Architecture Design in Steel PDF

Architectural
Design in Steel
Peter Trebilcock and Mark Lawso11
~ Spon Press
llijl ll T¥>tf.r-•c..a.> Con«ruc;tio.n
lnsti1Ure
lONOC)N ""'° -YOf I(
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Architectural
Design in Steel
is the Steel Co nstructio n Institute (SCI). hs overall objenive
is to promote and develop the proper and effective use of steel. It
achieves th is ai1n through research, developn1eiu of design aids and
design approaches, publications and advisory and education services.
Its \VOrk is iuitiated and guided thro ugh the involve1nent of its
n1e1nbers on advisory groups and technical con1minees. ·111e SQ is
financed through subscriptions from its n1embers, revenue fron1
research and consultancy contracts and by sales of publications.
Me1nbership is open to all organisatio ns and individuals that are
concerned with the use of steel in co nstruction, and nien1bers
include designers, arch itects, engineers, contractors, suppli ers,
fabricators, acaden1 ics and governn1en1 depanmencs in the United
Kingdon1, else,vhere in Europe and in countries around 1.he '"orld. A
co n1prehensive advisory and co nsuhancy service is available to
n1en1bers on 1he use of s1.eel in co nstructio n.
Funher info rmatio n o n rnernbersbip, publi\.ltions and courses is
given in the SCI prospectus ava ilable free on request fron1:
·n1e Men1bership and Council Secretary

'Ih e Steel Construct ion lnstituce
Sihvood Park
Ascot
Berkshire
SLS 7QN
Telephone: 01344 23345
Fax: 01344 22944
Website: \V\VW.steel-sd.org
C.o rus (forn1erly British Steel) sponsored the preparation of this

hook by the SCI and this suppon is gratefully ackno,vledged. '!11e
different d ivis ions o f Corus produce and niarket a comprehensive
range of steel products fo r conscruction. Advisory services are
ava ilab le to help specifiers with any problen1s relevan t 10 structural
s1ee hvo rk and to p rovide points of co ncran \Vith th e sales functions
and techn ical services. A se ries of public.a! ions is available dealing
with steel products and their use. A list of addresses and tel ephone
nun1bers is given in Chapter 16.
Architectural
Design in Steel
Peter Trebilcock and Marl< Lawson
~ Spon Press Construction

11 11111 T•ylor&FrancisG<oup
Institute
LONOON ANO NEW YORK
Firs1 publishe.d 2004 by Sp on Press
II New Fener Lane, London EC4P 4E~
Si1n ul1aneously published in !he USA and Canada by Spon PrESs

29 \.Vest 35th Street, N~w York, NY 100\H
This edirion published in rhe Taylor & Francis e-Ubrary, 2004.
Spon Press is an lmp1int of rite 1ll)'IOT & Fmncis Croup
@ 2004 The S1cel Construction Institute
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The puhlisher makes no representation, express or implied. wi!h regard 10 the

accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot acc:ept any legal
responsibility or liahility for any errors or omissions !hat may he made.
Bricislt Librmy Om1/oguing in Publicacion Daw

/\ c.atalogue record for this book is a\'ailable from !he British Lihraiy
Libmry of Cimgress Oualogin,~ in Pub/icar.ion Daca

Trehilcock, Peter.
/\r~hile;1ural design in sted/PeterTrehikoc;k and lvtark La\.;son.
p. ("Ol.
Includes hihliographical ref«rences.
ISllN 0-419· 24490· 5 (Phk.)
I. Building, Iron and steel. 2. Steel framing (Building) I. La\oJSOll, R. M. II. litle.
Tl 11611.'1'697 2()03
721'.04471-dc21
2003005976
ISBN 0-203-64 165-5 Mas1ere-book ISBN
ISBN 0-203-67700-5 (Adobe eReader Fonnat)

ISBN 0-419-244~)0-5 (Print Edi1ion)
Contents
Preface ix
1 Introduction I
1.1 Advantages o f steel construction 2
1.2 ()pponunity fo r architenurnl expressio n 2
1.3 Holistic approach 4
1.4 Scale and o man1em 4
1.5 Steel 'kit o f pans' 8
1.6 Tubular S1eelwork 10
2 Introduction to expressed structural form 17

2. l f.xprt>ssion of bracing 19
2.2 /\rched and c1.11voo structures 20
2 .3 Tension structures 21
2.4 r-abriCJh:d m t:mhc.rs 23
2.5 Stn1cture/en,·elope relationship 2.'i
3 Frame design 27
3.1 "!be frame as the basic unit of construction 27
3.2 Expo sing the frame 28
3.3 Braced versus rigid fram cs 29
3.4 Ponal-frame strucrures 31
3.5 Expressing the conneeti ons 34
3.6 Al temative fo m1s of brad ng 3.5
4 Types of beams, columns and trusses 39

4. 1 Ben ms 3')
ti .2 Long·sp:in be:ims 47
4.3 Curved beams 51
4.4 Columns 56
4.5 Trusses and lank~ girders 62
vi Arc:hicec111ral Design in Scee/
5 Connection s b etween I-sections 71

5. l Jntrnduction to connecrjons 71
5.2 Benefits o f standardisation 72
5.3 lndusuy-standard connections 72
5.4 Beam to colu mn m nnections 73
--
.:-> •.:> Beam to beam connections 77
80
5.6 Column spikes
5. 7 Column bases 81
5.8 Connections in trusses 82
5.9 Bracing and tie-n1embers 85
6 Connection s between tubular sections 87

6. J Preparation o f members 87
6 .2 Bolted and pinned ronneciions 88
6 .3 \\lelded fia nge or end-plates and bolted connections 90
6.4 In-line conneciions 92
6.5 \Nelded nodes to cohnn ns and 1n asl• 94
6.6 Pinned connooions to tubular sections 94
6.7 Welded tube to tube connections 97
6 .8 C'.on nections in trusses and lattice construct io n 98
6.9 Beam to column connections in rubular ronstrurtion 104
6.10 Special bolted connections to Sf-IS and RHS 108
7 Tension structures Ill

7.1 Design opporruniries fo r tension structures 112
7.2 Different forms o f tension anarh111ents 114
7.3 Fabric supponed structures 11 7
7.4 Adjustn1ents 11 7
7.5 Tie rod or rnhle connections 11 7
7.6 Tensio n structures using rubular members 125
8 Space frames 129

8. 1 Advantages and disadvantages of spare grid~ 129
8.2 Common forms o f space grids 130
8.3 Support locations 132
8.4 Spa n:depth ratios 133
8.5 C'.ommercially available systems 133
9 Glazing interface details 139

9.1 Architeaure 139
9.2 Interfaces 141
9.3 Tolerances 142
9.4 Support srruaures 143
9.5 Use o f rubular members in gl;izing systems 147
10 Steelwork penetrations of the external envelop e L53

10. l \Naterproofing .1 5 3
10.2 Cold bridging 153
Com.ems vii
ll TeChnical characteristics of steel 159

11.l Specification for structura.1 steels 159
11.2 Design standards l 60
11.3 i\>lanufacruring methods for hot-rolled steel secti ons 160
11.4 Stainless steel 164
11.S Weathering steels 165
11 .6 Use of rast steel 167
12 Corrosion protection 173

I 2_I Internal Steelwork j73
12_2 Proteciive treatment specifiration 174
12.3 Surfare preparation 174
12.4 'fype o f proteoion to be used l 75
I 25 Method and location of :ippliration 184
12.6 Protection o f ronneciions 184
12.7 Detailing o f expvscd steelwork to reduce corrosion 186
12.8 Contact with oth~r 1naterials 187
13 Fire protection 189

13.1 r-orms of fire protenion 189
13.2 Sprayed and board proteoion 190
13.3 lnrumescent roarings 191
13.4 Partial encasement by concrete 192
13.S Concrete filling of tubular sections 193
13.6 \.\later filling of tubular sections 194
13.7 Fire protertion by enclosure 195
13 .8 Pirc engineering 195
13 .9 Extemnl steelwork 197
14 Site installation 199

14. 1 Bolting 199
14.2 Welding 200
14.3 \.Veldi ng tubular sections 202
14.4 'lblerances 204
14.5 Deflections 206
15 Other design considerations 207

15.1 Pre-co ntract involvem ent of the fa bricator 207
15.2 Drawing examination and approval 207
15.3 Key decisio ns/checklists 207
15.4 Fahricator's responsihilities during erecti on 208
15.5 .\1ock-ups and prototypes 209
15.6 Transponatio n o f steelwork 209
16 References and so urces o f info rmat io n 211
Index 221
Preface
Arclzicecu1ra/ Design in Sree/ presents general des ign princi pies and
exa rnples of good practice in steel des ign, fab rica t io n and
a.rchitectural detailing. The book covers three areas:
• general principles of steel design

• oppo rtuniti es for ardlitectu.ral ei..-pression
• examples of detai.ls used in recent projects.
·!he book indudes all aspects of the architectural uses of steel in

lnternal and external applications. The different types of structural
men1bers, frames and their connec.tions are identified, and comn1on
details are discussed. Examples of the expressive use of steel are
presented, induding ardles, tension structures, nlasts and glazing
support systems. Connections betWeen nleinbers, especially tubular
connectors and cast steel nodes, are covered in deta il.
'Jedlnical information is provided on fire and corrosion
protection, and on penetrations through the building envelope.
Reference is also 111ade to 01her publications for n1ore de1ai led
guidance. Chapter 10 \\'llS drafted prior to the introduct io n of revised
UK building regulations dealing \Vith ro ld bridging. Designers are
advised 10 seek specialist advice, where necessa 1y, should steelwork
penetratiot1 of the envelope be uecessa1y.
"[be book was prepared by Peter 11-ebilcod<. Consultant Architect
to the Steel Construction Jnstitute (SCI) and Head of Ardlitecture
at An1ec Croup Ltd, and by Mark La,vson, SCI Professor of
C,,onstruction Systems at the University of Surrey (formerly Researdl
Manager at the SCI). 'lbe work \Vas funded by Corus (fonnerly British
Steel (Sections, Plates and Commercial Steels)) and Corus Tubes and
Pipes, and the forn1er Depann1ent of the Envi ronn1ent, Transport
and the Regions under the Partners in Technology initiat ive.
1he assistance of 1he follo\ving individuals and organisations is
ackno\vledged: Paul Salter, C..onsultant Structural Engi neer; Ch1istopher
Nash, Nid1olas Grin1sha'v and Partners; Rod McAl lister, forn1erly
Liverpool University School of Ard1itec:rure; Paul Craddock, Arup;
Eric Taylor, Arup; Craig Gibbons, Arup; Roh Watson, Foster and
Parmers; Geoff Hun1e. Willian1 Cook Steel Castings Li mi1ed; Alan
Jones, Anthony Hun1 A~ociates Lid; John Pringle, Pringle Ridlards
Sharratt; David Ca.s h, Building Design Partnership; Mid1ael Po\\•ell,
An1ec Group Ltd; Alan Ogg. The Royal AustTalian lnstitute of Architects.
lnforn1a1ion on tension c:.ables \Vas provided by Guy Linking Ltd.
x Arc:hicec111ral Design in Scee/
Illustration credits
Angle Ring: 4. 16 D. Leistoer/anur: 7 .6

Arup: 7.37, 8.6, 13.7 Llndapter lntemaiional: 5 .9
Michael Barday Partnership: 6.32 ). Linden: 7.8
13arnshaws: 4.14 ). Llnden/ ARCAID: 2.8, 7.8
Benthem &. Crouwel: 6.1 McCalls Spedal f>rojeas: 9 .8
David Bower: 7.1 Raf~4adkafVIE\\I: 1.14
The British Architectural Library, RJBA: T.J.S.Marr: 12.1
3.4 1lugh ~-lanin: 426
Richard Bryant/ ARCAID: 2.17,9.16, David ~1oore: 6.11
11. 10 Brian f>irkell: 4.20
Canadian lnsiiluie of$ieel Jo Reid and John Pl'clc 1.8. I. 1,2. 9, 2. 12,
r'<>n st rucli on: 4. 20 4.34, 7.7, 9.3, 10.5, 12.2
Man in C'.h arlesfVl E.\V: 2.6, 3. 14 Norlaki Okahe: 13.8a
Classen: 7.9 Price & ~tyers: 4 ..37. 6 .16, 7.35
Ian Clouk: 2.5 L. rt Shipsides: 1.9
l'e1er CookfVIBW: 10.4 l1mo 1hy Soar. 1.4, 4 .19
Corus: 4.25 1lm Strcel· Poner: 3.7
Corus 'l'uhes: 6.9, 6. 1o, 6. 21. 6AO, 11. I Kees Stuip: 4.22
John Cri1rhl<!y: 3.12 Rupert l'ruman : 1.10. 2.10
frank Dak Ltd : 3.11 Joce.lyne van den Bossche: 4. 21
Brian Davenport 2.15 Morley von Sternberg; 4.36
Richard Davks/f-oster and Partners: llsinor: 11. 7
2. 11, 7.15. 7.41 \Vestok: 4.15
Richard DavisfVIE.\V: 7.5
M. Denance: 4.27 Celaur Sa:rion
Jere1ny Dixon.E.dward Jones: 4.28 David !lower: 25
Peter Durant/ Ar<::hhlue..com: 1.6 Peter Cook{l'aulkner13rowns: 20
l'ahsec Ltd: 13.3 Peter CookfVTE\V: 18, 24
Nomi an f'()sler: 2.3 Graham Gaunt/ Arup: 5
Poster and J>artners: 2.2~. 2.2h, 2.16, 8.8 W. D. Gerkke: 9
K Frahm: 35 Dennis CilhertfVIE\-\1: 7, 21
T3erengo Cardin: 13.Sh Richard Clo\er: 10
Greg Germany: 3.19 Andrew r lohfVlE\\I: 23
Dennis Cilhel'l: 7.6 Nichnlas Kane/ BPR: 19
Dennis Cilhel'lfVl GW: 4. 17, 4.40, 7.3, Serge Kreisf\.a ni.:rzin~mfen Steiner: 27
7.36, 8.4 Lenscape: 8
Nicholas Grim shaw and l)artners: 2.13 Duccio Malgamha: 26
\¥. D. C.erid<e: l.12 Petcr 1'1<1nvl!tlJVIE\V: 14, 16
Cocxlwin Sk-el: 11 .? Mo rley vr10 Sto!tlllll!IJ!/l-\lilkinsonUyre: 22
Martine I la111ill!~1 !{nigh t 1.7, 9.4, 9.14, Nation a I ~lari lime Musco m: 4
13ill 11asli ngs/ Aff Photo: 2.4 Jo Reid and John l't?ck: 13
Alastair 1lunter: 1.2. 6.30 Katsuhisa Kid.a: 15
Keith Jlunter: 15 'limc)thy Soar: 12
S. Ishida: 13.8c, 13.Sd Jocelyne van den Bossche: 6
David Jewell: 4.38 Nigel Vounl!/f1'.lster and f>art11e1S: I, 2a,
A. Keller/ anur: 9. 10 2h, 3
Ken l<irl<wood: I.I, 4.29, 7.2, 7.4, 7.38 Hodder Associates: I 7
Serge Kreis/Camerzindgrafen Steiner: 2.1 t\xel \Veiss: II
Ian Lawson: 8.3, 10.7
\V&J l..agh: 13.2 0.JCter illusmuicm
1-1. Laska: 9.12 Jocelyne van de n Bossdie
All phmographs not specifically credited are counesy nf the authors a nd line
drawings are courtesy of'l'he Steel Cnn.nructio o lnstiluie.
The authors and publishers would like to thank the aho\'I? individuals and
organizations fr1r permission to reproduce material. \'\'e ha\'lt made every effon to
conta('l and admowledge ('opyright h ()lders. hut if any err,us or omissions ha~
heen mad e \ 'ii! would he happy 10 ('Orrect the m at a later printing.
/\ numh;:r of illustrations hav.: he.?n adapted fro m the puhlia ulon hy Alan
Ogg, 1\ rd1f111r w re in Steel: ·r11111\us1m/f1111 Context. 'lhe Royal Australian ln~1itu1~ Qf
Architects, 1987.
Chapter 1
Introduction
Pier Luigi NeJVi said:
'A technirally perfect work ran he aesthetically im:xpress ive hut th~r<'.
does not exist, either in the past or the present, a work vf arrhilectu.re
whirh is arrepted and rerognised as excellent fro1n the aesthetic po int
o f view whirh is no t also exrellent fro1n the technical po int of view.
Good engineering seen1s to be a necessary though not suffic ient
co nditio n for good architeoure'.
Good derailing is a function of the spatial arrange1nent of the

elements, their slenderness and lightness, and the connections
between them. Figures 1.1-1.ll illustrate good exa n1p les of steel
detailing in a variecy of strucrural applirations.
Th e need for guidance on detailing

S1eelwo rk offers 1he opponunicy for ard1i1ectun1l expression, as well
as being a structurally vers.'nile and adapt ah le 1naterial. Good qua lity
detailing is vi tal because it affects st ruccu mI perfonnance, cost,
buildability and, perhaps 01ost in1por1antly, appeara nce.
\<\fhilst the choice of Lhe structural form is often Lhe province of
the structural engineer, ard1itects should have a broad appredation
of the factors leading Lo the selection of the structure and its details.
Traditionally, 1nost detailing of connections is the responsibility of
the steel\vork fabricator but. for ei..posed steelwork, detailing is of
mud1 more interest to the architect, as it in1pacts on the aesthetics of
the structure.
In this respect it is in1porta nt that des igners appreciate the
comn1on fabrication and erection ted1niques \vhid1 1nay exert a
strong influence on 1he 1uethod and approach to the detailing of
1uodern stee.lwork in buildings.
Connections to other 111atelia.ls

·n1e anad1meniS of otJ1er elen1en1s, sud1 as cladd ing and stairs to the
steel s1ructure, are described in :.inotJ1er series of pub Iications. ·n1ese
'interfaces' are crucial 10 1he efficiency and buildabiJ ity of steel.
framed buildings. Reference is rnad e to good practice details in the
Steel Construction lnstitute's (SCl's) publications on cwta in '"aili ng/
2 3
connections 10 concrete. and lift-shaft delails.
2 Arc:hicec111ral Design in Scee/
1.1 Advantages of steel construction
111e distinct advantages of the use of steel in Lnodem building

co nsu·uction n1ay be sumn1arised as follows:
• 'll1e modula r nature of its fabrication (a 'kit of parts'), \\'hich can

be delivered 'just in tin1e' to site when required.
• The potential for rapid erection of the fran1e1vork o n si te, 'vbid1
also reduces local d isruptio n, noise and site storage.
• It is prefabricated to a high degree of accuracy.
• Long spans ca n be achieved econo111ically by a variecy of
stru ctura l systems in steel and con1posiLe const11Jction,
pern1in ing grea ter usable space.
• Steel o r con1posite frmnes are lighter chan conc.rete fran1es of the
sa n1e spa n, thus reducing foundation costs.
• Steelwo rk permits adaptation in the future, and components
ca n be re-used by unbolting.
• Co mposite steel-concrete floors can contribute to a thenually
efficie nt building.
• A h igh proportio n of steel production is recycled from scrap,
and all steel is recydable.
1.2 Opportunity for architectural expression
Steelwork possesses various advantages for ardlitecrural expression ,

as follo,vs:
• External st ructures dea rly express their function .

• Slender 111einbers ca n be designed efficienLly, particularly using
rubu lar sections.
• 'Lightness' ca n be accentuated by openings in bea111s and by
latticework Lo the form of trusses.
• Cu1ved men1be rs, sudl as arc hes, can be forn1ed easily.
• Te nsio n structures are efficient and lightweight, particularly for
long-span end osures.
• Co nnections can be designed expressively.
• The fire resistance of exposed steelwork can be enhanced by the
use of intumescent coa tings, o r by concrete or water filling (of
tubu lar sections).
• Colow·s and ft11ishes of painted steelwork can be used to great
effect.
In arch itectw·e, the decision to express or conceal the strucru.ral

fran1e, either externally or i.nternally, is usually decided by aesthetic
preference coup led with tech nical and functional issues. ·n1e desire
to exp ress the structure of rhe building is an association extending
fro n1 th e use of iro n and early steel in the last century.
Ha\7i ng decided to exp ress the structure, the ard1itect then
co nside rs a nu111ber of des ign factors against \vhid1 he 111ay test his
proposals. Su ch co nside ra ti o ns 1nay indude ard1itecrure and
functional, planning or organisa tional requirements, as follo,vs.
/11rrod11c1io11 3
Architectural requirernenrs (Colour P/ares 8, 13, 15, 16, 22 and 24):
• ]he required overaJJ visual effect of so lidity or tl<1nspare ncy;

n1u1tipHdty of eJea1ents or alli1iI11alisn1; individuality or repetitio n
of elen1ents.
• Use of bespoke or standardised coa1ponents .
• The nature of the architectura l language; i. e. elegance and
slenderness; strength and robustness.
• ·nie relationship in visual and functional te rn1s between the
inside and outside spaces.
F1111ctio11al req11ire111e111s (Colour Plate$ 3, 4, 5, 9 and 27):
• Building fonn and funn.ion .

• Dimensional parameters, i.e. height of b uild ing, scale, use of
colu1nn-free space.
• Stability requiren1ents (particuJarly fo r tall b uiJdings ) .
• Initial cost and life-cyde cost.
• Climate; both internally and externa lly.
• Services provision and n1ainteaa nce. and oppo rtun ities for
services integration.
• Interface details, panicularly of the clad d ing to the fra1ne.
• Durability, iaduding n1aintenan ce in1plications and titn e to fust
maintenance.
• Fire-safery considerations.
• Health and safety requiren1eats are now extend ed to Consuuctio n
(Design and Maintenance) Regulatio ns 1994 (CDM Regula tio ns)
•
requlfements. •
• Proteetion fro1n in1pacc dan1age and vandalis1n.
Plt1nni11g or org1111is11cio1111/ requirements (Colour Plates 2, 10, 11. anrl 23):
• Local planning and statutoiy requiren1ents, ind ud ing b uild ing

height, and iinpaa of the building o n the locality.
• Prograrn.rne/ tiinescale requirea1ents, no t o nly of the co nstruction
projea, but also of the resources/dernands placed o n co nsul ta nt~.
• Agreeiueat on the responsibilities of the ard1 itect, strua uraJ
engineer and constructor.
• Client input and acceptability of the d esign concept.
• Availability of suitable resources fo r co nstruction, and opportu-
nities for prefabrication (e.g. on a rem o te site ).
Excellent e.~atnples fro111 the 1980s showed vvh at cou ld be

achieved in l11e expressive use of steel. Jn the Sainsbu ry Centre, a
sin1ple ponal-fra1ne structure '""as proposed initia lly, but rejected in
favour of the deeper and nJore highly articulated structu ral fra ine that
was finally adopted (see Figure 1.1).
·nle highly perforated SlIIJrtural me n1bers of the Re na ult Pa ns
Distribution Centre (Figure 1.2) are an 'architectural' exp ress ion of
engineering and ted1aological efficiency, yet they do not necessarUy
represent the n1ost efficient structura l solutio n. ·n1ese are co ncept ual
1.1 Portal-frame structure used in

!he Sainsbury Centre. Non\lich (archittx"t
Foster and Partners)
issues in wh id1 both the structural engineer and the architect should
share a close interest, and wh ich n1ust be resolved jointly at the early
stages o f design. However, many exan1ples of exposed steel follo1\• a
111ud1 n1ore straightforwa rd approac h (see Colour Plate 26).
1.3 Ho listic approach

1b achieve econo111ic a nd practical archileaural details, there has Lo
be a basic appreciation of the performance of the overall struaure
it~elf and the loading conditions iinposed o n the 01ember or
con1ponent in quest ion. Tue fonn of the struaure vrul strongly
jnfluence the details en1ployed.
For d1e architect, details often evolve thro ugh the logical stages of
conceptual design, followed by funher rationalisation into the
detailed design, i.e. fro rn the macro to the n1icro. The ard1itect n1ay
approach d1e co ncep t design 1vith me key co1nponen1details already
in niind. However, the final solution will be i11fluenced by structural
issue.~. an und erstanding of the fabrication and construction process,
and other functional constraints (see Colour Plate 14 ).
As one of the first exainples of external suppon using masts and
c:ibles, d1e steelwork for the Renault Pans Distribution Centre (see
Pigure 1.2) was subj ec t to co nsiderable re6ne1nent at d1e design stage
by con1puter analysis. and the con1po nents were finally rigorously
1.2 The Renault Pans Distribution
tested to assess d1eir load capacity. The 'mas t and artn' details read1ed
Centre. Swindon, showing mast and
tension structure (architect: r-oster and
a high level ofsophL~tication, cieatinga strong aesthetic and functional
Partners) appea l for what could have been a bland enclosure.
1.4 Scale and ornament
1.4.1 Scale
Buildings shou Id be designed well at a range of scales. An

understanding and an appreciation of all tl1e scales ,.,rill help in d1e
an o f asse111bly and detai li ng. '111erefore, an elegant and "'eU-
proportio ned building will have been successfully considered at the
large scale as \Vtd l as in its details. Cood details alone do noc
necessarily lead to architectural success. '11iis ad1ieve1nent relies on
d1e co nsideratio n of all ele111ents of the co1nposition of varying scale
(see Colour Plates 14 and 20).
/11rrod11c1io11 5
For exaiuple. the ranopy of Lhe pavilion bu ilding co nu·asts and

complin1enlS the 1nonu111ental scale of the MiJlenn iu1n Do1ne, as
Ulusuated in Figure 1.3.
Exan1ples of the order of scale are as follo\vs:
l. Voluu1etric scale: TI1e big pictuie for the \vhole project and
i lS Icc.a lity.
2. Suuctural sc;ale: "The structural systein, e.g. a 40 m span roof
structure.
3. Module scale: A colun111 grid, say, of 9 1u.
4. Elen1ental scale: Repetitive elen1ents, such as bea1ns.
5. Assen1bly scale: l11e fon11 of the connections.
6. Deta il scale: TI1e detail of che base of a colurnn, or pan
of a tru s.~.
7. "[e"ttu raJ scale: Surface appea rance.
8. Point scale: For exan1ple. the head of an individua l bolt
011 a plaLe.
All of these ele1ue11ts ofscale represent opportunities for ard1 itectural

.
expression.
1. 4. 2 Ornament
Lil arcb.irecrural composition, ornan1ent has traditionally been

1.3 Pavilion at the Millennium Dome,
sought in those places '''here ponions of the buUding d1ange
Greenwich, UK (architea: Richard Rogers
significantly from one part to another, \vhether it be from \Vall to
Parmership)
roof. \vall lO celling, o ne structural elen1ent to anotl1er, i.e. bearn to
column, or column to ground, and so on (see Colour Plates 9 and 27).
Mud1 o f the o rnan1ent and articulation o f parts es tab I ished in
t\ventieth -cencury archit ecture has been found in the attentio n to the
junctions bet\veen prefabricated co n1po nen1s, ·whether they be parts
of the structure or of the dadding systetns. Conseque nlly, in steel.
framed buildings \Vhere l11e sLIUcture is exposed, ornarnen1 is usua lly
sought in Lhe connections betvveen strurtuJal 111ei11bers and between
the ele1nents '"hich com prise thet11 (see Colour Plate 19) . ·n1e careful
shaping of lhe connectio n plates, stiffwing ele111ents, bolti ng and
welding patterns, hubs for diagonal bracing and tie-rod asse1nb lies,
have taken on an imponant role, \vhich is not only structu ral but also
gives expression to lhe functionality of consu·uct:ion.
E.'tan1ples \"here attention to detail r,an be used to provide
ornamentation to an othenvise plain structure are:
• aniculated attadlmenr of horizontal and vertical n1embers

(Figure 1.2 and Colour Plates 12, 25 and 26)
• suppons to arched 111en1bers (i.e. at foundations) (Figures 1.3
and 1.4)
• suspension and bracing nieinbers, including tie rods (Figure 1.5
and Colour Pl are II)
• Lie 1ne1nbers that cou nterbalance a long-spa n portal fmme
(Figure I. 6) 1.4 Thames Vall~y Univen.hy. pin -
• connections " ritl1in LIUsses (Figure l. 7 and Colour Plate 20) joint~d conn«tinns supponing rurwd·
• fabrica ted beaD1s or stiffened n1e1nbers (Figure 1.8 and Colour ar<hed stet!! members (arr:hito!<t: Richard
Plate 19) Rog~rs r•annt:lship)
1.5 Dynamic l!anh C,entre. Edinburgh (archi te("t: Michael 1lopkin s & Partners )
/11rrod11c1io11 7
1.6 St Paul's Girls School (architro: FaulknerBrowns) 1.7 Inland Revenue Headquarters, No11inghan1, showing
truss details which pr011id~ interest and aniculation (architea:
Michael Hopkins and Partners)
1.8 Operations Centre at Waterlcl(>. London , showing a

fabricated cantiltv~r beam supporting a walkway (architi?<"l:
Nicholas (.rimshaw & Pann~rs)
l.9 Orange Operational r11dlity. Darlington (architoo:

Nicholas Griin shaw & Partners)
•
• 111ullions \\•ith multiple perforations (Figure 1.9)
• suppo11 to a fabric roof (Figure 1. LO and Colour Plate L9).
Relationships ca n be established bel\-veen the individual pans and

the overall building fonn, which have a basis in elen1entary suuctural
action.
1.5 Steel 'kit of parts'

..... A \'>'ide range o f steel co rnponents is available
design er fro m:
10 1.he ard1i1.ect and
• hot-ro lled sections, such as I, 1-1 and L sha pes

• tubu lar sections of circular, square and recta ngular shape
• fabricated sect ions tnade by welding
1.10 Support to fubric roof al the.
• light steel co mponents made from strip steel
l!nagination Building, London (arc:hitect
• stainless steel co rnpo nents
Ron I lerron and Partners) • 1nodular units made fron1 light steel con1ponents.
111 is book concentrates on the application of hot-rolled and

tubular-steel structures, but the principles are applicable to a 'kit of
parts' of steel co1npone11ts. Indeed, in ma11y buildings, I-sections are
used for bean1s, H-sections for colwnns, tubular sections for bracing,
fabricated sections for primary beams or transfer beanlS supponing
colun1ns, light steel for infill \'Valls, a11d modular elements for plant
roon1s and to ilets. Site co nnections are usually 1nade by bolting,
ahhough welded co nnectio ns may be preferred for faaory-n1ade
connecuons.
More inforrnation on the technical characteristics of steel is
presented in Chap ter 11 .
1.5.1. lfot-rolled steel sect'ions
A wide range of standard steel sections is produced by hot rolling,

fron1 wh id1 designers can select the profile, size and \¥eight
appropriate to the particular application. Table 1.1 illustrates the
range of 'open' sections used in the UK which are universal bean1
(UB), universal colum n (UC), parallel flange channel (PFC) and
angle sections.
In continental Europe. IPE and HE sections are generally used
rather than UB and UC sections. In the LISA, Wand \'VP sections are
used (whid1 are sin1ilar to UB and UC sections).
Modern steel .sections have parallel nanges. Also, parallel flange
channels largely replace d1a nnels wi th tape.red fl anges. 'The 'serial
size' refers to the designated section depth and wid th in ,\111ich there
are a range of \veigh1.s o f sect ion. However, it should be noted that
the UB or UC sectio n de,signatio n, such as 406 x 140 x 39 kgfn1 refers
to the approxinrate depth, \vidth and weight. a!ld exact dinJensions
should be obtained from standard tables.
/11rrod11c1io11 9
Table I. I Standard hot-rolled sections (Lill, UC:. [ and L)
Universal beam (Ull) Universal 8 ea1ns
Nominal dimensions (mm)
B D B
1~ ~ 203 102 and 133
c; c 254 102 and 146

0 !!? 305 102 and 165
~ c;. Cl>
_.,
co~
-j ..:i:
Cl>
E o- 356 127 and 171
D 'O - -c 406 140 an d 178
~
iii .,c 457 152 and 191
c 8
533 21()
610 229 and 3(1!5
o~-eper and shallnwer LI ll s1c'<"llons are :ivailahk hut are nn1 Iisled here
Llni\'Crs.11 co lumn (UC) Unhoe_1'S al Columns
D ll
152 152
203 203
D 254 254
305 305
356 ;168 and 406
Channel (PFC) Para llel Fl an ge Channel
D B
100 50
125 61\
15() 75 and 90
180 75 and 90
D 200 75 and 90
230 75 and 90
260 7'\ and 90
30() 90 and HXJ
38() 100
430 IOO
Equal angle Roll ed Steel An gles
External dimension of equal angle:

25, 30, 40, 45, 5 0
6(), 70. 80. 90. 100
120, 150, 20(), 250
Unequal angle Roll ed St~-el Angles

B ...! External dimension of unequal angle
I< ,,
Various si1.es from:
40 . 2.'i HI 2CXJ • I 50
0
Including co mmon sizes o f:
75 x 'iO, 10() x 75, 15() x 75, 200 x 100
Table 1.2 Typical pro ponion of cost and man-hours per t.onn e in st.iel fahricatlon in buildings
Item Man-hours per tonn~ Total % of cost
Materials production 3- 4 30
fohrication 8 - 12 45
Ereaion 2- 4 15
Pro1eai~ ueallllen1 1- 2 10
1b1al 14 - 22 100
The serial size of LI Bs a nd UCs varies in incren1 ents of

approxi1nately 50 n11n depth fo r the sha llO\\'er sections, and 75 n1n1
for the deeper sections. \.Vithin each serial si.1.e, tJ1e designer n1ay
choose from a number of different sections of similar height 11ie
standardisation of steel sec1jo ns has also led 10 tJ1e adoption of
standard co nnectio ns, whid1 have beco me fa1niliar '"ithin the
. d 5,G
1n usuy.
Table l.2 shows the breakdovrn of costs in a typical fran1e1.,ork of
a building. lt is apparent that o nly 3QOAJ of the cost associated 'Yitb a
steel fran1e relates to the 1naterial itself. Costs can incJease
significantly if fabricatio n and detailing cJeate a demand for
ina·eased labour tin1e. For example, usi.ng a heavier steel section is
generally cheaper tJ1an using a lighter sectio n that has to be stiffened
at its connections.
1.6 Tubu lar steelwork
·n1e use of tubular steel\'l'ork creates a wide range of ard1ilectural

opportunities in inc ernal o r ex ternal app lications. 111e \\•Ord 'tubular'
has co n1e to mea n applicatio ns using au fonns of structural hollov1
secti o ns, rather than just circular sections. Tubular sections are
ava ilable as circular ho llow sect.ions (CHS), and square or
rectangular hollov.• sections (SHS and RHS, respectively). Oval tubes
are also available. SHS can a lso be used as the generic title 'structural
hollo,.,. sections'. More detail on me methods of n1anufaaure is
presented in Section 11.3 .
Table 1.3 defines the co1nmon seaion sizes. All tubular seaions
have exact externa l dimensions for detailing purposes.
'TI1e factors tl1at influence tl1e use of tubular construction are their:
• aestJ1etic appea l, which is o ften due to rhei.r apparent lightness

of the rnembers
• reduced weight of steel due lO their srruaural efficiency,
depe nding o n tJ1eir app lication
• to rsio na l resistance (ho llow sections are panicularly good at
resisting to rsio nal effects due to eccenuic loading)
• co mpressio n resistance for use as colun111s o r bracing n1 en1bers
(tubu lar sections a re very efficient in co1npression due Lo tl1eir
reduced slenderness in buckling co nditions)
/11rrod11c1io11 11
Table 1.3 Structural h(illow section s (not<1, dlernal dim<:n sio1is are constant for a given serial si2e in all hollow sertlon.~)
Squa1·e H ollow Section (SHS)
External di mension of s quare sectio n (nun ):
4(), 50, 6(), 70, 80, 90

100, 120, 140, 150, J 60
200, 250. 300, 350, 400
Rectangular Hollow Section (RHS)
£.'Cternal di mension ofrertan gular seclion:
Dep1h (1n m) x wid!h (mm). Va rioussi2esfrom:

50 x 25 to 500 x 300
Incl uding rommon s izes of:

1()0 x 50, 15() x 100, 200 • JOO, 250 • 100
250 x 150, 300 x 200, 400 x 200, 450 v 250
Circular Hollow Sectio n {CHS)
Size of Cl ISs
Various siz es from :

2L3 mm diameter 10 508 mm dian1eter
lnduding common s izes of:

