Gases and Liquid Differential pressure flow meters use

Bernoulli’s equation to measure the flow of fluid

 Gases are compressible and change
in a pipe. They introduce a constriction in the
volume when placed under pressure, are
pipe that creates a pressure drop across the
heated or are cooled. A volume of gas
flow meter.
under one set of pressure and
temperature conditions is not equivalent Bernoulli’s equation states that the pressure
to the same gas under different drop across the constriction is proportional to
conditions the square of the flow rate
 The density of a liquid is almost
independent of conditions
 Both gas and liquid flow can be
measured in volumetric or mass flow
rates, such as liters per second or
kilograms per second, respectively.
Flow measurement is the quantification of bulk
fluid (liquid or gas) movement
Classifications Positive Displacement Flow Meters

 Differential Pressure Flow Meters -
measure the differential pressure across
an orifice where flow is directly related to
the square root of the differential
pressure produced
 Positive Displacement Flow Meters -
measure the volume filled with fluid,
deliver it ahead and fill it again, which
calculates the amount of fluid transferred
 Velocity Flow Meters- measure velocity
of the stream to calculate the volumetric
flow rate.
 Mass Flow Meters - are more effective
in mass related processes as they
measure the force that results from the
acceleration of mass. More specifically,
the force is measured as the mass
moving per unit of time, instead of the
volume per unit of time
 Open Channel Flow Meters - These are
dam-like structures, or overflows that
allow for a limited or concentrated free-
flow of liquids based on the unique shape
and size of the structure. These type of
flow meter allows for a reading of the flow
rate to be calculated
 A type of flow meter that requires fluid to
mechanically displace components in the
meter in order for flow measurement.
Positive displacement (PD) flow
meters measure the volumetric flow rate
of a moving fluid or gas by dividing the
media into fixed, metered volumes
A positive displacement flow meter of the oval
gear type. Fluid forces the meshed gears to
rotate; each rotation corresponds to a fixed
volume of fluid. Counting the revolutions
totalizes volume, and the rate is proportional to
flow.
Velocity flow meters are popular because they
give a direct measure of fluid velocity, the
characteristic most commonly associated with
flow rate. These flow meters, however, are
among the most sensitive to process conditions.
They operate under the assumption of a
constant velocity profile.

Turbine meters flow meters
A magnetic pickup coil is mounted outside the
pipe. The turbine or paddlewheel blades are
made of or contain magnetic material. As the
fluid flows and each blade passes by the coil,
the magnetic flux through the coil changes,
causing a voltage pulse. A sensor measures the
pulse rate and from that determines the flow rate
A petroleum pipeline that utilizes an insertion
turbine flow meter for leak detection
Ultrasonic flow meters send sound waves
through a stream via transducers. The returning
sound wave provides information about the
stream's flow rate.
The upstream transducer sends a sound wave
downstream to the other transducer, and vice
versa
Electromagnetic flow meters, commonly
called mag meters, are used to meter
conductive fluids
The operation of electromagnetic flow meters
is based on Farraday's Law. When a conductor
moves at right angles to a magnetic field, a
voltage difference is induced in the conductor
that is proportional to the conductor's velocity
Picture shows the use of a mag meter to
monitor the flow of copper slurry in a copper
ore mining facility
Mass Flowmeters
 Also known as an inertial flow meter is a
device that measures mass flow rate of a
fluid traveling through a tube. The mass
flow rate is the mass of the fluid traveling
past a fixed point per unit time
 It measures the mass per unit time (e.g.,
kilograms per second) flowing through
the device
 Thermal mass flowmeters generally use
combinations of heated elements and
temperature sensors to measure the
difference between static and flowing
heat transfer to a fluid and infer its flow
with a knowledge of the fluid's specific
heat and density. The fluid temperature
 is also measured and compensated for. measured and a linear output derived
If the density and specific heat proportional to flow.
characteristics of the fluid are constant,
the meter can provide a direct mass flow
readout, and does not need any
additional pressure temperature
compensation over their specified range
 Thermal mass flowmeters (used for
compressed air, nitrogen, helium, argon,
oxygen, and natural gas)

