1- Effect of Earth on Capacitance of Transmission Line:

The capacitance of transmission line is affected by the presence of earth. Because of earth, electric
field of a line is reduced. If we assume that the earth is a perfect conductor in the form of a
horizontal plane of infinite extent, we realize that the electric field of charged conductors above the
earth is not the same as it would be if the equipotential surface of earth were not present.

The method of images is used while considering this type of problems. For this consider a single
phase line having 2 conductors as shown in the Fig. 1.

A fictitious conductor is placed below each conductor of the same size and shape as the
overhead conductor lying directly below the original conductor at a distance equal to twice the
distance of the conductor above the plane of ground. If the earth is removed and a charge equal and
opposite to that an overhead conductor is assumed on the fictitious conductor, the plane midway
between conductor and its image is an equipotential surface and occupies the same position as the
equipotential surface of earth. This fictitious conductor is called image conductor having the charge
opposite to that of overhead conductor.

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Comparing above equation with expression for capacitance of single phase line without considering
the effect of earth, we can see that earth tries to increase the capacitance of line by small amount.
But the effect is negligible if the conductors are high above ground compared to distances between
them.

Part 2

Earth affects the capacitance of an overhead line, as its presence alters the electrical field of the
line. The earth level is an equipotential surface, therefore the flux lines are forced to cut the
surface of the earth orthogonally. The effect of the presence of earth can be accounted for by the
method of image charges.
Consider a circuit, consisting of a single overhead conductor with a charge +q C/m of
height h m above ground and imagine a fictitious conductor of charge –q C/m placed with a
depth h m below the ground surface as shown in Fig. 2.47. This configuration, without the
presence of the earth surface, will produce the same field distribution, which is produced by single
charge, and the earth surface. Thus, for the purpose of calculation of capacitance, the earth may
be replaced by an image charged conductor below the surface of the earth by a distance same as
the height of the actual conductor above the earth. Such a conductor has a charge, equal in
magnitude but opposite in sign to that of the original conductor and is known as image conductor.

Part 3
Earth affects the capacitance of a transmission line because its presence alters the electric field of
the line. If we assume that the earth is a perfect conductor in the form of a horizontal plane of
infinite extent, we realize that the electric field of charged conductors above the earth is not the

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same as it would be if the equipotential surface of the earth were not present. The electric field of
the charged conductors is forced to conform to the presence of the earth's surface. The assumption
of a flat, equipotential surface is, of course, limited by the irregularity of terrain and the type of
surface of the earth. The assumption enables us, however, to understand the effect of a conducting
earth on capacitance calculations.

Consider a circuit consisting of a single overhead conductor with a return path through the earth. In
charging the conductor, charges come from the earth to reside on a conductor, and a potential
difference exist between the conductor and earth. The earth has a charge equal in magnitude to that
on a conductor but of opposite sign. Electric flux from the charges on the conductor to the charges
on the earth is perpendicular to the earth's equipotential surface, since the surface is assumed to be
a perfect conductor. Let us imagine a fictitious conductor of the same size and shape as the
overhead conductor lying directly below the original conductor at a distance equal to twice the
distance of the conductor above the plane of the ground. The fictitious conductor is below the
surface of the earth by a distance equal to the distance of the overhead conductor above the earth.
If the earth is removed and a charge equal and opposite to that on the overhead conductor is
assumed on the overhead conductor is assumed on the fictitious conductor, the plane midway
between the original conductor and the fictitious conductor is an equipotential surface and occupies
the same position as the equipotential surface of the earth. The electric flux between the overhead
conductor and this equipotential surface is the same as that which existed between the conductor
and the earth. thus, the purposes of calculation of capacitance, the earth may be replaced by a
fictitious charged conductor below the surface of the earth by a distance equal to that of the
overhead conductor above the earth. Such a conductor has a charge equal in magnitude and
opposite in sign to that of the original conductor and is called the image conductor.

The method of calculating the capacitance by replacing the earth by the image of an overhead
conductor can be extended to more than one conductor. If we locate an image conductor for each
overhead conductor, the flux between the original conductors and their images is perpendicular to
the plane which replaces the earth, and that plane is equipotential surface. The flux above the plane
is the same as it is when the earth is present instead of the image conductors.