114.3, 168.3, 193.7, 219.1, 244.5,
273, 323.9, 355.6, 406.4, 457
• bending resistance o f slend er sections {if a bearn is unrestrained

thro ughout its lengt h, the tubu lar sect ion can be n1o re efficient
lha n a conventio nal I-section)
• efficiency under coin bined bendi ng and torsion, such as in
structures cuived on plan
• fire and corrosion protection costs (v.rhich are reduced because
o f the low surface area of the tubular section)
• ease o f site assen1bly, as al.so infl uenced by requirements for
welding
• availability in higher grade 5355 steel.
fabricators cost all the steel-related items accurately, but the cost
of fue and corrosion protection would no1n1a lly be estimated
separately. Some fabricators are specialists in tubular construction
and can advise o n costs and details at !he planning stage. Additional
aspeets, such as 1he grinding of '"'elds and special connection details,
should be identified at d1is stage.
When using larger CHS, for exa n1ple in long-span trusses, iL is
irn po rtant to identify fabricators with specialist pro fi ling equipn1ent
who can make d1e connections be!\vee n the chords and web-
members efficien tly. This is parti cularly i111po rtant fo r 111ore co mplex
asse1nblies, such as triangular latti ce girders, which requ ire a greater
a1no unt of fab ricati on effort and skill (see Sectio n 6.8 ). 1he
al ternative may b e to use SHS, \vhid1 only require cutting the ends of
the d1ord 111en1bers at the correct angle rather than profiling the cul
ends.
The Waterloo International Tern1i nal by Nid1olas Griu1Sha\v and
Partners gains n1ost of its visual irnpact by its striking light\\•eight
roof. The roof consists of a series of tubular trusses supponing
stainless steel dadding and glazing. Every truss is different, but
considerable econo1ny a nd simplification was achieved by
repetition of the same external d imensions of the tubular sections
(see Figure 1.11 ).
1h e excel.lent torsiona l resistanc;e and stiffness of tubular seaions
(often t.e.n tin1es greater than !hat of I-sections of equivalent area),
n1a kes 1he1n suitab le fo r curved bridges and can opies '"h ere
nien1bers curve on p lan and possibly also o n elevation (see Colour
Plate 14). Architects such as Santiago Calatmva have utilised chis
property by creating tubular spine-bea1ns and indined ardles that
resist ecce nuic loading in bending and to rsion. An exce.llent exan1ple
of the use of tubular-inclined arches is in the Millenniun1 Bridge,
Gateshead (Colour Plate 16).
Transportation buildings have also exploi ted the qualities of tubular
constructio n. Exan1ples include Sta nsted and Stuttgart Airpons (see
Figure 1.12 and Colour Plate 9, and also see Colour Plate 7). On e of
the largest buildings in the " 'orld en1ploying tubular steel is the
lnternational Airport at Kansai, Japan, designed by Renzo Piano (see
Figure 1.13).
Tubular structures are not only reserved for large projeas. 111e
lightness of tubular members is en1 phasised at the 'Gate\vay' in
Peckha1n, London (see Colour Plate IO). Similarly, the indined tubular
n1en1bers created a curved appearance in H<Xlder Associates' endosed
pedestrian footbridge in Mandlester (see Colo ur Plate 17).
L.JI Vlaretloo Internatio nal ·1e nninat

srriking long.span roof romprised of
lap;!fing mbular trusses (a«hitl'O: Nicholas
CrinlShaw &. Partners)
/11rrod11c1io11 13
1.12 S1uugan Airport Roof using 1ubular column 'trees' 1.13 'l'uhular trusses a1 Kansai Airport. Japan ( archi1cC1: Renzo
- ~e also Colour Plate 9 (arC'hitcct: Von Cerknn Marg & Piano l'\lorkshop)
Partners)
1.6.1 Fabrica ted sections
Fabricated steel sections are produced by welding steel plates in a

factory process. ·1bese sections are fabricated to the required
geomeay and are not standard sections. 'J11ey are usually econon1ic
where:
• the section size can be 'tailor-n1ade' to the panicular application

and meinber deptl1
• long-span pri1nary beani.~ '"ould not be ach ievable using hot-
rolled sections
• heavy 'transfer' or podium su·uctures are required co support
columns or other heavy loads
• asym1netric sections are 1J1ore efficient than sta nd ard sections
• tapered sections are specified, e.g. in grandsta nd ca nopies
• OHVed meinbers are created by cutting the web and bending the
flange into a cwve of the required rad ius.
The use of fabricated sections in a floor grillage is presented in

Section 4.2. 1be primary practic.al consideration is tl1e availability of
standard plate sizes and the relative tl1icknesses of the plates used in
me flanges and l'>'eb of the section. Exan1ples of the use of fabricated
u1e111bers are also illusuated in Section 2.4.
1.6.2 Cold-forrned sections
A variety of cold-for111ed seaions (CFSs) are produced and these

sea ions are widely used as serond ary n1embers, sud1 as purlins, or in
light steel framing for pri1nary structura l app licat ions. Typical C
sections are illustrated io Table 1.4. CFSs are produced by cold rolling
froin galvani.7.ed strip steel in thicknesses of 1.2 to 3.2 111m for
strua ural applications. Various SCI publicatio ns, includ ing an
Table l.4 Cold-form11d secrimlS (produced by various manufaau!\'rs)
Standard C and Z sections Depth ofC or Z sections (typkal) (m m):

75. IOO. 125. 140. 170
200, 240, 300
Modified C and Z S<'Clions Steel thickness (typical) (mm ):

l.2, 1.6. 1.8, 2.(), 2.4, 3.2
Arch itect's Guide/ describe the use of cold-fom1ed steel sections and
light steel fram ing in build ing.
Cold-forn1ed steel sections can be used as:
• infill or separat ing walls in steel fraa1ed buildings

• floor joists and secondary nlembers in fuunes
• light steel fran1ing, erected as storey high wall-panels, u1
housing and residential bui.Jdings
• purlins in roofs and in over-roofing i.n building renovation
• nlodular units in cellular bui.Jding forms, such as hotels and
student residences
• cladding support 111embers and over-cladding in building
renovation.
Steel dec king is produced in steel thicknesses fron1 0.9 to 1.2.5 nlnl,
and is aV!l ilab le in cwo gene ric forn1s:
• deck profLles of 45 to 80 m111 depth for use in co1nposite

construct ion
• deep deck profiles of 210 or 225 n11n depth for use in Slimde/1
co nstruct ion.
TI1ese app lications in con1posite construction are covered in nl ore

detail in Section 4.1.
1.6.3 Modular construction
Modular construction uses prefabricated 'volun1etric' con1ponentS

\vhid1 are generally nlade fron1 light steel-fran1es, although they
often inco rpo rate SHS colur11ns for the co rner 'p osts'. It is nlost
econon1ic where the modules can be manufac tured repetitively to
achi eve 'economy of scale', and where the dimensions of the
111odules are suitab le for cranspo.nation a nd installation (3.0 to 4.2 111
are typ ical module widths).
'l11e Peabody 1)·ust's Murray Grove projea in London achieved
ard1i1ectura l acda i111 by being the first majo r use of n1odular
/11rrod11c1io11 15
1.14 ~lodulnrronStruetion o fsodnl housing in London for 1he P~nhodyTrus1

(arch i1~c1: C:am,..righ1 Pickard Ardih""1s)
construction in the sociaJ-bousing sector (see Figure 1.14 ) . "l11e

n1oduJar nature of the building l\'aS softened by using prefabricated
balconies, access \VaU.>vays, and a 'core' lift and stairs su·ucn1re at the
axis of the two wings of the building.
Mo re guidance o n the use of n1oduJar consu·uction can be fou nd
78
in recent SCI publicatioas. ' Modular units can be used ia n1ore
regular framed souaures in the forn1 of prefabricated p lant roon1s,
'dean roo1us', bathrooms and toilets, v.•bicb are often lifted or slid
into place on the noor.
Chapter 2
Introduction to
expressed structural
form
'!he visual expression of a sLructure requires an und erstanding of

struoural funaion, and an appreciatio n of the a lternative forrns of
stn1aure !hat can perforn1 this function . BroadJy, the var ious fo rms
of steel struaure that n1ay be encow1tered nlay be grouped as
fo llows:
• Braced frames, in \Vhid1 the beams and columns are designed to

resist vertical loads oruy. Horizontal loads are resisted by
bracing in the \valJS or cores. "!li e connections are designed as
pinned or 'sin1ple'.
• Rigid or 'S\vay' fratues, in \Vhidl the fran1ed structure is designed
tO resist both vertical and horizontal loads by designing the
conneaions bet\veen rhe n1en1bers as n1on1ei1t-resisting.
• Ardl structures, in V1~1i ch forces are uansferred to the ground
mainly by con1pression \Vithin the suucture.
• Tension structures, in v,rhich forces are !Tansfe rred to the ground
by tensio n (or catenary action) and by co111pression in posts or
mas ts, as in a tent. 11le tension ele111ents in the fonn o f cables or
rods are usually and1ored to the grou nd.
These strunural systenlS are explained in n1ore detai l in Chapters

3 and 7. Tension struaures are con1n1onJy associated with expressive
external struaures. Jn practice, n1any structures are a hybrid of l\'l'O or
n1ore forn1s. For example, a portal fran1e acts as a rigid fra 1ne in one
direaion, but is braced in the other direction.
Pinned conneaioas are usually sin1ple to fabricate and are the
least e.'q>ensi~ cype of connection to produce. In pin-jointed frames,
lateraJ stiffness 1uust be introduced into the frame by the careful
placeiuear of diagonaJ bracing, or by incorporating other stabilising
1uethods, sudl as shear \Valls, stiff cores, or by interaction with rigid
fran1es. Of course, pin joinLS do not have to take the forn1 of 'pins'.
Rather, they are simple conneaions that are u eated as p ins fron1 the
point of view of strucrural design. Actual pi ns n1ay be treated
ornamentally, as sh0\'1111 in Figure 2. 1, and as used at the Sadd er
Callery in London (Figure 2.2). Often, connecti ons are designed as
'pinned', even if they possess some rotational stiffness. 2. 1 !'in-jointed connenions to rolumn ,
"!he notion of a rigid fra n1e relates to the stiffness of th e ~ports centre, Buchholz. Sw·i12erland
con nections rather than to the rigidity of the fnune itself. 'I11e (architect: Ca mcnindgrafen Steiner)
.
•
.,.
~
~1
'
I I ,. ~
I I I I
(a)
---------
~---------~
.,...-
---<><......
--
.•.,.
(b)
2.2 Pinned conn~-crion h.:rween column and h.:3m nt the Sadder Callery.
London: (a) column- bea m arrang~m~nt: and (b) lt)('a l d~tail (art'hitect: Foster
and l>arrners)
achievement of full continuity between members in rigid frau1es

requires an extensive an1ou utoffabrication and, as a consequence, is
relatively expensive to ach ieve. Ho\vever, rigid fra1nes are suitable for
low-rise buildi ngs and endosures. where horizontal forces are lo\v in
relation to vertical loads.
Given the overall geornetry of any one panicular structural
arrangement, there are many different types of connection \,rhid1 can
be made bet\\•een the n1ernbers. However, the seleaion of the
structural n1e1nbers, both in their own cioss-seaion and in their
connection to other n1ernbers, n1ust be kno\vn before any structural
analys is is ca rried ouc. There is therefore a dose in1er-relationship
bef\\•een d1e ard1 itectura l requirements for choice o f the frame
111ernbers and their deta iled strudl.lral design.
Often, rigid ly frarned struaures are preferred if there is li1tle
opportunity fo r the use of vertical bracing, sud1 as in fully glazed
f.'lc;ades or in large-span structures.
l111rod11c1io11 10 ~xpressPd srn1cruml {01111 19
Arch and tension structures rely o n the cornpressive and tensile

properties of steel, and folio"' '\'ell-defwed strucnua l principles (see
Section 2. 2 and 2.3 ).
2.1 Expression of bracing
Of the several Lnethods used to achieve lateral stability in fran1ed

construaion, diagonal bracing is the one wh ich offers the dearest
and n1ost direct visual and graphic representation. For this reason,
bracing has been used as an explicit forrn of structura I expressio n .
\o\lhen brought to the exterior, bracing is often used to orna1nent the
building as well as LO seive a structural function. Bracing used for
con1positional effea can be niore than the 1nin in1un1 necessary for
struaural purposes, as is the case in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.4 shO\..S a new visitor centTe for a th irtee nth-century
castle, which was bujll over some of rhe archaeological relics. 111e
structure had to be light1vcigh1 to reduce the size of the foundations,
and the nu1uber of colutuns had to be lin1ited to avoid interference
with the ex:hibition space belo\v. 111e inherently lightweight nature of
the building is expressed by an external snucture, w ith the diagonal
bracing adding a further element of interest.
Often, the location and orientation of the bracing has to satisfy
other criteria, such as the provision of large openings or the spatial
alignment of the cladding ele.Luents. In diis case, the range of
arc.hitecrural options for bracing systen1s is constrained by the
building function.
In multi-storey buildings, bracing can be expressed externally to
architectural effecL ·n1e scruccural in1portance of the bracing
2.3 Reliance C1>nu(llS. Swindon, wilh
niembers nieans that d1eir si:.r.e and detailing n1ust conform 10 multiple hrnced panels (the Stubs of 1he
sensible. load pad1s by minin1isiJ1g eccentricities and points of steel roofheam.~ ">:re lef1 exposed tn
weakness. Welded stiffeners are often required to tra nsfer forces foci litate ea5y t!Xtensiuns to the focto ry)
across highly stressed cnen1be.rs. (architen: Foster and Partners)
2.4 Visitor centre, Limerick, Ireland. lh<t struc1ure nf the building is expressed
<)n the outside. indudi ng the wnical bracing ( archil<X-1: Murray O'Laoire
Assodates)
2.2 Arched and curved s tructures
Ard1es are convex structures that are designed priu1arily to resisl

co n1pression, as a result of their shape and the form of loading acti ng
on then1. Ard1es are theoretically of parabolic form '"hen subject to
unifonn loading, but they c.an be circular, or even nlade fron1
nlultiple linea r elen1ents. Arches also resist bending Lnoments v;hich
are also induced due to non-unifom1 loading, or the deviation of the
arch fro n1 the idealised shape in \¥hich the lines of thrust
( co1npn:ssio n) are located v.rithin the n1ember cross-section.
Ard1es in steel may be 1nade of I-sections that are either curved 10
shape (see Colour Plate 22 ), or 1nade as a facened ard1 fron1 nlultiple
straight lengths. TI1ey ca n also be in the form of fabricated n1en1bel'$,
such as trusses. Arches rnay have rigid or pinned bases, or a con1bi-
nat ion o f both. Figure 2.5 shows an excellen1example of external and
intern:-iJ a rches v.• id1 in a mu lti-storey building used to greac structural
adva ntage by spanning over the railway lines at the Broadgate
develop n1ei1t, Londo n.
Tubular n1e.111bers a re e.'\cellent for use in arch construction
because of their resistance to buckling and, hence. the few lateral
9
resu·aints that are required. At the Windsor Leisure Centre. an ard1
\Vith variable curvature \Vas contin ued outside the building envelope,
as shov1n in Figure 2.6. See curved tubular trusses in Colour Plate 4
and the glaz ing support~ in Colour Plate 14.
The roof of the great glasshouse of the National Botanical Garden
of Wales used the co ncept of a curved roof consisting of arches of
sin1ilar curvature but of reducing span to create a toroidal shape (like
a slice dirough a car tyre), as illustrated in Colour Plate 2. ·n1e
n1ax in1un1 spa n of 60 m is achieved with o nly 324 mn1 dian1eter
cirr.ular hollow sections (CHSs) which suppon the glass roof.
Hong Kong's ne\~' airport uses a variety of novel construccion
forn1s, including a lon g curved canopy over th e \valk-;,•ay, as
illustrated in Figure 2.7.
Steel members may also be curved in the horizontal plane rather
than in the vert ical plane, as illustrated in Figure 2.8. Ln this case the
2.5 Intern.ii arch structul"I! owr railway

lines at Bro adf;!te, Londun (architect
Skidmore Owings & 1'1~rrill)
l111rod11c1io11 10 ~xpressPd srn1cruml fonn 21
2. 7 Cuived 1nemhers at I long Kong International Airpon

(architer1: Poster and l'anners)
2.6 /\rcht,'<l roof at \\lindsor Lcisure Centre (3r<'hhe<"t: 2.6 Cmved canopy a11he Suashourg Parliament (arrhi1ea:
foul kncrC!rowns) Ri chard Rogers t'anne rship)
rneo1bers are subject to bending and torsion, wh ich is a coiuplex

interaction. Lndined ruived me1ubers can also be used to great effect
but, in this case, additional horizontal or torsional support is
required to counterbalance the forces. ·n1e Merd1ant's bridge in
Manchester utilises this principle, as illustrated in Colour Plate 18.
2.3 Tensio n structures
In tension structures, 'cies' are designed ro resist only tension and are
crucial elements in the overall structural concept. Tall co1npression
n1embers or ' n1asts' provide for the necessaiy vertical support, and
these n1asts are located fully or partially outside the enclosure. Cable.-
stayed roofs, suspended struaures, c"'1ble nets and 1nembrane
struetures are all types of tension structures. Good e,xainp les of this
form of construction are sho,vn in Figures 2.9 and 2.10.
2.9 I loniebast', London, shrf.ving a

central spine supponro by tension rods
from mast (architen: Nicholas Grimshaw
& Panners)
2.10 Tension-supponed m embrane roof to a central amenity building. UK side

of the ChannelTunnel (architects: BOP)
Tension strucrures can have dear advanrages for the roofs of long-
span structures or enclosures where the internal function ofd1e space
is crucia l. In s1na ller-scale app lications, their use is n1ore likely to
depend upon a co1nbinatio n of technical and archi teaural argun1ents,
such as the desire for a lightweight or men1brane roof. or to support
a glass v.•a U with the 111.ini1num of obstruoion.
·n1e tension st ructure 1nay be partially or fully exposed, and both
appeara nce and functio n a.re equally important to detailing.
Co1nrnon exan1ples of structures where tension elen1ents act as
priiua1y members include:
• roofa for sports buildi ngs, halls and auditoria

• grandstands (Colour Plates 24 and 25)
• canopies
• cable-stayed bridges and \\1alkways
• so1ne 'high profile' buildings and strucrures (Colour Plate 23)
• raih'lay, airport and other buildings for rransponation
• ta II glazed wa II s.
At a n1odest scale, the tapered columns and cantilevered arn1s of

the roof structure at Stockley Park, London, are supported by
ho ri zo ntal ties, whicl1 also enhance the visual effect, as in Figure
2. Ll l'i•'<I colunin used for ardiite<"lural 2.11.
effort at Sttrlley Pllrk, London (ar<hitt.'CI: The details employed in tension structures are covered in Chap ter 7.
f'Qster and Pannt?rs) Tension forces are resisted externally by conciete foundations or by
l111rod11c1io11 10 ~xpressPd srn1cruml fonn 23
tension piJes. ·1be econo1nic design of these ron1ponents is also

ituportant to the overall concept.
2.4 Fabricated members
Fabricated steel seaions can be n1ade of a variety of co1nponents:
• steel plates ro create J-bea1us, or tapered beains (see Colour

Plates 26 and 27)
• l-bean1s cut into Teeseaions (see Colour Plate 19)
• tubular seaions " rid1 \Yelded fins.
lhe following figures illustrate the \Yide range of architectura l efTecis

that can be created by fabricated sections, often at large scale.
·n1e Financ:ial Tio1es building in Docklands, Lo ndon, used half
tubes, welded plates and projecting fins to create wing-shaped
colu1nns that are external to 1.he fully glazed envelope. 'The overall
effect is illustrated i.11 Figure 2.12, and the cross-section of the
coluinn is sho\vn ill Figure 2.13.
"Ihe curved beams at Stratford Station, London, 1Yere welded fro1u
plate and stiffened at points of high curvatuJe, as illustrated in Figure
2.14. Interestingly, cast steel footillgs connected the curved bea n1s to
me concrete ground beam, and accentuated the local curvature.
1be endosure of BCE Place in 'foronto, based on a concept o f
Sant iago CaJatarva, used tapered colun1ns con1prising four fins that
reduce to a fme ardl over the en dosure between adjacent buildings
(Colour Plate 8). 2 .1 2 Financi;U Tl ~s building. Lo ndo n
"Ihe Cranfield Library used a 1Yelded V-shaped spine-bean1 to (architect: Nicholas Grimshaw & Panners)
support 1he curved roof, as illustrated in ~igu re 2.1.5 and in the detai.I
in Figure 2.16.
----- -
___
"· ----
••,,....,.
·. -. .........
··-
(.
-
._...,. __
GIN.q " ' ...., .....,,, '"~
....... ........
..........
·- --......
,........... .....
--....- ...
~
I .. ·-"'"'
.,..OC.,__g t )' '°' ~ -r~·--..
°'""'~
...
· ~·- " ...
•
• •
•=::: !.__._ .r -------

2.13 Details o f colun1n in figure 2. 12. Financial Times buildi ng, London
2. 14 Curwd fatnica1ed beam at Sualford

Sca1ion, London (archi1e<:1: \Vilkins(>n Uyre)
:er L'·- ~ .-n r......r\ I.~

- --
,__ ___ ___,_
2. 15 Pabrica1ed V beam of C.ranfield Library
(arc.hi1ect Fns1er and Panners)
.,. ,;.,._" ~ r
. • t- ~
-1~:
\\cJ
2. 1.G Detail rtf a fabrkak'd St'Cliw1 used
at Cranfield Library
l111rod11c1io11 10 ~xpressPd srn1cruml fo nn 25
2.5 Structure/ envelope relationship
Steel is often used ia applications in 1vbid1 the relationship with the

building envelope is in1portant to the visual effect. 111ere are five
basic relationships bet\veen the eadosure of a building and the
pria1ary suuaure:
• suuaure located entirely inside tbe building envelope (C..olour

Plate I)
• suuaure located in th e plane of d1e building envelope (Colour
Plate 12)
• internal srn1aure continued out.~ide the building envelope
(Figures 1.1, l.11 and Colour Plate 13)
• semi-independent external structure supporting external wall,
glazing o r roof (Colour Plate 13 )
• structure localed completeJy ou tside the build ing envelope
(Figure 2.17 and Colour Plate 6).
At Bedfont Lakes, Loudon, the bean1s and colun1ns 1vere located in

the plane of tbe building envelope and used expressed connections, as
illustrated in Colour Plate 12. Man y 'tent-type' struaures continue to
suppon the struaure duough the building envelope, as was do ne at
the Dynamic Eanh Cen tre, Edinburgh, illustrated in Figure 1.5. The
san1e concept was also used in t11e glazed dadding support to the
Western Morning News building, Plyn1outh, illustrated in Colour
Plate 13. An early exa1nple of a con1pletely e>.1.ernal structure is the
Lamos faaory in Ne1vpon.. soud1 Wales, shown in Figure 2.17.
2. 17 Scrunure outside the building

~ nvclc1p~. lnmos, Newpon (arrh iten:
Richard Rogers Partnership)
2. 18 Stratford Station sl'l°'"ing use of

r~petirive curved fr:unes (~rchite(t;
\"/llkinson liyre)
111 is relationsh ip betv.•een d1e envelope and the primary structure

brings wid1 it other issues Ltnpon ant to the building design, sud1 as:
• expression of the connections

• foundation and holding dovm point$
• security and access (for external structures)
• fire-safety strategy
• coITosion protection of the external elements
• 'cold-bridging' through the envelope
• secondary supports to the roofs and walls to con1plen1en1 d1e
d1osen struccural solution.
·n1 e n1ixtu re of structural elen1ents, including curved n1en1bers,

Lrusses, fabricated co n1ponen1s, cables, cast and stainless steel
elen1e nts, illustrates the variety of ted1 niques that are achievable.
Tbe repetition of the internal structure externally can also be used
to great visual effect. The curved fran1e of Suatford Station in Ftgw·e
2.18 1vas extended o utside the glazed fa~ade to e111phasise die
structural solution. 111e tapered fabricated beams were curved 1vith
decreasing radius down to heavy cast steel footings. ·n1Ls same notion
v.•as first used in d1e Centre Pompidou, Paris, where d1e external
fran1e1vork replicates me Lnternal structure.
Buildings can be extended later by using the external fran1ev,rork
to connect into the structure of the extended building "'ithout h aving
to ren1ove d1e existing cladding. 111is is important in the operation of
existing buildings, wh im 1vould otherwise lead to disruption of
internal activities.
Chapter 3
Frame design
3. 1 The frame as the basic unit of construction
A fraa1e\vork is a Lhree-di111ensioa al assei11bly o f steel 1netnbers that

fo rm a self-supporting structure or enclosure. 'Th e .m ost con11non
and ecoao1njc way to enclose a space is to use a series of tvvo-
din1easio nal frames that are spaced at equa l intervals along one axis
of Lhe buildiag. as sho\va in Figure 3. l (a). Stabil ity is achieved in
the nvo direa ioas by the use of rigid fran1ing, diagonal brad ng, or
through the supponing a ction of concrete shear \'Valls or cores (see
Sectio n 3. 2). 111is metho d o f 'extruding' a building vo lun1e is
equaJly applicable to any fran1e geon1etry; whether of single or
multiple bays.
·11uee-di1neasional fran1es ca n vary enonnously in overall fonn,
in the overall geomeoy o f che indiv idual 111en1bers comprising 1he1n,
and in the elements con1prising the horizonta l and vertical 1nen1bers.
In d1ese n1ore co1nplex fran1es, elei11ents 111ay be repeated, but the
•
. • -r--1
, ....-·
-
-· r--.,...
' •'
,•
Portal Jrame cantilever structure
(a)
J . l l!xamples of various forms of rwo-

and three-dimensional frames 10 form
endosur.,s; (a) l\¥t>-dimensional frames
(repeated to fortn a three-dimensional
structure); and (t>) thnt~"dimcnsional
Truncated pyramid Space lrame
frames (repeated pans relying on mutual
(b) support)
strucrure relies for its effectiveness o n mutual suppon in three

d i111ensio ns (see Figure 3. l (b )).
Multi-sto rey building frames co mprise beatns and colwllllS,
generally in an orthogonal arrangement. lbe griHage of 111embers in
the floor structure generally comprise. secondary bea1ns that support.
the floor slab and pri1nary beams that suppon the secondary beanis.
111e prilnary beams tend to be heavier and often deeper than the
secondary bea1ns. Various structural alternatives for these men1bers
are presented in Chapter 4.
3.2 Exposing t he frame
TI1e exposure of the frame, ei ther in pan or in \.,rhole. obviousl y

depends upo n the rel;itionship berwren l he skeleton and external
skin. The frame can be located co1npleteJy exten1al to th e cladding.
in ,.,.hich case it is given expression in the external appearance of the
building. Alternatively, the frame can be. located \" holly inte.n1al to
the daddillg. in 1~·hid1 case it may find little or no expression
externally. Bet1Yeen lhese. two extre.n1es, the interaction of the fran1e
and cladding establish es a further range of relationships. Buildings of
an entirely different d1arar.te.r emerge depending on these spatial
relationships.
A s in1p le. example of a portal-frame structure d1at is continued
outside d1e building envelope to visual effect is sho1m in Figure 3.2.
Jn this case, the perforated cellular beams enhance me ligha1ess of
the structure ~1 h ilst preserving its pri1nary functio n as a rigid fran1e.
Basic building physics requ.i.re.ments, in remls o f thennal
insulat ion and control of condensa tio n, also have 10 be addressed,
particularly when the fra 1n e peneuates the building fabric (see
Chapter 10 ).
3.2 Portal-frame structure created using

ctdlular h<:anls
Frame drsign 29
3 .2.1 Repetition of franies

-- -
- -- ------
-
An exposed suuctu1e estab lish es a dorninant rbytbn1 in th e
elevational con1position. More often than not, it is a sin1ple and
singu laJ rhythm derived from the equal .s padng of the prin1ary
-- -- --
frames. Various examples of repeated frames to form larger
encJosuJes with in creasing con1plexity are sho"'l1 in Figure 3.3.
- - -- - -
- -
All external frame1vork or skeleton often den1ands greater anention
to detail, but conversely pern1its greater freedon1 in choice of suucture - - --
forn1, as the suucrure is no longer dependent on the spatial confines
- - -
of the i.nternal envelope. ·n1erefore, tens ion structures find their true
expression in external structures (refer to Chapter 7). -
3 .2.2 F.xter11nl fratnes
By seJen.ively exposing or concealing stYurturaJ 111e1nbers, e1nphas is
can be given either to the prin1ary fra n1es, or to the wall and ceili ng
planes which define the building volun1e. In o ne of the early
exa1n ples, ~1.ies van der Ro he's Crown Hall building (see Figure 3.4),
the laJge-span ponal fran1e is dearly expressed, yet subtly woven into
the fabric of the external \valI. In other su-ucrures, a d earer distinction --
--- - -'
is made between tile external fran1e and building endosw·e, sud1 as
-- '<
'
,
by use of masts and cables in tension structures.
·m e Lufthansa term inal at Han1burg Airport uses a portal fran1e --
co1nprising placed box-sections co create a nlassive external skeleton 3.3 Various i!JUS1rations of identical
(Figure 3 .5). frames repeated at interv.tls
3.3 Braced versus rigid frames

·r11e fundatnental strUctural requiren1en1 gove rning the design of
connections in building fra1nes is related to 1.he. strength and sti ffness
- ~·ry
\ "f\" ~ l
- _____ _,
3.4 C rown I !all: external ponal frame (architect Mies van :1.5 Lufthansa Terminal, llan1burg Airpo n (arc:hiteci: Von
dt!r Rohe) Cerkan Marg & l'an11ers)
30 Archicec111ral Design in Scee/
, A
v v
- -·
- -· -
•>
-- --
<
,.
- -
- -· -
~
v •v
(a}
A A
'v v v
. •
. ••
~
< ,.
-
-' >
r-
~ . .~
- - ' '
!.!
3.G Various forms of sled conne(lions:
(a) ex:imples of effoniwly 'rigid' ,
conneclions; and (b) ex:imples <)f
•.. ' .. ..
effectively 'pinned' conneaio ns (b)
of the connections between the members, or of nlen1bers to the

foundations.
·n1e connections nlay be one of tluee configurations defining
these degrees of strength (or more correctly 'resistance') and stiffness:
I. Rigid (also ca lled fixed or nlon1enr-resist.ing) connections

(Figure 3.6(a)).
2. Pinned (also called simple) conneetions (Figure 3.G(b)).
3. Serni-rigid (also cenned partial streng1h) connecrions.
Ri gid fran1es require rigid connections in order to provide for

stabil ity at leas t in one dLreaion. Braced fra1nes are stabilised by
vertica lly ori ented bracing, and require only pinned connections.
Rigid fran1es are often ter1ued 'sway fra1nes', because they are nlore
flexible under ho rizontal loads than braced frames.
Th e characteristics of these connections ace presented in nlore
detai l in Chapter 5 and nlay be summarised as foUo\\'S.
ln a 'rigid' connection there is con1plete structural continuity
bet\.,reen any two adjacent 1uen1bers. tviomenr (or rigid) connections
are used in frames where there is a desire to omit vertical bracing in
one or both directions. Th e n1ain advantage of rigid fran1es is d1at an
open space bet\.,reen colun1ns can be created, \.,rhich offers flexibility
in choice of cladding, etc. (e.g. in glazed fa(lldes). Ho\.,rever, the
::ichieve1nent of full continui ty beween 1nembers at the connection
requires a n extensive an1o unc of fabrica tion and, as a consequence,
this system is rela1 ively expensive.
To ad1ieve a nomina lly 'pinned' joinr, the connections are n1ade so
as Lo pern1it the transfer of axia l and shear forces, but not bending
mom.ents. Non1ina lly sirnp le connections nlay provide son1e small
degree of rigidity, but Lhis is ignored in struaural design and these
co nnections are treated as pinned. E.xa1nples of pinned conneaions
Frame drsign 31
are cleated, thin or partial depth end-plates, and fin-pla te

connections as illustrated in Figure 3.6(b).
Pinned connections are usually siJJ1ple to fabricate a nd erect, and
are the least expensive type of con nection to produce. As a
consequence, lateral stiffness n1ust be introduced into the fran1e by
other means.
Serni·rigid (and also partial st.rengrh) ronnections achieve some
continuity through the connections, but are not classified as full
strength, as rhey do not ad:tieve rhe bending resista nce of the
con nected 1nernbers. These fornis of connectio ns a re illustrated later
on in Figure 5.5. 1'hey are used for low- rise fran1es in which
horizontal forces a re not so high, or in bean1s 1'lhere son1e e nd fixity
is beneficial to the control of defl ections.
3.4 Portal-frame structures
Ponal-fran1e type structures are exan1ples of rigid fran1es that ca n

take a nu1nber of fom1s. TI1ey vJere first developed in the l960s, and
have now becon1e the n1ost co1mi.1on forn1 of endosure for spans of
20 to 60 111. Ponal frames are generally fabrir.ated fro111 hot-ro lled
sections, although they nlay be fonned fron1 lattice or fabrica ted
girders. They are braced conventionally in the onhogonal direction.
In general, ponal-fran1e structures are used in single-sto rey
industrial type buildiJ1gs \\•here the n1ain requiren1e nt is to adlieve a
large open area at ground level and, as sud1, these structures 1nay not
be of architectural signific;ance. Ho1\•ever, the basic principles ca n be
used in a nu1nber o f more iJ11eresting architectural app licatio ns, as
ilJusrrated in Figures 3.2 and 3. 7. Also, portal fra1nes ran be used in
o ther a pplica tio ns, s uch as in roof structures for n1u lti-storey
buildings, lo ng-span exhibiti o n halls. a nd acrium struc;cures.
clhe fra1ne n1e n1bers nor111ally con1prise rafters a nd colu1nns with
rigid connections bet,veen Lhen1 ...Jape.red hauod1es are introd uced to
strengthe n the rafters a l the eaves and 10 for111 n10111ent-resisting
co nnt'Ctions. Either pinned or fixed bases n1ay be used. Roof and wal l
bracing is essential for the overall stability of the structure, especially
3. 7 Pona l frame exprl!ssed Internally

oohi nd a glazed~nd ekvation of a
bui lding f(or l\1ndt!m An Class (ar('hitl'ct:
Foster and Panners)
32 Arclii1ec111ral /Je$ig11 in Sreel
during erectio n. Typical exan1ples of po nal-fran1 e structures using

hot-rolled secti ons, fabricated sectio ns and latti ce trusses are
illustrated in Figure 3.8. Portal fran1es generally provide little
opportunity for expression b ut, wi th care. the chosen details can
enlighten the appearance of these relatively commo nplace structures.
Other applicat ions o f portalised strucrures are illustrated in
Figures 3.9 and 3.10. The articulated lartice structure using tubular
elen1ents was used to great effect in the Sainsbury Centre. Non\Tich .
An ard1 or n1ansa rd shape can be created fro m linear members, as in
Figure 3. ll.
In tied po rtals, th e ho rizo nta l fo rces o n the colun1ns may be
restrained by a tie at, or d ose to, the top of the column. Ties are
usually not prefer red beca use they can interfere wi th the headroon1
(a) Stan dard portal (typical span 15 m lo 45 m.

typical pitch 6' )
(b) 3 pinned lanice portal (spans up to 80 m)
(c) Mansard portal (span s up to 60 m)
3.8 Typiral ponal strunures using a

variety of m<mbers (d ) Tapered portal fabricated lrom plate (spans up to 60 m)
Frame dl'sign 33
3 .9 Aniculated Janke ponal structure

40 - aom
(often using tubular sections)
Gia zed roof
Tubular colu mns

and arche<l ratter
. ' 3. 10 Arched ponal using tubulnr

5 -15m s.:rtions
>I
3. ll Long-span ponal frame used to creme an arch 3. 12 Ti~d portal frame used at Clattcrhridge llospital
strurture (arch itect: Austin.Smith: Lnrd)
of the space. Long ties also require intermediate suspension support

0
to prevent sag. However, ties can be detailed clfeaively, as illustrated
in Clatterbridge Hospital in Figure 3.12.
3.5 Expressing the connections
Connections exert a strong influence on che architeaural forn1.

