmitted through the forward droplet interface to
the camera film plane.

4
Conclusions
We have presented methods for refractive index matching to
eliminate refraction problems in the optical diagnostics of liquid
flows. These inctude arrangement of test section and model,
selection of solid and liquid materials, and tuning the match.
A new tuning method that is based on the power of a reflected
laser beam was developed. Finally, a novel application of
refractive index matching to a liquid-liquid droplet system is
presented.

Fig. 4a, b. Photographs of levitated droplets, a with refractive index
matched at n = 1.396; b with no= 1.333 and na = 1.411.
nc = na= 1.396. Here subscript c denotes the continuous phase
and subscript d the droplet phase.
The photographs in Fig. 4 present 3 to 4 mm diameter droplets
at about 2 minutes after droplet formation. The initial
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