Operating Systems Operating Systems

Chapter 4c Learning Objectives

Virtual Memory •  The difference between a First-In First-Out
(FIFO), Least-Recently-Used (LRU), and
Optimal Page Replacement (OPT) policies

•  The concept of the working set and how it is

Virtual Memory used in memory allocation schemes
Demand Paging
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Chapter 4
•  The impact that virtual memory had on
multiprogramming

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Concept
Introduction
•  Evolution of virtual memory •  Virtual memory – separation of user logical
memory from physical memory.
–  Paged, segmented, segmented / demand paging
–  Foundation for current virtual memory methods
–  Only part of the program needs to be in memory
•  Improvement areas for execution
–  Need for placement of entire program in memory –  Logical address space can therefore be much
during execution larger than physical address space
–  Fragmentation –  Allows address spaces to be shared by several
processes
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Chapter 4

–  Allows for more efficient process creation

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Virtual Memory That is Larger than Virtual Memory

Physical Memory
•  Allows program execution even if not stored
Backing Store
entirely in memory

•  Advantages:
–  Job size not restricted to size of main memory
–  Memory used more efficiently
–  Allows an unlimited amount of multiprogramming
–  Eliminates external fragmentation and minimizes
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Chapter 4

internal fragmentation
–  Allows the sharing of code and data
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Virtual Memory (cont'd.)

•  Virtual memory can be implemented via TWO
•  Disadvantages: approaches:
–  Increased processor hardware costs
–  Increased overhead for handling paging
interrupts Virtual Memory
–  Increased software complexity to prevent
thrashing (rapid exchanging data on disk)
Demand Demand
Paging Segmentation
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Chapter 4
(Not cover in this course)

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Demand Paging
•  Allowed for wide availability of virtual memory
concept
–  Provides appearance of almost infinite or nonfinite
Virtual Memory: physical memory
Demand Paging –  Jobs run with less main memory than required in
paged memory allocation scheme
•  Disadvantage(s):
–  Increased overhead Solution: Swapping
caused by tables and page •  how and when pages
passed in memory
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Chapter 4

interrupts •  Depends on
–  Requires high-speed direct predefined policies
access storage device
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Transfer of a Paged Memory to

•  Bring a page into
memory only when it is
needed
–  Less I/O needed
–  Less memory needed
–  Faster response
–  More users
Lazy swapper Contiguous Disk Space
•  never swaps a page
into memory unless
page will be needed
•  Swapper that deals
with pages is a
pager

•  Page is needed ⇒ reference to it

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Chapter 4

–  invalid reference ⇒ abort

Backing Store
–  not-in-memory ⇒ bring to memory

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Page Table When Some Pages Are Not

Valid-Invalid Bit
in Main Memory
•  With each page table entry a valid–invalid bit •  Invalid à the page
is associated either is not valid
(not in the logical
(v ⇒ in-memory, i ⇒ not-in-memory) address space of
the process) or is B

D E
valid but is currently
•  Initially valid–invalid bit is set to i on all entries on the disk.
G H

•  Access to a page
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Chapter 4
marked invalid Backing Store

causes a page fault.

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Steps in Handling a Page fault Page Replacement Steps

Backing Store
•  Trap à result •  Is executed when one of the following events
•  During address translation, if valid–invalid bit
of the OS’s occur:
in page table entry
failure to –  Page fault occurs
bring theis I ⇒ page fault
–  No free frames in physical memory
desired page
into memory.
•  To reduce the overhead of swapping time
–  use modify bit (or dirty bit)
•  0 – page has not been modified
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Chapter 4

•  1 – page has been modified

–  If the page has not been modified since it was read
into memory, then don’t write the page to the disk.
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Page Replacement Steps Page Replacement Steps

1.  Find the location of the desired page on disk;

2.  Find a free frame:

- If there is a free frame, use it;
- If there is no free frame, use a page replacement
algorithm to select a victim frame;