Temperature at the sensors varies depending

upon the mass flow
 Curved tube Coriolis (named after
Gaspard Gustave de Coriolis flow meter
operating principle

The vibration pattern during no-flow

The vibration pattern with mass flow

Note: Animations is for illustration only and do
not represent an actually existing Coriolis flow
meter design
 A Coriolis flow meter contains a tube
which is energized by a fixed vibration.
When a fluid (gas or liquid) passes
through this tube the mass flow
momentum will cause a change in the
tube vibration, the tube will twist resulting
in a phase shift. This phase shift can be
 FEEDBACK SYSTEM
Feedback systems (Closed-loop Systems)
are systems which can perform self-correcting
action.
Self-correcting refers to the ability of the
system to monitor or “check” a certain variable
in the industrial process and ‘automatically’ ,
without human intervention, correct it if it is not
acceptable.
Servomechanism: In general, a low power
device that uses error-sensing feedback to
adjust or control a more powerful device in
response to the changes detected in one or
more variables. Usually the variable being
monitored and corrected is an objects physical
position.
OPEN-LOOP vs. CLOSED-LOOP SYSTEMS
 Open-loop System: it has no feedback
and not self-correcting.
System for maintaining the proper liquid level
in a tank
 Closed-loop System: it has feedback and
is self-correcting
System for maintaining the proper liquid level
in a tank
 Open-loop system
 Close-loop system
CLOSED-LOOP SYSTEMS
A more detailed general block diagram which
adequately describes most closed-loop
systems.
NOMENCLATURE USED IN CLOSED-LOOP
SYSTEMS
•Set point – set value, setting, desired value,
ideal value, command, reference signal.
•Comparer – comparator, error detector,
difference detector.
•Error signal – difference signal, deviation,
system deviation.
•Controller output signal – control value (CV)
•Final correcting device – correcting element,
motor
•Controlled variable – controlled condition,
output condition, output variable
•Measurement device – detecting device,
detector, transducer
•Measured value – actual value, process
variable.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD CLOSED
LOOP SYSTEM
•It has low ‘offset’ which is the final difference
between measured value and set point that the
system allows (or that it cannot correct).
•Quick to respond; if conditions occur that
drive the measured value out of agreement with
the set point, a good system will restore the
agreement quickly.
•It is stable; it doesn’t cause overreaction to an
error which results in violent oscillations.
RACK-AND-PINION SERVOMECHANISM
This is a mechanical positioning system, an
example of simple servomechanism
RACK-AND-PINION SERVOMECHANISM
•In this system, the position of the pointer
represents the set point. The position of the
object represents the controlled variable. The
cord and pulley arrangement represents the
comparer with the instantaneous pulley position
being the error signal. The bridge circuit is the
controller and the controller output signal is the
voltage applied to the input of the amplifier. The
motor with the rack and pinion represents the
final correcting device.
PROFILE CUTTING SYSTEM
This is an example of more complex
servomechanism
PROFILE CUTTING SYSTEM
•In this system, the set point is the pattern depth,
or feeler position. The controlled variable is the
position of cutting tool, or equivalently, the
position of the movable frame. All other system
parts serve the same block diagram functions
that they did in the profile cutting machine.
Functions of Automatic Control:
In any automatic control system, the four basic
functions that occur are:
–Measurement
–Comparison
–Computation
–Correction
Elements of Automatic Control
The three functional elements needed to
perform the functions of an automatic control
system are:
–A measurement element
–An error detection element
–A final control element
MODES OF CONTROL IN INDUSTRIAL
CLOSED-LOOP SYSTEMS
•A control system is a system of integrated
elements whose function is to maintain a
process variable at a desired value or within a
desired range of values.
•Mode of control refers to the manner in which
the controller reacts to an error signal.
Basic Types:
1. On-Off
2. Proportional
3. Proportional plus integral
4. Proportional plus derivative
5. Proportional plus integral plus derivative
(PID)
ON-OFF CONTROL MODE
•In the On-Off control mode (also known as
two position control or bang-bang control), the
final correcting device has only two positions or
operating states. If the error is positive, the
controller sends the final correcting device to
one of its two positions and if the error is
negative, to the other position.
•Graph pertaining to the On-Off control mode
(temperature control system)
Valve position versus measured temperature
with a set point of 120 ̊
ON-OFF CONTROL
•The graph in figure B reflects the fact that the
valve is wide open when the temperature is
below the set point and completely closed when
the temperature is above the set point. The
dashed lines are for the case in which the valve
is not a snap action valve. This is often
encountered when the valve is physically large.
Large valves are operated slowly by using
geared down motor and linkage as the actuating
device.
DIFFERENTIAL GAP
•The differential gap of an On-Off controller is
defined as the smallest range of values the
measured value must pass through to cause the
correcting device to go from one position to the
other. It is defined specifically for On-Off control;
there is no such thing as differential gap in other
control modes. It is often expressed as a
percent of full scale.