Pinned and rigid conneetions are quite distina and produce quite
d ifferent forms and deta ils. 'The disco nrinuicy of a pinned conneaion
can either be accentuated and given a dear expression in the
structura l forn1, or, alternatively, it can be 1nade less apparent. By
d ra,vi ng such distinctions in relation 10 the individual fran1e. and
3. 13 Rigid conrwctions n<"hie~d by
then to the who le build ing fo rm, offers the basis for expression.
pinned connt'Clions becw~n chc elemenlS Ri gid connecti ons demand co ntinuicy between men1bers and
invite a d ifferent approad1. They are required to transfer high
n1on1ents and can appear heavy and com plex. However, a rigid
co nnectio n n1ay also be ad1 ieved through parts that are pin-jointed,
as si111plified in Figure 3.13, and by example in che Sainsbury Centre
3. 14 llxample of concinuicy achieved

through a series of pinn.!d connc('(ions,
Centr~ Pompidou, Paris (architect: Renzo
Pia no and Rirha rd Rogers)
Frame dl'sign 35
in Figure l. l. Ln these cases, n1on1ei1ts are u·ansferred by tensio n and

con1pression in the connections.
The end wall of the Centre Pompidou in Paris, shown in Figure
3.14, i!Justrates an unusual applic.ation of the principle, \'l'here the
typicaJ pinned connection bet\'l'een d1e truss and column is eJegandy
transfonned to a moment-resisting connection by d1e addition of a
continuous tie from the 'gerberette' extension to the truss and
attached to the foundations.
Depending upon the exact nature and locations of connections
in a fran1e, the 'reading' of d1e individual n1en1bers and the frame as
a whole can vary n1arkedly. TI1is is funher illustrated in Figure 3.15
for a d1ree-bay fra111e. in \'l'hid1 different forma l relatio nships
bet\'l'een me1nbers and individual bays are estab lished by simply
varying th e lor.atio ns of the pinned connections in the structure. Al l
cases are structurally adn1issible, but can create entirely d ifferent
details.
A good exa1nple o f aniculation 1.Yithin a structw·e is Ulustrated in
Figure 3.16. Inclined 'arn1s' suppon slightJy curved rafters and create
a portal frame effect, allowing the connections to be expressed as
nodes.
3.6 Alternative forms of bracing
Nominally pin-jointed frames are braced in the vert ical and

horizontal directions. 'Braced' structures r.an be ach ieved in a variety
of ways, induding full-height bracing of a bay between columns, or
a shorted 'knee' bracing to achieve hybrid action between a braced 3.15 Di fferem o•~rall fonns o f the frame
and a s1"3y fra111e (as illuStrated in Figure 3.17). hy varying rype :ind 10('3tion o f pinned
connectio ns
Often, th e noor structure can aa as 'plan' or horizo ntal bracing,
but in single-sto rey buildings, separate horizonta l bracing is required
in the plane of die roof to transfer loads to the vertica l bracing in the
walls or co res.
3.6.1 Vertical bracing
"The stability of the building is depmdrnt on d1e form and location

of the verticaJ bracing. or other shear-resisting eJe.m ents \<\•him are
linked by floors or horizontal bracing.
for simplicity, vertical bracing is located in d1e £1<;ade or internal
separating walls. Ideally, the bracing line 1.Yould be on the centre-line
of the n1ain columns, but d1is may conflict wid1 d1e location of the
inner skin of external \"31ls. Discussion between d1e arch itect and the
structural engineer at an eady stage can resolve d1is difficuJty. Often,
flat stecl bracing elen1ents are located in the cavity of d1e masonry
wall to mini1nise these dimensional problen1s.
lhe most con1mon arrangen1ents of bracing in muJci-storey
construc:tion is 'X', V o r ' K' bracing using steel angle or circular
hollow sectio ns (see Figure 3. 18). Inverted 'V' bracing is preferred
where substantial openings, e.g. doors, are required in the braced 3. IG Ponal-frame effect created using
bay. To reduce its visual ilupact, bracing is often positioned around inrlined pinned members
..
'Rigid' connection
.. '
Pinned base
' " . ... . . . ,,#'///, ,,'//.1
Sway frame with 'rigid' connections
.. ''
,,
, ,
''
' ' ' ,,,
>,
,
, ''
,
, , "'
.. '' ,
'
' ' ,'
,
' '. ,,
'
' ,,
,
, "'
,
''
,, ''
' '
#######'//.r.r '//,
' # # # # # , # # #
Braced gable frame with pinned connections
Moments transferred
lo beams and columns
.. 1--J---''"---'L-.lL..-"-.L.~~-l
'-'E-1--- Knee bracing
3. 17 E;xa1nples of rigid a nd braced

fra mes Partially braced frame
vertical co res, whid1 usually house the lifts, stairs, vertical service
ducts and/or toilets, or on the external face of the building \virhin the
cavity \Vall.
Figure 3.18 also illustrates the forces in the individual men1bers.
In the X-braced form, the n1embers may be designed to resist both
tension and compression, or tension only, \vhich leads to more
slender members. 'Te nsion rods or flat plates are la rgely ineffective in
con1p ression, and, therefore, forces are resisted o nly in tension 1\1hen
using these ele1nen1s. In the K- and V-b raced fonns, the n1en1bers
niust be designed to resist tensio n and compressio n. depending on
the direction of the fo rces o n the building. ·1e.nsio n ti es are not
possible in this case.
Tension tie members are generally used in exposed stee.hvork
because of their apparent ' lightness'. In X-braced fran1es, special
Frame dl'sign 37
-+
''
''
+
.·-• ••
..... +
'
•• '
.' .....
, .•
+
.---
'' '
..•' '
_ ,' ' ....
. ' .., +
:<
, ' ---' ' k +
k'
,'
•'
+ ' '+ - ''
'
- --.
-• --• , , ·-.•• '
,'
_ , • '' ' .- ··--- ,
,
. - +
•---.
"
'
•
'+ + k:
-- +
, ' ' - '' •
•
• • '
'
' --t '
--... ....
.. .. . ... ·' ''·"·
' •
,, , ,, ~''· ~.-
X-bracing V-bracing K-bracing
- Tension + Compression 3. 18 Different fonns of bracing and

th ei r forces
brackets may be induded 10 allow connection of the four tie

members al the cross-over points. An e.xaniple of an X-braced
structure using CHS sections 1vith a connecti ng plate is illustrated in
Figure 3. l 9.
A ' hybrid' b etween a rigid fran1e and a braced fra n1e ca n be
ad1ieved by the use of'knee' bracing. ln this case, the corner junction
between a beam and column is stiffened by a shore bradng metuber,
wh ich is designed to resist either tension or cotnpressio n (see Figure
3.1 7). The bracing nlen1ber cransn1its a force co the bea m or
3. 19 X-hrndng using Cl IS sections used

at a spons rentre in llampshire (arrhitect:
I lampshire County C'..oundl)
colun1ns, vvh id1 is resisted by bending in these 111e1nbers. lfnecessa1y,

knee braci ng ca n be expressed as an architectural feature by curving
the n1en1bers or by using cast inset pieces.
3.6.2 Corzcret.e or steel cores
As an alternative to bracing the external walls, the Lift shafts and

stai1wells can be used as rigid 'cores' to stabilise the srrucrure. Braced
or steel-p lated co res ca n be e.reaed along with the rest of di e
steeh'Vork, whereas co ncrete cores are ge.nerally built in advance of
the fran1e and ca n be slO\'Ver co construct Accuracy is required for the
installation of lift guide rails.3 \\lhidi is affeaed by die vertic.1licy and
accuracy of the cores. Funhe.rn1ore, multiple openings for service
pe netratio ns and doors can affect the stabilising effea of the core. It
is not unusual fo r a large building to have more than one type of
b raci ng system or co re, depending upon the structural requiren1enL~
an d relative posit ions of the cores on plan.
Chapter 4
Types of beams,
columns and trusses
The main types of stn1ctural men1bers that may be encountered in

general building construction are described in the following sectio ns.
"These men1bers are usuaJJy concealed or are generall y not of
archi teauraJ significance. but an understanding of the range of
structural options is ituportant
4.1 Beams
Bea1ns are designed to resist bending uionients and shear forces. 1ne
shapes of hot-rolled Universal Beanis (UBs) listed in 'lab le 1. l(a) are
designed to achieve optiniuni bending properties for the use of steel.
·nie proportions of,vell-designed bean1s fall within re latively narrow
li1niis, depending on the fonii of loadi ng. As a ru le of thunib,
sections with a span:depth ratio of 15 to 18 niay be used in the
scheme design of unifonnly loaded steel beams, i.e. for a span of 10 m,
the steel bea1n will be approxiniately 600 1nni deep.
10
Steel beams can also be designed to act compositeJy with a
concrete floor slab by use of welded shea r-connectors, a technique
lhat has achieved great success in North Atnerica and in die UK. Its
advantages have been realised in so-r.alled 'fast-track' construction by
using steeJ decking as a \VOrking platforn1, as pernianent formwork,
and as a composite slab acting v.ridi the in-situ cona·ete (see Section
4.1.4 on cotuposite beams).
4.1.1 Floor grillages
The layout of floor beams in buildings depends largely on the

spacing of the columns. Often colu1nns can be spaced closer together
along the edges of the building. in order to support the fac;ade
elen1ents. "The primary beanis span between die colu1nns, and
support se\ondary beams \vhich then support the floo r slab. In most
buildings with regular bays, the priniary beanis support more load
than the secondary beanis, and are therefore heavier and generally
deeper. However, in buildings with unequal bays (e.g. 6 m • 7.5 111).
it is possible to design die priniary beanis to span the shorter
distance bet1veen colu1nos, so that prin1ary and secondary bean1s can

be designed to be of sia1ilar depth.
111e sin1plest arrange1neot of members in floor grill ages uses
Universal Bea n1 (U B) sections with pinned conoeaioos. lo cases
\¥here hea droon1 is limited, such as in renovation applications,
Universal Column (UC) sections n1ay be used as shallo\v, although
heavier, bea ms.
In many build ings, designing longer spans internally, such as by
spanning direct ly between the fac;.ade colu1nns, creates more flexible
space planning. In this case, a variety of structural systen1s n1ay be
used, either as lo ng-spa n prirnary bean1s or secondary bea1ns. l n ese
long-span syste n1s generaUy use the principles of composi1e construction
to increase their stiffness and strength, and of1en provide for in1egration
11
o f services within thei r depth.
Typical floo r-beam layo uts are sho,vn in Figure 4 .l, depending on
the aspect ratio a nd span of the Ooor grid between columns. Heavier
beains shou ld be co nnected to the column Oanges, but this is not
ahvays possible, such as the Ooor grid in Figure 4.1(d). Special
Secondary beam Sim Boor beam

H
l lSI~
l
Primary span
beam Tie
Slab
span
.. H
(a) Typical ftoor layout where (b) Typical lloO< l&)'OUI

beams are of equal depth usng slm ftoor beams
(Note: orientation of COiumns means (Noce: lies embedded n slab)
secondary beams are of equal lenglh)
Column Primary beam
Secondary Slab span

beam
(c) Long-span floor beams (scheme 1 • heavily loaded primary beams)

(Note: framing Into major axis of coumn)
Secondary beam
Column
Primary
beam
l
4.t l'ypkal floor-beam layouls for
various spans (d) Long-span floor beams (scheme 2. short-span primary beams)
Types of beams, co/1111111s and rrrLues 4I
detailing measures n1ay be required when 1vide bean1s connect Lo

narrower collllnns (see Sections 5 .4 and 5. 5).
Sli1n floor construaion, illustrated in Figure 4. l (b ), differs from
other forms of construction in not requiring secondary bea1ns
internally, other than tie roen1bers for reasons of stability during
construaion (see Section 4.1.3). Ald1ougb slin1 floo r bea111s are
heavier than the equivalent do1ffistand beams, they provide the
n1iniroun1 sensible floor depth, \\•hid1 is broadly equivalent to a
reinforced concrete flat slab.
4.1.2 Perforatedsections
Castellated or cellular bea1ns are exa n1ples of longer span 1neinbers

12
whid1 have large openings 1viL11in their depth. 'l11ese bearns ach ieve
Llie benefits of greater struaural efficiency by increasing L11e sect ion
depth for a given use of steel, and provide niu ltip le routes for
services. Cellular b ean1s have architeaural appeal by dieir apparent
lightness and distinctive appearance in long-span roofs and floors, as
in Figure 4 .2.
In a castellated beam, the 1veb of a rolled section is cut alo ng the
length of the bea111 in a '1vave' forn1, as sho1vn in Figure 4.3. 1he t1vo
pieces are separated, offset and d1en 1velded together to ad1 ieve a
4.2 Curvt!d cellular beam us<.-d for nrchi te«ural effect

Castell a red beam
0
0 0 "'
~
"'.
0
0
o.J L 0
"'ci"'
0 .83D 0 .25D
ci
0
~
Pro file cut in web Hexagonal openings in castellaled beam
Cellular beam
Do
_l
---i--~·1
8
_
0
0
,'
~
ci
A\
. ,.,,_ _,,.'
I
-->otj ....
. -1<_D-=-o
variable 1 .08 D0
to 1.51Jo ci
Profile cut in web A\
43 Profiling o f castellated and cellular Circular openngs in cellular beam
bea ms
deeper section. As the ~·e.ight of steel is unchanged, the strucrural

efficiency of the section in bendin g is increased. The \veb, ho\\1ever, is
die nia in source of shear strength and, fo r this reason, the openings
a1 points of suppo rt and/o r concentrated load are o ften filled in
using welded p lates.
In a cell ular beam, also shown in Figu re 4.3, the '"eb of a rolled
sectio n is cut to fom1 circu lar o r elongated openings. This is an
ope.rat ion in wh id1 the pro fi le is shaped in sud1 a way di at son1e of
tl1e \veb is d iscarded during cuttin g. Cellular bean1s are highl y
efficient and offer many architec tural oppo nw1ities. ·n1e top and
bottoLn parts of d1e section can be of different sizes, and tl1e sections
ca n be easily adjusted and curved prior to the \veldi ng process. '£11e
sections can be pre.cambered at no additional cost
TI1e niost appropriate use of castellated o r cellular bean1s is for
long spans \v id1 moderate loadings, such as in roof structures or in
secondary bean1s in floor grillages. 'lne regular circular openings io a
cellular bean1 are very efficient for distribution of circular ducrs io
heavily serviced buildings (Figure 4.4 ). Typical ranges of din1eosions
are indicated in Figure 4.3. 1be diameter o f the o penings can vary
bet\veen 0.5 to 0.8 times the depth of the bea1u.
4.1.3 Slimflor and Slimdek corrstrnctio11
A sli111 floor bean1 is a special case of a 1nodified section \¥here a fl at

steel-p late is welded 10 a standard UC sectio n. 'l'his generic system is
4.4 Ccl lular beam shows integration of traden1arked as 'Sli1njlo11 by Corus. 1he plate suppons the fl oor slab
circular servke ducts so that the bea1n is partially encased within the floor deptli, resulting
Types of beams, co/1111111s and rrrLues 43
in a struaural systen1 \Vith no do\vnstand bean1s, leading to reduced

floor 10 floor heights.
Two variations of Sli111flor construction exist:
13
• precast concrete slabs spanning benveen the beams with or
without a concrete topping
• deep decking spanning ben,•een the bean1s with in-situ concrete
14
to create a monolithic con1posite floor, see Figure 4.5.
A series of nvo-di1uensional fran1es is erected \Vi th light steel tie-

n1en1bers benveen me fran1es. Spans of the order of 6 to 9 m can be
achieved using both variants of Slimjlor consouction.
'!he decking is designated as SD225. and is 225 mm deep with
ribs at 600 mn1 spacing. ·n1is dee.king is a n1odern va rianc o f CF210
dee.king, whid1 is 210 n1n1 deep, and is only used in shorter span
applications. The overall floor depth is typica ll y 290 10 350 mm,
depending o n requiren1en1s to control floor vibrations, fire resistance
and acoustic insulation.
Slimflor construction \vas used at Ne\v Square, Bed font Lakes, and
the slenderness of its sea ion \Vas expressed elevationally (see Colour
Plate 12).
5
Slimdel/ offers further advantages in tern1s of economy and
service integration. It consists of a range of rolled A~ym1netric Sli111 flor
Beams (ASB) and $0225 deep decking \vhid1 sits on the ,.,,ider
bouom flange (see Figure 4.6). 111ree ASB sections were produced
initially, 280 ASB 100, 280 ASB 136 and 300 A5B 153, wh ich are
designated by their approxin1ate height (in n1m) and ,.,,eight (in
kg/ m ). These sections have been designed efficiently for floor grids of
6 x 6 111, 7 .5 x 6 1u, and 7 .5 x 7 .5 n1 respectively. and do not require
additional fire proteccion for up co 60 n1inutes' fire resistance. A range
of 10 ASB sections is no1v available. including thinner web-beams,
whidl are designed 10 be fire protected for over 30 minuces' fire
resistance. Details of the use ofSli11ule/1 are given in the CorusSli111deli
16
Manua 1.
Co1nposite action is enhanced by the en1bossn1ents ro lled on to
tlle top flange of the ASB. Openings for services caD be rseated in the
AS B between tbe ribs of the decking. ·111e 111axin.1un1 size of tl1ese
openings is 160 n.1m deep x 320 mn1 1vide to facilitate use of flat
oval-duas for services.
'I. •
..
~ .. :
45 Section through deep decking and Sli111flor heam 4.6 ASB section used in Sh11ull'k ronstruroon
111e n1ain benefits offered by Sli111dell co nstruaion are:
• reduction in floor depth (by up to 300 mm relative to

conventional beam and slab co nstructio n)
• no downstand bean1s, offering ease o f service installatio n
• inherent fue resistance (60 n1inutes can be achieved \Vithout fire
protection)
• savings in cladding and services costs
• integration of services and fitn1ents .
TI1e deep dec king can be placed rapidly to create a \\'Orking

p latforn1. The space bet\veen the ribs of the decking may also be used
for ducting, lighting and tern1inal units. Figure 4 .7 illust rates t.he use
o f act ive chilled bea1n s and ducting placed between the ri bs ' vhich
fo rn1 a co ntinu ous li ne alo ng the building. The overall depth o ft.he
fl oor constructio n, including a raised floor, is o nly 600 mm .
• • • •
~ .
• ' • ,• ,
... • ' •
;
• 4 • • ••
, S 022!J deckin~ -' •
• •
•• 4
•
• '\. r - v---' •
• .
AJF===l==....... • • '
• 300
3 18 x 1s2 l1a1 oval duct •
• f • •• t
• •
• f .,• •
r •
•
---~-------·-···· + ···· ·- --.f--------'--Y-
-·····-· ............. ..
100
~-=-= ·=-=-=-=·=...=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=·=-=-=-=...= ..........

--
·r• ...... -···~.:--:-:-:"'-=::-:...-:-:-:"'-:::-:..-:-:-:"'-:::-:...-:-:-"':-:::..:...-:-:-:"'-=:1:-:-:-"":..:
. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . •<F
· 600mm oelllng Ille Outlet dffuser

16o0
(a)
No offset required for duct to pass through A SB
,•
•
... •• • :a •
•
4 ' •
• <
•
•
,
•
4 •
<
• •' .i:I • •• • •• •
• •• '
. so22s
.. • . dee ·ng
,...........__,-~ •
• 4
•
• •
'•
•, •
'
• Supply du t 300
•
' • •• •
•
" f .:
•
100
4.7 l!xampl~ of service integration i n

Slimdl!k: (a) space bct"'\:Cfl ribs used as a
duct: a nd (b) active ch illed beam (b)
190 x 70 shear connector

Mullion
Mesh
Transom Transverse
re inforcement
•
Attachment SD22 5 d eck
detail
End d ia ph r agm
4.8 Use of RI IS Slimflor beam to suppon

!RHScolumn dadding
A rec tangular hollo'" section (R1-iS) '" ith a welded botto m-plate
17
n1ay be used as a Slimflor edge bean1. It provides enh a nced to rsional
stiffness to out of balance loads and also prese nts a 'pencil-th in' edge
to the floor which tnay be visually desirable in so me circun1stances,
such as fully glazed fayides. Cladding attad1n1ents may be made
niore easily to the RHS section than to a concrete slab or encased
steel-section (see Figure 4 .8 ).
4.1.4 Con1posite bea t1is
S1eel bea1ns Gill be designed co ace con1posice.ly with a concrete or

composite slab by 1he use of shear conn ecto rs, no rn1ally in the fonn
0
of welded studs.' at1ad1ed at regul ar spacing to the top Oange.
Composite bea1ns behave essentially like a series o f T-bea n1s in
whid1 the concrete slab acts as the con1p ressio n flange and the
downs tand steel section acts as the tension-res isting ele1nen1.
Composite aaion has the effect of greatly increas ing tl1e strength
and stiffness of a steel beaui. and consequentl y ca n lead to longer
spans for the satne size of section or, alternatively, lighter shallower
sections niay be used for tl1e same load and span configuration. For the
efficient design of composite beau1s, it is ofte n found that the ratio of
span co beam depth is in the range 22 to 25, whid1 is approxilnately
30°A> shallower than conc.rete or non-con1posite alternat ives.
Composite decking is usually placed as sheets up to 12 nl in
length, a nd is fastened do\vn to all the bean1s at regular centres. It
offers a nu mber of advantages:
• Ir supports loads du.ring construction without te.1n porary

propping up to approxin1ate.ly 3.6 nl spa n.
• Spans of up to 4.5 m can be ad1ieved, if tl1e slab is propped
during construction.
• It stabilises the strucrural n1e n1bers and sti ffens tl1e frame
against \Vind loads.
• It provides a safe \vorking platforo1.
• It aces as a safety net against falling objects.
• To ad1ieve co mposite actio n wi th steel suppon bea1ns, shear

co nnectors ( 19 mm diau1eter) 111ay be \velded through the
decking on site.
• It acts as tran sverse reinforce1nent for composite beams,
elin1inati ng the need for heavy reinforcement in the slab.
• It distributes shrinkage strains, preventing severe cracking of the
concrete.
• It develops co1nposite action \vith the concrete to resist the
in1posed loading o n the slab.
• A fire resistance o f up to 120 n1inutes can be adlieved \Vith
standard mesh reinfo rcen1ent.
N€\v deck profiles o f 80 o r 100 n1m depth have been developed

\vhi dl extend the span capabili ties of co mposi te slabs.
4..1.5 Con1posit:e bea.n1s 1uitli web openings
In cornposite bea ms, large openings may be formed through the \Veb.
1h ese openings are used for the passage of services \Vithin the bea111
depth, and a re about !\vice the size tha t would be possible in non-
con1posite beams. TI1e o penings are nom1ally rectanguJar in shape,
but may also be circular or square. Welded stiffeners placed horizontally
above and belo\" the openings increase the size and aspea ratio of
opening that tnay be used. However, access for welding of the
stiffeners n1ay be difficu lt in shallow beams.
For the schen1e des ign of composi te beams \Vid1 rectangular
.
o penings, 1.t 1.s recom1nende d th at :IS
• large ope nings sho u ld be located between o ne-fiftl1 and o ne-

chird of the spa n fro 1n the suppons in uniformly loaded bean1s
to have the least im pact o n the structural design of the bean1
• large openings may also be placed dose to mid-span, but
requ ire over-design of the beam in bending
• d1e spaci ng between the edges of o penings, or to the connections
of seco ndary bea n1s, sho uld no t be less than th e bean1 depth, D,
unless the effect of these local forces is calculated
• rectangular openings sho uld be not located at less than W frou1
d1e support, in order to avoid tbe effects of high shear and
partial shear co nnection dose to the supports
• d1e suggested n1axilnu1n depth x length of reaanguJar openings
are:
0.60 x l.W for unstiffened o penings
0.70 x 1.750 for horizontally st iffened openings
• horizonta l stiffeners should be extended past the opening to
provide local-be nding resistance at the comers of the o penmg
• circular openings are 1n ore struaurally efficient than reaangular
openings and may be placed dose.r together (as in cellular bean1s).
111ese detaili ng ru les are ill us trated in Figure 4.9, \Vhid1 also shows
ahen1ative stiffening arrangernents. "!he use of larger openi ngs can be
justified by mo re deta iled calculatio ns. If the bearn is over-designed in
its bending res istance, large o penings can be fonned \vhere shear forces
are lo'"· For e.xa1nple, deep o penings can be provided at rnid-span of
<120 orO.lL Welded stiffener
F<>r opening in middle

half of beam span :
D0 s 0. 70
lo"' 2.500
0 8
c::-::::::::::::~
'Anchorage' length past

openng <~ 150 mm)
4.9 D<'lailing of stiffell<!d openings in

Vanous stllanlng arrangemenls above and below opening composite beams
primary beams. Else1vhere, sn1all openings (up to 0.30) can usually be

detailed 1vithout further checks. Con1posite beams can also be
designed with regular dn:ular openings, as described in Sectio n 4 .1.2.
4.2 Long-span beams
Various lo ng-span con1posi1e bean1 systen1s have been developed in

recen t years 10 offer greater provision for services integration. ·rhese
systen1s are put into context by presenti ng the sensib le ra nge of spa ns
that may be designed (see Ta ble 4.1). Mo re deta iled gu ida nce on
struct ure-service integratio n is given in a rece nt SCI pub liratio n.tt
'Ih e detailing of each of these structural systen1s depends on the
span and loading configuration. 'l11ese bea111s 111ay be designed as
ei ther lo ng-span pri111ary bea111s which are loaded by short-span
seco ndary beaD1s, o r tnore ofteD used as lo ng-spa n seco nda1y bea1ns
which are supported by shorter span pru11ary bea n1s (see Figure 4.1 ).
Primary beams should ideally fra111e into the n1ajo r axis of the colu nms.
Examples o f cypical designs of th e follo1ving long-span systems are
presented in Figure 4.10. TI1e use of cellular beams aDd l-bean1s 1,rith
isolated web openiDgs 1,rere revie1,red earlier, and are illustrated in
Figure 4 .lO(a) and (b) respectively.
4.2.1 Stub girders
Stub girders" were developed in North An1erica, pa rticula rly 10 n1ee1

the needs o f deep plan offi ces v•ith h ighly serviced space, square
grids, and a column spaci ng of 12 10 .1 5 111. Stub girders co mprise a
steel bocto 1n chord (norn1all y a UC sect ion) with sho rt steel-sectio ns
(stubs) co nnecti ng it to the concrete slab. ·111e seco nda iy beams pass
over the bottoin ci1ord. TI1e openings for services are a·eated adj acent
3000
~1 4xt02JC2S UB
80 X. 10 Al"'1'd
Xt COfftPO .... • • •
"' "''
~L • l
'
4000 1000 1000 a.2Sotx110 Ul!W~
2000 Of" 1!18k2SU152 8
-.notes
Notes: 405 d eep opti,..ng9": ~86.1125".)l.1 70 UB
450 d eep upesings : 696x.254x152 UB
(a) Beam w ilh reclangular web openings
!L rn--=o:....;o:::....::o....:o:....(""-J,..::O:....;o:::....::o:....;o:....o.:::....::
o:....o=--=
o :....;o=-=
o -=o:....o.:::....::
o:....o=-=o :....;o=-=
o -:;o"""'"l'Tl
I \ _Omm dl.am.eter hot.es 4 5 h19lx87 Uf(""
m 800m.m centre
T 457x16~7 UO "1
N utct' Cd11•n• btJ!lfnl, it1e1 gtJntrr~ ullad as
long lilphn .MJCOflCJury ho*"•
(b) Cell ular beams
os.30s.11auc
aooo
(c) Stub g irder
(d) Tapered beam
!t<XJO
\...._..h.IU1d2UO
10UO M.u1°' «I: f,g"' 4 5/x101d""'Q
(e) Haunched b eam
I<
300 dla. m
100011200 = J '
1001f1001dt3 s
(Typ1DAI vortt0a ..)
(f) Composite truss
4. 10 l,ong-span composite htlams offering !he facility for service integration

(d~signed for 15 m x 6 m floor grid)
Table 4.1 Sumn1ary of typical spans of different structural systems
Span (m) 6 8 10 13 16 20
Reinforced coll(fete (RC) flat slab

Slimdek with deep composite slab
RC waffieslah
Shelf angle beam with pm:ast slabs
Sli111jlar with precast slabs
RC hean1 and slab
Post-tensioned conc:rete flat slab
C''1mpositc beam and slab
Parallel beam approarh
Composite beam \vith wch openings
Cellu lar composite beam
'l~pered girder
Stub girder
I lauoched composite beam
('.omposite truss
to the stubs, as sho,,rn in Figure 4.10( c). 1e n1poraiy propping of the

bou om chord is o ften required, although systen1s with an embedded
to p cho rd do not require propping during constructio n.
4.2.2 Fabricated sections and tapered beams
Fabricated girders are made by 1veld ing plates together to fo nn !-

sections of uniform or asymn1etrical cross-section. 'lh ey are typ ically
used for long-span prin1ary bea n1s o r in t ransfer structures
suppo n ing a n u111ber of storeys over an open-p lan gro und-floo r area.
\.Vebs can be tapered. i.e. of linearl y vaiy ing depth, so as to create
zo nes for services near to the supports.
A variety of opening shapes n1ay be created in fabricated sectio ns
to meet the servicing a nd architectural requiren1e nts. A good example
is shown in Figure 4.11. These sections are ftre protected by an
intumescent coating that \Vas applied off-site to further speed up the
-• •
co nsrruaion process.
Tapered beams are a lso used in lon~-span portal fran1es. As
0
illusrrated in Figure 4.10(d) , tapered bean1s are particularly suitab le
fo r lo ng spa ns \Vhere service z-0nes are created adjacent to colun1ns. . .. ff;- ._~........
Notch tapered o r double tapered bean1s ca n be designed to optimise 4.11 Fabricated beams with multiple
these service zones. Large o penings nl ay also be provided close to openings
n1id-span, where shear forces are Jo,v.
4.2.3 H111111cl1ed co111posit£ bea111s
Frames wi th rigid connections often use son1e fonn o f ha unched

21
connection, as sho,vn in Figu re 4. lO(e). 'lhe haund1 is n1ade froLn
a cut p iece of the n1ain bea1n section, and is designed to adiieve a

sensible uio nient co nnection to the colunin.
In highly serviced buildi ngs, the main ducts n1ay therefore pass
beneadi die beanis, v1h idi are of the uiitiimu11i practical depth.
'!ypicaJly, the span:depth ratio of haundied composite beanis is of
die order of 30 to 35 (in terms of the depth of the steel bean1). ·111e
disadvantage of haunched construction is the need for heavier
colunins to resist the mo n1ents u ansferred to mem. Connections are
n1ade to the majo r axis of the colu mns in all cases.
4.2.4 Cornposit;e trusses

22
Lattice girders o r trusses are freq uently used in n1ulti-storey
build ings and are Lhe rnosL appropriate for spans in exc.ess of 15 111,
where tl1e truss is des igned to occupy the full depth of the Ooor and
seivice zone. A h igh degree of service integration is provided, as
sho1vn in Figuse 4 .lO(f). The fabrication and fire protection costs are
relatively h igh, but co mposite trusses can be cost effective. Son1e
diago nal members may be replaced by vertical members at nlid-span
so cseatin g a Viei·endeel girder to pern1it the passage of larger services.
Trusses can be designed using either CHS or RHS sections in long-
span applicat ions. Alternatively, Tee sections may be used as dlords,
and single or double angles for the d iagonal members in mediu1u -
span applications.
4.2.5 Parallel bearri a(Jproach (PBA)
In die para llel beam approach (PBA), secondary or ' rib' beaa1s pass
over prin1a1y or 'spine' bean1s to form a grillage of men1bers. 111e
primary beams are placed in pairs so th at tlley pass eitl1er side of the
colu rnns and are attached by large steel-brackets whidi transfer the
shear forces into the column (see Figure 4.12). Secondary bean1s are
Brad<el oonnec:abn belwten

spre b-.ms #'Id cell.Inns
4.t2 r•arnllel beam approach showing

servke zones Spino boom
desigaed to span the greater distance because they can develop

coa1posite actioa '"ith the slab.
23
The PBA system enables coatinuity of the beaa1s to be ach ieved
without the high cost of n1on1ent-resisting connections. Beam
lengths are only limited by handling and transportation
requirements. This improves efficiency for long-span app lications
and can save ereaioa time and costs as the piece count is
significantly IO\\fer than for conventional construction. Econon1ic
comparisons ha~ sho\\fD that tl1e PBA systeu1 can be advantageous
for certain floor layours for highly serviced buildings. Whi lst it 1nay
appear that the PBA systen1 '"ould lead to deeper floo r consuuction,
their depth ren1ains shallov" because of the co ntinu ity o f tl1e bea1ns,
and the overall depths are con1parable '"ith tl1e otl1er forms o f
co nstruction no ted earlier.
4.3 Curved beams
Steel metubers of any standard section can be supp lied curved to a

constant radius. This is a specialised ted1nique, and advice should be
sough t on the appropriate bending radii relative to tl1e section \vhich
is proposed to be ~d. lbe minin1un1 radius to \vh ich any section
can be curved depends on the nletallurgicaJ properties of the steel
and particularly its ductility, cross-sectional geon1etry and its end use.
E.icamples of curved beanlS used in roofs and canopies are
illustrated in Figures 4.13 and 4.14. 4.13 Curved channel seaions used to
create a canopy ai 1-felsinki Airport
4.14 Curved rcllular beams in spons

facility, Rang~rs Football Club
4.3 .1 Radii of curving
Table 4.2 gives the typ ical radii to which a range of sections can be
curved about their major (x- x) axis. These are considered as
aliain1un1 radii, although tighter beads may be considered for some
uses. vV ith ia o ne serial size, heavier weights (or thicker \val.ls) can be
curved to sn1aller radii than lighter ones. Sections can be curved
about the n1ajor or mi nor axis, and reversed curves and hoop shapes
are also possible.
111e minin1um rad ius to which sections can typically be ben1
varies fro rn less than l n1 for the sn1aller sections to soa1e SO rn for
the largest. 1he no nna l to lera nce for a panirular radius of curve is 8
mm. Curving is perforn1ed by 'cold' beading. whid1 involves passing
the member ch rough a set of three ro llers. 'These rollers are purpose-
n1ade to matd1 the precise shape o f 1he cross-section being bent in
o rder to avoid loca l buckling of the section. Larger seaions can be
heated locally (induction heating) to adlieve sn1oother, tighter
CUNes.
A general fabricator may be able to perform sudl work, but 1uos1
cu1viag is perfo rmed by specialists who have developed their 01va
range of bendi ng rolls to enable the entire range of sections to be
cwved.
4.3 .2 Curved bearns in roof structures
Curved roof structu res provide n1any architectural opportunities for

expression, particularly where the 1valls and roof are con1bined in
one overall structura l solutio n, so that the de1narcacion beC1veea
these elements is rernoved. "The physical nature of tJ1ese roofs or
4.15 C'.el lular hcams used in an Asda enclosures is that tJ1ey are curved to a radius to allo1v 1va1er run-off
store. l~mwonh and to acl1 ieve maximun1 usable space internally.
Castellated and cellu lar bearns have been used successfully in
long-span roofa when cuNed and witJ1 intermediate supports (see
Figure 4.15). Although slightly curved in shape, these me1ubers
function as bea1ns. Here the lightness of the highly perforated
sections is con1bined 1vi1h the ability to CUNe the sections in the re-
1velding process. 111e rhyt11m of the regular openings in the bea1us
provides a degree of arcJlitectural interest.
Curved sectio ns may a lso be used to great effect to create arch
structures, as in the Lea Valley lee Skating Rink in Figure 4.16, '''hicli
\Vas one of the first structures of this type. la this building. the deep-
profiled decking \Vas designed as a 'stressed skin' to eliminate the
need for secondary bracing n1ea1bers, and to accentuate the
sin1plicity of the structure.
• '
4.3.3 C urved tub11/a.r rr1e1nbers
CUNed roofs may be formed using single-curved tubular n)en1bers,

4.lG Curved roof al lea Valley Ice doub le-layer members co nnec ted periodically, o r tubul ar trusses, as
S~-:iti ng Rink (arrhil~ct: BDP) illustrated in the following exa n1ples.
Table 4 .2 ~lin imum bending radii for comm on st.-.:1sections
Secti on 'IYJ'kal radius
Joists and Universa l Beatns (x-x axis )

610 • 305 • 238 kg/m U B 40.0 m
533 • 210 x 122 kg/m UB 30.0 Ill
406 • 178 • 74 kg/m UB 15.0 Ill
254 x 203 • 82 kg/m RSJ 3 .5 m
203 x 152 x 52 kg/m RSJ 2.2 Ill
152 • 127 • 37 kg/m RSJ 1.6 m
Universal Columns (x- x axis )

152 • 152 • 37 kg/m 2.0 111
203 • 203 • 86 kg/m 3.0 m
254 x 254 x 167 k&f m 4.0 m
305 x 305 x 283 kg/m 'i.O m
All se\lions up w 356 x 406 UC
Ch annels (.~.t axi s )
12 7 • 64 x 14 kg/m 2.0 m
203 • 89 • 29 kg/m 3.0 m
254 • 89 • 35 kg/m 5.0 m
305 • 102 • 46 kg/m 7.0 m
All sectio ns up to 432 • 102 • 65 kg/n1
Joists. beams and colwnns (y-y axis)

127 • 76 • 16 kg/m 0 .8 m
230 • 133 • 30 kg/m 1.5 m
457 • 191 • 98 kg/m 2.5 m
6 10 • 229 • 140 kg/m 3 .0 m
All sectio ns up to 1016 • 455 • 488 kg/m
Castell ated and cell ular beams (x- x axis)

305 x 133 • 30 kg/m 4.0 Ill
458 • 165 • 54 kg/m 8.0 Ill
609 • 178 • 74 kg/m 12.0 m
800 • 210 • 122 kg/m 16.0 m
915 • 305 • 238 lql/m 20.0 Ill
Castell ated and cell ular bea ms (y-y axis)

305 • 133 • 30 kg/m 2.0 m
458 • 165 • 54 kg/m 3 .0 m
609 • 178 • 74 kg/m 4.0 m
800 • 21 O • 122 kg/m 6.0 m
915 • 305 • 238 kg/m 8.0 m
Circu lar Ho ll ow Sections

60.3 • 5 mm 0 .4 m
114.3 • 6.3 mm 0 .7 m
168.3 • 10 mm 0 .9 m
219. l x 125 mm I.I m
Most sizes up 10 61 0 mm o/d • 35 mm
Squ are a nd Rectangular llollow Sections

'iO • 50 • 5 m m 0.6 m
100 • mo • 6.3 mm I. I m
150 • 150 • I() 111 111 1.4 m
200 • 200 • 12.5 111 m 2.0 m
All sirei up to 4()0 • 400 x 16 SI IS a nd 500 x 300 • 20 RI IS
111e Law Faculty at Can1bridge is endosed by a triangulated

Vierendeel structure, which is cylindrical in section, to 'vhid1 the
glazing and stainless steel dadding is fixed . This cu~d element
n1erges between the roof and walls, and provides a sympathetic
endosure to the internal space, as iJJusuated in Figure 4.17 and see
also Colour Plate L
·n1e TGV station at Lille extends the concept of a curved tubular
roof by using ties periodically to decrease the bending effect in the
ard1, so as to minimise the required size of the sections (see Figure
4.18). Fo r the Amenity Building of the Saga Headquaners, a series of
indined arches suppon the fabric roof. as illustrated in Figure 4.19.
A three-din1ensio nal extension of the arch is to a don1e struaure,
\vhere a latticewo rk of welded tubular seaions can ciea1e an efficient
and attractive structura l solutio n to audito ria and large halls, as in
Figure 4.20.
The roof of the greai glass house of the National Botani cal Carden
of Wales (Colour Plate 2) con1prises a series of tubul ar steel ard1es in
the forn1 of a toro id . "!he attad1n1en t to the glazing is n1ade by
projecting fins 'Nelded to the tubes.
4 .17 Curv~'Cl enclosure at Camhridg.:

Univl!fsity Law Parulty (architt!CC roster
and f'armcrs)
4.18 TCV station at Lille. showing the 4. 19 Ameni1y Buildin g. Saga I-IQ (archi1ect: Michael Hopkins and Panners)
use of a tubular tied arch structure
'
4.20 Roy 'lhomson I fall, Toronlo, use of welded tubular la11ice IO crea1e 1he
dome-like roof of the ronren hall
At the Leipzig Messe, the curved tubuJar arches suppon th e

tubular lattice\\•ork wh ich suppons the fuJly glazed fac;ade, as sho\vn
in Figure 4.21 and see aJso Colour Plate 6.
4.4 Column s
In braced frames, colu1nns are designed to resist u1ainJy cou1pression

4.21 Leip2ig ~lesse - external structure forces. The shape of UC sections is such that they are u1ore efficient
supponing gla2ing (ardliiea: Von C.erk.1n in resisting buckli ng than standard beam seaions. Colun1ns used in
Marg & Panners and Ian Ritchie) rigid or sway frames are also designed 10 resist bending. Where
bending effects are don1inan1, it n1ay be more appropriate 10 use UBs
as colun1ns, such as in portal frames.
• UC sections
(',,o lun1ns may be in the forn1 of UC sections that are spliced at
appropriate points (usua lly every two o r three storeys) in tall
buildings. In taller bulldings, column sizes are generally selected
from one serial size with decreasing seaion \veight at upper
levels. Beam to column connections are made eid1er to die
flanges ofd1e column (major axis connections) or to die \veb of
d1e colun1n (minor axis conneaions). l!Jusuatious of typical
connections are given later. It may aJso be necessary to stiffen
d1e columns locally at points of load transfer, such as for beams
\Vid1 n1oment conneaions.
• TlJbular col111nns
Square or Circular Ho llow Sections are very efficient in
con1pression because the 1ua1erial is re1no1e fro m the a,"{is oft.he
section, therefore increasing the resistance 10 buckling. Bot.h
circular (CHS) sections and square (SHS) seaions are 'videly
used as slender colurnns. 111e main design issue is the fom1 of
co nnectio n to the fa ce of the column.
• CornfX!site colunrns
Colun1ns may be designed to ac hieve greater compression and
fire resistance by co ncrete encaseu1ent (in the case of I-sections)
and concrete filling (in the case of hollow sections). For
exa n1ple, d1e in-fi!Jing between the flanges of an 1-seaion
colum n wid1out reinforcen1ent can increase its fire resistance up
to 60 minutes, \VhiJst retaining the same external din1ensious of
24
d1e section. 111e in-filling of rubuJar seaions \vith concrete can
15
increase their structural resistance and aJso their fire resistance
to up to 60 n1inutes \Vithout reinforceinent, and up to 120
n1inutes \Vith bar reinforcen1enL
4.4.1 &posed tubular coltttlltlS
·1\Jbular columns are used in applications \Vhere the m1n1mun1

an1ount of inu-usion into the space is sought, or \Vhere the external
appea rance of the column is preserved. ·rbey are structurally efficien1
and can thus be used to advantage in slender columns. An1sterd an1's
Schiphol Airpon iUustrates this principle, as shov;n in Figw·e 4.22.