If the conductors is high above ground compared with distances between them, the diagonal
distances in the numerator of the correction term are nearly equal to the vertical distances in the
denominator and the term is very small. This is the usual case, and the effect of ground is generally
neglected for three phase lines except for calculations by symmetrical components when the sum of
the three line current is not zero.

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2-Equipotential Surfaces:
Any surface over which the electric potential is same everywhere is called an
equipotential surface.

An equipotential surface may be the surface of a charged body or simply a surface in

space. For example, the surface of a conductor is an equipotential surface.
Equipotential surfaces can be drawn through a space in which there is an electric field.
As an example, let us consider the electric field of an isolated point-charge +q. The
potential at a distance r from the charge is
v 1 i. 4neo r
A sphere of radius r with centre at + q is, therefore, an equipotential surface of potential
q/4nto r. If fact, all spheres centred on + q are equipotential surfaces, whose potentials
are inversely proportional to r (Fig. 15).
The important properties of equipotential surfaces are : (i) No work is done in moving
a charge between two points on an equipotential surface. This is so, because the
potential difference between any two points on the surface is zero.
(ii) The electric field and hence lines of force, are every where at right angles to
the equipotential surface. This is so, because there is no potential gradient along
any direction parallel to the surface, and so no electric field parallel to the surface (E
= - dV/dr = 0). This means that the electric field E , and hence the lines of force, are
always at right angles to the equipotential surface (only then the component of E
parallel to the surface would be zero).
In Fig. 15. the lines of force are radial and hence perpendicular to the equipotential
surfaces.

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(iii) In a family of equipotential surfaces, the surfaces are closer together where
the electric field is stronger, and farther apart where the field is weaker. This
follows from the relation E = - dV/dr, or for the same potential-change dV, we have
dr °c l/E ;
that is, the spacing between the equipotential surfaces will be less where £ is strong,
and vice-versa. Thus, equipotential surfaces can be used to give a general description
of electric field in a certain region of space.
(iv) No two equipotential surfaces can intersect each other. An equipotential
surface is normal to the electric field. If two equipotential surfaces intersect each other
then at the point of intersection there will be two directions of electric field, which is
impossible.
Both lines of force and equipotential surfaces can be used to depict electric field in
space. The advantage of using equipotential surfaces over the lines of force is that
they give a visual picture of both the magnitude and the direction of the electric field.

Introduction:
Equipotential surface: Equipotential surface is the surface which can be drawn
in an electric field and every point of that surface has same electric potential. The
charged conductor should be acted as equipotential surface. If in the case of the
charged conductor is not act as an equipotential then the free electrons in the surface
of conductor should be moved from lower potential to higher potential. This movement
of free electrons can be stopped when the potential of each point becomes same.
Direction and Work done of Equipotential Surface:
Direction of electric field relative to equipotential surface:
The electric lines of force are moving from the direction of higher potential to
lower potential. Hence the electric lines of force are perpendicular to the every point
on the equipotential surface. The direction of electric field which is relative to the
equipotential surface is perpendicular to the surface.

Work done in carrying any charge on equipotential surface:

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 The points on an equiotential surface has a potential difference zero. Thus the
work performed to carry the point from one point to another point on an equipotential
surface is zero.
That is W=qV=0 as V=0
Consider a above spherical surface which has radius r. This surface is around

the charge +Q. In this the potential of every point is same and it is V= .
Hence the surface ABCD is considered as equipotential surface. The work
performed for carrying the charge +q by a surface ABCD is zero.
Shapes of Equipotential Surface:
Shapes of equipotential surfaces in different cases:
Generally the lines of electric force are perpendicular to the direction of
equipotential surface.
Uniform electric field:
In this case the lines of electric force are parallel and equal distance. Hence the
equipotential surface is the plane and perpendicular to the plane of paper.

Isolated point charge:

In this case the line of electric force are emitted in all direction. Hence the
equipotential surface is sphere.

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Two equal opposite point charges:
In this case the equipotential surface lies in the direction of YZ plane. There are
two charges available and they are in opposite charges.

Two positive point charges separated by distance:

In this case the two positive charges are making the equipotential surface.

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Properties of equipotential surfaces
1) No point can be at different potentials, so equipotential surface for different potentials can never touch or
intersect.