Valve opening vs. Temperature. The set point

is 120 ̊ F and the differential gap is 6 ̊ F

Actual measured temperature vs. time and

valve opening vs. time. The solid line is for
snap action valve and the dashed line for slow
acting valve.
•In figure A, the actual temperature tends to
oscillate around the set point. This is a universal
characteristic of On-Off control. Overshoot
occurs because the process cannot respond Actual measured temperature vs. time and
instantly to the change in the valve position. valve opening vs. time. The solid line is for
When the heat is climbing, it is because the rate snap action valve and the dashed line for slow
of heat input is greater than the rate of heat loss. acting valve.
•Differential gap can also be expressed as a
percent of full controller range. If the controller
has a range of, say, 60 ̊ F to 300 ̊ F, then the
range is 240 ̊ F.
Thus, the temperature of 6 ̊ F would represent
2.5% of the full control range.

Proportional Band = 20% . (Fig.A) valve

PROPORTIONAL CONTROL MODE
opening vs. temp.; (Fig.B) valve opening vs. %
•In the proportional control mode, the final of full control range
correcting device is not forced to take an all or
nothing position. Instead, it has a continuous
range of possible positions. The exact position
that it takes is proportional to the error signal. In
other words, the output from the controller block
is proportional to the input.

Proportional Band = 100% . (Fig.A) valve

opening vs. temp.; (Fig.B) valve opening vs. %
of full control range
VARIATIONS IN PROCESS CONDITIONS
(Fig. A) Graph of valve position vs. measured
temperature. Valve position is proportional to the
error signal. (Fig. B) Lay-out of the control system