The large diameter columns \\•ere also used as part of the air-ducting
system. Hong Kong's Hung Horn station sho\vs how tubular columns
can be used within the tubular spine bean1s (see Figure 4.23). For
another example of e>.'JlOsed tubular colun1ns see Colour Plate 7.
A recent example of <lustering colw11ns together in an attractive
n1anner can be seen in the Mediatheque Centre at Senda i (Colour
Plate 21 ).
Circular columns are particularly attractive internally in shopping
n1alls and auditoria. Fire resistance can be ach ieved by the use of
intun1escent paints or by concrete fil ling (see Chapter 13 ). Other
forms of fire protection nom1ally affect the appearance and shape o f
the section and are not preferred.
Connenions to tubular colun1ns are often e>.1) ressed as pan of the
overall struaure concept As described in Chapter 6, there is a \v ide
4.22 Amsterdam's Schiphol Airpon
4.23 Tubular columns and spine beams

in I long Kong's I lung I !nm Station
(archit.xt: Foster and Partners)
range of su·uctural options, depending on whether the connection is

p inned (i.e. resists only shear and tension) or rigid (Le. also resists
n1on1ent). Exa mples of architectural details used in beam to tubular
colun1n connections are illustrated in Figure 4 .24.
Colun1ns are erected in two or three storey high lengths and
splices are usua lly made by end plates or similar connections just
above floor height, in order to avoid intrusion into the floor space.
Tubular sectio ns may also be used as heavily loaded struts to
support ca nopy roofs, as shown in Figure4.25. 'Jl1is is uuportant also
in wind up lift co nditio ns \.,,here the reversal of loading n1ay cause
tens ion n1en1bers to act in compression.
Atria and shopping n1alls often use tall and slender tubular
colu n1ns to support lo ng-span roofs, as shown in Figure 4.26.
Pinned oonnections
4.24 ' l\Jbular columns with pinned or

rigid connections Rigid oonnoctbns
4 .25 l\Jbular struts us11d to suppon

the roof of Wlmbl~don No . l Coun
(arr.hitect: BOP)
4.26 Cuf\ul roof at Princes Square. Glasgow (nrchilt.'<'I: I Iugh Martin & Partners)
4.4.2 Concrete-fi lled colu1t1 ns
Co ncrete fLl l ing i in proves the con1pressive resistance and fue

resistance of tubular columns. "!nis is because the concrete \vi thin the
section acts con1positely \Yith the steel casing, so that the
con1 pressive strengths of the two materials can be n1obilised
together. Indeed, the strength of the concrete is also enhanced by the
confining effect of the tubular section. Often the designer does not
utilise the con1pressive strength of the concrete in normal design, but
uses it to enhance the fire resistance of the column on the
assun1ption that the exposed steel section loses all itS srrengt11 in a
severe fire.
A design 1nethod for composite colun1ns is presented in an SCI
25
publicati on. From me point of view of architectural opponu nities,
co ncrete fi lli ng can lead to:
• 1nore slender colun1ns

• niore heavi ly loaded colunins, where me compressive resistan ce
is incxeased for a given tube size
• longer fire resistance periods (which can also be enJ1anced by
bar reinforcement)
• excellent in1pact resistance.
In Australia and the Far East, large diameter concrete-filled tubular

sections have been \videly used in high-rise commercial
developn1ents. In this case, the tubular sections are designed
principally to support the framework and floors during construction,
and die concrete provides the con1pre.~sive resistance co subsequent
loads. Large tubular sections (of 0.6 co 1.5 m diameter) can be
produced fro n1 p late, wh ich is ben t into a circular forn1 and \velded
along its seain.
Particular techn ica l issues to be addressed in this fom1 of
co nstruction are:
• die ni ethod of co ncrete filling, which is no nually by pouring

fron1 the top of die colunin in one o r two storey heightS
• Joad transfer fron1 the beams to me COIUlUllS, \Vhidi for large
dianieter colurnns is achieved by a steel insert \vith shear
connectors en1bedded into me core of the column
• fire resistance by bar reinforcement in tlle concrete. In mis case,
d1e column is designed and detailed to standard reinforced-
concrete practice. T11e amount of re.inforcement should be
n1inimised (<2°/o cross-sectional area of the column) in order
not to be too co ngested for concrete filling.
4.4.3 Tubular rnasts

Tubu lar n1en1bers ca n be used in tall slender mastS and can be
co n1bined with other sectio ns, depending upo n 1..he ard1itectural and
structural approad1. O ne excellent ea rly example of Lh e con1bi ned use
of section types is Lhe Renau lt Pans Distribution Centre in $\vi.ndon,
\¥here ci rcular tubular colunins supponed a franie\vorkoftapered UB
secLions suspended froni Lhe colunin apex and shaft (see Figure 1.2).
Single or clustered tubular colw11ns 111ay the111selves for111 a basic

structure with opponunity for arcbitectural exvression. Figure 4.27
Ulustrates a group of tapering tubes arranged to emulate a ship's
crane in Genoa, Italy, \vbirh support both a fabric 111e111brane roof
over a public piazza as \Veil as an elevator ride to provide panoramic
vie\vs of the city.
A supennarket canopy in Plyn1outh (Figw·e 4.28) v;as designed
using tubular colunms to express a nautical then1e.
Sometimes the separation benveen colun111 and truss or beam ele-
n1ents is less dear, as in the case where 'u·ee-like' structures are
devised. TI1is kind of expression ,..,as also used at Stuttgart Airport
(Figure 1.12) and in a 111ore fom1al 111anner at Stansted Airpon
(Figure 4.29), in \Vhid1 36 colun1n trees act as a rigid framework and
support inclined brandies \vhid1 then1selves support 1he entire roof.
4.27 Cigar-shaped columns used in the

Columbus lntemational Exhibition
C'.erure, C.enoa (architea: Renzo Piano)
4.28 Sainsbury's supermarket ainopy. Plymouth - 4.2!> Column trees at Stanst.-d Airpon (Architect: l'oster
expressing a nauliail theme (architect: Dixon & Jones) and l'aru1ers)
4.5 1'russes and lattice girders
1russes and lattice girders can be conceived of as triangular or

rectangular assen1blies of tension and compression elen1ents. 111e
top and bottom d1ords provide the compression and tension
resistance to overall bending, and the \veb or bracing elen1ents resist
the shear forces. A wide variety of forn1s of rrusses can be created.
Ead1 can vary in overall geometry and in the d1oice of the individual
elen1ents wh ich comprise thein.
·nusses are generally associa red \vi th pitd1ed roofs and are
designed to follow the roof profile. Shallower roof pitches result in
heavier con1pressio n chords, \Vhereas sreeper roof pitd1es involve
lo nger a nd o ften heavier bracing members.
Lattice girders are generally associated with long-span bean1s in
wh id1 the top and bouo 1n cho.rds are usually horizontal. Ho,vever,
for flatter roof pitches, lattice giide.rs with a sloping top chord can
also be used efficienl.ly.
4.5.l Forrrrs of trusses
Trusses or lattice girders may take a number of basic fom1s, as

illustrated in Figure 4.30. Tbe common names for these truss fonns
are given, together \vi th their typica I span range. They are fabricated
by bolting or \Veldi ng standard sections together. For spans of up to
20 n1, it is sufficient to use angles, tees and lighter hollo\v seaions.
For very long spans, UC or heavier hollow sections may be required.
"I11e n1ixed use of these sections 1nay be appropriate to minin1ise l.11e
visua l in1pact ofd1e bracing n1en1bers. lbese alternative seaion types
are show n in Figure 4 .31. Trusses are very efficient in the use of steel.
but are relatively expensive to fabricate. ·111e bracing niembers are
usua lly lighter d1an the chord niembers.
• Warren or Pratt Lattice Cirde1s

Lattice girders have broadly parallel top and bottom d1ords in
\Vhid1 the bracing (diagonal) members are arJanged in a W or N
forn1, respectively. In a Pratt girder (N fonn), the orientation of
d1e bracing meinbers normally changes at mid-span. The top
d1ord is generally designed to be restrained against out-of-plane
buckli ng by d1e regular attadunent of roof purlins or of d1e
floor slab.
A su·icking exan1ple of a struaure fanned from \Vhat is
essentially a circular three-di.me11sional Warren girder is the
London Eye, designed by Marks Barfield Ard1iteas (Colour
Plate 23). See also Colour Plate 4.
Pratt girders are a traditional fonn of construction often
using angle and T-secrions. ·n1ey are efficient ac supponing
vertica l loads because all the con1pression members are short
(i.e. the verlica l members) and the longer diagonal me.n1be.rs are
in tension.
\-Varren girders {W form) are often fabricated from tubular
sections as d1ey a.re efficient as bracing me.tubers which act
(a) Pitched Prat truss (Spans> 20m) (b) Warren grder (Spans> 20 m)
.6
~ Q. ll,
~ ~
(c) F11k truss (spans uplo 10 m) (d) Double Fink truss (spans between 10 aro 15 m)
(e) Howe truss (SpanS up IO 15 m) (I) Re<lcl1 lruss (Spansbetwoon 12 ond 20 m)
l I l ~
~ Q
(h) Bowsrmg truss (very iong spans> 30 m)
4.30 Diffurent forms of conventional

ffi SciSSOIS truss (used IO gve addiion;j (D North light truss (spans< 15 m) roof trusses and lattice girders
fieedroom) (spanS < 15 mJ
alternacely in tension and con1pressio n. In lightweight

buildings, \Vind uplift can be signifi cant and may ca use reversal
of the forces acting on the truss.
• Fi11k, Ho11-e arid Fre11cl1 r:russes
'lhese panicular shapes of pitd1ed uuss forn1 the shape of the
finish ed roo( ·n1e apex and eaves jo ints between the d1ords are
pinned. ·niey are o ften used in housing and modest span roof
trusses, and gene.rally con1prise Tees and angle members.
• Vierendee/ girder
'This is a different form of structure in '"'hich the diagonal
bracing members are elin1inated, and the con nectio ns between
the horizontal and vertical n1eiubers are made n101nent-
4 .31 Diffurent types of steel SC<1ion used

(a) RHS or SHS (b) T Section (c) UC Chord in trusses
resisting. VierendeeJ trusses are expensive in the use of steel and

in fab ricatio n, and are only appropriate for use in special
circun1sta nces, such as when th e size of the openings is
n1axin1 ised to pern1it the passage of seivices. However, it is
possible to design one Vierendeel panel in the centre of an
othenvise standard Warren or Pratt girder, especially if the girder
achieves con1posite action with a floor slab.
• Bowstring t111ss
One d1ord of a bowstring truss is curved in elevation and is tied
bet\veen its supports. Light trusses of this fom1 may also be
orientated vert ically to support cladding and glazing \\•here
arch itectural expressio n of the truss is particularly in1portant.
• Scissor truss
111e scisso r U'uss is a va rian t of a standard truss fon11 and offers
architectura l possib ilities and grea ter headroon1, but is
suucturall y less efficien t because of its shallower depth.
• Nortfr ligfrt roof truss
North light trusses are U'aditionaUy used for short spans in
industrial workshop-type buildings. "Ibey allo\v n1axi111un1
benefit to be gained fro 1u naturaJ lighting by the use of glazing
on the steeper pitd1 \vhidl generaJly faces north or north-east to
reduce the solar gain.
• Developrnents of ·1vof forrn
Most of the above lattice girders and trusses can be further
developed into 1nore interesting suuaural and architectural
forms. Some possibilities, including curved and mansard roofs,
are illustrated in Figure 4.32.
Tio
(a) Pitched Warren girder (spans up to 20 m. pitch 16' • 20·1
(b) Saw tooth Wanen girder (spans up to 10 m)
(c) Modified Prall girder with glazed monitor (spans> 30 m)
(d) 3-dlmenslonal Prall girder

(e) Q.uved 3-drnenslooal warren girder (spans> 20 m)
_.....Glazed roof
(QTied raller 11\JSS (spans< 15 m)
(g) ModC!ed cur1.11d Warren girder
(h) ArticlAated ruived Wanen g irder with expressed pins
...
(i) Articuated bowstmg
CD CenllMred mono-pitch truss
(k) Modfied Pran truss wdh Vierendeel or braced central bay
Ol Modfied Pratt truss as a mansard
(m) Mansard truss crealing qlen space
4.32 Devclopment of standard truss and

lattice forms
4.33 lattice girders comhi ne with

fuhricak'd steel columns making a hybrid·
ponaJ sttucwre at the Brit School,
Croydo n (architect: Cassidy TawinJ
T1usses offer an excellent opponunity for architeaural expression

in a variety of fo rms, as illustrated in Figures 4.33 and 4.34.
Other smaller-scale co1nponentS n1ay be considered depending
on dle fonn o f dle truss, such as:
• Cables
Cables (or steel ropes) are spun fron1 a nu1nber of strands or
collectio n of wires. 'lhe ca bles ca n be in1pregnated and shead1ed
wit11 nylon or PVC, and ca n also be greased and galvanized for
ron-os ion protection. Cables have high-tensile strength but
often low d uctility. 1bey are suitable o nl y for tensile
coo1po nents in u·usses. fo r exan1ple in wind-resisting girders for
glazed walls.
Fitments to th e ropes provide me coupling mechanisn1 to d1e
adjacent structure Special consideration is required to the
aerodynamic damp ing of long ties on cables " 'hen exposed to
\'Vind.
• Rods
Individual rods are made fron1 solid steel, \mose ends are
dlreaded to attach to steel couplers. Rods are linear and more
rigid elements, whereas cables will sag naturally. Rods are
usually lightly tensio ned on erection of the frame ·n1ey are only
suitab le fo r resisting tension. In a 'wind girder', they can be
prete nsioned so tha t the reversal o f \\>ind loads does not cause
co n1press1on.
4.34 lattice oowstring truss of UK • Flats
pavilio n. l!xpo 1992, Seville (architoo: Steel fl ats nlay be considered in X-braced trus.~es, almough they
Nicholas Grimshaw & Panners) are visually nlore obtrusive
4.5.2 Artiailatio11 of elenients 1vitliin trusses
The same notions that guide d1e relationship between members in a

frame to give scale, emphasis and articulation to d1e parts, are equally
important to the relationships bet\veen eleJ11ents in an individual
member of fixed overall geon1etry and end conditions. 1he point is
ill ustrated diagrammatically for a sin1ple plana r truss in Figure 4.35
in which the position of the pinned connections between the tension
and compressio n elements, and wimin the con1pressio n elements
themselves, can create different details and effects. This princip le is
generally applicable to any type of n1en1beJ'. 111e particular forn1
assurned by the connections varies depending upo n the cross-section
of rhe individ ual elemenL~.
4.5.3 Tubular trusses
Trusses using tubular men1bers can provide elega nt structural

so lutions in long-span roofs. l11ey can also be used as 'transfer
structures' to support a nun1ber of floors above and to create open
ci.rculation areas beneam. TI1espan to depth ratio of long-span trusses
using tubular sections n1ay be in me range of20 to 25, reducing to 10
to 15 for heavily loaded applic..ations. Tubular trusses can be very
simple in form, as sho\vn in Figure 4.36, which illustrates d1e use of 4.35 An iculat ion of elemen!S within !he
ltUSS to create d ifferen1effecis
4.36 'l'russes at lbyola I IQ, Swindo n

(a rchitt?<"t: Sheppard Robson)
parallel d1ord u-usses. lndined tubular trusses 1nay be used in a

'folded plate' forrn to reflect the shape of the roof. as shov,rn in Figure
4.37. Horizontal forces are resisted by ties (re.fer to Section 7.5).
More co mplex roof u-usses can be created which are uiangular in
cross-section, as in Figure 4.38. 'Cbe bowstring truss in the sports
hall show n in Figure 4.39 used a heavy top mord and vertical posts
with light bracing and bonon1 mord members. The apparent depth
437 Inclined tubular trusses to create

a folded pl31e roof(archi!e(l'. Mawonb
Tompkins ArdlitectS)
438 Curved triangular trusses at Swindon's Motorola factory (architect: Sheppard Rohson)
4.39 Bowstring truss at spons hall
4.40 Stratford Market depot. London (archil<JCI: \.Yilki nson 4.41 Dc~p curved roof trusses at the l'CV terminal at Charles
Eyre) de Gaulle Airport, Pa ris (architect: i\eropons de Paris)
of the bowstring truss is reduced by the use of these lightweight

components.
The long-span trusses at Stratford Market depot are arranged in an
i.ntersectingonhogonal pattern and are supported on colum n trees to
mini.mise the effective span of the trusses (see Figure 4.40). At Ponds
Forge, Sheffield, the roof trusses \Vere orientated diagonally across
the enclosure and supported on a diagonal grid of tubu lar me1nbers
(see Colour Plate 20).
lhe roof trusses to the TCV tern1inal at 01arles de Gaulle Airport,
Paris, used tubular trusses con1prising a do\vnward curved bonon1
chord, which is normally the opposite co nfiguration to that des ired
fo r mos t roofs, but ,.,rhi ch causes a striking architectura l effec t ·ri1e
inclined tubular columns support the upper chords of four Lrusse.s, as
illustrated in Figure 4.41.
4.42 Tria ngular roof uusses at I lnmhurg

Alrpon (architeo: Vt)n C.erkan Marg and
Panners)
At Ha n1burg Airpo rt 1he tria ngular Lrusses were rurved alo ng Lh eir
length a nd were suppo rted by inclined tub ular struts, as shown 10
Figure 4.42.
Chapter 5
Connections
between I-sections
5. 1 Introduction to connections
In a typical steel structure, the detailed design of the conn ectio ns, the
preparation of the production dra1vings, the fabricatio n and the
ereaion accounts for some t'vo-durds of the total cost of the
frarne1vork. Most of the cost is absorbed in the detailing and
fabrication of the connections bet1veen the 1nen1bers.
In most projects, steel fabrica tors undertake the design and
detailing of all connections according to their preferred n1ediod of
fabrication. Because of this, the.re has tended to be a diversity both
in connection types and design niethods. Tiie.refore, designers
should have an a'vareness of tli e range and types o f typical details
in order 10 assess the suitability and adequacy of die p roposed
details.
'The provision of industry standards fo r co nnectio n design is
developing rapidly. In 1991, the SCI and die British Co nstructional
Steelwork Association (BCSA) first published a design guide, Joints in
sin1ple consrrucrion, which presents design p rocedures for co nnections
for use in buildings designed 1vith braced fram es. A further
publication o n moment-resisting co nnections was produred in
6
l995. The publication on si.Jnple connections was revised in 2002'
and now i.Jidudes tubular connections.
Variou~ forms of connections niay be identified in regular steel
frames. ]hese are connections of:
• beams to column flanges

• beams to column 1vebs
• beam to beani '''ebs
• colu1nn to column splices
• column bases at foundations
• bracing connections.
·ni eir detailing depends on the fo rces a nd n1 o n1 en1s 10 b e

transferred, and on the d1osen 1nen1ber sizes. Howeve r, some
co1nmon detailing rules apply, 1vhich are discussed in the fo llowing
sections in order to gain an appreciatio n of the forn1 of co nnections
in regular frames.
5.2 Benefits of standardisati on
ln a typ ica l braced mul ti-storey frame, the. elements in the

connectio ns may accou nt for less than 30;0 of the fra1ne. " 'eight and
yet probably 30°/o or mo re of the total cosL Efficient coane.aions '"ill
d1erefore have the lo\vest deta iling. fabrication and ere.aion cost, and
are standardised over a broad range of appl.ication.
Paran1eters relevant to standard isation indude. the.:
• type of co nnectio n
• grade o f steel used in the connecting pans
• bolt grades, sizes and lengths
• we ld types
• n1en1ber sizes and geo rnetry.
'l11e benefits of th is approach include:
• a reductio n in the nu1nbe.r of co nnection types, n1aking

fabricatio n easier and cheaper
• d1e developn1ent of de.sign aids and associated computer
software
• savings in buying, storage and handling time, \vhidJ leads to a
reductio n in overhead costs
• reduced design costs, and fewer diffirultie.s in Building
Regulation approval
• d1e use o f o ne grade and dian1ere.r of bole in a litnired range of
lengd1s saves time changing drills or pundJe.s in me shop, and
leads to faster erection and fewer errors on sire..
ln a particular project, it is i111ponan t co first define a series of

co nnect io ns of 'comn1on' forn1, whether pre.-e.xi.s ting standard
connertio ns or those detern1ined as 'standard' for the mernber types,
sizes and ar rangemen ts that are enco untered in the building
structu re. '!h is should also exJend to the interfaces \vith o ther key
con1pone nts, such as cladding and roofing.
5.3 Industry-standard connections
Standards have been established for conne.aions bel\veen hoc-rolled

steel sections in portal frames and in rectilinear frame\vocks used in
n1ulti-storey buildings. Details of the. standard conneaions adopted
56
in the UK are found in the pub lications by the. SCI and the BCSA. '
111eir adoptio n makes fab ricat ion n1ore. straightfonvard, pron1otes
better commun ication, and reduces the. chance. of design and sire
errors.
Table 5. 1 presents a sun1mary of d1e. pre.fe.rre.d ele.n1ents in
sta ndard connections. Fu.lly threaded bolts have. gro1vn in popularity
because tJ1ey can be used wit h a wide range of tJ1icknesse.s of the
co nnected parts. However, th ey are not usually appropriate for
exposed connections, un less the projeaing length of tJ1e bolt is
h idden.
Co1111ecrio11s bemwn l-secrio115 73
Table 5. 1 Preferred sius of elements in standard C'nnnections
Element Preferred option Nmes
Bohs M20 Grade 8.8 bolts Some heavily loaded connections may need la~r diameter holts
Foundation bolts - M24 Grade 4.6
Fully threaded bolts may he used where thethidmess of the conneeted
pans is variable
Holes 22 mm diameter punched or 26 mm diameter for M24 bolts
drilled, or 22 mm x 26 mm slot 6 mm oversize holes for foundatio n bolts
punched
\Velds Filla welds with f.43 electrodes, Larger welds may he nt-eded fnr some column bases
6 mm or 8 mm leg length
Fin in~ S275 Steel Refer in the SCl/ BCSA publicaiinns''.5 for funher informatio n
Limited range of standard Oats
and angl.s
So 1ne ~eneral detailing rules, as described in the SClj 13C',SA pub li-
cations, s. are as follo\vs. fQr non1ina ll y p in-jointed connections:
• the top of the top flange "'ill genera lly be used as the setting out
point
• the tops of alJ fittings (e.g. cleats) are placed 50 111111 below the
top of the beam
• the first bolt rov.r is located at a constant 90 n1m from the top of
the beam, independent of th e fl ange thickness
• the bolr rows are d1en set at 70 111n1 intervals below the row
above. TI1ere.fore, the final rov,r \viii be at a va riable position
above the bonom flange, depending on the sectio n size.
6
For n10111ent-resisting connections using end-p lace type deta ils:
• ' flush' end-plates should be extended 15 nim above the top flange
of the bea1n to alJo,v for\velding to the top fl ange of the bea1n
• 'extended' end-plates should be exte nded 90 n11n above d1e top
flange of the beam to acconunodate an additional pair of bolts
• the first ro\v of bolts below the flange is located at a co nstan t 60
tum from the top of the beam, independent of d1e flan ge
thickness
• the bolt ro\vs are set at 90 n1n1 intervals below the bolt row
above. as for nominally pin-jointed connections
• for extended end-plates, d1e upper row of bolts should be
located 40 mtu above the top flange.
The following section deals \vid1 t he typical range o f co nnectio ns

for traditional applications.
5.4 Beam to column connections
-n1e most co1n1non types of bean1 to colu n1ns used in buUdings are
described as follo,vs:
• Double angle web cleats

A double angle \veb cleat connection (Figure 5.1 (a)) consists of
a pair of angle deats that are usually bolted to the beaa1 \veb in
d1e shop. 'TI1e beam assembly is then bolted to the colua1a on
site. Single angles are much \veaker as the bolts are loaded in
single shear. 1he n1in imun1 size and thickness of angle section
for a standard connection is 80 mm x 6 mm thick. "!be preferred
size of angle is 90 a1m " 10 a1n1 thick for most applications.
• Stool or seating cleats
A stool o r seating deat is son1etimes placed under the end of d1e
supporting beam, which provides a safe and positive landing
position for the bea nl during erection. A '"eb cleat is ahvays
used wid1 a seating cleat in order to stabilise the n1en1ber
latera ll y (see Figu re 5.1 (b) ).
• Fin plates
!=in p lates are most co1nmonly associated with beam to bean1
co nnections, but 1nay also be used for bean1 to colun1n connec-
tions. Projecting plates 1nay be welded to the colua1n flange or
'Neb to 1vhich the inco1ning beam is bolted (see Figure 5.2).
• Bracl1et connections
Othe.r forms of bracket connections may be made to the side of
colun1ns. A good e."Catnple is in the parallel bea111 approad1, as
illustrated in Figure 5.3 and as described in Section 4.2.5.
Projecting d1annel sections are welded externalJy to d1e tips of
d1e column flanges and extend outwards to connea to the bean1
web. TI1e bolted connection through the end plate is n1ade on
site. ·n1 is connection is no t appropriate for small columns
because of the di fficulty of access for welding the bracket. 111e
1veld size is also detenn ined by the to rsio nal effeas due ro d1e
co ntinuous bean1 span ning over the n1ain beams.
... . .R--.... . ... . .:.:·: . .

~ -~ ~ ~=: ~
'.
•
•
.. , •, • , •I
~·
\.- · I \.
(a) Web cleats (on one or both sides of web)
5.1 Web cleated conne<1ions (b) Web cleat (single or double) Md seating Cleat
Co1111ecrio11s bemwn l-secrio115 7S
:...·;:::_ .. '--"". . ...-. .·-.... ....:...::.°'T :~:

• ' I '• '/ '\ • , .., \' I \
.. "'
'
;------- JiFi~
--~-,;,
-~ - ~r=------ i
.
.. _.,
• - • Erd llal•welded
'. •
•
- •
- • '. I
l!
cJ~i==~
k)d\annel
·1r--a.amaweldedio
collm llange
••
Paral el beam connection
Wel:led fin plates (secondary beam shown dotted)
5.2 Fin plate connection (welded 10 column flange weh) 5.3 \•Veldt'!! hrnckei to conn en pairs nfbearns
• Flexible end-pin res

' Fle.xible' end-plates consist of a thin plate welded to the beam
in the " 'orkshop. ·n1e plate is typ icall y 8 to 12 1nm Lh ick,
depending on the size of bolts used. 'I11e beam is then bolted LO
the supponing men1ber on site. End plates are probably the
most popular of the bean1-column connections used in the UK.
'They are VITsatile in that they can be used with skewed beatns
and can tolerate moderate offsets in bean1 to colun1n alignments.
They are termed ' flexible' because they are th in and are not
necessarily welded to the bean1 flanges, and therefore do not
uansfer significant n1on1entS (see Figure 5.4(a)). 1he SCI/BC5A
5
publication gives guida nce on typical details for these
co nnections.
• We/dro shear bloc/ls
Welded shear blocks, as shovro in Figu re 5.4(b ), are w idely used
in co ntinental Europe. ·n1e upper bolts are o nly used for
location and to provide for tying forces. ·111e welded shea r b lock
resistS the ve.rt ical load transferred fro n1 the bea m. However, the
.
-~n ·.~ . . .... -;>.
.. . .... .
- .:~"r-!\·
. --;t
•• • •
• • >
' .
•
(a) Flexble or partial depth end plate connection
5.4 r-loohlc or panial depth end-plate

(b) Partial depth end plate with welded shear block ron nections
..•
• • ·Fbffe'fdi:&a!
e..d9'lds 1s . .
~b01af9:b
• • elc:M qi, 1#9! -*!
(a) Flush end plate conneetion
55 Moment resisting end-plate

Ct)llnl'Ctions (b) Extended end plate comecbon
block must be thick enough to allow for all tolerances in bean1

placen1ent.
• Thich end-plates
Mon1ent-resisting connections between beam and colun1ns can
be fab ricated by welding thicker end-places to the beams. 111e
end plate is typically 15 to 20 n1nl thick Flush end-plates are
welded to the flanges and web of the bea1n so 1..hat there is
minin1al (15 mn1) projeaion of the end plate (see Figure 5.S(a)).
Extended end-plates project above or below 1.he beam dep1.h (see
Figure 5.5(b)) and ach i.eve greater bending resistance by having
the facili ty for bolts above and below the tension nange.
'fhe SCl/BCSA publica tion Joints in Steel Consrructio11 -
6
Mornerrt Corr nections provides guidance on 1.he practical
app lication of these mon1en1-resisting connections. hnponantly,
the number and size of tlle bolts is designed prituarily to resist
the tension fo rces caused by the applied n1otuen L "(be lov,rer
bolts resist tl1e app lied shear-forces. Conneaions to the " 'ebs of
columns require careful detailing, as the end plate to the bea1u
n1ust fit bel\<Veen the depth of the root radii of the column
section. (The root radius can be up to 25 mm per flange.)
• Haunched connection
A haund1ed connection, shown in Figure 5.6, is a fusther
example of a moment connection that is typically used in single
or n1ulti-span portal frames. However, haundled composite
bea n1s have been used to create longer spans of minin1u111 depm
(see Section 4.2.3). "111e haundl i.s designed so tl1a1. the
co nnection is not the 'weak link' in 1.he failure 1nechanism of 1.he
frame. It is usually created by cuuing and '"elding a ponion of
1.he sa me beam-section in order 1.0 mini1nise \"3Stage.
• Welded connections
Fu lly 1<Velded co nnections are rarely used in building
construction in the UK because of the potential difficulty in
.•
. / Poosl>le eKtension cast ln10 slab
"" ~
0 0
-
~-
~-
- ,,-
'
Secoo<bry beam
(Top flange m"f ~ - "·-
•
~
requi'e notch.i'q 0 0
- ,,_
,
Momentar.d
;
shearforoe
~ ~ Butt weld
Stile.nor
-- - ~
,.....
Haunch
..... .
I -- ---
Side viaw
, .
.
5.6 Hau!l('.hed connectio n ofn beam to
Culling piollle lor haunch a column
achieving good-qualily \\relds on site. However, it 111ay be

possible to provide bolled splice connectio ns elsevvhere io the
beam to facilitate transport and lifting, and to fully weld the
main conneaioas ia the factory (as colun1n 'trees').
• Stiffened connections
\'\'here the connection benveen the bean1 and column requires
additional load-bearing capacity, or \vhere the loading nlay be
eccentric to the member axes, the coaaection may be stiffened
ia the form of \velded plates of typically 6 to 12 mm th ickness.
Welding of stiffeners is relatively expensive and should be
avoided in regular bean1 and colun1n construction. It may be
cos t-effective to increase dle colun1n \Veight (size) to avo id the
need for stiffeners.
• SeaU!d con11ecrio11s
In son1e lo\\•-rise buildings, seated connectio ns 1nay be used.
Beams, or more usually, tru5ses are seated on end p lates \velded
to the tops of the colun1ns. Pa irs of bolts provide fo r shear and
uplift resistance. ll1ese connecLions are trealed as pinned.
Usually dl e supported 111e.111bers are restrained laterall y by so111e
o ther 111eans, for example, a perin1eter tie or eaves bea111.
5.5 Beam to beam connections

5
The SCl/ BCSA publication Joinrs in Simple Construction provides
guidance oa the praaical applications of beain to beam connections,
\Vhicb are generally treated as pinned. Practical conditions to be
addressed are as follo\vs:
• Relative siz.es of beams

A co n1mo o fearure of bean1 LO bearn co nnectio ns is that dle to p
flanges of the beams should be at the sa me level. 'th erefo re, the
ends of dle secondary bean1s are often ' notcned' so that they ca n
be attached 10 th e 'veb of L11e prin1ary bea ms (see below). Most
of the previously described connection types may be used, and
some are illustrated in Figure 5.7.
- .
,.- • •
'. ,. •
•
•
• '
Welded end plates (partial depth) Welded fin plate (partial depth)
Bolted cleats Welded side plate

5.7 Typical beam to beam connections (on one or both sides of web)
vVelded fin plates avoid the need for notching. but extend
well outside the bean1 width and cause bending of the fin plate.
Welded side-plates cause local bending of the Haages, and are
not recommended for heavily loaded applications unless the
web is stiffened to resist these local forces. A ·ree section \velded
to the web provides this stiffening function.
• Noccliing of beatns
It is o ften necessary to no tch o r cut-back bean1s '"'hen
co nnecting to other bean1s or columns. The detail in Figure 5.8
sho,vs the amount of cu tting back that is required in standard
co nnections.
• Sp/icing of beams
Spliced coonections a re rarely used in building construction
except in veiy Jong-span beams where transponation or erection
requirements necessita te the supply ofshoner n1e1nbers. Spliced
connections require web plates to transfer shear, and often top
and bottom plates to transfer moment applied to the beatu.
Preferably, these splices are aot made in the regions of high
moment Splice connections generally use high-strength friction
grip bolts acting in shear to avoid the effecrs of bolt slip oa
deflections.
• Connections of beatns at diffewnc levels
In son1e building types, it is possible to align the bean1 at
different levels, in which cases con nections heJo,.., iJ1e top Hange
n1ay be made by end plates or web deatS, as in conventional
co nnections. Bea n1s suspended below bean1s may make use of
special con necto rs, such as by Undapter (see Figure 5.9). 'lllese
co nnectio ns may be of panicular interest \Vhere drilling or
welding is not pei·mittt'Ci o n site.
Oeerance
generally
10mm
S1ardard top
notch depth
SOmm
Double notched beam
Sllllldard nccd1ng cl beam-l>eam conneetlon
~ b (lrom face of web)
•
'
Beam
Ccci.nn Range trtm (mm)

Sll!I
a b
356UC 240 190
305UC 195 160
254 UC 150 135
203UC 110 110
152UC 70 85
5.8 l'ypka l dclailing requirements for

Sland8td ltimming lo. various cOli.nn slzes h.:am to beam (onne('tiuns
5.9 Suspend~'(! h'"'3m to hcam

(onncnions hy L1ndaph!r
5.6 Column splices
Colun1n splices in mu lti-storey construction are usualJy provided

eveiy l\'l'O or three storeys, and are located about 500 mm above floor
level. 111is results in convenient column lengths for fabrication,
transport and erectio n. T11e splicing operation is safer and easier to
pei·fom1 if it is done at a reasonable working height. Section sizes for
the upper leveJs can be reduced at splice positions, but the provision
of splices at ead1 floor leveJ is seJdom economic, since any saving in
colun1n weight is generally far outweighed by the additional costs of
the fabrication and erection. Figure 5.lO(a) illustrates cypical colun1n
splices in colu1nns of the san1e size, and Figure 5.10(b) illustrates
splices at a change of column size.
·n1 ere are two basic types of column splice: bearing and non-
bea ring. In 1.he bearing type, the loads are transferred fron1 Lhe upper
to lo1¥er colun1ns direct ly, or thro ugh a division plate. "lb ensure
effici ent fit at the splices, the ends of the colu1nns should be finished
square. For ligh tl y loaded colun1ns, a sawn end is sufficiently
accurate so that bearing surfaces do not have to be n1ad1ined to
ad1ieve good co ntact. For larger, heavily loaded columns, tbe ends
••
v Holds coomn
in postioo
prier lo 11el<fing
Possible 9ap
~n column ends
'
""
:---r
"""Fnellon 11i' bolls

Hmoroonts a,.
lmnsloro<I resulting
In net tension on o:ie lace
Splice platos mllY Ile Inside, oulsido,
or in poi rs each side ol lho llango
(I) Bolled splice plates (ii) Sde wekled (used ooly v.llen IAsual
appearance is wry inpalanl)
(o)
Smaller size coh1nn
~5"lble 911p
in Coll.l'M ends
Friction grip bOllS

WmomenlS al8
transfered resulllng
In nel tension on one laoe
5. 10 11.lrious forms c1f rolumn splk.:s:
(a) 1ypiral (onnections beiween column
S<!Ctinns of 1he s.1me size; and (h) typical (iv) Extended end plates (v) Bolted spice pfa1es
ronnec1ions betw«n column sections of (wtlh packs)
differenl sizes (ti)
should be 1nachined ia order to achieve good-bearing co ntact. In

aoa-beariag splices, the loads are tran sferred by \vay o f bolts and
splice plates, aad any bearing bel\veea the meaibers is o ften ignored.
Co untersunk bolts may be used in die splice plates to avo id
protruding bolt heads, '"hirh may othenvise interfere widi fin ishes
and fue protection, and may be less visually acceptable. Hovvever,
th is is a more expensive option than using conventional bolts.
5.7 Column bases
Column bases can be designed as non1inall y pinned (simple) or

moment resisting (rigid). Non1inall y pinned bases are only required to
transmi t axial and shear forC'es into the foundation, and are provided
in braced structures and in portal franJes. 'They are generally preferred
to mo1nent-resisti ng base connections for reaso ns of cost and
practicality. Uplift due to internal \Viad p ressure and external wind
suction niay have to be considered in single-sto rey suuctu res, which
leads to a minimum size of foundation for a given bu ildjng size.
Moa1ent-resisting bases niay be required ia rigid-frame structures
in order to reduce me effects of S\Vay and deflections. 'T1iese bases and
their foundations are considerably larger than for no 1ninally pinned
column bases.
Holding do\"n (H D) syste.nis are designed to satisfy die follo\ving
requ irements:
• In service. they must transni it shear fro ni the column to the

foundatio n; if HD bolts are fined using oversize ho les in the
base-plate, dien shear niust be resisted by odier nlea ns.
• During erectio n, they must be capable of stabilising the colum n
and other structural elen1ents. TI1us, four bolts are provided,
even in a noniinally pinned C'O nnectio n.
• "Chey 1nust resist uplift, depending Oil the design C'ond itio n .
1be base plate should be of sufficient size, stiffness and strength

to transmit the conipressive force and bending nio meiit fro 1n t.he
coluu1a to me foundation d1rougb die bedding mater ial, without
exceeding the local bearing c.apadty of the fou ndation .
Usually the force transfer froui the colunin to die base plate is by
direct bearing, and the \velds bet\veen them are designed to resist
shear oaJy. \.\/here required, the plate is designed for beadi ng due to
over-turning or uplift effeas, \Vhich niay cause tens ion ill die HD
bolts. Typical details for a column base using UC or SHS colunins are
shown in Figure 5.11.
Generally, d1e 1.hickness of di e base plate is chosen so diat it does
not require add itio nal stiffening. HO\\•ever, diere nlay be arch itectural
nierit in using shaped stiffeners in exposed app licatio ns.
·ro allow for tolerances in the concrete fou ndatio n, the top surface
of the concrete is designed to be 30 to 50 nln1 below the bono m of
the base plate. ·1he column is teniporarily supported on steel packs
and wedges \Vhich pera1it vertical adjustn1ent of the colum n. High-
strength grout is dien injected under the plate, and die \vedges are
6 150
6 150
I• . I
"'
O l)tla'lal
U30d.ia. i --!-- -t I
S!L_ . - -
~=~~
StZeofbase
M20 boJts in
24 mm holas B
Unlversal Column Rectangular Hollow Secllon
Thd< - - ~eel· <IJA)
~
z
~
50 Nom.dla. ~{!r.lde • .6) hotklg
podtets GM bots x 500 tng wch
\/Vasherplate rot ard waste-1 at bp
5.11 Typical simple column bases
rernoved when the grout has gained sufficient suength. Where

colun1n bases are required to be concealed, an allo,vance for d1is gap
and fo r the end-p late and the projeaing bolts n1ust be 1nade \\•hen
detern1ining the covering to th is detail (typically 100 co 120 n1n1
should be allowed). ·n1is may increase to 300 or 450 n1m \\•here
ra inv1ater dow npipes are also located in the column zone.
5.8 Connectio ns in trusses