2) Potential energy does not change as a test charge moves over an equipotential surface and hence the electric

field can do no work on such a charge. Because of this reason must be perpendicular to the surface at every

point so that the force qo will always be perpendicular to the displacement of a charge moving on the surface.
Hence, field lines and equipotential surfaces are always mutually perpendicular.

3) Equipotential surfaces are drawn so that there are equal potential differences between adjacent surfaces.

In regions where the magniture of is large, the equipotential surfaces are closer together because the field does
a relatively large amount of work on a test charge in a relatively small displacement. In regions where the field is
weaker, the equipotential surfaces are farther apart.

4) On a given equipotential surface, the potential V has the same value at every point but in general the electric
field does not. For example, at the midpoint of the line joining a dipole, potential is zero but the electric field is not
zero.

Relationship between Electric Field and Potential

The above figure shows the electric field of a positive point charge.

The electric field is directed away from the charge and potential is positive at any finite distance

from the charge. If we move away from the charge, i.e., in the direction of the electric field we move towards

the lower values of potential. If we move towards the direction opposite to that of electric field we move
towards the higher values of potential.

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The above figure shows the electric field of a point negative charge.

Finite distance is negative at any point from the charge. Here if we move towards the charge we are moving in the

direction of and in the direction of decreasing U (move negative).

If we move away from the charge, in the direction opposite to , we move towards increasing value of V (less

negative). Hence, we can conclude that moving with the direction of means moving in the direction of

decreasing V and moving against the direction of means moving in the direction of increasing V.

So far, we have expressed potential difference in terms of electric field as

Now we shall express E as a function of potential as

where Er is the component of electric field along the direction of 'r'.

dv/dr is called the potential gradient and the negative sign implies that electric field acts in a direction of decrease
of potential.

The above expression also indicates that E is not necessarily zero if V is zero. It is possible to cite examples for
cases where E = 0 but V not equal to 0.

For example: The field at the centre of a uniformly charged ring is zero but the potential at the centre is not zero.

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3-Effect of Earth on the Capacitance of a Single Phase
Transmission Line:

Considering the case of a single phase overhead line, assume conductors A’ and B’ as
image conductors of conductors A and B respectively, as shown in Fig. 4.37. Let the
height of conductors be h metres above the earth and charge of +q coulombs per metre
length and -q coulombs per metre length on the conductors A and B respectively.

The equation for the voltage drop VAB as determined by two charged conductors A
and B and their images A’ and B’ may be written as follows:

Substituting qA = q’B = + q and q’A = qB = -q we have,

Capacitance between conductors A and B,

The above expression for capacitance reveals that the presence of earth modifies the

radius of conductor r to The effect of earth on the capacitance of the

system is to increase it. However, normally the distance of separation between the
conductors is much smaller than the height of the conductor from the ground,

therefore, and for all practical purposes the effect of earth on line
capacitance can be neglected.

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4-image of a charge:
When a charge or distribution of charge is placed in proximity to a conductor, the electric field from
the charge induces a charge distribution on the surface of the conductor. Normally, it may be a
difficult mathematical exercise to find the charge distribution that is induced. This is desirable
because we could then use the induced charge distribution in conjunction with the source charges to
find the net electric field of the system. However, we can note that the electric field must satisfy
certain boundary conditions at the surface of the conductor. If we can setup an effective source
inside the conductor that satisfies the boundary conditions on the surface, then we can use the
effective source to be the source for our electric fields, avoiding the messy math involved in finding
the exact charge distribution and associated fields. The boundary conditions require that the
tangential electric field is zero along the surface of the conductor. Thus, all we need is to create an
"image" charge that replicates this. The idea behind this is called the equivalence principle. An easy
example is with an infinite conducting plate. If we place a charge at a distance d above the plate, we
need to have the tangential electric field zero on the plate's surface. This is easily replicated by
placing an equal but opposite charge at a distance d below the plate's surface and below the original
charge. This way, the distance from the original charge and the image charge is the same at any
point on the plate's surface and since they are opposite charges only a normal net field exists. Thus,
the total electric field is the electric field of the original and image charges. This is much easier to
calculate than solving the equations to find the true induced charges on the surface of the conductor
and then integrating to find the electric fields.

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