3. Bring the desired page into the (newly) free frame;

update the page and frame tables
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Chapter 4

Backing Store
4. Restart the process;
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Page Replacement Algorithm If the number of frames increases, then the

number of page faults decreases.
•  Page replacement algorithm should be
chosen based on performance – need an 16

Number of page fault

algorithm which will result in minimum number 14
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of page faults;
10
8
•  Algorithm can be tested by using: 6

– Reference string 4
2
– Number of frames
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Chapter 4
1 2 3 4 5 6
Number of Frames
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Reference String Example 1a

•  If CPU accesses the following addresses: •  Reference String
1 4 1 6 1 6 1 6 1 6 1
0100 0432 0101 0612 0102 0103 0104
0101 0611 0102 0103 0104 0101 0610
•  Number of frames = 3
0102 0103 0104 0101 0609 0102 0105
1 4 1 6 1 6 1 6 1 6 1
Frame #0 1 1 1
•  If page size = 100 byte, reference string will be, Frame #1 4 4
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1 4 1 6 1 6 1 6 1 6 1 Frame #2 6

–  Number of page fault = 3

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Ex
tr
a

Example 1b Self-Test 4c.1:

Given a reference string: 1 4 1 6 1 6 1 6 1 6 1

•  Reference String
If the number of frame is 2, define how many number of page faults
1 4 1 6 1 6 1 6 1 6 1 will be generated. Show your works.

Solution 1: 4 page faults

•  Number of frames = 1 1 4 1 6 1 6 1 6Simple
1 conclusion?
6 1
Frame #0 1 1 6 6
Frame #1 4 4 1 Number of page faults
1 4 1 6 1 6 1 6 1 6 1 depend on:
Solution 2: 3 page faults •  Number of frames
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Chapter 4

Frame #0 1 4 1 6 1 6 1 6 1 6 1 1 4 1 6 1 6 1 • 6 Which

1 frame
6 1to be
Frame #0 1 1 1 replaced (policies)
–  Number of page fault = 11 Frame #1 4 6
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Page Replacement Policies /

Algorithms •  Another Page Replacement Policies:

•  Policy to select page removal –  Random page replacement

–  Crucial to system efficiency •  Replace page at random

•  Page replacement polices –  Second Chance

–  First-In First-Out (FIFO) policy
•  Best page to remove is one in memory longest –  Counting Algorithm
–  Least Recently Used (LRU) policy •  Least Frequently Used (LFU)
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Chapter 4
•  Best page to remove is least recently accessed •  Most Frequently Used (MFU)
–  Optimal Page Replacement (OPT) policy

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First-In First-Out (FIFO) FIFO Page Replacement

•  Removes the page that in memory with the

longest of time;

•  Efficiency
–  Ratio of page interrupts to page requests
•  Not so good
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Chapter 4

•  FIFO anomaly
–  More memory does not lead to better performance

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Self-Test 4c.2: Self-Test 4c.3:

Reference String: 1 2 3 4 1 2 5 1 2 3 4 Reference String: 1 2 3 4 1 2 5 1 2 3 4

•  3 frames (3 pages can be in memory at a time per process) •  4 frames (4 pages can be in memory at a time per process)
•  How many page faults? •  How many page numbers?
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Chapter 4

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FIFO Illustrating Belady’s Anomaly Least Recently Used (LRU)

•  Belady’s Anomaly: Unexpected result for page •  Removes page least recently accessed
faults.
•  Or replace the page that has not been used for the
longest period of time.

•  Efficiency
–  Causes either decrease in or same number of
interrupts
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Chapter 4
–  Slightly better (compared to FIFO)

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LRU Page Replacement LRU Implementation

•  Problem: To determine an order for the frames
defined by the time of last use.
•  How to implement LRU algorithm?