Various fo rms o f truss or Janice girder n1ay be defined depending on
d1e span and load configuration (see Section 4.5). Lattice girders
have parallel top and botton1 chords and are used as beams, \vbereas
trusses 01ay have inclined top chords for use in roofs. In born cases,
d1e connections between the men1bers may be bolted or '"elded.
Welded connectio ns are o ften preferred in tubular construction, or
'"here d1e curnu lative effecc of bolt slip is critical co d1e design of m e
truss. Neverd1eless, it may be necessary co inuoduce splices in die
d1ord meinbers if d1e trusses are too long for transportation. ·111ese
splices shou ld be loca ted and detailed carefully if they are
ard1itecturally i1nportant.
5 .8.1 Tn1sses cor11prisi11g angle sections
Trad itio nally, roof trusses used angles, with bolted and gusseted
co nnections (see Figure 5. l2 (a)). However. deeper T-sections for the
I• - - - .,,...-t<:--- - • I ,LI Double angle
Double or single
angle
Gusset plate
(a) Typical bracing-chord boled

connection using angle chords
T TeechOrd
(b) Typical bracing - chordcomection 5.12 Traditional bolted connectio ns in

using T section chord rrusses
main chords avoid the use of gusset plates, provided the bolts can be
accommodated (see Figure 5.12(b)). 111e projection lines of the bolt
sening-out lines are detailed in sud1 a \\ray that eccentricities in the
forces rransmined by the bolt groups are n1inin1ised.
In welded connections, the depth of the T-section is d1osen so
that the centroidal axis of tJ1e secti ons can be arra nged to eli minate
eccentrid ty (see Figure 5. 13). Top and bonon1 chords are usually
co ntinuous, except at d1a nges in directi o n or where splices are
necessary for erection purposes. Pairs of angles, bolted o r welded
periodically along their length, are preferred, as they are mud1 tno re
resistant to b uckling tJ1an single angles.
Lighter lattice girders used as secondary bean1s n.1ay be co nnected
to continuo us columns at tJ1eir top d1ord only. '!his forn.1s an
effective ' pin' connection for design purposes (see Figure 5.14).
However, heavier lattice girders supporting secondary beams should
be co nnected to the colun1ns at both their top and botton1 chords.
Coincident lines of
force (no eccectricity)
4
T
0
31 c _i__ _ _ 1========~=======1
22
~~ ~t-- Teeohord
30mmgar
to allOwlO
welding
5. 13 'l'ypical bracing - chord welded
connection
Double angle
Gusset plate of
5. 14 'IYJ>ical truss-column nan~ seme thickness
rclnnectic>n as top chord
5 .8. 2 Lattice girders cor11prising heavier sections
Long-spa n lattice girders often con1prise UC sections or tubul ar

sections rather than angles in order to increase their compression
resistance (see Figure 4.29). Heavy members may be required in
special applications, such as transfer structures bel\,•ee.n floors \Vhid1
support point loads from colwnns above. In some cases, they are
designed as storey-high assemblies. Dcllection contro l is particularly
in1portant in long-span applications, and welded o r friction grip
bolted connections may be preferred to avoid the cumulative effects
of bolt slip.
.- . ++•ll --'I'
(a) Bracing connection to beam (b) Bracing connection to elher

beam or column
5. 15 l!xamples of bracing ronnt"Ctions

in frames using angle sections ( c) X·Bracing (back to back or single angle)
5.9 Bracing and tie-members
Vertical and borizontal bracing me.n1bers resist \¥ind and other

horizontal loads applied to the. building or su·ucture, and transfer the
loads to the foundations or oth er stabilising elen1ents, e.g. concrete
cores. In general, there are five forn1s of bracing and tie-n1en1bers that
nlay be. considered: angles, flats, cables, rods and tubes. Sotne o f
them are only suitable for resisting tension, \¥hid1 dictates the form
of construction in \\ihidl d1ey can be used.
The. simplest form of bracing n1en1ber is the steel angle, either
placed singly or in pairs back to back Single angles are less efficient
in compression d1an double angles. Various fo rms o f b raci ng
assemblies may be used, sud1 as X- and K-bracing, in \¥hid1 the
members n1ay be designed to resist tension o r co mpression (see
Section 3 .6). Typical bracing connections us ing angle seclions are
shown in Figure 5.15. Angles designed for tensio n only 1vill be more
slender than those designed to resist both tensio n and compression.
Tubular connections are often preferred for brac ing con nections
because of their good cotnpression resistance (see Chapter 6).
Chapter 6
Connections
between tubular
sections
Connections between tubular sections are fundamenta lly different

fro 1n those ben"een open sections, sud1 as 1- and L-sections. 'T11ere
are two principal forn1s of connection: bolted and welded, but even
bolted connections generaUy contain \\•elded pa11s.
In designing tubular structures using circular (CHS), square (SHS)
or rectangular bollo\v sections (RHS), it is in1portant that the
connection design is considered at the start of the design process, as
this can have a strong influence on the aesthetics of the construction.
1his emphasises the need to consider the structural design and
fabrication of the connections at the san1e stage as the selection of
member sizes. Guidance on t11e use of tubes is given in various Corus
publications (see Chapter 16).
6. 1 Pre paration of members
'tubular sections are conn ected by various ted1niques that require d iff-
erent forms of cuuing and end preparation. T11e three ted111iques are:
• straight o r indined cutting

• end profiling
• end flattening.
6.1.1 Cutting
Straight or inclined cuts are 01ade by conventional techn iques and

are used prirnarily for end-plate type connections. Shearing and
pundling of the sections is not recomn1ended in heavy load-bearing
applications. End plates are \Velded by fillet welds. Chamfering of the
ends of the section is also possible in order to n1ake a butt weld
beMeen tubes and to avoid a protruding end plate.
6.1.2 Profile sl111ping
'Profile shaping' is the process of shaping the ends of a tubular

section to fit tJ1 e contour of tJ1e curved surface of a tubular niain
n1en1ber o r chord to wh ich it will be auached by \Velding at a suitable

angle. Specialist fabricators can profile the ends of 1.he section
auton1atically by mach ine according to the required con1bination of
me1uber dian1eters and the angle bet\veen the centre-line of die
n1en1bers.
·n1e profiled ends n1ay also be chamfered at the same time to
facilitate a butt-\'l'elded connection, which is neater externally. 111e
connected n1e1nbers (\'l'h ich are generally indined) may partly
overlap (see later). 1his requires a different form of end profile on
die overlapping member.
For sn1all quantity producrio n, hand flame cutting 111ay be
en1p loyed. Temp lates are used for marking off d1 e seaion prior to
cuning.
6.1.3 Crirriping or part-flatt.eriirrg

CHS sec1 ions ra n also be flattened a t their ends, if required. RJ-lS
sections cannot be flattened . End crimping of the connections in a
space truss is illustrated in Figure 6.1. The taper of th e flattened
end should n ot e.""<ceed an angle of 1:4. These 1ypes of conn ection
are nonna lly used in sn1a lJ sections with Mo bolts placed through
the crin1ped ends.
6.2 Bo lted and p inned co nnections
Bolted connect ions in tubular co nsrructio n are generaUy forn1ed

using o ne of the following techniques, as sl10\'l'll in Figure 6.2:
• welded end-plate with projecting end-plate or ring, so 1ha1 bolts

ca n be lonued externa lly 10 1he ho llow sectio n
G. I Use of an ooa111nal connenor

r~'<'eiving nau~it.>d tubular struts. for a
house at Almere, llolland (architett
llenthem and Oouwel)
Co1111~c1im1s bellttei'n ntbulnr secrions 89
- - ..
- ~--·-·-·- -~ --~~---~. ~ -r I
- -·
----------
-
(a) (b)
-~---=. =--- . ~ . ~ . ~ :
---------- -~~~~~!~~!~} ·+=I
(c) (d)
- - -- -- -.., ...
-
~~-~. .=::I
-------- ---
- · - · - ·;:=-·
(~
'
(g) I 6.2 Some examples of bolled

(h) connections to tubular members
• \velded plate \\Tith a projeaing fin, often in the form of a T-

section, which pernlits a conventi ona l spliced bolted
connection to be made
• welded fin that is \velded to, or cut into the section, permitting
a conventional spliced connection to be n1ade
• th rough bolts or pins \Vith internal ferru les to avo id local
crus hing of the \valls of d1e holl0\'1 sectio n
• llanened ends (of a CHS), per111ining a spliced co nnectio n to be
made
• welding lO intem1ediaiy sections, such as angles o r C-seclions.
Bolted conneaions are desirable for site assen1bly, and large

welded sub-asseu1blies lhal are prefabricated and bolted together on
site at suitable locatious. TI1e practical aspects of insta llatio n should
be considered in the design process. For exan1ple, Figure 6.3 shows
I-section
(CHS-stub also '
possible) •
Plate~
:-t-· - .--
CHS-stub
(I-section also : ' ·r.-"'---.,--~-""
possible)
6.3 Boltl'd C'onnL'CI ions to the suppons

of tubular trusses
t I
~
()
6.4 Some exa mples of wbular

connec1ions with pinned ends
possible end-connection details for Jong-span tubular trusses of

various types.
Sin1ple pinned connections can be n1ade in a si.rnilar manner to
bolted connections using welded end-plates and fin plates.
Alternative pinned details for sina!Jer tubular sea.ions are silO\\TJ1 in
Figure 6.4.
6.3 Welded fl ange or e nd-p lates and bo lted

co nnections
6.3.1 Projecting flarrge•plates
Welded flange-plates with projecting sides (see Figure 6.2 (a)) are the
sin1plest but potentially one of th e least attractive forms of
connection, and can be used with any size and shape of member.111e
flange plates may be either solid or of ' ring-form' with an opening.
TI1e opening 1nay be required for the passage of internal pipes, or for
concrete infilling, or for galvanizing internally. lheexrernal projection
of the flange plate should be kept as small as possible, but the place
should be of sufficient thickness 10 resist the 1ensile force transferred
by the connecting bo les and 10 avoid discortio n during 'velding.
Sin1ilar types of flange co nnections may be used for CHS or SHS
sections. In dose-up these connections rnay look bulky. but in overall
perspective, their effect is di111inished. In rnulti-sto rey construction,
co nnections o f this type to tubular colun1ns can norn1all y be
acron1modated 1vithin the floor depth (o r 1vithin the raised fl oor
depth).
6.3.2 \!Velded plate 1uith projecting fin plate
'This form of connection is an adaptation of the above type using a

welded fin anached to the flange plate (see Figures 6.2(b) and
6.2(c)). The flange plate can be welded flush '" ith the sectio n by
careful chamfering of the ends of th e hollow section. The co nnecting
bolts are then loaded principally in shear, as in a conventional splice
con aection.
6.3.3 Welded fi n cut into the section
A fin plate may be welded into a slot cut th rough or into the end of the
section (see Figure 6.2(d)). Jn this application, the ends o f the seccion
may be sealed '"ith a funher se111i-round plate or, in so111e cases, left
panly exposed, '"here the risk of corrosion is small (i.e. in in ternal
applications). The conneaing bolts forn1 part of a splice co nnection.
An interesting variant of this connection used to co nnect a CHS
section to an l-bean1 is illustrated in figure 6.5. Here the splice p late
is curved at its end to enhance the visual effect. TI1e four bo lts transfer
the required axial and shear forces. 6.5 Spliced connection between CHS
and an I-beam
6.3 .4 Through bolts 1uith internal ferrules
Bol ts or solid pins may be passed through holes in dle walls of the
hollow secrioa (see Figure 6.2( e)). Welded ferrules are located withi n
dle section ro avoid local distortion on tightening of dle bolts. ·n1ese
ferrules need only be rack-,velded in place. TI1e end of the section
niay be either capped or left exposed where the risk of corrosio n is
small.
6.3.5 Sections 1uitl1 flattened ends

Connections bet,veea sections \'l'ith flauened ends are only
appropriate in sn1aller CHS, such as in space trusses (see Figure
6.2(f}). Pairs of small dia111eter bolts are generally used in these
splice co11Dections which are often connected to p refabricated nodes
or to similar sections \vitb flattened ends.
6.3.6 Welded fi ns
Fins or brackets 1uay be \velded to di e side o f CHS or SHS/RHS

sections to provide direct attad1111ent of seco nda ry nlembers sud1 as
purlins (see Figure 6.6). Connections of this type require careful
design because of t.he possible local distort ion of the wa lls of la rger
hollow sections. Altemati\•ely, '"elded threaded scuds w ith extended
washers rnay be used 10 attach die purli ns to the sectio n.
·rhe auachn1ent of tensi on-ties or rod-bracing membe rs requi res
similar details. High local forces froo1 ties 111ay also be tra nsferred by
'pa tch-type' connections, \\•hich a1ay be profiled around d1e circular
G.G Bolted pu1lin co nnections to tuhular

trusses Welded stud
- - - - -~ - - - -
' '
Welded plate
sectio n so that \veld forces are transferred smoothly co the vr.tlls of

the sectio n. Multip le welded fin connections have bee.n used
successfully on a nu1n ber of n1ajor projects, such as at the column
bases at the Cologne Airport terminal, as shown in Figure. 6.7.
6 .4 In-line connections
Connections alo ng the leng th of a 111ember can be. 111ade by " 'elding
tubes end to end, o r by a variety of bolted splices, as described belo1v.
6.4 .1 Welded corinect·iotrs
Welded in-li ne co nnections (see Figure 6.8(a)) are by far the neatest
solution, particular ly if the. welds are ground back after fabrication.
G.7 Connectio n of ties to tulle at Welded co nnectio ns can be designed to achieve the full strength of
C'.ologne Airpon (architect: Murphy Jahn
th e tube, but they should no r111aJly only be 1uade in the fabricator's
Architects)
shop in order to adi.ieve correct alignment of the rubes. Changes in
the thickness of the tubes can be accommodated at this poinL
6.4.2 Flange plates
Flanged connectio ns (see Figure 6.8(b )) are simple to make but are not
aesth etically p leasing. 'lh ey are suitable for co1npression bu1 are less
efficient for tension beca use of bending in the end plate. requiring
thicker plates and rnore bolts. Fillet welding arou nd the section could
cause distortion of th in nange plates. Table 6.1 gives guidance on the
nange-p late co nnections that achieve. the full te.nsile-resistall.('e of the
given tube size. i;ewer bolts o r thinner plates may be used for lighter
loadings and, in th is case, the conneaion will be. weaker than the tube.
G.8 Examples of tube to tuhe splices

- - ---------- ---------- -
(a) Welded joint
(bl Range plates
---------- ----------·
-- -------
- _
-------~--
I
_ _ _ ___j_
I
H -_:l i±II I
I
_ __!_ _ _ _ _ _
-
. I + t- -1+ II I
(c) Splice plates
•• f, -
- - - -- - -
.
- - -- ~
, -
-- - -
~ - -- - - -
(d) End plates
Table G. I Sta ndard deiails for nanged ronn ertions (full-str~n gth connertions)
Max tube di mens ions d x t ' thickness nf Nom inal diameter Minimum no. Edge
(mm) Range plate of bolt (mm) of bolts distance
'f (mm) (mm)
60.5 x 4.0 to 89.1 x 4.0 12 16 4 25

101.6 x 4.0 to 114.3 x 3.6 12 16 5 25
114.3 x 5.6 to 139.8 x 4.5 16 20 5 30
165.2 x 5.0 20 22 5 35
190.7 xs.o 20 22 6 35
216.3 x 6.0 2() 22 8 35
216.3 x 8.0 22 24 9 40
267.4 x 9.() 24 24 13 40
3185 )( 7.0 24 24 12 40
355.6 x 12.0 24 24 23 40
406.4 x 9 .0 24 24 20 40
6.4 .3 Splice plates
Splice plate connections (see Figure 6.8(c)) can be u1ade bet\veen

tubes but the joint nlust be considered as pinned, making this an
unsu itable co nnection for the n1iddJe of a member in bending or in
con1pression. The splice plates can be either left exposed or used \vi th
a cover plate to give a smooth external appearance. An example of a
splice connection is sho\o\rn in Figure 6.9, and \vith its cover plate in
Figure 6.10.
6.4.4 Partial end-plates
6 .!> Spi ke connection Figure 6.8( d) shows the detaU of a very neat jo int using a panial end-
o r side-p late. particula rly if the open side of the connecti on can be
arranged away fro 1n view. "The number o f bolts \vhid1 can be located
inside the section is li mited and the lever arm is small, so that the
connection should be regarded as pinned. It is unsuitable for members
subj ect to bending or high-tension forces.
6.5 Welded n odes to columns and masts

-
In tension-tie structures, it is often necessary to attach the ties in the
forn1 of rods or cables to steel columns or masts. Multiple ties n1ay
be con nected by fabricated nodes that a re welded to the colun111.5 at
the top, or at intermediate points along the colu1uns, as sho\m in
Figure 1.2. Connections in tension-tie suuaures 1nay also take the
fonn of saddles at the top of the columns over \vhidl the ties run.
111ese saddles are fabricated and \velded to the ends o ft.he colun1ns.
6.10 Connection with rover plate A striking example of the use of welded nodes i.s 1he tension
su·urru re a1 Darling Harbo ur, Sydney (see Figure 6.11 ). Four colun1ns
are p laced together and the nodes are grouped in order to connect to
the ties \vh id1 support the lo ng-s pan trusses. Another exan1ple of the
innovative use of colun1n dusters is shown in Colour Plate 21.
TI1 e 30 St Mary Axe buUd i.ng is co nstructed using a diagrid of
intersecting tubu lar tnembers with welded steel nodes acting largely
in compression (Colour Plate 1). The nodes also support the perimeter
ties and the internal bea1ns. and an exa1nple is sho\\'ll in Figure 6.12.
6.6 Pinned connection s to tubular sections

Tubular connections provide the opportunity for true 'expressed'
pins, as follows.
6.6.1. Colurr1rr bases
Bases 10 tubu lar columns take two basic fo nns: pinned and rigid (or
mo rnent-resisting). "lh e detai ls emplo)ll?d renea the transfer of forces
and 1uoments. A genuine pinned connea.ion can be adlieved by a
single p in from a p rojecting plate, as shown in Figure 6.13. A
6. 11 Column clustt!r arrangement at

Darling flarbour, Sydney (architect: Philip
Cox & l':inners)
6.12 Welded node of the 30 St Mary

Axe building - see also Colour Plate I
(arrhiten: f'()ster and Panners)
n1o n1ent-resisting co nnectio n is achieved by a welded end-plate 'vilh

fow· or n1ore bo lts. 'Ihe thickness of the end plate depends on the
n1on1ent to be transferred (see Section 5.7).
6.6.2 &pressed pi1111ed co1111ectiom
Connections using true 'pins' provide much scope for rhe literal
interpretation of a rotat ionally flexible conneetio n ben\•een
n1en1bers in a 'pin-jointed' assembly. Pins are usually 1nade fron1
two or three co n1ponents. A cen tral pin co nnects l\\IO ends or heads
by passing through a hole in the co nnecting plates. ·rhe pin can be
n1ade fro n1 n1i Id o r stain less steel, and is generall y sn1 001h
inrerna ll y and threaded at its ends. If it is n1ade fro 1n stain l e.~ steel,
neop rene \Yashers 1nust be inserted 10 prevent bin1etallic corrosion
taking plare \Yith any anarhed mUd steel elen1ents. True pinned
ro nnertions are shown in Figure 6. 13 and Figure 6. 14 . Interesting
detai Is ca n be created using cast iron or cas t steel nodes in a pinned
co nnectio n.
6.13 Typical pinned conne('tion to a

foundation
6.14 Pinned connections at Po nds l'<1rge

Swi mming Pool, Shdlield - see also
Colour Plate 20 (ardlilen: FaulknerBmwns)
6. 7 Welded tube to tube connections
'The fom1 of welded connections benveen tubu lar meinbers depends

on the:
• sbape and relative size of th e n1erubei·s to the connections (a) X joints

• angle of interseaion of the n1embers
• number of members to be conn ected at one location .
Son1e fabricators are specialists in tubular consu·uction and ca n

advise on costs and derails at the planning stage. Additional aspects,
such as the need for the grinding of \velds and any special connection (b) T and Y joinls
details should be identified a1 this stage.
In terms o f fabrication cost. a Janice gi rder using CHSs wo uld
require about 30 to 45 hours' 'vork per to nne, a nd a si1n ilar lattice
girder of triangular cross-section 'vould req uire about 70 hours' work
per tonne. When using larger CHS, fab ri cators with specialist
profiling equipmen t cau 111ake the connectioos bel\vee n the chords (c) N and K joints wilh gap
and \veb n1e1nbers efficieutJy. 111e alternative 111ay be to use SHS
sections, which only require cutting the ends of the d1ord meinbers
at the correct angle railier than profiling the cut ends.
6. 7. 1 Typical tuelded connection configurations (c) N and K joints wilh Olll!tlap
6.15 C.onneaion designations in welded

Welded connections whid1 are standard throughout the iudustry are
1u hula r cons1 ruai o n
known as X joints, Tandjor Yjoints, N and/or Kjoints, with or without
overlaps, as iUustrated in Figure 6.15. 'I11e precise form of these
connect ions depends on tJ1e size and shape of tJ1e n1einbers. Gaps or
overlaps between tJ1e bracing or incon1ing n1en1bers ca n be deta iled,
and influence 1he load c.apacity of the co nnerrion (see Sectio n 6.8).
6. 7.2 Co1111ectio11s bet1uee11 square or rectangular sect.ions

Welded connections nlay be fonned relatively easily benveen tJ1e rnds
of one metnber and tJ1e flat \vaJJ of a larger SHS or RHS section. 111e
structural engineer should d1eck the local capacity due to distortion
of the wall of the n1ain n1eJ.nber or cbord \vhen sectio n sizes differ
considerably and high forces are to be transferred. It should be noted
mat the resistance of the connection \Viii be dependent on tJ1e size of
me men1bers ramer than me strength of the weld.
The connectiou desigu should therefore be carried out at an early
stage to avoid costly and potentially unsightly d1anges at a later stage
in me design process. Welds 1nay be forn1ed by fillet welds externally,
or by partial penetration \Velds to the prepared ends of the incon1ing
section. The second detail is n1ore attractive visua lly. Welds 111ay be
ground down '"'here visually in1portanl.
Bracing mei11bers are generally aligned so that tJ1e crntre-li nes o f
me bracing 111embers meet at the centre-line of the 1na in chord in
orde.r to n1inin1ise secondary bend ing effects in these nlembers.
1he mini111um angle of intersection ofS HS or RHS niembei·s for
welding is 30° lo me axis of tJ1e nlain n1en1bei:, altJ1ough, in practice,
these co nnectio ns should be 1nade at an angle dose to 45°, so that

access for weld ing is less difficulL
6.7.3 Connections between circular sections
Welded connections bet'A•een CHS require carefuJ cutting and

preparation to fonn the correct profile at the end of the incoming
n1en1ber. Profiling should a lso take account of the location and siz.e
of other intersection 1ne1nbers. Severely overlappi ng n1en1ber-
connectio ns increases the d ifficu lty o f profiling and "'elding. 111e
n1inin1un1 angle of in tersectio n o f CHS members for " 'elding is 20°
to the ax is of the main 111ember. Advice should be sought regarding
vveld ing of differen t sizes of n1en1bers at shallo'" angles.
·111ree-d i1n ensional v1elded nodes can be ext.reinely con1plex, as
see n in offsho re constructio n. "these nodes may be prefabricated, and
the cho rd and bracing 1neinbers are welded to the prefabricated
nodes. It 1nay be economic to co nsider the use of prefabricated cast
steel nodes where the repeti tion of details ca n be ad1ieved.
6.8 Connections in trusses and lattice construction

6.8.1 'Iivo-dimensional trusses
·rubular sectio ns are commonly used in long-span uusses for reasons

of aesthetics and structural efficiency. Generally, CHS men1bers are
used for both the d1ords a nd bracing me.mbers, and a typical 'A•elded
co nnection is illustrated in Figure 6.16. However, the top and bono111
chords 111ay use RHS rather than CHS n1en1bers in order to facilitate
G.16 Weld~d <o nncctio n o f C llS bracing

n>embers to Cl IS <.hord
Co1111~c1im1s bellttei'n n1bulnr secrions 99
•
the co nnection \Vith the roof or floor slab and other cross-1nernbers
(an exaiuple of this type of detail is shO\\'ll in Figw·e 6.16).
Lattice uusses have rraditionally been designed as p in-jointed
assemblies in \vhid1 the meiubers are in tension or co n1pression and
the forces between them are transferred at the connectio ns. It is usual
practice to arrange the connections so that the centre-lines of the
bracing members (branches) intersect on the centre-line of the main Gap jont nod~
n1en1ber (d1ords ), as sho\vn in Figure 6.17. 111is is known as 'nodi ng'. 6.17 Illustration of the alignment of
Whilst ' nod.ing' is comn1on practice, for ease of £1brication it is centre-lines oftuhular members in a
son1etimes required to provide a sn1all degree of eccentricity of the welded connection
nodes (as illustrated in Figure 6.18). A node with negative
eccentricity 1nay be ard1itecrurally n1ore interesting, a lthough a node
with a to ta l ow.rl ap is less so. 111e structura l engineer or steel
fabricator \viii advise o n specific detai ls.
Other con nections bet,veen the ele n1ents o f a truss can be made
in various 'vays. Figure 6.19 sho,vs various forms of right-a ng le
co nnectio n at the end of the truss. Figure 6.20 shows co nnections o f
the indined bradng n1en1bers to the bouon1 d1ord). An exainple of
the above detaiJ is sho,vn in Figure 6.21
Simpler connections in shoner span u·usses ca n be made by
bolted connections using gusset plates \veJded to the main 1nember (a) Gap joint wah positive eccenllx:ity
or dlord. A simple detail in \vhid1 the CHS braci ng meinbers have
flattened ends is shov.'ll in Figure 6.22. A 1nore ard1itecturaJ exruuple
of a bolted splice connection \vid1 a curved gusset-plate is illustrated
in Figure 6.23.
1
- --rr,------------
'
(b) Partial overlap with negatiile eccentricity
'
/ I
Endeape..,Sls '
ac:hl8"1>g
roaidily I
ofj:)inl '
I
'
I
(a) Overshooting righl-ange connection
(c) Total overlap ioint with negatiile eccentricity

6.18 Bxamples of noding with modest
eccen trid ty
(b) Fklsh rigtt-aigte connection
Plate
lnlll plelos l"ovide

oreaIor cepacl1y
for IOad transl&
(c) Rush rigl1-a~le connection wfth infiU plate 6.19 Right-angle connections hetween tuhular memhers
6.20 Incl ined connections in a lnttice truss ,

,/
,/
,/
,/
/
(a) Mitred e<>rner
This arrunganonl
p19leaed by mmy
labri:abls as i is
emlec ono more
ooonomlcal to labn::ale
' ,
·--~;'-·-·-·-·-·-
(b) Over shOotlng bottom member

(Kor N connection)
"· "·
'
'
"-
"- -- ·- -- -- -- - ·
(c) RHS cranked chOrd connection -

with vertical bracing member
6.21 example of welded Cl IS connection

in a truss
·-·---·-·-.,A.·-·-·-·-·- -
G.22 Cusst'l ·plate connection 6.23 Archilec1ural use ofa bolted guss.!1-plate conrn!ction in a lattice truss for
a railway bridge
6.8.2 Connections in n1ulti-planar trusses
lhlsses can also be designed in uiangular cross-section along their

lengm, as sho'm in Figures 6.24 and 4.42. ll1ese triangular section
trusses have se~l advantages over plane trusses, because of:
• the increased stability offered by the l\'lin cornpression chords

- they are frequently used as exposed structures witl1 long
spans
• the sin1plifica1ion of bracing requiren1ents in roof structures, in
which in-plane forces have to be transferred alo ng tl1e roof
• their abi lity 10 resist torsional effects from incoming beams or
trusses.
ln this fonn of construction, there are various possibilit ies for the
alignment of th e cl1ord and bracing n1en1bers, as shovvn in Figure
6.25. Overlaps of the intersecting bracings from bot11 planes may
occur where the chords are stualler in dian1eter t11an 1.4 x bracing
menJber dian1eter. ]his may OCCUJ in an offset connection as shown
in Figure 6.25( c). Where many members con1e toget11er at one node,
this is kno'm as a 'multi-planar' connection.
Two alternative bracing arrangeiuents in u·iangular lattice trusses
are illustrated in Figure 6.25. ll1e configuration in Figure 6.26(a)
requires mo re complex ,.,,e]ding of t11e nodes at me bottom d1ord.
1he sin1pler connea.ion detail in Figure 6.26(b) facilitates welding by
arranging for a greater syn1n1etry in the bracing arrangen1ei11. For
6.24 Tria ngular uuss in C'ross-section

RHS bottom chold

(a) Gap
(a) A relatively complex member requiring precise

_i Offset cutting, welding and grinding of lhe JolntS (see Colour Plate 23)
t
(b) Offset
--+-
•
(C) CM!rlapped diagonals (b) Simplified connection detail
6.25 Connectio n iypes used in triangular section trusses 6.26 Alternative bradng pauems for rrian~lar la nice
girders
RHS chords, it n1ay be necessary to increase th e ' vall thickness to

provide more resistance to forces transferred fro 1n the bracing
members.
6.8.3 Reinforcerrient of con11ectio11s
!::Or maxin1un1 resistance of tbe members, it is usually more efficient

to select larger tubular sections with thin walls. Ho\\•ever, \Vhen
designing the connections, it is n1ore advantageous to use chord
n1en1bers that are thicker and smaller in seaion (provided that they
are not sn1aller than the bracing n1embers ). Therefore, a comprontlse
is necessary for overall design and fabrication efficiency.
In some cases, connections may have to be strengthened locally to
resist d1e applied forces, if it is not possible to increase the men1ber
size or thickness. This can be achieved by welding plates to me chord
face (see Figure 6.27(a)). It should also be noted 1.hat overlaps \viii
also increase the co nnection resistance, especially for RHS n1en1bers.
When a third niember is required at the intersectio n, a 'T' piece can
also be used (see Figure 6.27(b )).
Other non-standard stiffened Kco nnections can be used to increase
the load capacity of the connection, as illustrated in Figure 6.28.
For 111uhiple-bracing connections, the intersections can be Ll1oved
back fron1 die node point. This can be achieved by introducing a
6.27 {a) Adding plate to chord section:

and (b) adding a T-plate lO facilitate
connection
____• >L_• __ __ .,,
(a) (b)
6.28 Additional sciffening places 10

creac~ non -standard K conna:iions
shon length of C HS, o r by employing hollov.• spheres. Spheres have

the advantage of the same rut at the end of the men1ber, connecting
the member's end regardless of the intersection angle. However, the
source of this type of node is lin1ited.
Saddle reinforcement can be used to locally increase the chord
thickness and local co1upression resistance, as illustrated in Figure 6.29.
At the headquaners of Royal Life in Peterborough, one o f the
feawres is a glazed-screen elevation sv1eeping in a curve fro m o ne (3)
block to another. 111e fu<;ade 'vas located 700 n1rn away frorn the
primary strucrure, and it required its ov1n suppon strucwre. The
designers increased the stiffness of the secti on by 1velding four pairs
of longitudinal steel fins, 'vhid1, in curn, n1atch the meta l fins of the
cladding (see Figure 6.30).
(b)
6 .29 Reinforcement to tubular seccions

AI 10 increase !heir local resistance 10 forces
,, I fron1 1he bracing membets: {a) saddle
reinforcement; and (b) flange pla1e
reinforcement
6.30 l~oyal Ufe UK headquaners - s1eel tubular column with

four pairs of fins (archilect: Arup Associates)
6.8.4 Corrrrectioris in Viere11dee/ tmsses
VierendeeJ u·usses comprise members conneaed at right angles and

resist shear loads primarily by bending in the members. In this '"ay,
bradng men1bers are el in1inated but the chords are much heavier
because they resist bending as well as axial forces. Vierendeel trusses
en1ploy only rigid or full-n1oment conneaions, unlike triangulated
trusses in '"hid1 the connections are designed as pinned SHS or RHS
sections are generally used in VierendeeJ crusses, rather than CHS
sections, because of their bener bending resista nee.
Vierendeel trusses are relatively inefficient at resi.Sting high shear-
forces because of the lack of diagonal bracing a nd, therefore, it is
necessary to use th icker o r larger chord members than in criangulated
crusses. Ideally, the d1ord and vertical members should be the san1e
externa l size. If not, stiffening eleinents are generally inserted to
increase the local bending resistance of Lhe conneaions. Figure 6.31
shows various ways in 1Yhich no ininally pinned con nections can be
su·engthened in VierendeeJ trusses. Visually, son1 e of these details are
not preferred, except whe.n the trusses or these conneaions are
bidden. An exan1ple of a 'hybrid' welded and bolled conneaion
between Rl-iS sections is shown in Figure 6.32.
6.9 Beam to column connections in tubular

construction
TI1e configuration of beam to colrnnn conneaions depends on the
cype and size of meinbers to be joined. Three generic cypes of
connection exist:
II
II
II
(a) Unreinforced (b) Spliced
6.Jt 'IYJ>es ofViercndeel connections

bc1wet!t1 SllS/ IU IS membcrs (c) Bracing plate stiffeners (d) Chord plale sdffener
6.32 ' I lyl>rid' wclded and bolled

con ncnion
• RHS bea1ns to I-section colu.Ll1ns

• I-section bea1ns to CHS or SHS colun1ns
• RHS beaLns to CHS or SHS colw11ns.
Beams and columns are usually connected on site by bolt ing. In

the case of an RHS bean1 connection to an I-section column, a
\velded e.'Cleuded end-plate to the RHS bean1 peimits the use of a
conventional bolted connection to the colun1n flange or \veb (see
Figure 6.33). The bolts may be countersunk into the th ick rnd-plate
if the connection is i1nponan t visually.
In th e case of bolted connecrions to SH Sor RHS columns, special
forn1s of bolts are required, \Vhich can be located fro1n one side.
'Flowdril( and ' Hollo-Boll' are l\vo particular fon11s of bolt suitable for
use with SHS or ru.is seaions (see Section 6.10). Alternatively,
brackets o r fins can be \velded to the RHS column to provide direct
bolted connections.
A nun1ber of typical sin1ple connections using cleats welded to an
RHS column are sho\\fll in figures 6.34 to 6.36. Pigw·e 6.34(a) shows
a fLn plate welded to the face of the colu111u. 111e supporting bracket
in Figure 6.34(b) can be detailed to be visually interesting. Figure
6.35 shows the use of channels \velded at the tips of thefr flanges to
~ !' ~-------·--·--·---~
· - · - · - - - ---
.I . ·= --- ----=- =======
-
Plan
J
r
·-
I
-
•
- ·-r
•
lo--· - · - · - · - · - .
1-
•
-
6.33 \,onncrtion of IU IS beam to
. 1-s<'(lion column
88Y81Jon
-ti :
+''"'' ''
....
F=====~·
:
(a)
'
'. (b)
6.34 Conve mio nal d eatS we lded 10 an

RII S column
(8) (b)
6.35 (',sections wdded to an RI IS

rolumn IO facilitate the use of a
bolted conn~clion
pern1it access for bolting on site. Figure 6.36(a) sho\"5 the use of
\velded threaded studs, but these must be proteaecl during transit to
prevent damage. f igure 6.36(b) shows an 1-seaion \vith a partial
depth end-p late co nnection supported by a shear block "''eldecl to d1e
I column. 'TI1e weldecl b lock must be sufficiently thick to allo\v for all
• site tole.ranees. Also, d1e single boltecl conneaion nlay not be
'•
. I
' II
:' I• ''111. ~ ,,,. acceptable fo r 'robustness' requirements in muJti-storeybuildings.