PROPORTIONAL BAND
•Proportional band is the percentage of full
controller range by which the measured value
must change in order to cause the correcting
device to change by 100%.
Example: If the controller set point can be
adjusted anywhere between 60 ̊ F and 300 ̊ F, it
has an adjustment range of 240 ̊ F. the
proportional band expressed as percent would Graph of valve opening vs. temperature with
be; 20% proportional band for three different
process conditions
EFFECTS OF PROPORTIONAL CONTROL
•The proportional control has one advantage
over the On-Off control, it eliminates the
constant oscillations around the set point.
There may be some temporary oscillations as
the controller homes in on the final control
temperature but eventually the oscillations die
out if the proportional band is adjusted
properly. It thereby provides more precise
control of the temperature and reduces wear
and tear on the valve.
PROPORTIONAL PLUS INTEGRAL
CONTROL
Proportional control eliminates oscillation in the
measured variable and reduces wear on the
control valve, but it introduces permanent offset
in the measured variable. Strict proportional
control can be used only when load changes are
small and slow and the variation in set point is
small. For process situation, in which load
changes are large and rapid and set point may
be varied considerably, the proportional plus
integral mode of control is better suited.
PROPORTIONAL PLUS INTEGRAL
CONTROL
•In proportional plus integral control (also
called proportional plus reset control), the
position of the control valve is determined by
two things:
1. The magnitude of the error signal: this is
the proportional part
2. The time integral of the error signal: the
magnitude of error multiplied by the time it has
persisted. This is the integral part.
Thus, the controller causes the final correcting
device to respond gradually in proportion to the
magnitude of the error signal and in proportion
to the amount of time the error has persisted.
This control mode is able to reduce offset error
to zero eventually.
•In most industrial controllers, the integral time
constant is not used as a reference, instead, the
reciprocal of the integral time constant (or the
adjustment of the integral time constant in
integral control) is the variable which is talked
about. This variable is termed the reset rate. i.e.
when the reset rate is low (large time constant)
the integral part is slow to make its effects felt
by the process. When the reset rate is high
(small time constant), the integral part of the
control is quick to make its effects felt by the
process.
PROPORTIONAL PLUS DERIVATIVE
CONTROL
The variable which is commonly used when
dealing with derivative control is Rate Time –
the amount of time allowed for the measured
variable to change through the full controller
range, if it is to drive the final correcting device
through its full range of adjustment, assuming a
100% proportional band.
PROPORTIONAL PLUS INTEGRAL PLUS
DERIVATIVE CONTROL
There are two process characteristics which
present such problems that the previous control
modes may not be sufficient:
1. Very rapid load changes
2. Long time lag between applying the corrective
action and the appearance of the results of the
corrective action in the measurement
•In PID control, the corrective action is
determined by three things:
1. The magnitude of error; this is the
proportional part
2. The time integral of error, or the magnitude of
error multiplied by the time that it has persisted;
this is the integral part
3. The time rate of change of error. (a rapidly
changing error causes a greater corrective
action than a slowly changing error); this is the
derivative part.
NOTE: The derivative control is also called rate
control.
TIME CONSTANT DELAY
•Time constant delay (Process Reaction
Delay) is an industrial process characteristic
that require certain amount of time to fully
respond to a change in input, that is, there is a
time delay between the application of corrective
action and the appearance of the result of that
corrective action.
Temperature control system for understanding
process reaction delay
Graph of temperature vs. time following a
disturbance, illustrating the effects of thermal
capacity and thermal resistance,
•The reason for the delay is that the tank has
thermal capacity –The quantity of heat
necessary to produce a unit change of
temperature in a unit mass of a substance.
(Analogous to electrical capacitance) It is an
expression of the idea that a certain quantity of
heat energy (Btu) must be added to the tank
before the temperature can rise a given amount
and the heat transfer apparatus has thermal
resistance – A measure of a body's ability to
prevent heat from flowing through it, equal
to the difference between the temperatures
of opposite faces of the body divided by the
rate of heat flow. (Analogous to electrical
resistance) it is an expression of the idea that all
mediums have a natural reluctance to carry heat
energy from one point to another.
TRANSFER LAG
Whenever there are two thermal time constants,
the process is referred to as two-capacity
process, and the delay is referred to as transfer
lag. As a general rule, transfer lag, is much more
serious problem than the simple single constant
delay (process reaction delay) because transfer
lag causes the measured process parameter to
initially respond very slowly to a corrective
action.

Temperature control system for understanding
transfer lag
TRANSPORTATION LAG AND DEADTIME
Transportation Lag: The delay caused by the
amount of time required to transport material or
propagate a signal or condition from one point
to another
Dead time: The time interval between a change
in the input signal to a process control system
and the response to the signal, or it is the actual
time that the correcting device change remains
undetected.

Temperature control system for understanding

Graph illustrating the effects of two thermal transportation lag.
capacities and two thermal resistances.
Whenever there are two-capacity process,
transfer lag is present.

PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS AND MODE

OF CONTROL

Transfer lag. Electrical analogy

TRANSPORTATION LAG AND DEADTIME
•When transfer lag is present, the controlled
variable takes some time to reach its new
steady value after the controller sends an order
to the correcting device, but at least some partial
response is felt immediately. A more difficult
control problem occurs when absolutely no
response is felt in the controlled variable for a
certain time period after the controller signals
the correcting device.