•  Two implementations:

–  Counter
•  Every page entry has a counter;
•  Every time page is referenced through this entry,
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Chapter 4

copy the clock into the counter

•  When a page needs to be changed, look at the
counters to determine which are to change
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Use Of A Stack to Record The Most Recent

Page References
–  Stack
•  keep a stack of page numbers in a double link
form: (Header pointer & Tail pointer)
•  When a page is referenced:
–  move page to the top
–  Therefore, most recently used page is on top
while least recently used is always at the bottom.
•  No search for replacement
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Chapter 4

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Optimal Page Replacement (OPT) Optimal Page Replacement (OPT)

•  Replace the page that will not be used for the

longest period of time.

•  The lowest page faults rate of all algorithms.

Chapter 4

Chapter 4
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Page Replacement
•  Global Replacement:
–  Choose frames from all sets of frames in the system;
–  Process cannot control page-fault rate by itself;
Virtual Memory:
•  Local Replacement:
Demand Paging
–  Choose frames already allocated to the process;
–  Effect – a process may keep pages that are seldom
used while other process that need more frames has
a high page fault rate;
(Some Issues)
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Chapter 4

•  Generally, global replacement results in greater

system throughput and is therefore the more
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Operating Systems Operating Systems

Thrashing …Thrashing
•  Why does this happen?
–  An excessive amount of page swapping or –  If CPU utilization is low, OS increase the degree of
paging activity (in & out) between main memory multiprogramming;
and secondary storage; –  The number of programs increases while the number
–  A process is thrashing if it spends more time on of frames remains the same;
paging than executing; –  Therefore, page fault will occur more frequently;
CPU Utilization

Thrashing

•  Consequences:
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Chapter 4

–  that leads to low CPU utilization;

–  inefficient operation of system; Degree of Multiprogramming
Main memory: DRAM Secondary storage: Hard disk
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Example :
How to prevent thrashing?
Page fault due to program structure
•  Program structure
Ø  Int[128,128] data;
Ø  Each row is stored in one page
Ø  Program 1
Two Techniques
for (j = 0; j <128; j++)
for (i = 0; i < 128; i++)
data[i,j] = 0;

128 x 128 = 16,384 page faults

Page-fault frequency Working-Set Model
Ø  Program 2
for (i = 0; i < 128; i++)
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Chapter 4
for (j = 0; j < 128; j++)
data[i,j] = 0;

128 page faults

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Page-Fault Frequency Page-Fault Frequency

•  Provide upper and lower bound of page-fault

Page Fault Rate

Upper bound
Increase number of frames
•  If page-fault rate > upper bound, allocate more
frames
•  If page-fault rate < lower bound, reduce frame Lower bound
allocation Decrease number of frames
Chapter 4

Chapter 4

Number of Frames

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Working-Set Model Working-Set Model

•  System decides:
–  Number of pages comprising working set;
–  Maximum number of pages allowed for a working
set;

•  The accuracy of a working-set depends on the

•  Based on the assumption of locality; selection of ∆ (its size)
•  Uses a parameter, ∆ , to define the working-set
window; –  If ∆ too small à not encompass the entire locality;
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Chapter 4

•  Working-Set à the set of pages in the most –  If ∆ too large à may overlap page several localities;
recent ∆ page references;
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Tutorial Summary
Consider the following page reference string:
•  Segmented / demand paged memory
1 2 3 4 2 1 5 6 2 1 2 3 7 6 3 2 1 2 3 6 –  Problems solved
•  Compaction, external fragmentation

How many page faults would occur for the

•  Virtual memory
following replacement algorithms, assuming 1,
–  Programs execute if not stored entirely in memory
3 and 5 frames? Remember that all frames are
–  Job’s size no longer restricted to main memory size
initially empty.
Chapter 4

Chapter 4
•  FIFO replacement.
•  LRU replacement.
•  OPT replacement.
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Virtual Memory (cont'd.)

(Page Map Table) (Segment Map Table)

Chapter 4

Chapter 4

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