' • . i;igu re 6.37 shows o cher typ ical co nnections of an RHS bean1 co an
" I•I
I RI IS ro luinn. For lighdy loaded connecrions, the T-section sho,,rn in
' '
I• '''
''' Figure 6.37(a) may be replaced with a fin plate. Where through
' ' bolting is used (as in Figure 6.37(b) and 6.37(c)), spacer cubes
I
I
I I' '
• • ' (b)
(II
' .) '
6.JG Studs o r seating plate and cleat

welded 10 an RI IS ro lumn
-911 I ~-.--- ~---.-1

I
I
'' '
'' I '
I
I
I
----------
'
-11-
I
I
i ' +t -·---
..J
I
I
---------
'' ' ''
(•)
I I •
I
-*f*f!9\:::: Spacer
:-3 ·3
lube
6.37 Details o f RI IS beams connoocd io (b) (C)

Rl IS rolumns
II
II
II
II
II
II
..!,;l'i"" I I
II
II
(3) (h) 6.38 rruss tu RI IS column (Onnen ions:

(a) no end posi; and (h) \'l!nical end post
i1nprove th e local bending resistance of the wa ll of the incorn ing

section.
For tbe co11nection of tubular trusses to RHS colu mns, typ ical
bolted details are sho\'tn in Figw·e 6.38. High shea r-forces may
require the use of n1ore bolts than sbo\vn. TI1e sharing of load
between the upper and lo\ver chords in the connection depe nds on
the presence of a vertical bracing men1ber at the end of the truss. In
the detail of Figure 6.38(a), the upper connection w ill resist al l of the
applied shear-force. In Figure 6.38(b ), the upper and lo\ver parts of
the connections may be assumed to resist equal shea r-force.
Whilst the above details may not be the nl ost visually app ropriate
for exposed applications, they illu.~rrare d1e general principles of
sup pon co nditio ns ro trusses using tubular sections of all types.
A good e.imruple o f a sin1ple and elega nt dera il of a connection
between a CHS colurnn and an 1-secrion roof bearn is shown in
Figure 6.39.
6.39 Details from Ball-llastwny I louse

(archite<"t: Glen /\1urrutt)
6.40 Flowdrill bolt 6.41 lllus1ra1ion of 1he siages of forn1ing a nd making a Flowdrill connection
using a fully 1hreaded bolt
6.10 Special bol ted connection s to SHS and RH S
6.10.1 FJowdrill co rrrrectiorrs
The 'Flowdrill' method of bolting may be used '"here an

ard1itecturally 'clean' connection to an RHS member is required.
Flowdrill is a fonn of connection that does not require access fron1
both sides of the connection. It is a thennal drilling process that makes
a bole through the v1all of a bollov; section without the ren1oval of the
n1etal normally associated v.'ith drilling. The hole is then threaded in a
second operation. The threaded hole will then accept a fully threaded
bolt (see Figures 6.40 and 6.41). At present, the application of the
Flowdrill process is li n1ited to steel thickne.'>.~es up to 12.5 nin1. I! i~
n1ainly used for connecti.ng end plates of beams to RHS connections.
Plowdrill requ ires 1he use of a high-speed dri.11, as the nom1al dri.11
speed is not sufficient. Because of this, the RHS section 1nay have 10
be taken out of the main production line, which adds both cost and
ti111e. ·n1ere.fo re, Flowdrill co nnectio ns tend to be used for specialist
appliratio ns. Further informa1ion can be obtained froo1 Coru s, lubes
26
& Pipes, and gu idance o n ronnection design is given in Joints in
Sitnple Construction .'
6.10.2 I-lollo-Bolt co11rrections
Lind apter has recently developed tbe 'Hollo-Bolt, '"hich is anotl1er

type of bolt used to connect hollow sections to other men1bers, and
1vhere tl1e connection is accessible from o ne side oaJy.
111e Hollo-Bolt features three pans (supplied pre-assen1bled) - a
body, cone and central setscre\\T. The entire product is inserted
through both tl1e fixture and steelwork. and the ceni:ral set scre1v is
tightened vvh ilst gripping me collar. As the set scre1v tightens, the
cone is drawn in co tl1e body, spreading the legs and forn1ing a secure
fixing. ·111e Hollo-Bolt principle is illustrated in Figure 6.42.
The prinripal advantages o f Hollo-Bolt co nnec tio ns are:
• there is no need for welding

• it is quick and sim ple to insta ll
Location flats fl~""""'Tl.,_- Hexagonal head
Fixture
RHS
Cone knurling
1'1-- Central bolt
6.42 Hollo-Bolr connection
• it is fully tested in both censile and shea r app licatio ns

• no special tools are necessa1y, it c,an be insca lled using C\'10
spanners
• there is no need to provide dose tolerance holes
• access is needed fron1 o ne side onl y
• it is available in n1ild steel or stainless steel
• it can be used \Vich a Lhreaded rod or a central bolt
• no PD'"er is required on site.
The principal disadvantage of this connection is that the bolt hole

is considerably larger than in nonnal bolted conn ections
(approximately 1.7 times the bolt dian1eter), whid1 may affect the
local resistance of the \val! of the RH$ when subject to bendi ng or
tension forces. Furthenuore. it~ capacity in shear and te nsion is low
5
compared co normal grade 8.8 bolcs. Also. the bolt cannot be
undo ne afcer ic is tightened because of the e>.µa nsio n of the rear of
the cone.
6.10.3 f-1 ucll 'blind' fasteners
'Ih e Huck Born Blind fastening systen1 uses fasteners betwee n 3/16"
(4 .8 mm) and 3/4• ( 19 1nn1) dian1eter, 1'1hich ca n be co nnected fro1u
one side only.
Resis tances in shear and tension con1pare favourably with other
kinds of connection, and the appearance is n1ore attractive. 'lhe main
disadvantage is that the fastener cannot be undo ne, and the
connection appears to be n1ore like a riveted tha n a bolted
connection.
Chapter 7
Tension structures
'le nsio n srruaures refer to suspended or 'tent-type' structures in

which the ' ties', i.e. 1nen1bers designed to ca ny tension, are 1najor
elements in the overalJ struaure. Tension structu res differ from
conventional framed-structures in two in1portant respects: the
structural concept is explicit in the architecture, and the detailing of
the connection between the tension and con1pressio n clements can
be more complex_ 'The design of a tension structure requires careful
thought about load paths, stabilicy, flexibiJity of the system, cladding
interfaces and foundation design.
In most framed buildings, the building itself defines the forn1 of
the struaure to a large extent: colw11ns, walls, bea1ns and slabs are
arranged and sized to suit the application using basic ru les \'l'h id1 are
dictated by the plan forn1 and structural efficiency. Ho,'l'ever, in a
tension structure tJ1ere is more freedon1 in the choice of the forn1 of
the srruaure, '"'hich is n1oslly external co the building envelope.
Tensio n structures include various fon11s of suspended structures and
cable-stayed roofs. Figures 2.9 to 2.11 and Figures 7.1 to 7 .10
illustrate so1ne well-kno1"11 exan1ples of these types of strunure.
·rension structures a re 01ost con1n1onJy used in long-span roof
structures, but they can be en1ployed in a wide va riety of
applications, induding canopies, glazed fac;:ades, and even staircases.
7. 1 Tension-tie suu<"tUre used to suppon

a m.:mbrnne roof at thl?Srhlumherg.:r
Rcs.>arch Centre, \.a mh ridge (archi1ect:
Michael llopkins & l'ann.:rs)
11ie principal advantages of tension structures are:
• diey are a siniple aod efficient structural form

• dieir ability to create long-span enclosures
• diey can be erected relatively easily
• dieir ability to accommodate flexible cladding materials or
nienibraoes
• diey have discrete supports, leading to concenrrated foundation
forces.
Tiieir disadvantages are partly related also to these advantages:
• heavy foundatio n forces both in co mpressio n (under the masts)

and in tension (at the tie ho lding down poin1s)
• additional space is required around 1he structure for the holding
down arrangetnent
• die structural elements o r ties often perforate th e enclosure.
Tiie supporting co1npn:ssion menibers in tension structures are

coninionly tubular sections. TI1e attachment of the ties at the top of
d1e masts is in1portant srructurally and architecturally. Often these
con1pression men1bers or masts are designed to resist n1ultiple
attad1 n1ents to t ies along their length.
Tension elements can be readily introduced into other forms of
construction, wh ich are not stricdy 'tent-type' enclosures. 111ese are:
• ard1 structures, v; idi ties at meir base or at intermediate locations

• portal frames, with ties at o r close to eaves le~ (see Figure 3.12)
• die botton1 diord of roof trusses, which is subjea to tension
(and also to co mpression due to wind uplift)
• tension elemenis in bracing systen1s .
7. 1 Design opportunities fo r tension structures
11ie clea r d istinction betv;een tension, co mpression and bending

elements help to create structures wi th iouinsic visual interest.
Tension structures can be very light visually since the sizes of d1e
individual components are n1ioimised.
111e tension elements used in the primary structure are almost
ah\•ays external to d1e building and are 'expressed' visually. This is bod1
fron1 a desire to emphasise the structure, and also because it \vould be
difficu lt to provide die depth or height required for d1e tension
structure 'vithout an excessive increase in the building volun1e.
Fu rd1erniore, an external strucru.re reduces the visual bulk of me
building by minin1 ising me dad vo lun1e, and reduces the apparen1
bulk by breaking up the e.'l.1 ernal surfaces. lo audiio ria, and sports
stad ia, tensio n strucru res lead to less visual obstruction for spectators.
Tensio n S!J'L!Ctures prese nt a Strong in1age mat is appropriate for
so me projects and preferred by son1e clients, whilst al a sn1all scal e. the
e.Jen1e nts and detai ls whidl fo rm a tension structure provide ioleresl
and enrich die des ign. 111e aesthetics of me detailing of d1e tension
Te11sio11 sm1rrure; 11 3
systen1, and the principle of suspension and tensio n, can provide. a

n1otifwhich helps drive the 'vbole. de.sign. ·111e. 1972 Mun ich Olympic
Stadium by Frei Ono is a dassic early exa111ple. of d1 is principle.
If a building is to be extended later, a largely external structure can
be designed to reduce the disruption at the interface by tnaking it
possible to make the structural connections wid1out perforating the
enclosure.
Tension components are equally used in secondary structures,
such as glass fayides, \vhere their lightness. delicacy and refinen1e nt
of detail e1nphasise. the transparency of the glass (see Chapter 9).
Si.milarly, atriu1n roofs, stairr.ases and footbridges are other exa n1p les
in whid1 a tension structure can be approp1iate.
'!he reduction in con1ponent sizes ca n also help in transponation
and ereaion. ·!hey can also be use.ful if heavy point loads are to be sup-
poned, as they may be connected to the suspension structure at desig-
nated points \vithout penalising diev.•hole structu re. In die Fleetguard
project, for example, die entrance bridge, stairs and roof-top 1ned1a n-
ical plant are all suspended fron1 d1e prin1ary structure (Figure 7.2).
A tension structure n1ay also provide a solutio n to proble1ns
related to particular site conditions. 1l1e Oxfo rd Ice Rink is built on
poor ground \Vim a very lov>' bearing capacity. The tnasts
concentrated loads at nvo points and relieved loads else,vhere, 1vhich
meant that expensive piled foundations 1ve.re required in only two
places (see Figure 7.3 ).
"The tension structure of the Lord's Mound Stand is a response to
the particular problem imposed by the site \vid1 the existing seating
and roadway, and the need to 1ninin1ise die obstruction to the
spectators' view (see Colour Plate 25).
As noted earlier, a disadvantage. of tension structures is often the
need to provide heavy holding do'vn positio ns at foundation level,
and to protea th e tension r.able.~ against va nda lisn1, access, fire and
corrosion. Penetrations thro ugh the external envelope should also be
adequately weatherproofed (refer to Chapter 10).
•• • •
• 'I •
•
7.2 Flc~tguard, Quimper. in \vhich h<'nvy loads were 7.3 Oxford l('e Rink with discre1e foundation suppons
supponed by the primary structure (architect: Richard Rogers (archite,t: Nicholas Grimshaw & ranncrs)
rannersh ip)
7.2 Different form s of tension attachments
ln tensio n structures, the forn1 and con1plexity of the attadm1rnts

depends on the forces transferred, and the number, size and
orientatio n of the individual ties. It is important to a(hieve a smooth
transfer of tension force fro n1 the tie rods or cables into the
supporting rne1nbers, whim n1ay necessitate the use of relatively
large connecting plates and other con1ponents, and '"hidl 1uay
dictate the detaili ng o f the anachmen t~.
111e different 'generic' forn1s of t ie attad11nents are:
• head detail at n1asts or colun1ns by:

direct anad1 ment
'sadd le' support
• intermediate attadlmen t to masts or columns
• foundatio n atl<Kh tnen ts
• attachment 10 cantilevered bea1ns
• intermediate tie attad1n1ents
• attad1rnent of column bases
• cross . .over ties.
Son1e general approad1es to de tailing of these forms of attadlmen t

are presented in Figures 7 .4 to 7 .9.
7.4 f'orks at column head, rte~guard,

Quimper (arrhitect: Rirhard llogers
Partnership)
Te11sio11 sm1rrure; 11 S
75 Intermediate anachment to column in the Re nauh 7.6 ·1~rision member attached to fubricated bas~ I lanover
Parts Distribution C'.£ntre (architect Foster and Paruiers) Trade 1lall (architect: 'lhomas I lerzog)
7.7 'l'~nsion anchors to cantilever beams

at Sainsbury's supennark~. Camden,
London (architect: Nicholas Crimshaw &
i>aruiers)
-----
7.8 Fabrirat.-d fo1k detail at Igus factory,

Cologne (architl't"I: Nicholas Grimshaw &
Partners)
Te11sio11 sm1rrure; 117
7.!J Column base auachmem for

1ension rods a1 sporis s1adiu m,
Cologne (archilec1: Verena
Dieirich)
7.3 Fabric supported structures
Tension me1ubE'fs are often used to support fab ric niembranes as

tent-type enclosures. ll1e suuctural solutions are designed to
emphasise the 'lightness' of d1e form. 111e Sdllumberger Researdi
Cenu e, Cambridge (see Figure 7.1) and d1e Mound Stand at Lord's
cricket ground (see Colour Plate 25) den1onsuate d1e elegant use of
tension suuaures to support flexible roof n1en1branes. 111e sa me
approam was used at a mud1 larger scale in the Greenv; idl
Millenniun1 Dotue (see Figure 1.3).
7.4 Adjustments
'!he assembly of the con1ponents in tension structures is reJaLiveJy

stra igh tfo n"3rd, and is a function of the disa·ete elements and thcir
pinned joints. Ho\vever, unlike conventional bolted suuctures, so1ne
forn1 of adjusttuent n1ust be provided in tensile structures to allow
for assembly and movement, and to ensure that d1e enclosure is at
me correct level and position. The adj ustn1ent systen1 n1ay also be
used to control the distribution of forces \vid1in the systen1. It is v.>ise
to have as few adjusunent points as possible so d1at the co mplexity
of the operation is minimised.
7.5 Tie rod or cable connections

lwo basic types o f c.onnecti on 1nay be used in tension strucrures
using tie rods or cables: those 1vhich co nnect t ie rod o r cab les to earn
other, and mose 1vhid1 connect to the main suuccural elements.
Generally, bom mese fornis of connect ion require a method of
adjustment 10 prevent sag in the n1en1ber and/o r to induce a
specified tension.
Highly stressed wire rope >j Tl¥eaded co\4)1er
Splayed-rut wires
-- -- --
- r--
-- -
-- -- -- -- --
- '----
Section through end
cast steel S<ldcet
sod<et wire rope I< Medium stress socket >I
I<Lo- stress i't coupler >I
7. 10 Splaying ouc of wire rope 7.11 Threaded coupling for wire rope socJcw
It is necessa ry, therefore, to provide an end derail to the cable or

ti e rod to wh ich various fittings may be connected. ·n1is seclion
reviews various fonns of end details (terminations) and fittings
wh id1 allow a range of conneclions to be made. Many of these
conneclions use stainless steel cotnponen ts.
7.5.1 Cable termir1ations
Wire cables and ropes can resist very high-tensile forces but their
ends cannot be threaded or welded. For low-tensile forces or for
cen1porary connections, the cables can be damped For higher censile
forces, a number of methods are available, the most comn1on of
wh ich are the socket tern1 ination and the swaged (or pressed)
tern1 ination.
In a socket termination, the individual wires are spread into a
conical-shaped steel casting (see Figure 7.10) and are and1ored using
zinc or resin. 'lh e casting ca n then be attached to any pa.rticular fiuing
o r linking device by means of a threaded coupler (see Figure 7. 11 ).
A S\"aged terminatio n is usually provided by the n1anufacturer
and details of various S\"3ged tern1inations (with associated linkages)
are reviev.•ed in Section 7.5.6.
7.5.2 Tension bars
In tie bars or rods, the connections are formed by threading the bars.
Welding is not appropriate as the bars are usually made from high-
tensile steel. For the highest strength bars, the thread is not cut but is
rolled onto the bar so that no cross-seclional area is losr_ Left- and
right-handed tJ1reads are fonned onto the ends to enable coupli ngs
to be n1ade, as shown in f igu re 7.12. In tension rods, it is in1ponan1
7.12 Thr~adoo co upling fo r bars

7. 13 'l)'pir.il roupling hetwcen stainless

st~el hars
ard1i tecturaUy, as well as structurally, to be ab le to reduce any 'sag' in

the rod, othen<Vise not only \Vill the member not be ful ly effective in
tension, but architecturally it \Vil] appear 'weak'.
The co upler is often provided 1¥ith a flattened po rtion to assist in
turning without damaging the surface. Figure 7 .13 shows an exa mp le
of a coupler in a large staialess steel bar used in the Helsinki Sanomat
build ing. In this case, the thread has been cut into the bar.
7.5 .3 Fork connections
A fork detail is an effective 1vay of connecting t1vo o r nio re ties to

single node points. Various forks are described in the following
sections. It is generally easier 10 attach the fork 10 the rod o r cable
rather than the 1nain niember in order to si1npli fy the fab ricatio n.
'!he fork end can be sin1ply connected via a p in ont o a shaped
steel-plate 1vhid1 is fixed to the supporting n1en1ber o r a ndlor block.
'Ihe fork end is a pinned rather than a bolted connectio n, whim
per111its quick and sit.nple site assembly. llie provision of a pin

connection allows rota tio n and elin1inates any induced bending
stress in the tie. Some adjustme.nt is provided within the fork end to
allo'" for construction tolerance and to take up any sag. Fork ends
can be supplied with left- or right-hand threads, as required. It is
recon1n1ended that locking devices are used on fittings \¥ith
opposite-ha nded threaded ends.
Forks are generally supplied fully threaded for maxim um
adjustn1ent. Special caps can be provided to blank off th e ends.
Alternatively, the rod may be passed through and secured \\Tith a nut,
but this results in a bulkier detail.
7.5. 4 Pirrrred co nnection
A conventiona l pinned detail of a bar to a pla te is illustrated in Figure
.0
7.1 4. ·111ese co nnectio ns ca n be designed to eniphasise the 'pin' forn1
'' by using flatter coupling and larger 'pins'.
-------<.nnnn-f'rt- - ~ :
ltlllllttlH I I Corrosion p rotection of the corrnection may be achieved by over-
L - - - - - J J.LIJ.llUUU __ "'
'' '.
I
'
paiDting the connectio n, by sealing it, or by using stainless steel pins.
'I11e latter o nly solves the proble.m of corrosion of the pin and
neglects the plate and fork. 'Jliere may also be a problem of
b in1etallic corrosion between steel and stainless steel, although dlis
7.14 Pinned joint connection for tie har
can be overcon1e by the use of isolating washers and bushes.
A good detail is to provide a recess at the junaion ben¥een the
fork and plate wh ich ca n be pointed with an elastomeric sealant (see
Figure 7.15 ). 'Jhe ends o f the pin should be sealed in the san1e '"ay.
111is detail ca n easily be provided in both casting.5 and steel plates.
7.15 Sealam applied herween fork and

plate at the Renault l'an.s DiSlrihution
Cent re, Swindon (arrhitect: f'Oster and
ranners)
Te11sio11 sm1rrure; 12 1
7.5.5 Other for1ns of end atUl.clirne11t
Various forms of proprietary end auad1ments to cables and bars are

reviewed belo\v.
-$-- --·
Spade et1ds
The function of the spade end is similar to that of the fork end. Spade
rods can be used to connect cables or tendo ns into forks, or to
--F -~;- - ~ --)]--
direaly connea to a plate fixed ro the str ucture. TI1ey can also be 7.16 Spade end
used in the conneaions of nvin cable ties, in o rder to mini1nise the
bar size (see Figure 7. 16).
Couplers
Co uplers allo\v 1wo bars 10 be sin1ply joined toge1her withou1 any
reduaio n o f 1hei r load c<1paci1y. 'l11e end 1hreads are both righ1-
handed so !hat o ne bar niay be connected 10 another in li ne.
Couplers \\Tith left-hand and righ1-hand th reads are ava ilab le as
specials (see Figure 7.12).
Tumbucldes
A t urnbuckle provides a full strength connection between two rods
\vitb the additional provision of up to 50 rum adjusun ent .
-t:~:- ----- - ~-=1-
---,
---~----------------
e•••
Turnbuckles are manufactured \vith left- and right-hand threads (see 7. 17 Turnbuckle
Figure 7.17), and are tightened v;hilst keeping the two rods in
position.
Pin sets
. '
•
Pi n sets allow 1.he transfer of load fron1 a fork or spade end to a node I•
joint. A variery o f pin rypes are avai lable, \vhi ch range fro n1 a high- I
quality fully 1nad1ined pin and cover, through 10 a high-strength •
'
1nad1ined bar and cirdips (see Figure 7 .18). 7. 18 l'in sl!I
Locll covers
Lod< covers complement all 1be ron1ponents listed above and
provide an aesthetically pleasing locking device vvhid1 also protects
and hides exposed threads (see Figure 7.19). . -·'-
Specials 7.19 Lock cover
Special components and systems can be produced for specific
projects in varying forms and to suit particular functions. Figure 7 .20
shows a tie ring used to connea a nun1ber of ties and to transfer the
tension forces amongst then1.
For further reading on the design of tens io n structures refer to
Chapter 20 Tensile structures' of An:liicecture and Const111ction in
'7
Sceel."
7.5.G Proprielllry bar and cable liniling details

7.20 Bespoke tie-ring connection
A number of 1nanufacturers produce cables 1viih S\vaged (pressed)
ends and \vith galvanized or stainless steel fittings. A typ ical
Cl c£t swaged terminati o n with an adjustable fork-end is illustrated in

Figu re 7 .21.
7.21 Swaged cahle-end $1vaged fork-ends provide a slim and effective wcy of teralinatiag
a cable and bars, and provide a sia1ple pin coaneaioa. ·n1e cable is
aad1ored into the back of the fork using the swaging process,
providing a neat and strong end. 1be fork end is sitnply connected by
1vay of a devis p in onto a profiled plate fixed to the struaural
nien1ber, or to an and1or block (see Figure 7 .22 ).
7 .22 Fork end Alternatively, threaded fork ends are used to te.rn1iaate bar
tendo ns. T11e bars are co nneaed into the forks by a fine-n1adlined
scre1v th read.
Adjustab le fork-ends have a fine- machin ed thread for
anachn1en1 to bars. ·n1ese forks allow adjus1n1ent for construccion
tolera nces, o r pre-loading of the tendon . ·ni e use o f adjustable forks
7.23 Adjustable fork-end
n1ea ns that there is no need to use a separate tensio ning device (see
Figu re 7.23) .
Toggle fo rks ca n be used on cables, rods and bars, and provide
effective connections 1vith two planes of freedo1n, 1niai111ising any
bending stress induced by the ro tation of the tendon (see Figure
7.24 ).
7.24 Toggle fork Studs may be s1vaged o nto cables and rods. 1be threaded end of
the stud is screwed into matdlillg spigots welded to the supporting
n1en1ber, or screwed into adjustable forks, allo1viag full adjustment
or pre-loading (see Figure 7 .25).
Cl TI1e standard single-point tensioner can be S\vaged to cables or
7.25 'lhl\!aded end to permit adjustmem rods. 'This achieves easier tensioning on site than adjustable forks, as
adj ustn1ent or pre-loading is performed fron1 a single point o nly (see
Figure 7.26).
Single-point cornpact tensioners can be used on cables, rods or
bars. ·n1ey pennit sin1p le tensio ning on si te and are far more corn pact
in length than th e sta ndard tensio ner, but Still allov,1 similar
7 .26 Swaged tensio ner
ad justn1ent (see Figure 7.27).
A variety of accessories is available whim allo1vs connection of
n1ultiple tend ons. Rings ca n be supplied which allo1v the connection
of pairs of ties for use as X-bracing. \,,ompleme11ting don1e nuts are
used to fix the ends of ties withi n the ring (see Figure 7.28).
7.27 Compact tensioner Sin1ple Delta plates tnay be used for corraectioas of three
tendons with fo rk-end fittmgs (see Figure 7.29). Similarly, rapid
links al101v quick and easy connection of single or multiple
tendons, although they may seen1 relatively bulky in appearance
(see Figure 7 .30).
0
7.28 Rings allo1ving multiple
connections of ties for brndng systems
0 0
7.2!> Delrn plates for muh ipl~ 7 .30 Rapid link

ronn~ctions of tendons with fork-t?nd
11uings
StaiaJess steel eye bolls are used as general-purpose fixing devices

to u1asoruy, reinforced coacrete or steehvork (see Figw·e 7.31).
lsolatioa sleeves aad \vashers should be used to prevent coatact
betweea dissimilar metals, tJ1us reducing die possibility of bi-
a1etallic corrosiou.
Examples of the use of mese cable-linkiag systems are preseated
7.31 Eye hoh
ia Figures 7.32 to 7.34. Figure 7.32 shows the use of a coupling
device ia aa X-braced connection, also using a welded cruciform
detai.L Figure 7.33 sho\vs a teasioa-coupling systen1 for a sta ia less
steel bar. Figure 7 .34 shO\VS th e systen1 used in the Millennium
Don1e for the anach1neat of the heavy duty t ie-n1en1bers to th e
foundations.
7.32 Coupler device used for an X-

hraced connection
7.33 Tension-coupling s~tem for

stainless stecl bar
7.34 Tension<oupling sr.;tem for cables

at the Millennium Dome. Lo ndon
(archit~t: Richa1d RogeIS Pannership)
7.5. 7 Multiple-cable corrrrect·ioris
Multiple-cable co nnecting devices can be quite complex, as sbo,vn in

Figure 7.35 '"'hid1 uses a cylindrical node. Another example of
intern1ediate attad1me.nts betwee.n multiple cables is illustrated in
Figure 7.36. At Chur Station, S\vitzerland, all the roof cables '"ere
connected at one co1nplex node, as illustrated in Figure 7.37.
7 35 ~luhiple<able conneaing device
736 lntamedia1e anac:hments

10 columns, &.hlumberger.
C..ambridge (architen: Michael
f-lopkins and Partners)
7.37 C.omplex node used at Chur S1a1ion,

Switurland (architect: Arup Associates)
7.6 Tensio n structures u sing tubular members
Tubular meinbers are weU adapted for use as the supporting or

supported members in tension structures because:
• they possess good con1pressive resistance as tnasts, etc.

• they are more slrnder than other sections for the sa nle load
resistance
• the end details can be designed for cable attad1ments or saddles
• pinned or articulated end-details can be made, e.g. attachments
ro the foundations
• in so me cases, the tubular n1en1bers nlay also act as the tensile
clements (panicularly \vhere load reversa l 1nay cause the sa 1n e
elen1en ts to be loaded in con1pressio n)
• tubular nle1nbers possess good to rsi o na l properties and ca n
resist to rsional effeas 'vhe.11 curved o n plan or in elevation
• cable attad1ments n1ay be n1ad e along the length of th e
members (with suitable local reinforcement).
Tubular members are often used in external and 'expressed'

structures. This is both from a desire to celebrate dle structure, and
because they provide the slenderness required \Vid1out an excessive
increase in the structural complexity.
Built in the early 1980s, t11e lnn1os factoty in Newport provided
one of me fust and \\•ell-kno\vn exan1ples of the use of tubular steel
trusses and masts in tension-tie structtUes. 111e \v ing-like' trusses are
supported from me central spine of d1e building to create long-span
flexible space internally. Figure 7.38 shows the form of dle building
7.38 lnmos Pactory. Newport (arrhitett Richa.rd Rogers Partnership)

7.39 Tubular arch used 10 s uppon a cahle srruaure in the I long Kong Aviary
(archi1e<>1: Hong Kong Archiux:iurnl Office)
7.40 Local tie detail in Figure 7.39
7.41 Cantilt.'Vered anns of the Renauh

Parts Distribution C'A?ntre (archit.:ct l'ost"r
nnd t'artners)
and the multiple ties that \\•ere used. ·111e Sd1lun1berger bullding in
C,an1bridge demonstrated the use of tubular n1asts to support the
fabric roof. as sho\vn in Figure 7. I.
Tub ular structures can be designed to support cab le-formed roofs
by multiple atta(hmenr points. lnclined tubular arches are
particularly successful, as indicated by tbe Hong Kong Aviary shown
in Figure 7.39. The local decal! of the attachment of die stainless steel
cables is shown in Figure 7.40.
l h e cantilevered arms of th e n1asts in the Renaulr Pa rts
Distribu tion Centre are tapered and perforated to accentuate their
lightness whllst serving to cransfer con1pression forces to die rubular
n1asts (Figure 7.41 ).
Chapter 8
Space frames
One of the most common forms of structural system employing

smaller tubular seaioos is the 'space grid' or 'space frame'. wh ich are
tbree-di1neosiooal structural forn1s 111ade using standa rd components
and nodes.
1he generic term 'space frame' is often used to describe two
struaural types: space trusses, with inclined 'web' elements, and
space frames, comprising three-di1uensional n1odula r un its. They
both rely primarily upon full triangulation of the su·ucture, provided
the primary loads are applied directly at the node joints.
Most 'space grids' are based on d1e n1anufacture and assembly of
standard e.Je.me.nts and pre-formed node joint conneaio ns wh ich ca n
be easily transponed and erected rapidly. Gene.ra ll y, tubu lar
(normally circular hollo"' sections (CHSs)) sectio ns are preferred for
use in space frames be.cause of their good compressive and local
bending resistance. ·111e elen1ents are bohed toged1er o n site. A recent
example of a space grid developed on a series o f polygo nal shapes is
shown in Colour Plate 5.
8.1 Advantages and disadvantages of space grids

The.re are 1nany benefits to be gained fron1 d1e use of space grid
structures, so1ne of \vhic-h are. outlined below:
• loads are distributed more evenly to die supports

• defleaions are reduced compared to t\vo-din1ens ional structures
of equivalent span, siz.e and loading
• the open nature of the structure allovvs easy installation of
rnecllanical and e.le.ctrical services and a ir-handli ng ducts wid1.in
the structural depth
• fixing details are gready sin1plified - secondary rnembers can
be auached at the nodes and secondary elen1ents such as purl ins
niay not be required
• me Structural indeterminacy of space grids 1nea ns that, in
general, failure of one ele111ent does not lead 10 overa ll fa ilure.of
the structure
• modular space grids are usually fanory niade (d1us p roducing
accurate components), and are easily transpon ab le and simp le
to assemble on site
• because of their modular nature, they 1nay be extended \Vithout

difficulty and even dismantled and re-ereaed else.\vhere
• considerable freedotn in space planning is achieved, although
approxilnately square bays are preferable structurally, because
they act like a t\\'O-dimensional griJJage
• space fra1nes can be assembled at giound level and Lifted into
place
• for ease of construction, most space grids have a regular giid
pattern \vhidi may be exploi ted architecturally - particularly
striking effects ca n be ach ieved if the colour d1osen for die
suu cture co ntrasts wid1 dle colour of the dadding.
Space grids are no t appropriate for all roofing applications and

their disadva ntages may be sun1marised as follows:
• space grids ca n be more expensive than alternative structural

systems, particularly when space grids are used for short spans
(up to 20 m) or 1vhere there is no benefit of two-\vay spanning
action
• die geo metry is fixed, wh ich can be a problem in irregularly
shaped buildings
• visually, space grid structures appear vt!I}' 'busy'; at son1e viewing
angles die light"•eight struaure can appear to be very duttered
- grid size, depd1 and configuration can have considerable
influence on dle perceived density of the srruaure
• die number and comple."tity of the nodes can increase erection
tin1es on site - this is obviously very dependent on the system
that is used and the grid module chosen
• \vhen space grids are used to suppon Doors, some fom1 of fire
protection rnay be required - this is more expensive to achi eve
econo 111ically because of the large number of relatively sn1all-
sized components.
8.2 Commo n fo rms of space grids
Jn space grid su·uctures. 1vhere two plane giids are separated by

inclined n1enibers, die top and botton1 grids do not necessarily have
to have di e same pattern or orientation.
Tiie common forms of double-layer grids are:
• square on square - where the top grid is directly above die

bottom grid and t11e \veb members connea the layers in dle
plane of die grid lines (see Figure8.l(a))
• square o n square of(~et - where the bottom grid is offset by
half a grid square relat ive to the upper grid, \vith \veb n1en1bers
co nnecting die intersection points on the top and bonom grid~
(see Figure8.l(b))
• square o n d iagona l squa re - where the 101ver giid is se.1 at 45°
10 the li nes of support and is usually larger than the top giid
and, aga in, wid1 web 111e.rnbers conneaing the interseaion
points on the top and bottom grids (see Figure 8.l(c)). An
Spncl' frame$ 13 1
l-'
""~
1',
I ', r,
I<', ~,
I , I'
,(-
1' !('
I;~ '
I ,
',
I,._ <'
'
11
j 2''
,,, x:•
.... , "''
, , ,""....
' , J(•
,,
y- -L - --'- 1 _ -L_ ~
(a) Squa1& on sq.me (b) Square on square offset
' ,
f:
I ,
~
' ,
"" ) \,
' ;I. >-'
"'
I' , '
r: '-<.. >: - - - - T o p chord members
I ,
f, ,' ,( x ' ,
J<
- - - - - - - - · Web bracing members
- - - - · Bottom chord members
I(' y y '
' , ' , '
\ /"-, 1"-, IJ( 11\ I
'-L ~/- .M -'~ d
le) Squ818 on <iagcnal
(d) Trbngle on lrangle offsel (e) Triangle on hexagon 8. t Different forms of double·l~yer grids
al ternative version of this grid is d iagonal on squa re where t he

upper grid is at 45 • to tl1e lines of support and the lower grid is
parallel to the supports
• triangle on triangle offset - where both grids are triangular but
the lower grid intersections occur belov; the cenu·o ids of
al ternate triangles in tbe upper grid, ' " ith '"eb members
connecting the intersection points on the top and bouom grids
(see Figure 8.l(d))
• triangle on hexagon - '"here the upper grid is triangular and
the lower, more open, grid is hexagonal due to the ren1oval o f
some joints and \\leb elen.1enL~ from the grid type described in
the bullet poinr above (see Figw·e 8.l(e)).
lhe cho ice o f grid configuration and depth wi ll affect th e

econo my o f the space grid, as the node joints are usua lly the most
expensive con1ponenLS. ·n1ere.fore the n1ore node points in a given
plan area, the higl1 er the cost is likely to be. lncseasing the grid-
1nodule size reduces the nuo1ber of nodes for a give.n p lan area, but
the.re 1uay be adverse consequences, as follows:
• the depth between the two grids rnay have to be increased to

acco n1n1odate the bracing 1nen1bers at a sensible angle of 30 to
40°
• \¥hen the longer rnembers are subject to corupressive forces,
they will al most certainly be larger in cross-section for buckling
reasons and, consequently, are heavier and more costly.
8.3 Support locations
·111e cho ice of the n1ost adva ntageous suppon local.ions will, of
course, depe nd on the pla n forn1 o f the srructure. Depending o n the
grid configuratio n, it is possible to suppo n eith er top or botron1
node jo ints. Alternative support positions for a square plan, square
o n square o ffset-grid roof structure, suppo ned at th e upper node
joints, are shown in Figure 8.2(a)- (d).
'I11e provisio n o f continuo us edge suppon, as in FigUJe 8.2(a ), is a
n1ore eco nomical tnethod of suppon for the space grid tl1an just
corner supports, as in Pigure 8.2(b ). This is because the maximum
forces in the space frame and its deflectio ns are less \¥hen tl1e
(a) Full edge (b)Comer only
(c) Corner+ mid-edge (d) PMH!dge only
/ I" /
/ I'
/
" I"\
'
" ....
" /
I/
"
(e) Random supports
8.2 l'ypkal suppon locations for span::

frames (I) Inverted pyramid column supports (g) Top pyramid cot.am ~ns
Spacl' frame$ 133
supports are continuous. lnterniediate supports along eadi edge, as

in Figure 8.2(d), may also produce an efficient support systeni. ln
this case. some of the bottotu-layer n1embers \viii be in co1npression
and so1ue of the top layer \vi!J be in tension. To reduce deflections
still further, the suppons can be brought in slightly from the edges of
the space frame to produce a cantilever portion around the whole
struaure. This can be useful ard1itecturally as it allows the
opportunity to have apparently colunin-free elevations.
An alternative mediod is to use 'tree' supports instead of
individual columns. Co1unionly, diis is adiieved by inverting a grid
niodule (e.g. a pyraniid) a1 eadi support location, as die grid is then
supported o n several nodes at each colunin location, \Vh ich reduces
the forces in th e bracing menibers al the supports. Irregular plan-
forms can be created using 111odern analys is techniques, although the
fabrication costs \viii be higher if niore irregular me1nber lengths and
sizes are required.
8.4 Span:depth ratios
lt is difficult to generalise about overaJJ span:depth ratios for space

grid struaures as they depend on the niethod of support, type of
loading and, to a large extent, on the systeni being considered.
28
Makowski suggests that span:depdi ratios should be reduced to
approxima1ely 20 when the suppons are only at, or near, die corners
of the grid. Span 1ables produced by Space Deck I.Id indicate tha1 for
typical loadings, roof span:depdi ratios of about 30 are possible
using s1andard 1nodules when square on plan. For exaniple, a square
roof supported o n all four sides can span up to 40 rn based o n a
niodule 1ha1 is only 1200 nini deep.
8.5 Commercially available systems
Although all types of space fratue are not covered in diis publication,
the n1aio systems currently available in the UK are described below.
8.5.1 Nodus
1he Nodus system (originally developed by Corus and now O\Vned

by Space Decks), uses cast steel connectors for the Nodus joints,
whim are bun-\velded to the d1ord or bracing menibers in jigs to
ensure diniensional accuracy. Oi ord nien1bers are clamped together
between 1he halves of the nod e casings using high-strength friction
grip bol1s, and the bracing nieiiibers are joined to lugs on the node
plate by steel pins through the forked-end connectors. 1he node
configuration, and the pinned connections of the bracing men1bers,
permits variation of the depth of the space fran1e. 'l11e nodes are only
produced in t\YO fornis. Lugs for the co nnection of bracing n1einbers
are ei1her in line wi1h the diord n1en1bers or, ahernatively, at 45° 10
83 Canopy ac Tenninal 2, Manchesier

Airpon
the d1o rds wheo viewed in plan. This li1ni1S the possible grid
configurations to variatio ns of the square on square. or square oo
diago nal layouts.
An exa mple of the use of Nod us is in the roof of Tenninal 2 at
Mand1ester Airport (see Figure 8.3).
8.5 .2 Space decks
111is systen1 originally developed in Australia coosiSIS of pyramidal

units constructed fron1 a square frame of steel angles conoocted by
circular steel tube braci ng 1nernbers to a casr steel boss. All elen1eo1S
of the pyramids are welded together in a jig to ensure din1ensional
accuracy. ·r11e boss at the base of the pyran1ids has l\vo threaded holes
in one horizo ntal d irectio n and two threaded s1uds in the other to
receive co nnecting steel tie-bars.
Assemb ly is ad1 ieved by bolti ng the angle fran1es of the pyramids
together and theil connecting the cast steel bosses with tie bars. 'lne
tie bars have left-ha nded threads al ooe eod and right-handed
Spacl' fra me$ 135
8.4 Benmlls Cemre, KingSton-upon·

Thames (architect: BOP)
threads at th e other, as do tbe holes and studs on ead1 side of the cast
bosses. Rotation of the tie-bar scre\vs the bar into the boss at ead1
end simultaneously. By varying the length of the tie bars, the node
spacing can be altered to produce a one- or two-\vay camber in the
space frame. An exan1ple of this forn1 of constructio n is at the
Bentalls Centre. Kingstoo-upon-111an1es (see Figure 8.4).
8.5.3 MERO
The MERO system is an elegant concept in wh id1 the ci rcular tube

men1bers connect to ball' joint~ at the nodes by a single co ncealed
bolt 111e naine MERO derives fron1 an abbreviation o f the original
nan1e Mengeringhausen Ro hrbau\\•eise.
lhe circular steel sections have tapered cone sectio ns we lded to
ead1 end (con1plete \\Tith connection bo lt and sleeve), and the nodes
are ho t-forged solid steel or drop-forged alu minium spheres with
drilled and tapped holes \Vhich are profiled to receive the tube ends.
"Ihe detail of a MERO KK ball is sho\vn in Figure 8.5 . 8.5 M l!RO KK ball
111e Natio nal Indoo r Arena for Spon at Birminghan1 has a triple-
layer MERO space truss roof of 90 m x 12 8 m plan, and varies in
depth from 8 m to 10 n1.
111e MERO syste111 " 'as also used for the Eden projea in Cornwall,
in \-vhid1 hexagonal 'cells' '"ere created and joined together to fonn a
large spherical surface (Figure 8.6).
A recently completed theatre complex in Singapore created a shell-
like structure '"here solar shading was included in the space fran1e
networks around tl1e periphery of the building (Figure 8.7).
In 111iniature, tl1e MERO systen1 is also used fo r shop di.splays and
exhibition stands.
8.6 MURO s pare-fram e n ode used in

the &!en Proj~ct. Cornwall (architect
Nich olas Grimshaw & J)armers)
8 .7 11-l ero space frame inc1~rporat ing

solar shading ,used in the Esplanade
'J11 .:.11r~ Complex. Singapore (archi t~Cl:
Michael V/llford & Panners and DP
Arch itects Pte Lid)
Spacl' frame$ 137
8.5.4 SPACEgrid
SPACEgrid is a space truss niodular system v.rh id1 was developed

from the UNIBAT system. To refer to SPACEgrid as a syste1u is
perhaps a misnomer as there is no standard n1odule o r jo int. 111e
most economical grid is seleaed according to the plan din1ensions
and loading, and the joints are designed to suit the grid layout and
men1ber seaions used
8.5.5 CUBIC space fra11ie
"lne CUBIC space frame is a niodular sys1en1 in \vhid1 an orthogonal

grid is formed fro1n Vierendeel girders in both directio ns, a nd joints
are introduced in th e 1op and bono111 chords n1 idway between each
d1ord intersection. ·n1e grid can be constructed of modu les 'X', 'T' or
'L' shaped in plan. ·111ese are the basic n1odules of the CUBIC space
frame systen1 \vhich uses both tubular and open sections.
In 1988, the roof of a n1aintenance hangar for Boeing 747 aircraft
at Stansted Airport \vas constructed fron1 the systen1. 1he 1uodu les
\Vere 4 m deep and tbe space frame covered a dia n1ond shaped plan
of 98 m x 170 Ill On the major axes, \Vithout internal supports. CTI1e
CUBIC space fratue is no longer available.)
8.5 .6 Arched triangular lattice grid
One system \vhich, up to nO\V, has ren1ained at the co ncept stage is

an arched uiangular Jani ce grid proposed in the co1npetiti on
winning design for the athletic stadiun1 in Fra nkfurt, by Foster and
Partners (see Figure 8.8). ·n1e arch roof shape was d1osen and the
supporting fran1e,vork \\lllS conceived as a u·iangular p lan grid that
offset the longer route of ard1ing forces with the provision of more
frequent-braced points. II 'vas n1anufaaured as a se ries of identical
prefabricated units in the fom1 of individual 'diamond' shapes.
8.8 Competition winning stadium

design. rrankfurt (/\rrhitcct: Foster and
r>artners)
Chapter 9
Glazing interface
details
9 .1 Architecture
Since the technical and con1mercial developn1ent of large·sca le

glazing systems during the second half of the nineteenth century; the
notion of transparency has exerted a seductive hold on the
architectural imagination. Since dien, the increasing sophistication
of glass has presented ar<hitects v.rith ne''' and rid1er possib ilities.
·me positioning o f \Vindo\vs and glazing is not just a response to
me practical issues of providing light, external an d internal views,
and, \vhere possible, natural ventilation. ·n1e d1erapeutic quality
gained by the capturing and fran1ing of light are often the essential
ingredient which can transfon11 an od1erv1ise banal or sombre
space.
With a mo rough understanding of building physics, climatic
influences, location and control of glare, the benefits of large areas o f
glazing can be exploited \vid1out excessive solar gain during the
daytime or heat loss at night Often perceived as weighlless, the
attributes of a gla?.ed or translucent fabric roof ca n bring L11e interior
closer to th e sky and enhance an inter-relat ionship wil11 nature.
Modern atria v.rithin and bet\veen buildings use a wide range of glass-
supporting structures, indudjng curved and incl ined forms (see
Figure 9 .1 ).
1be introduction of glass also represents a contrast from d1e solid
elements of a building. Thus, me quality of an internal and eA'ternal
space is achieved by the manipulation of the key components \vb ich
can exert a po\\•erful influence on me quality of d1e space, an d the
way it is viewed externally, as in Figure 9 .2.
Steel can provide me essential suppon framework in a tni nimal
way mat does not detract fron1 d1e appearance or function of the
glazing. "!he pursuit of 1nore advanced glazing and solar control
systems has spa,vned the increased use of specialist steel products,
and has advanced the developn1en1 of intelligent bli nds, louvres,
grilles and panels.
At the Western Morning Ne\vs Headquarte rs in Plymouth, the
perimeter transparen t planar glass wa ll is ach ieved by the delicate
co nnec tion of the panes of glass to steel tusks via cast co nnecting
arn1s, interlinked by rod rigging (see Figure 9.3).
9. 1 Glazing a11achn1en1s to rul'\oed roof

beam (arrhitect: Jestko and \\lhiles)
9.2 Shcll structuntdad in glazing a11he Museum ofl'ruh. Yam a nashi, Japan (archit~ct: ltsuko flasegawa)
Glazing i111eiface derails 14 1
9.3 S loping glazing deiails at \.Vestern

Moml ng News, Plymouth (architect:
Nicholas Grimshaw & Panners)
9.2 Interfaces
"l11e interfacing of glazing v.rith other elen1ents of co nstructio n is an

in1portant considerati on, as ead1 niateria l co n1ponent will have its
own design, procureo1ent and dio1ensio nal attributes. Gu idance on
interfaces is given in the SCI publication Steel Supported Glazing
111
Syste111.s19 and in Scn1ctural Use of Glass. 111e direct attad11nent of the
glass panel to the support structure is often at d iscrete points rather
than being continuous along the edges in 111ore conventio nal glazed
panels.
Pilkington's 'planar glazing' systen1 uses special bolted attachments
whim provide a more uniform bearing pressure on the glass, thereby
increasing the local resistance to in-plane and out-of-plane forces.
1hese auadlments are not generally directly supported by the
prin1ary strucrure. but indirectly through a secondary element whid1
provides for so1ue articulation and adjusunent for tolerances.
Planar glazing is often con1bined 1vith articulated nodes wb idi
anach 1wo or four panels of glass at their corners. ·n1e planar glazing
system used a t Hea1.hro1v Airpon Visitor's Centre was attached to the
supporting steel sections by n1eans of stainless steel fixings, and
provided a fully glazed yet acoustically sea led co rridor alo ng the
runway side of lhe building (see Figure 9.4). 9.4 Support to glass wall nt the
'lhe detailing of lhe interfaces bet,veen the glazing and its support I lcathruw Airport Visitor's Centn>
structure is critical and should take into account: {architf.'Ct: &nnens /\ssociat.:s)
Glazing panel Soled

fixing
Glazlng support
attachment
95 Typical bolted anachment 10 glazing

SupP-Ort structure
showing the various comp onents
• appropriate construction and ma nufacturing ro lerances

• the nioven1ent of glazing panels and support scrucrure due LO
therma l effects and \vind o r o ther applied loadings
• the loads that arise due to the self weight of the systen1 and
externa l actions - the load transfer effects that niay occur \vhen
glazing panels are broken or ren1oved sho uld also be considered.
If niovement ca nnot be accotnn1odated, stresses are developed

that can result in the distortion of tuembers or, more likely, the
breakage of the glass panes. '!Oe local attachment details should
provide for the necessary adjustn1ent. The detail in Figure 9.5
ad1ieves th is by use of slotted boles and adjustable bolted
attad1n1ents to the supporting men1bers.
9.3 To lerances
Although glazing support systems are usually specialist elen1ents, the
interface with the steel supportin§ nien1b ers is criti cal in both
29
stru ctura l and ard1i1ectura l ternis. .J Furthennore. stricter tolerances
niay be requ ired fo r the prin1ary structure in o rder 10 satisfy the
requiremenrn of an elegant detail.
Glazing panels can be made to a high degree of accuracy, to
bet,vee n :1:2 mm for single glazing and :1:4.5 mm for double glazing.
\vbereas the supporting steelwo rk may at best be constructed to :1:5 mm
tolerance on the overall length.
As the lead-in t itne for son1e specialist glazing systetns is around
12 \vee.ks, there is little possibility of the glazing sub-contractor being
able to take site measurements, a.ad the tolerances a.ad erection
sequences have to be addressed at tbe design stage. The connection
detail must therefore aJJov1 for differences in the accuracy of tl1e
erected con1ponents.
Essentially, allowance for adjustment \vithin normal construction
tolerances, and for lacer movement and deflection, can be
accon1n1odated using slotted co nnectio ns. 'lbe.-;e can be designed in
such a way to allow for both horizo ntal and venical movement. ·n1e
actua l provision fo r nioven1en t around the bolt-holes \viii depend
upo n a nu rnber of factors, such as glass thickness, number of bolLS
and tl1e size o f the glazing panel. Specialist suppliers ca n advise on
tl1e permitted limits of deflection, depending upon th e size and
shape of glass panes as well as the overall area of glazing.
Glazing i111eiface derails 143
9.4 Support structures
Various exaLuples of support syste1ns to glazed \Vails are illustrated in

Figure 9.6. They can be fabricated fron1 a variety of I-section shapes,
but tubular members are generally preferred.
1be choice of system \vill depend on aesthetic considerations, as
well as cost and structural requiren1ent~. ln a large expanse of glazing.
architeas may prefer to minin1ise tbe bulk of support struaure to
enhance it~ degree of transparency. ·111e supporting steelwork 1nay be
combined with the use of rods or cables for tension n1embers, which
n1ay be spaced fron1 the con1pression n1en1bers by struts. In a trussed
system, the 1ensio ned cables provide resistance to bending by their
'push-pull' action \vilh the con1pression n1en1bers ('vhid1 is often a
tubular sea io n). (o)
9.4.1 '.ltusses
Trusses are one of the 1uost con1n1only used support systems,
particularly in long-span applications. 111ey are tern1ed 'wind trusses'
because their principal action is to resist \Vind loads. 1he generic
forms of wind trusses are illustrated in Figure 9.7. They may span
verticalJy and/or horizontally, and are generally installed at spacings
corresponding to the \vidth of the glazing panels. "The spacing of the
wind trusses may be increased by introducing cantilevered anns or (b)
other secondary members but, in this case, the flexibility of the anns
\viii increase the moven1ent of the glazing.
Lateral restrain! may often be provided by tension systen1s using
wires or rods. Turnbuckles or sin1ilar devices ca n be incorpo rated to
provide length adjusunen1, and can be used to pu ll the trusses or fins
into correa aligntnent (see belo,v).
·'
,
D
(<)
D
D
D
{d)
, ,,
9.7 Wind-truss suppon sr.;tcms:
Laltice Viwendeal Bowstring Tapered
{a) horizontal ,vind truss; (b) longer span
truss truss w~h strut wind post
wind truss; (r) cantik'Versuppons; and
9.G Types of suppon systems for large glazing panels (d) wrti cal truss
9 .4.2 Tension systerns
Support systems ca n be constructed almost entirely fron1 tension

elen1ents, where required, such as rods or wires. Linking systen1s have
inherent adjustment to allO\¥ for co nstruction tolerances. Pinned
co nnections allO\¥ the ties to be quickly and simply installed \vitb the
added benefit of allowing rotational movement to minimise any
induced bending of the ties. A variety of components, often in
stainless steel, are used in rod rigging and cable trusses, as sho\vn in
Figure 9.8 . £xamples of tension structures used as sec.onda1y
elen1ents include the glass \¥alls a t the Banque Populaire in Rennes,
show n in Figure 9.9, and at the University o f Bremen, sl10\¥11 in
Figure 9.10.
HO\¥ever, the boundary supporting strueture for tension systen1s
can be heavier than in other systems, as the high-tension loads have
to be transferred to sti ff supports at both ends of the cables o r rods.
'T11e boundaiy st ructure ca n be in the form ofa ho rizontal or inclined
steel truss o r, alternatively, a direct connection 10 a fow1dation.
Cable systen1s rnay also be used with o ther forms of a1tad1n1ent.
9.8 Tension-coupling system used to 1l1e covered courtyard of the His tory Musewn in Hainburg 1¥as
supp on a fully glazed wal I conceived as a lightweight structure co nsisting of cables and flat-plate
connections, 1vhich directly supponed the glazing panels, as sho1vn
in Figures 9. 11 and 9. 12.
9.9 Double skin gla2ed fa<;ade used at

the Banque Populaire. Rennes. fraoce
(architea: Odile Decq and Benoit C'.ornete)
9.10 Tension structure to supptJn

glazing at the llnhoersity of Bremen,
C'.ermany (architect: Jan Stormer)
...--·
\J
.
\
\-~
II••
1111
II II
II II
9. 11 Courtyard at I lamhurg City I listory Museum (archik'Cl: Vo n Cerka n Marg & ParUlers)
9. 12 Detail of glazing in Figure 9. 11
9.4.3 Support: a.ttachrrients
Although glazing can be attached directly 10 the suppon strunure. it

is n1ore con1111on lo use separate components. called glazing support
attad1a1ents, that forn1 an interface to aJJow easier adjustn1en1 in
position, and vvh id1 are less reliant on the accuracy of setting out of
the 111ain structure. Glazing support anachme.nts are n orrnaJJy
located at the node points of trusses. Glazing panels can be attad1ed
to one side of lattice and Vie.rendeel trusses, or occasionally 011 both
sides vvhere a twin-skin fac;:ade is required.
Glazing panels supported on bowstring trusses may e.itbe.r be
positioned to one side of the trUSs (in whim case. they are often
attad1ed to extended struts, as in Figure 9.6) or set \\Tithin the rruss
(in \\1hid1 case the system sho uld be. detailed co allo1\1 the truss
n1en1bers to pass through the plane of the glazing).
Glazing support attad1n1en ts n1ay take n1any fonns, but the n1ost
co n1111o n a re:
• angle brackets
• spiders
• pin brackets
• damping devices.
Glazing i111eiface derails 14 7
9.13 Glazing suppon attachments:

(a) attachment to tubular sections; and
(b) 'Spider' attachments
Setrated faces
for 110rtical
a~ustmenl
A~ustment
_..,. Adjustment
0 Shims
Shims
Adjustment
A~usunenl
c::> c::>
i
Adjustment
0 0 0 0
i t
"" "' Adjustment Hook for
anactment
ol gazilg
Welded angle brackelS Weldeddeat

and bohed angle brackets
(3) (h)
'rllese al ternative devices are illustrated in Figure 9.13. Si1n p le

attad1ments to tubuJarconneaions, as in Figure 9.13(a), are reJatively
stiff, whereas 'spider' auacbments, as in Figure 9.13 (b ), are more
flexible.
Casti ngs are often used for the connection nodes in 'p lana r glazing'
systems. l h ese castings can be steeJ or alun1in iun1, although stainJess
31
steel is ofte.n preferred. Stan dard castings are read ily available from
son1e suppliers, but bespoke fittings can add significantly to the lead-
in tin1es for these components.
9.5 Use of tubuJar members in glazi ng systems
Tubular sections are often used to provide support to large glazed

panels in walls and roofs. Guidance is given in the SCI pub lica tion
Sreel Supporred Glazing Sysceins. 29 Specific exa mp les related to the use
of tubes are induded in this section.
Tubular steel n1etnbers combine strurtural efficiency v1ith

elegance and, because of their section profile, they also help to
n1inirnise the apparent bulk of the structure. Trusses, posts or other
supporting steelwork may be con1bined wi th the use of rods or cables
as tension rnembers to enhance the architectural appeal, and to
create striking visual effects (see Figure 9 .14).
·n1e support attad1ments for the glazing are often bolted or
v.1elded a uad1ments to the tubular members, or scre\ved into pre-
forn1ed bolt ho les in the tubular n1embers. Attaci1ments can also be
da n1ped rather than bolted or welded to the tubes.
Examples of the different types of suuaural support systen1
en1p loying tubular n1en1bers are as follows:
9.14 Glazing to Creenocksponscemre

(architect: FaulknerBmwns)
9. IS l\Jhular mullion us.xi to suppon a

tall glaztrl wall (arc hitect: Rf.R)
9.16 Curved truss used to suppon the

roof of the Depanmem forTrade and
Industry building (architect: DEC\¥)
9.17 lndinoo 1russes1osuppon a

glazed wall
• niullions to suppon glazed '"alls - the example in Figure 9.15

shows the use of extended arms to support the tall glazed wa ll
• con1pression chords of cable-tensioned glazing systems, as in
Figure 9.6
• roof 1russes o f various cross-sectional forn1s (see Figure 9.16)
• trusses used as venical or inclined mullio ns (see Figure 9.17)
• curved 1nembers 10 support separate glazing support arms (see
Figure 9.18)
• curved trusses, '"ith 'faceted' glazing systems, as in 'vVaterloo
Internatio nal, sho,.,rn in Figure 9.19
• tubular la ttice w·itb direa auacl1n1ent at the node points.
9. 18 Curved glazing suppon arm used

al Prnnkfun /\irpon's IC statio n
Glazing i111eiface derails 1.51
9. 19 Glazing detail ar \"'31erloo

lmernar ional station (architect: Nich olas
Grimshaw & Panoers)
In the Leipzig Trade Fai.r, sho\vn in Colour Plate 6, d1e glass panels
are suspended fro 1n d1e n1ain steel rubular arches by cast steel arms
co nn eaed lO stai nl ess steel fingers. Adjustable sc rews al th e
co nnectio n accon1n1odate o ut-of-plane tolerances, wh ilst adjusti ng
plates acco1n1noda te in-plane toleranres.
At Waterloo International station, the glazing panels are supported
on stainless steel rods whid1 are attached by brackets directly to the
tubular steel members (see Figure 9.19).
A filigree of steel cables and sn1all plates can produce a very
delicate spider's \Veb-like structure ideal for a glazed roof (see Colour
Plate 11 ).
Chapter 10
Steelwork
penetrations of the
external envelope
An exposed structure is devised ei ther as a completely indepe ndent

structure supponing the ex:teroal skin and other elen1ents, sud1 as
canopies, or as an a'tensioa ofao internal pri111a1y suucture. In the
second case, there are instances 1vbeo it is necessa1y to penetrate the
cladding to make cooaectioas bet1veen the inter nal and external
members. Typical details are revie1ved in the follo"•ing section.
10. 1 Waterproofmg
A suspended roof almost inevitably necess itates penetratio n of the

waterproofing la~ of the building fabric. Ho1vever, a typ ical
industrial building 1vith a conventional interna l structure has a
aun1ber of penetrations for rain1.,rater outlets, srnoke vents, flues, etc.
lhus, it is a change in the 'size' of the penetration, rather than the
nature of a ne1v problen1. In practice, it is found that lea ks occur 1nost
often at rainwater outlets and parapets. In contrast, it is relatively
straightfon'\lllrd to design a 1'\lllterproofing deta il for a column or
hanger penetration.
la order to 1nake the detailing as sin1ple as possible, the pri1nary
structural connections of an external su·ucture should be located
outside the building envelope, and peneu·ations n1inlmised . Where
tie rods pass through the roof, it is difficult to dress the wate rproofing
around sum small members. ln this case, it is often necessary to
provide a shroud for the 1vaterproofing to tuck under, as shown in
Figure 10.L 10.l ~Vaterproofshroud used in roofing
10.2 Cold bridging
Some designers may be concerned that steel penetrations through

the building envelope may form a 'cold bridge' vvh ich ca n lead to
condensation, or in extren1e cases, 10 a risk of corrosion. 'Jhere is no
answer that is appropriate for all applications and the designer n1us1
assess the risks and consequences of the cold bridging. If the internal
atn1osphe.re is not very hwn id, and the exposed s teel 1ne1nber is no t
adj ace nt to materials likely 10 be dan1aged b y m o isture. then
experie nce has shov.•n that s teel u1en1bers passing tluo ugh the
envelope sho uld no t lead to p roblems o f cold b ridging.
If there is a major co ncern, an elemen t o f uace heating can be
introduced along the steel niember just inside o f the external skin,
Outside although th is is rarely used in praaice. Alternatively, the steel
n1en1ber can be joined at the po int of the dad ding co a nother section
Glazing \\T ith an insu lating compo nent placed between the C\"10 piece.s.
~/ However, th is ca n be very d ifficulc to reso lve elega ntly if both inside
and o utsid e co n1po ne nts a re exposed to full vie1"1. ·111e fo ll o1"1ing
exa n1p les ill ustrate d e ta ils tha t have been employed successfull y.
Figure 10.2 shows a sectio n through a n exiemal ' "'all o f the
Re nault Pa n s Distributio n Cen tre, which is ill ustrated in larger scale
in Figu re 1.2. ·rh e pe rfo ra ted venical rnembers su ppon both the
Inside cladding and glaz ing. At the e nds o f the glass pa nels, rubber gaskets
abut the steel sectio n a nd aa as a wea the rseal.
10.2 Steel rolumn extends outside the
pt!fi metttr wall, with the interior weal her
At the David Mel lo r Cutlery Factory, a s teel bracket \\las inserted in
protected by rubber gaskeis - Ren ault tl1e pla ne of the glass. "The b racke t conneas the internal roof struaure
building. Swindon (architect: Foster and \"1itl1 a so lid steel perimeter ring bar, as shown in Figure 10. 3.
Panners) Stud io Do v.•nie's Visitor's Centre in Sussex uses the inte.rplay o f
planes a·eated by so lid a nd transparent wa!Js to heighten a\\lareness
o f what is outs ide. Th e rn o dest sized steel-frame penetrates the glass
skin, \"1h ich softe ns the edges bet\\leea inside and out, as sho1m in
Figure 10.4.
."'·..... .
'' ...... .
.'' '·:'. .....''.. ...
.' ......:.
'
...: :.
.• ..'
''
'' •' .•• .
'•' .
' '
'' •' .•
10.3 Deta il of steel brnckei connecting •' •' •' •
internal Stl'l!I strurturc 'Yith perimt.1er
" •' '
'• .
wall - David Mdlur Cutlery f.artory, "
I lathersage (arrhitert: Michad I lopkins
and Panllt!rs; rounesy of Alan Brookes
a nd Chris Grech)
Scee/work pe11e"ario11s of 1l1e exren111l e11velo~ 1.55
_J_
10.4 Tapered beams ff-sections)

peneirnri ng glazed envelope - I lat 11 ill
The steel rusks of me Western Mo rning News building are visiio(s cenue. Cood1\!0od, Sussex
supponed by steel beams \vhid1 penetrate the sloping glazed fac;ade. (architect: Snrdio Downie)
A steel plate surrounds the penecracion mrough the glazing, as
illus trated in Figure 10.5. ·n1e penetratio n is sealed by a rubber gas ket
glued 10 me Steel 1nen1ber.
l0.5 Steelwork petil'lrating the fao;ade of

the Western Morning News building.
l)lymouth (arrhitL'CI: Nicho las Crimshaw
& r•anners)
ll--{1•
10.G Dl'lail of roof bracket at Sainsbury's

supermarket, Camdt.'Jl, London (architect:
Ahrends Bunon & Koralek)
)
10.7 Arrhiteaure Enterprise Centre
Liverpool (architect: Ausiin-Smith : Lord)
10.8 St...:lwork peneuating cladding.

with allowance for moveinem. used nt
•• Stansted Airpon (architect: Foster and
Paruiers)
Scee/work pe11e"ario11s of 1l1e exren111l e11velo~ 1.57
10.9 Penetration through glazing nt

Cologne Airpon (ar(hi14'("1: ~·lurphy Jahn
Archic~CIS)
No t all penetrations are visible. Figure 10.6 ill ustrates the use of a
bracket detail ' " hid1 penetrates the roof of the Sainsbury's
supennarket to receive the tie-rod ends.
1be Enterprise Centre al the Liverpool John Moores University is
another example of '"here tubular uiei11bers are exposed o n both the
inside and the outside. Arranged on a diagonal grid, with inverted
tripod supports, they give the roof lateral stability witho ut the need
for heavy bracing. T he tubular beauis pass through the perinieter
dadcling and extend to suppon the '"ide overhanging eaves. 1he ends
of the beams are propped by inclined struts as an integral pan of the
delicate and elegant roof asseuibly {see Figure 10.7).
The designer should also consider the affect of movement of the
struaure as it passes through die fabric. Sufficirnt flexibility should
be included in die detail LO acconiniodate niovenient of die structu.re
and/or dadding. Figure 10.8 shov1s the deta iling o f the steeh-vork
whidi pmetrates the cladding and ho'-v struaura l niovement is
accom rnodated. Figure 10.9 illustrates this prindp le fo r a glazed
fac;ade at Cologn e Airpon.
Chapter 11
Technical
characteristics
of steel
Steel is a quality assured and di111ensiona ll y accurate product which

is available in a '"ide range of co111ponents (see Section 1.4) . T11e
foll0\'1ing seaions present son1e of the key ted1nical d1ara cteristics
and design standards for steel as a n1aterial, and in its prin1ary
components. The use of stainless steel and cast steel 111ay also be
co nsidered in expressive structures.
ll. l Specification for structural steels

Weldable structural steels are defined by British Standards BS EN 10
32 33
113, and BS EN 10 02S, '"hid1 are now the UK issues of European
standards fo r steel as a structural n1aterial. These standards rep lace BS
4360, in '"hich the n10St con1111011 grades were 43A and SOB,
referring 10 th e ulti1na1e tensile strength of the steel, i.e. 430 and SOO
2
N/mn1 respectively. A and B refer to the toughness characteristics of
the steel. which are relevant to the lin1it temperature at wh ich the
steel is used in service.
33
New designations S27S and S3SSJR to BS EN 10 025 replace
grades 43A and SO B respectively, and refer to th e rn ini1nu1n
2
guaran teed yield strength of the n1aterial in N/n1m • Apan fro1u the
change in designation, the properties of 5275 and Grade 43 steel are
the same. The yield strength of steel is approxin1ately 10010 of its
ultin1ate tensile strength. Design resistances are based o n the yield
strength of steel rather d1an its ultin1ate tensile strength.
34
For hot-rolled tubular sections, the ne'" standard is BS EN 10 210
and the most common grades are S275J2H and S355J2H, '"hich
replace the previous grades 430 and SOD respectively. J2H refers to
the to ughne.~s characteristic.
For cold-rol.led tulJular seaions, the new standard is BS EN 10
5
219/ '"hich designates steel in the sa1ne '"ay as for hot-ro lled
sections. Cold-ro lled sections should not be used as a d irect
substitute for ho t-rolled hollo'" sections and it is i111portant that the
standard is referred to in th e designation, i.e. BS EN 10 210 - S275
J2H, o r BS EN 10 219 - S275)2H.
For so-called \"e<1thering steels', the ne'" standard is BS EN 10
36
155 a nd the co1nn1on designations are S355JOWP and S355JOW,
replacing grades WRSOA and WR50B in the previous standard
Ted1nical inforn1ation on th e comparisons benveen the B and

BS EN standards is available frotu the Corus Advisory Service (see
Chapter 16 for contact details).
11.2 Design standards
·111e structural des ign of steel fran1es or assemblies in d1e UK is

covered by d1e various parts of BS 5950. This design standard applies
to the use of hot-ro Ued and cold-fom1ed sections in general building
co nstruction, in wh ich the n1aterials are designated as i.n Section
37
ll.1. BS 5950 Pan 1 is the principal code dealing with the design of
steelwork in framed struct ures.
UK des ign rodes will potentially be replaced by European (CEN)
sta ndards, although BS standards are likely to continue in use for
n1any years as d1ey are accepted by the Building Regulations. 111ese
European Standards exist curren tJ,r as 'pre-nonns' or ENVs.
3
Eurocode 3 (ENV 1993- 1-1) is th e releva1ll European design
standard \vh id1 covers the same application as BS 5950 Pan l.
Composite consu·uction, \vhid1 comprises steel fran1es and
39
concrete or con1posite floor slabs, is covered by BS 5950 Parts 3 and
40
4, and, in future, by Eurocode 4 (ENV 1994-1-1).
41
Fire-resistant design is covered by BS 5950 Pan 8 and, in future,
.tj 43
by ENV 1993-1-2 and ENV 1994-1-2. However, then11al
perfom1ance data of fire-protection materials is obtained fron1
standard ISO fire tests.
11 .3 Ma nufacturing methods for hot-ro lled steel

sectio ns
11.3. l Open sections

Hot-rolled steel 1-, H-, C- and L-sections (defined in Table I. I) are
produced by continuous rolling of raw steel slabs, in a process in
whid1 d1e steel is sufficiently hot and malleable so that it can be
forn1ed into shapes dictated by repeated passing through multiple
pairs of rolls. Fo r I- or H-sections, internal rolls define the internal
din1ensions of d1e section and the thickness of the \veb, \vhereas
external rolls control the required thickness of the flanges.
Ald1ough d1e rolling process is relatively simple in principle. the
nun1ber of passes through the rolls and the rates of cooling are
carefully controlled in order to achieve me correct dimensions and to
avoid lan1 ination problen1s, particu.larly for d1icker steel flanges.
11..3.2 Manufacturing rrietJ1ods fo r l1ollou1 sections
Tubu lar steel is the common term given 10 structural hollo1v sections
\Vith either a square, rectangular or circular cross-section (Lhe range
of din1ensions is given in Table l.3 ). ·1hese sections are avaiJable in a
Tecl111ical cl111 rac1erisrics of sreel 161
range of sizes, \veights and thicknesses. 1111po rtantly, the external

dimension is cons taut for the range of thicknesses in a given section
size. Section properties are given in Corus and SCI publicatio ns (see
Bibliography in Chapte.r 16).
The following description of ho\v these sections are rnade \vil l
help to unde.rstand ho\v they n1ay be used aesthetically. "!be two
principal methods of u1aking structural hollow sections are the
seamles.~ and the \velding methods. Both u1ethods use hot rolling to
forn1 their finished shape.
n .3.3 Searnless lw/10111 sections

So me seanlless tubes are pro du ced by extrusion, but the majority are
made by pierci ng the solid ingot or bar, v1hich is then elongated in a
rotary fo rge (called th e Pilger process). In the rota1y forge rn ethod,
circular o r tapered Outed ingots are reheated and are p ierced with a
n1andrel using a hydraulic press. 111e tube is then fo rmed by rolling
externally in a helical manne.r, reducing the thickness and outside
diameter to that of the finisbed tube. \vhilst the internal diameter
ren1ains unchanged .
"Ibe finished tube length is restricted by the '"eight of the ingoing
billet, and the numbe.r of passes required to reduce the final size is
restricted by the size of the billet. TI1e development of continuous
casting means that a greate.r range of billet dian1eter and weight can
be produced, which can reduce the couversion tiu1e and also allo'"
longe.r lengths to be produced.
A.fte.r rolling. d:te tube is cropped and d1en passed through a se.ries
of sizing rolls \vhid1 coutro l die outside dian1eter. vVhen co ntro lled
bore tubes are required, d1is operation is o n1ined since the bore of
the tube is the prin1e din1ension. Sean1l ess ho llow sectio ns can be
produced in ci rcular form in dian1eters up 10 500 mm and in
thicknesses up to 50 mm.
11.3.4 Welded lrol/oiv sections
\.Yelded hollow sections can be produced by a nun1ber of different

methods. ·Ibe most collll11on is kno,vn as the conversion med1od in
which ro w1d hollow sections are produced and then co nve.rted to the
required shape by re-rolling. 111e '"elding can be carried out by bun
or continuous \Velding. electric \veld, spiral weld, and subn1e.rged arc
welding.
A med:tod used less commonly in the UK, but more extensively in
the United States and Japan, is dle direct or brake press n1ed1od in
wh id1 the rectangular or square section is formed by bending the
parent plate a nd men \velded. Ho,..,,eve.r, d1ese sections a re visually
less acceptable.
Butt or conrin11ous 1veld process

In the bull o r continuo us ,..,,eJd process, wh ich is now seldo1n used,
hot-ro lled strip is heated aln1ost to '"eld ing temperature and bent
into a ho rseshoe shape fomJing a nearly closed tube. 'lhe strip edges
are men heated lo cally aud pressed together to tnake the ,....eld. 111e
hot tube then goes through sizing rolls whid1 reduce the outside
dia1ueter to within the specified to lerance. This 1uetbod is no\v only
used for sections of up to 48 mm diameter.
Electric iveld process

1he nlajority of hollow sections used in buildings in the UK are
produced by the electric weld (EW) method, which can produce
circular sections from 48 n1m diameter up to 508 mn1 dian1erer,
square sections from 40 nln1 up to 400 mm, and reaangular sea ions
fron1 50 x 30 n1n1 up to 500 x 300 mm. The thicknesses produced
depend on the size of the section, and range fro1n 2.5 m111 to 6.3 111n1
in the sn1a ll sizes up to 6.3 1nn1 to 16.0 n1m in the larger sizes.
In the EW process, the strip is progressively fo nn ed into a round,
nea rly dosed tube shape and then passes thro ugh a high-frequency
induction coil whid1 ra ises the strip edges to fusion te1nperature. ·n1e
edges are then pressed together, forming a weld without the use of
any filler (electrode) n1aterial. The round hollo' v is forn1ed to a
dian1eter wh id1 will create the finished section size (see Figure 11.l ).
After weld ing, the external weld flash or bead is reiuoved, but tJ1e
internal bead is norrnally left untrimmed. The weld bead is regularly
d1ecked for uniformity and integrity.
11. l Strip being fonncd and welded inlo

a tube
Tecl111ical cl111rac1erisrics of sreel 163
All shapes of hollo\v sections can be produced as hot-fin ished or

cold-formed seaions. Both processes use bot-fin ished strip as their
feed-stock, and are initially fonned into cold round sections a nd
then welded as described above. Cold-forn1 ed sections are then
finished in their 'cold' or non11al state into the desired shape. Hot-
finished seaions are heated and formed into a circular, square or
rectangular shape \vhilst in the norn1a lising te.n1pe.rature range. Hot-
finisbed a nd cold-forn1ed produas are different in their tnechanical
performance and each has its O\vn design code and product
standard.
Forn1ing the finished shape

A circular cube is the staning point for niaking a CHS. SHS o r RHS.
'111e ci rcular tube is first hea ted and then passed through a se ries o f
OOOD
rolls to produce the correct din1ens ions.
RHSs and SHSs are folTTled by passing the circu lar sectio ns
thro ugh a series of rolls whi ch change the pro fi le shape gradually
into the. required shape, as indicated in Figure 11.2. 11.2 ronning the finished shape ofa
square section
Stretch redt1ction
'The. standard 170 nll1l nominal dian1eter cubes produced by the EW
process can be. stretd1-reduced to produce other structura l hollo'''
section sizes up to the follo\ving nominal sizes:
• CHSs - 140 mm non1ina1 outside dian1eter

• SHSs - 100 1111n square
• RHSs - 120 x 80 111n1.
In all cases, th e maxi1uun1 thickness o f die section by th is process is

8 nlm. Stretch reduction is dle ni ain niethod o f producing sectio ns
up to these dimensions.
I-lot-finished versus co/d-fonned sections

Cold-fo rmed ho llo\v sections diiTe.r slightly in shape and form from
hot-finished hollo\v sections. 111e principaJ differences are:
• square or rectangularcold-fonnedsections have large.rand more

ro unded comer radii \vhid1 n.1ay give chem a less crisp
appearance than hot-finished sections
• the seam weld profile is often tuore pronounced in cold-formed
sections.
34
Hot-finished bollo\v seaions are supplied co BS EN 10 210. Cold-
5
forn1ed hollo\v sea.ions are supplied to BS ENV 10 219.J. 111e
structural properties of cold-forn1ed sections are less than the
equivalent ho c-finished sections of the sa n1e non1ina l din1ensio ns.
'111e.refore, direct subscicution of cold-forn1ed sect ions for hot-fin ished
sections sho uld not be carried out \vithout careful d1ecking. It is also
in1po nan t that die correct specification is niade at the design stage.
Subn1erged arc iuelded process

'f11is process is gene.rally used for tubes over 500 m111 diamete.r and
up to 2134 1n1n diaineter. Larger sizes are fo r111ed fro111 two se111i-
drcular rolled p lates, smaller sizes from a single drcular rolJed plate
with the final weld being made by the subLnerged arc \velding (SAW)
process.
Spiral welded process

Spiral vvelded tubes are made by helically forming the strip \\•hic.h is
then welded by sub111erged arc welding or other C0 2 processes. The
n1ed1od is genera lly used to produce large diameter thin \Vall rubes,
for exa n1ple, that are used in bored foundation piles. Ho\\•ever, Corus
no longer produces tubes by this n1ethod.
'Cigar' -shaped columns

111ese are made out of steel plate/co nes which are '"elded do,vn the
sea m and then in turn buu-welded onto the next piece. ·n1ese are
non-stand ard iten1s and, as such, are relatively costly, as mey have to
be made to o rder for a panicular project. A good example is sho\\•n
in Figure 4.26.
11.4 Stainless steel

11.4.1 Grades of stainless steel
Stainless steel is me generic name given to corrosion and resistant

steels witl1 a nlinirnun1 of 10.S 0A. chromium, '"hir.h oxidises to
produce a surface patina mat inhibits rusting. "fbe stability of d1is
d1in passive layer increases as the chromiun1 content increases, and
is further enhanced by alloy additions of nickel and Lnolybdenum.
·n1 e grades of stainless steel ca n be grouped into five basic groups:
• austen itic stainless steel - these are me most '"idely used types of
sta inless steels and are based on 17-180/o d1ron1ium and 8-11°/o
nickel alloys. ·111ey have high ductility and are readily '"eldable
• ferritic stainless steel - they con tain 10.5-180/o chro111iun1, but
less nickel d1an austen itic grades, and are less corrosion resistant
• duplex stainless steels - these steels are geaeraUy used '"here
high su·esses are to be resisted under severe corrosion conditions,
and are often used for bars and pins. They typically contain
21-260/o d1ron1 iu1n, 4_30,n nickel and 0.1-4.SO/o molybdenw11
• n1artensit ic staialess steels - mesesteels have a sin1ilar structure
to ferritic stainless steels and are generally used for less
corrosion resistant app lications
• precipitat ion-hardened stainless steels - mese steels are
strengthened by heat treata1ent to very high teinperarures and
are used for heavy duty co nneetions, such as d1e bolts.
Stainless steels are specified in BS EN 10088'''' and strucrural design

5
is covered by supp len1entary rules given in Eurocode 3-1-4.' ·111e
111ost 1videly used grades are standard austenitic grades 1.4301 (304)
and 1.4401 (316), which are specified in BS EN 10088. ·n1e
designation systenl refers to: 1 (steel), 43 or 44 (group of stainless
steels), 01, etc. (individual grade identification).
1he tenns in brackets refer to the equivalent ASTM (An1erican)

standard, where A304 and A316 are the co n1n10 11 grades. 1he yield
2
strength is typically 200 to 220 N/n1m (v.rhich is lov1er than for
carbon steels), although d1e ultimate tensile strength is 500 to 700
2
N/mm (hiyher t:han for carbon steels). Duplex steels have 400 to
460 N/mm yield strength.
11.4.2 Co111pone11ts
The \Yide range of stainless steel con1ponents are presented in d1e SCI
publication Arcl1i1ecrs Guide roSwinless St.eel)' and n1ay be su n1marised
as fo llo,vs:
• seaions in C or L or similar forn1 that are p roduced by cold

rolling from a Oat sheet or plate
• tubular seaions that a.re produced by bending and we lding
• bars and rods
• n1achined pins
• brackets, often \viili milled serrated edges
• bolts, screws and \vashers.
Good exanlples of the use of stainless steel sections and

components are:
• ledger angles for brioovork

• brackets for brioovork and cladding systen1s
• glazing bars and arnL~
• mullions to support cladding
• stair stringers and steps
• threaded bars for tie rod~
• pins for tie rods
• louvres.
Various types of finish are possible. including colow·ing, etching,

ei11bossing and shot blasting.
A good exatnple of d1e con1bined use of stainless steel mullio ns,
tie rods and bracket anad11ne11ts is to dle glazed fac;:ade of the
entrance to To\ver 42, London, are illustrated in Figure 11.3.
11.5 Weathering steels
Weathering steels are a type of steel alloy in wh id1, as \Yeathering

occurs, a hard patina is fom1ed on the surface to prevrnt further
corrosion. This patina ca n vary in colour, depending o n the
e11vi.ronn1ent, fro1n an ora ngey brO\\•n to a deep chocolatey red . A
rece11t example of the use of\\1e.1thering steel is in the cladding and
struaureofthe BalticSquareTov,•er, Helsinki, shown in Figure 11.4.
Weathering steels are not suitable fo r industrial or coastal
e11viron1nents \Yhere the patina \Yill not fo 1n1 p roperly. In the initial
stages of weathering. a 'rusty' run-0ffn1ay occur and adjace.111 areas of
11.3 Entrnnc~ lobby to Tower 42,

London. showing stainless steel mullions
nnd tie rods (architect: Dl!C\\I)
11 .4 Lise of •wathmng 5!L'el in thi! Baltic

Squar~Towl?t'in Finland (arrhitect: lleli n
& Co.)
concrete or dadding should be protected. For exa n1ple, where

\¥eathering steels are used for bridge girders, adequate drainage
should be provided to prevent staining of cono·ete abut n1ents. Where
\¥eathering steels are used for c.olun1ns, gravel-filled pockets could be
provided at the base to prevent staining of the concrete pavi ng.
11.6 Use of cast steel
Steel castings have been used for n1any yea rs, in pa rticu lar \"here
mernbets n1 eet at a 'node' point, and they o ffer considerab le
opponunities for expression. "T11ere have b een signifi ca nt
in1proven1ents in the use of steel castings over the past two decades.
Ea rly app lications 1vere in the Pompidou Centre, Paris, the Renault
Parts Distribution Cent re, S1vindon, and Ponds Forge, Sheffield
(Colour Plate 20).
Innovative casting technology has enabled designers to use steel
castings in buildings for suuctural forms requiring intricate
geon1etries, creating node connections of considerable complexity
and yet possessing the essential suuctural quality. The avoidance of
heavily-stressed welds and difficult or expensive fabrication are great
advantages of castings ove r welded fabrication. Ho1vever, the
relatively long lead-in tin1e for drawings, panern making. casting and
niad1ining n1ea ns d1at the use of castings should be considered at an
early stage in the design process.
Castings ca n also inco rporate fixings, sud1 as tapped holes for
threaded co nnections, cast-in lugs and cleats, 10 facilitate fabrication
o r erection. ·1h e developmen1of castings in the building industry was
hindered for some time by a number of misconceptions 1vith respect
to both niateii a ls and casting procedure. Castings '"ere thought to be
brittle and unweldable. ·ri1is is no t so, as cast steel can have similar
properties to high-grade steel.
Casting design demands input from an experienced foundry, as
success depends on choosing a patte.n1 where tuolten metal 1vill flo1v
at a sufficient rate to ftl l the mould unifonuly, and suitable non-
destruct ive testing is needed to meek that the castings do not have
large inclusions or surface flaws. This is obviously most in1portant
1vhen the castings are highly stressed.
11.6.1 Exar11ples of cast nodes and anns
Castings using steel and o ther alloys n1ay be used in a '"ide variety of
applicatio ns in steel construction, many of which have opponunities
for architectura l exp ression, as fo llows:
• T11e exte nded arms or 'gerberenes' of the Centre Po1upidou

provide the co nnectio ns to the columns and tension ties. ·n1e
sbape of d1e 'ge rherettes' is designed to resist combined shear
aDd bearing forces and bending effects (see Figure 3.14).
• Ornamental details in fac;:ades, as in the bronze suppons used in
11.5 Cast bronze suppons to cladding Bracken House, London (Figure 11.5).
system, Bracken !louse London (architect: • At the top or intermed iate poin ts of masts 1vhere cables connect,
Michael Hopkins and Partners) as used at L'Oreal, Paris (Figure 11.6).
• Th e nodes of tension-tie systems, particularly \ffiere a nua1ber
of ties n1eet. In iliis case, the castings are designed to uansfer the
n1ultiple fo rces smootbly (Figure 11. 7).
• Connections between coluiuns and bean1s, as ar Bedfonr lakes
near Londo n. 'Ihe use of casting; is a relatively under-used n1ed1od
of connection in regular frrunes, and is generaUy used only in
exposed applica tions, as in Figure 11.Sand Colour Plate 12.
• Brackets or other anachn1ents to meinbers.
6
An SCI gu ide" covers t11e design and use of castings. In su1nn1ary,
a steel casting may be preferable to other alternative forn1s of
co nnection or fabrica tions when:
ll .6 Detail of caSt node at t:Oreal, Paris ll.7 Cast node herween tension memhers at t:Oreal, Paris
11.8 Ca5t node hetween

hcams and columns a1 New
Square. lledfonr Lakes. l.ondon
- sec also C'..olour Plate 12
(architect: t.tichael I lopldns nnd
1>artners)
• cost is not a 1najor ronstraint, and where the casting or node is

visual ly in1portant
• relatively large numbers of cotnponeots are required and the
cost of vvelding stiffeners and other details would otbenvise be
.
excessive
• cuNed or softer shapes are required, e.g. saddJes co column ends
• the design includes con1plicated rubuJar connections \vith
incoming 1ne1nbers at different angles (see foJJo\vingsection)
• the design of the steelwork requires considerable fabrication
work (steel castings can usually be 1uade \vich sufficient
dimensiona l accuracy to reduce or elim.inate niachining costs)
• the design uses highly tape.red sea:ions that cannot be readily
fabricated
• high toughness and/o r fatigue strength are i1nponant
• the connections are subject to high fo rces where large 1velds
would otherwise be required.
1he forn1 and profile of the cas ting can reflect th e structural action
and forces with in the co nnectio n or, alternatively, it can be designed
to suit a given ard1itectural motif or shape. lbe shape of the casting
bel\veen the steel columns and bean1s in Figure 11.8 reflects the
reduction of the column sizes at the floor level.
1he shapes available for castings are generaJJy only limited by the
practicalities of pattern making and casting. Due to che bespoke
nature of ead1 type of casting. it is n1ore d.ifficuJt for the costs co be
assessed accurately at the design scage. However, the 1naxin1un1
degree of economy is likely to be achieved if the casting use is
repeated niany times. 111e 111axin1un1 size o f an individual casting is
lin1iced only by the capacity of the foundry, and can extend co several
tonnes.
11.6.2 Other rrietctls used tis ct1stings
Iron n1ay also be used for castings. It has a lower n1elting point than
steel and, when 1nolten, flows into a niouJd more easily. Ductile iron
castings are easier to fonn and, as a result, are generally dleape.r than
the equivalent steel castings. One disadvantage is that \velding to iron
castings should be avoided if the iron has a higher carbon equivalent
content than steel. However, bolted or pinned connections are easily
nlade and, fron1 the point of vie\v of tole.ranee. iron is more easily
11.9 S1ainless Slee! cast legs a1 !he
niad1ined than steel.
Ludwig Erhard Haus. Berlin (architea: Castings niay also be formed in stainless sceel, as in Figure 11.9,
Nicholas Crimshaw & Partners) 1vhich were supplied for the Ludwig Erhard Haus, the ne1v Stock
Exchange in Berli n. Bronze castings have also been used (see Figure
11.5).
11. .6.3 Castings for tubular rnernbers
Castings are particularly suitable fo r co nneaions bet,veen tubular

111en1bers beca use:
Tecl111ical cl111rac1erisrics of sreel 17 1
ll.10 'fuhulnr connections of'tn1nk' to

'hranch' at Stungan Airpon (architect: Vo n
C.erkan 1Marg & P3nners)
• the cost of pro filing and \\'elding con1plex tubular connections

can be~high
• there are often a large nun1ber of connections of d1e sa n1e
external dimensions in a large project
• complex hangar and node details can be forn1ed easily
• cast connections are aesd1etically 111ore pleasing. as they are
sn1oother in shape, and are accurate in di111ensions
• toughness and fatigue resistance c.an be in1proved.
Examples of the use of castings in connections between tubular

n1en1bers are:
• cast steel saddles and at the h ead o f colun1ns

• tensio n connections
• noded conn eetions in multi-planar trusses
• junctio ns between colurnns and sloping members. as 1n the II. ti Casting for pinned connections at
colu1nn 'tree' of Figure 11 . 10 l'onds corgc, Shcll'ield (architt'ft:
• true pinned connections, as in Figure l l. ll. FaulknerBrowns)
11. 12 Stainless steel node to the tubular

arms at Afx en Provence TC\/ stat ion
(architeo: i\Rl!P-SNCF and i\rcom)
At Stansted Ailport, the design team decided that the niajority of

connections could be 1nade by castings. At Sruugart Allport, r.astings
v,rere used to connect the 'trunk' to the 'branches', as illustrated in
Figure 11.10.
At the TGV station in Aix en Provence, France, cast steel forked
nodes connected the colu1nns to the illdined tubular arms th at
support ed the roof, as illustrated in Figure 11.12.
Chapter 12
Corrosion
protection
The cos t of corrosio n pro tection can be as high as 20°10 of the tota l
cost o f fabricated steehvork, and it is therefore i1nporta n1 not to ove.r-
specify the protective systen1, whilst achieving an acceptable life LO
7
first n1aintenance. Cc>rus has prepared various publicatio ns'' to assist
the designer in tl1e protection suategy. The foJJ ov.•ing notes
su pplement the guidance given by Co1us.
Corrosion of steel can only occur if both oxygen and 1vater are
present. The rate of corrosion 1vill depend o n the exposure and on
the concentration of containn1ents (usually chlorides and sulphides)
in the atmosphere. TI1us, pern1anently en1bedded steel p iles do not
corrode. even mo ugh mey are in contact 1vith water, provided that air
is excluded by the in1permeability of the soil. Similarly, the interior
faces of tubular sections 1vill not corrode. provided they are sealed .
Within buildings, o nly minor and superficia l oxidatio n niay
occur, e.'Ccept in areas sud1 as roofing or cladd ing, wh id1 may be
subject to condensation or 1vater leakage.
12.1 Internal steelwork
Inside heated buildings, 1vhere the steel is concealed from vie1v, no

protective. coating is generally required. Consequently, it is no1v
practice to use unprotected steel1vork, except 1vhere tl1e steel
penetrates the envelope. For largely visual reasons, a tl1 in coat (25
n1icrons) of shop prin1er may be applied before delivery to site.
\.Yhere the steel is exposed to view internally, a decorative coat
(often an alkyd) on a suitable prin1er (usually a zinc phosphate) 1nay
be applied. If an inrun1escent paint is u~ed as fire protectio n, advice
should be sought fron1 tl1e specialist paint nianufacturer to ensure
co n1patibility between it and any decorative coating.
Steelwork 1vithin perin1eter 1valls is niore susceptible to corrosion,
particularly if th e steel is in contact 1vith, or en1bedded in, tl1e outer
leaf of a 1nasonry 1vall. Bitu1nen, zinc-ri ch epox'Y and pitch epox'Y
coatings are comn1only used in sud1 situations.
For industrial. o r o ther n1ore potentia ll y severe enviro nments, a
wide range of o ptions and coatings are ava ilable, fro n1 the use of
vvea thering steels to LnetaJli c coatings, such as galvanizing or

alu1uin iun1 spray. General ~uidelines on the use of metallic coatings
are given in BS EN 14713 .'' Provided the individual steel pieces are
sn1all. hot-dip galvan izing can be a cost-effective option.
12.2 Protective treatment specification

49
Guidance on the painting of steelworks is given in BS EN 12944
(replaces BS 5493). An adequate specification for surface protection
of steeh.,,ork includes the:
• n1et:hod of surface p repa ra tio n

• type o f protectio n to be used
• method of application (brush, spray)
• locatio n o f app lica tion (wo rks or site) .
TI1e choice of specification will be detern1ined by a nua1ber of

factors:
• expected life of the structure and the maintenance plan

• environn1ent to wh ich the steelwork will be subjected
• \'lhether or not the member is exposed to vie,.,,
• environmental and safery co nsiderations in bo th initial
application and in n1aintenance
• size and detailing of the n1en1bers
• shop treatment faci lities which are available to Ll1e fabricator
and/ or the coatings sub-co ntractor
• site cond itions, wh ich \'li ll determine whether the steeh,•ork can
be coated after erection
• necessity fo r site-based assembly (panicularly any need for
\'lelding)
• colour and su1face finish o r texture
• econon1ics as influenced by the above issues.
12 .3 Surface preparatio n
111e nature of the surface to which coatings are applied has a major
effect on their perforn1ance. Generally, the better the swface prep-
aration, the better the long-te.m1 performance of the coating. Son1e
n1anufacturers produce coatings which are tolerant of poorly prepared
surfaces in order to facilitate n1aintenance and repainting. In all cases,
the n1etl1od of preparation should be co mpatible \'litll me coating
systen1 and the n1anufacturers' data sheets should be consulted.
Fo r high-qua lity coatings, it is essentia l to remove all the
co ntaminants, rust and mi LI-scale, \'lhich forms when tl1e hot surface of
the rolled steel reacts with air to form an oxide. For interior environ-
ments, where a low level o f protection is required, tl1 e surface should
be clean and free of loose rust and mill-scale, but a high level of
preparation is not generaJly requi red, depending o n tl1e systen1 cl1osen.
Corrosion procec1io11 17 S
Surfaces embedded ia concrete should be free of Lnill-scale but

niay othernrise be untreated, as the alkalinity of die concrete
passivates the steel. Treaunent oa adjacent areas should be returned
for at least 25 mm \vithia the concrete. 1li e cover to the enibedded
47
steel sh ould be ia accordance '"idi die requiren1ents of BS 8110.
Various mediods are adopted for cleaning steehvork, but die only
effective methods for ren1oving all nii ll-scale and surface
containments are blast-deaning and/or pickling (ininiersing die steel
in acid). Other methods, sudi as !Jani e deaning and wire brushing,
niay be useful for maintenance or preparing steel for use in mild
co nditions, but they ' "ill not reniove all die rust and ni ill-scale.
lhe me~od and quality of the surface niay be specified acco rding
to BS 7Cf79, some of '"hose parts are replaced by BS EN 8501, 8503
and 8504. '~ Conventional specific~cions may ask fo r shot b last to
51 7
standard SA 2.5, o r wire brush to standard St 2. Both grit and shot-

blasting are possible, but shot-blasting is preferred for smoodi high-
quality paint coatings, and grit-blasting is prefeLTed for ga lvan iz ing
and son1e pri1ners. Calvani.zed surfaces need not necessaril y be grit-
blas ted but a thinner coaling ,.,,j]J resu lt Usually die nia nu facn1rer
will specify the type of surface required fo r the application of a
particular coating. Where d1e swface is blast-d ea ned, aay delay
between mis deaning aad the applir.ation of die first coating should
not e.icceed four hours in order to prevent further rusting aad
coataminalioa.
When site painting is adopted, it is iniportant that the steelwork is
deaned before paint application. 1liis niay require washing of the
steel with a suitable detergenc to reniove co ntan1inat ion diat has
occurred during cransporcacion and erection.
For connections e.icposed to severe environments. it ruay be
necessary to blast-clean the connectio ns before app lying di e
proteaive syste1n, but this is 1inie co nsuniing and expensive.
Alternatives include die use of galva nized bolts, de-greased after
tightening, fo llowed by etdi priniing and painting to the sa rne
spedfication as th e adjacent surfaces.
12.4 Type of protection to be used
12.4.1 General
The follo\ving aoces 1nay assist in deterniin ing die type o f systeni
whidl is appropriace for a particular applir.ation and exposure:
• Pro tection requireLneots are generally niininia l inside d ry,

heated bui.ldings, sudl as offices, shops and schools. In sudl
situations, no proteaion is required, excepc for decorat ive
reasons, unless die steehvork is loca ted v.rithin a cavicywall (see
below).
• Sonie interior s1eehvork may be exposed to condensation,
panicularly in sports halls, exhibiti o n ha lls and workshops.
Although diese environnieots are generall y classified as mi ld, a
protection systeni \Vill generally be required for visual reasons.
• Where steelwork is exposed to industrial processes, or encloses

hum id areas such as swi1u1uing pools, the environment should
be classed as 'severe' and specialist advice shouJd be sought.111e
systen1 cl1osen \vill depend on the particuJar environ1nent and
am1ospheric co ntaminants.
• Perin1ete.r steeJ,vork enclosed in cavity walls can be. subdivided
into two categories:
where an adequate air gap (40 mm n1inimum) exists
between the steeJ and the outer masonry skin, then
adequate protection can be achieved by a simple painting
systen1. This gap can be reduced to 25 n1n1 if an
in1pern1eable thennal insulatio n is placed bel\veen the
steelwo rk and the outer leaf. Suitab le materials include
dosed cell o rganic foams, such as polyurethane phenolic
based o r extruded polystyrene
where the steelwork is in contaa with, o r embedded in, the
outer leaf of the wa II, then a high-quality surface protection
system should be app lied. Bitumen-based coatings (site
app lied) and coal tar epoxies (shop applied) are corna1on.
AlternativeJy, for severe environments, the steel can be
ga lvan ized and painted with bitumen-based paint to
preve nt the galvanized surface coming into coataa \vid1
the masonry.
• Where d1e steeJwork is fire proteaed, consideration must be
given to d1e compatibility between t.he corrosion aad fire.-
protection systems. For boarded fire-protection systems, this \vill
gene.rally not be a problem. Mineral fibre or particle-sprayed
systems should gene.rally no t be used on galvanized steelwork
due to adhesio n problen1s. Where intume.scent paints are used,
it is vital d1at d1e con1patibility is checked wid1 d1e paint
n1anufartu rer.
12.4.2 Pairit coatirigs
'J11ere is a large cl1oice of painted coatings suitable for diffeJe.at

e.nviron n1ents and methods of application. Specific guidance on aay
pai ticulaJ type of coating is ou tside the scope of this publication, but
detailed guidance can be obtained fron1 manufaaurer's r.atalogues
and data sheets. The guidance give.a by Cornsv concentrates oa a fe\v
gea eric types of system suitable for various applications and
environments. 'I11is inforn1ation should be consuJted as a source of
information aga inst \Yhicll n1anufaaurers' data can be con1pared.
la order to make rational decisions oa the cype of coating syste.01
to be used, it is necessary to understand a fe\v basic concepts abou t
paints and paint syste.1ns, as fo llows. Painu consist of d1ree basic
con1ponents:
I. ·111e pigrnerri p igments a re fine o rga nic or inorga ni c

co nipounds wh ich provide colour, opacity, film coh esion and
so metin1 es co rros io n protection. For example, zi n c and
1nicaceous iro n oxide (MIO) coatings provide significant levels
of corrosion protection.
Corrosion procec1io11 177
2. 1he binder - binders are usually resins or o ils but ca n be

inorganic co111pouads, sud1 as solub le silicates. '[he binder is
the film-formi ng component in the paint.
3. The solvent - solvents are used to dissolve the b inder and to
facilitate application of the paint. 111ey are usually organic
liqu ids or \\'<lter. As tl1e paint 'dries', the solvent evaporates into
the atmosphere.
Until recently, rapid drying paints contained solvents, sud1 as

vola tile organic co1npounds (VOCs). Recent environmental
legislation has required paint applicators to co ntro l tl1e amount o f
VOCs whidl are released. Paint 111anu facturers a re tll erefo re
beginning to produce 'h igh solids' paints (i.e. low solvent) paint and
water-based paints '"hid1 do not release harm fu l compounds.
As tlle solvent evaporates, tl1 e thick ness o f the fi lm reduces. 'The
tllickaess of the paint coating may tllerefore be referred co by botll its
'wet' and 'diy' film thickness. TI1e '"et fLl n1 thi ckness ca n be measured
by a con1b-gauge allo'"iag imn1 ed iate co rrecti o n o f the fi lLn
tll ickness. The dry fLlm thickness can be n1easured by the use of
vario us types of n1agaetic or electro- n1a gnet ic gauge. Paint
tll icknesses given in specific-.ations are usual ly tl1e final required dry
film thicknesses.
Paint classification - m e most comu1on n1etl1od o f classification
of paints is by their pigm entati on or tl1eir b inder type. Zinc
phosphate primer, for exan1ple. may be used w itl1 an alkyd, epoxy or
acrylated rubber binder. Care should therefore be exercised when
specifying tlle type of paint, as tl1e petforn1a nce of zinc phosphate
epoxy will be significantly different to tl1at of a zinc phosphate alkyd
or zinc p hosphate acrylated rubber.
Paint sysce1ns - a full painti ng systen1 will often indude a prirn er,
an intern1ediate coat and a finishing coat. ·n1e cost of app lication of
the paint can be a significant factor and the tend ency is co use as few
coats as possible. In some cases, tl1e san1e pa int ca n be used fo r all
tll ree coats and tl1e intern1ediate coat and fin ishing coa t ap plied as
one high build (H B) c-oat. la all cases, the var ious coats of pa inL n1us1
be compatible with ead1 other, and the nlaDufacturer shou ld be
co nsulled in order Dot to invalidaLe '"arranties.
The following additional points should be considered in tl1e
dloice of paint system:
• 'The paint system should be con1patible witl1 tl1e availab le

method of surface preparation and tl1e D1etl1od of application.
For example, site-applied systems should not generally require
mat tlle surface is grit-blasted, or that the coating is applied by
spray.
• ·The enviroa1nen1al i1npac1 of the coating systen1 sho uld be
considered. Paint sys1en15 '"hid1 '"ere once ve ry popular, sudl as
dllorinated rubbers, are being phased out due to enviro nn1ental
considerations during n1anufacru re. Paints with low levels of
VO~ are increasingly popular.
• Where paint systen1s are site-applied, tlle safety o f the ope ratives
must be considered. Expensive n1obile \\forking platfo nns
(MWPs) or scaffolding 111ay have 10 be used . Ge nerally, b rush
application is p referred on site, as sprayed coatings LL~ually have

to be applied in a co ntained environu1ent and the operative
n1ay requi re air-fed respiratory equipment
• Two pack epoxies have poor resistance to ultraviolet radiation
and are h igh ly susceptible to 'chalking'. Over-coating probleu1s
can ocoir when epoxies are applied in two coats, unless they are
over-coated before the fust coat is fuJJy orred. This is partirularly
in1portant where a two coat systen1 is partly applied in the shop
and partly o n site. A 'travel coat' may be required as an
intern1ediate coat between the two epoxy layers. Re-coatable
epoxies are beco ming more con1111on.
• Prefabrication prin1ers generally have LO be applied in the
workshop witl1in fou r hours of blast deaning. TI1ey are usually
app lied in th in fi lms, in the o rder o f 25 microns (IO"" n1) thick.
and their durab ility is li n1 ited . Many modern prin1ers based o n
syntl1etic resins are not compatible with manually prepared
suJfaces as they have a low tolerance to ru st and nlill-scale.
Co nversely, 1nany o il- and alkyd-based primers, \vhid1 are
tolerant to hand-prepared surfaces, cannot be over-coated 1vitl1
fin ishing coats mat con tain strong solvents. sudl as acrylated
rubbers, epoxies and bitu1ninous coatings.
12.4.3 Hot-dip galvanizing
In tl1e galva nising process, the steel is ftrst deaned of ruse and n1i11-
scale by b last cleaning and pickling (by dipping in diluce
hydrod1 lo ric acid containing a ruse inhibitor). le is then dipped into
a bath of rnolten zinc at a temperature o f about 450°C At tl1is
ten1peracure, the steel reacts with the mo lten zinc to fo nn a series of
zi nc/iron alloys o n ics surface. As the steel elen1ent is ren1oved fron1
the bath, a layer of relatively pure zi nc is deposited o n top of the
all oy laye rs and then solidifies as it cools, often assun1ing a
crystalline n1etall ic lustre, usually referred to as 'spangling'. ·n1is has
been explo ited by son1e arc hiteets as an attraaive finish in its O\Vn
right. One example, wh ich won me annual architectural Galvanizers'
Association a\vard, is a staircase. at the Fruit market in Edinbw·gh,
TI1e tl1ickness of tl1e galvanized coating in the hot-dip process is
influenced by various factors:
• Th e size of the ele.ment - thicker, heavier seaions tend co lead

to thicker coatings.
• "Ihe surface ro ughness - blast-deaned surfaces rend 10 lead co
tl1icke.r coatings.
• 111e steel co n1position - me a1nount of silicon used in high-
strength steel can have a 111a rked a ffea o n the coacing \Veight
deposited.
'Hot-d ipp ing' is a bath process and there is o bviously a limitati o n

o n the size of componen ts which ca n be galva niz.ed. Do ubl e-dipping
ca n often be used when the length of the workpiece exceeds the size
of the batl1. Specialist co1npanies should be. consulted if tl1e length of
12.1 Srnircase at the Fruit Market

Callery, Edinburgh (architect: Richard
Murphy)
the n1e1nber exceeds 5 n1. l11e length lin1itatio n often makes
galvanizing unsuitable for 1.he 1rea1111e.n1 of pri111ary beams and
colun1ns in multi-storey buildings. Son1e disconion of lighter
fabricated members can be caused by differentia l therma l t!.'-'Pa nsion
and contraction, and by relief of residual stresses in 1he rneinbe.r.
'Ihe. specification of hot-dip galvanized coatings for structural
3
steelwork is cove.red by BS EN ISO 1461 ' (replaces BS 729). RJ r sections
greater than 5 tum Lhid<. a minilnun1 average z inc coati ng weight of
2
610 g/ m is required, eqwvalent to a zinc coating of 85 rnicro ns
Lhickness. lhis coating ,...rn offer sufficient protection for over 30 years
in a dean rural environn1e.nt, and bet\veen 10 to 25 yea.rs in 1na.rille
and urban situations.
Newly galvanized surfaces are difficult to paint because of
adhesion problei.ns, unless an etm prin1er or n1ordant \vash is used.
\.Veathered galvanized swfaces are n1ore tolerant, provided that a
suitable pamt system is used. Connections bet\Veen galva nized
components should generally be bolted rad1er d1an welded, due to
the poor qua Iicy of welded joints and tbe fun1es produced during the
\Velding process.
12.4.4 Galvanizing of tubular 111en1bers
Cena in special re.quiren1ents for galvanizing tubular sections are

noted belo\v:
Table 12. 1 Suitabk sizes of vent ho les in tubular membt'I'
Size of tubular section Minimum diameter of hole

(mm) (mm)
< 25 8- 10
25- 50 12
50- 100 16
100- 150 2()
> 150 25
• Filli ng, venting and draining should be provided in tubular

members. Ho les no t less than 10 mm diameter n1ust be
provided in sealed tubu lar sen ions to allo" ' access for n1olten
zinc, venting of hot gases aod the subsequent draining of zinc.
• Sealed tubes which are to be galvanized wiJJ require vent holes
to al low the escape of hot aiI during the hot-dipping process.
Table 12.1 indicates suitable hole sizes.
Generally, tubular sections shouJd not be welded after galvanizing

due to the possibility of poor weJding due to porosity caused by the
gases given off fron1 the zinc coating. Sections are generalJy \velded
before galvan izing and components bolted together after galvanizing.
Owing to the sn1ooth surface creared by galvanizing, a special
erd1ing primer or 'f' wash or light 'sweep' blasting \viii be required
before painting, before the final rv;o coatS are applied o n site.
12. 4.5 M etal spraying
An alternative method of applying a metalJic coating to steehvork is

by spraying. In th is case, either zinc or alu1niniu1n ca11 be used. 'll1e
111etaJ, in powder or wiie fonn, is fed thro ugh a special spray-gun
containing a heat source which can be either an oxy-gas flan1e or an
eJectric-arc. Molten globuJes of the meral are blown by a compressed
air jet onto d1e previously blast-deaned surface. No alJoying occurs
and the coating, v,rh ich consists of overlapping platelets of metal, is
porous. These pores are subsequently sealed by applying a flood coat
of dear or p igmented epoxy or polyuremane coating. Furd1er
painting is d1en optional.
The adhesion of sprayed n1etal coating to steel surfaces is
considered to be essentially rnechanical in nature. It is merefore
necessary to app ly the coating ro a dean roughened surface; blasr-
cleaning \virh a course grit ab rasive is norn1ally specified. 'l11is \\•ould
usua lly be d1 illed-iron grir, but fo r steeJs \vith a hardness exceeding
360HV, alum ina or silico n ca rbide grits may be necessary.
Coating th ickness varies between 100 LO 250 n1icrons for
aJun1 inium, and 75 10 400 rnicro ns for zi nc. Bod1 metals perforn1
sin1iJarly in most situations, but aluminiu1n is n1ore durable in
highly industrial environ1nents.
Metal spray coatings are usually applied in the fabrication shop.

Unlike ho t-dip galvanizing, there is no limitation o n tl1e size of the
element and, as the steel surface reiuains cool, tl1ere are no distortion
problems. Relative costs \viii vary depending on tl1e size of the
section, but metal spraying niight rypically be twice as expensive as
galvanizing.
The protection of structural steeh,•ork against atmospheric
corrosion by metal-sprayed aluminiun1 or zinc coatings is covered in
54
BS EN 22063.
12.4.6 Electroplnti11g a.11d sheradising
Electroplating and sheradising are processes which are used for the
application of a metallic coating to sn1all con1ponents, such as
fittings and fusteners. Due to the tl1in coating that is app lied, they
sho uld generaUy only be used for niild environments, or for
deco rative purposes.
12.4. 7 Contmon prot.ection systents
1be protection systems detailed in tl1is section (see Tables 12.2 and
12.3) are based o n those "ihich are currently recomn1et1ded by Corus
7
for various environrnents.' "!be systen1 nun1bers are tl1ose allocated by
Corus and the recorrunended paint tl1ic.knesses are tl1e dry film
mickness. These micknesses may vary between manufacture.rs.
Systen1s have been chosen \Vhid1 are suitable for the following
environments:
• I 11cerior:
low risk: '"here th ere is a low risk of condensatio n,
exhibitio n halls, '"orkshops. spons hal ls
111edi11111 risl<: production buildings. or those with
po tentially high hun1idity and so n1e risk of pollution.
• Exterior:
111ediu111 ri.sl<: nlost rural and urban areas, 1vitl1 lo1v sulphur
dioxide, acid, alkali and salt pollution
higlr risl<: urban and industrial atn1ospheres witl1 1noderate
sulphur dioxide and/or coastal areas witl1 low salinity
very lriglr risl<: industrial areas with high hun1idity and
aggressive atmospheres. Coastal and offahore areas 1vim
high sal ini ry.
The tables sho'" born interior hidden and interior visible, to

facilitate th e choice of one systec11 in structures 1vhere parts of the
steelwork are hidden and pans are visible.
1h e tab les do not cover the follmving:
• /111erior:
very low risk: 1viLh a dry aui1osphere (e.g. offices, shops,
sd1ools, etc.) as, generally. oo protection systern is
required, except for decorative reasons.
....
Rl
:;,..
K
"'~"
::O·
Table 12.2 Rerommended corrosi<Hl prm~'<"lion systems fr1f interior environments" (µ m = 10 • m)
l!nvironmen1 In ierior low risk In 1erior m edium risk

-~=
;;:
~·
I liddcn Visible 1lidden Visible I lidden Visible llidden Visible Visihk

::·
(I)
Structure life in ~arsP> 55+ 55+ Unkno wn Unknown 60+ 60+ 5'i+ 45+ 40+ -~
C.oating life in yearsP> N/A 15 N/A Unknown N/A 20+ N/A 25 20
BS sysiem nu ml>er 133 BIO B4 Bil 136 Bl3 87 Bl 4 IH 5
Shop applied surface Blasl clean Blast dean Blast dean Blasl dean Blast dean Blast clean Blasl dean
preparation 10SA 25 10 SA 2.5 to SA 2.5 to SA 25 to SA 2.5 to SA 25 lO SA 2.5
Coati ng Zin c Zin<: \\later- based VJater-based l-101-dip I-lot-dip High so lid High solid High solid
phosphate phosphate acrylic or aaylic or galvanize to gi lvanize to epoxy zinc epoxy zinc epoxy zinc
epoxy prim er epoxy primer epoxy zinc epoxy zinc BS 729 BS 729 phosp hate phosphate phosphate
(80 µm) P> (80 µ n1 )l1 > (S) 1
phosphate phosphate (85 µm) (85 µm/' primer prim er primer
primer primer (80 µm) (80 µm) ( 100 µin)
(2 x 60 µm )I•> (2 x 60 µm) «> High build High build High build
recoatable recoatable aliphatic
epoxy MIO epoxy MIO polyurethane
(120 µm) (1 20µ.m) finish (I 20 µm)
Surface None \"/ash free of None Wash free of Non e Mordant None Wash free of Non e
preparation conta mination ('Omaminarion 1vash conla111ina1ic1n
Notes:
I. Strueture life - the number nf years nf freedom of se1"1?re C'Orrosion that might lead to weaken ing of the structure.
2. 1he e><peeted numher nf years 10 first main1enanC'e of the coating.
3. Can l>e applied as n 20 µm prefahriC'ation primer plus 60 µm post -fobrira1iun primer.
4. \\later- based iechnology is s till d~vdoping and advke should he o htained from the manufaciur~r.
5. A thkkness of85 µ m can l>t: achi~vt:d on steel over 6 mm thkk without gril-blastlng.
41
Tab le 12.3 Recommended corrosion prmeCl ion systems fnr enerior cnvlrn nm en IS (µm • I Cl ' m )
lffivironmcnt 1ax1erior - m edium risk l!xterior - medium risk l!x1erior - very high risk
Coating life in years<•> 20+ 20 20 25 25 20 25
BS system number ll 12 1314 BIS E6 E9 E9 ElO
Shop applied surfa<e Blast clean to Blast dean m Blast dean to Blast dean to Blast clean 10 Blast dean to
preparation SJ\ 2~~ SA 2.5 SA 2.5 SA2~~ SA 2.5 SA 2.5
Hot· dip galvan ize Zioc phosphaie I ligh solid Zin c·rich epoxy Zinr·rirh epoxy Zinr·rkh epoxy Zin c-rich epoxy
to BS 7 29 epoxy primer epoxy prim er ( H>O µm) primer (JOO µm) primer ( IOOµ m) prim er ( 100 µm)
(85 µ m) (80 µm) phospha1e High -build High-build High -build High-build
High-build High-build primer epoxy M IO epoxy MIO epoxy M I O epoxy M IO
epoxy M IO epoxy ~110 (JOO µ m) ( 100 µ m ) (200 µm) (2(JO µ m) (200 µ m )
(100 µm ) ( 100 µm) High solid
aliphatic
polyurethane
finish
( 100 µm)
Surf.ice No11e \Va.s h free of None \<\lash free of Wash free of \<\lash fr~-e of Wash free of
prepnration comamination co11ta111i 11arion comamination co11ta1n ina1ion conta mination
C..oming Non e Recoatable None High -build I ligh solid High solid Recoatable
polyurethane epoxy M IO aliphatic alipha1k polyurethane
finish (60 µm) (I()() µ m )P> polyure1hane polyure1hnne fin ish (60 µm)
finish (60 µm) finish (60 µ m)
Notes:
Cnating S)~tt'.m durabilhy is bai!t!d on t:Xpt'.riienre and is the expected life in y<'ars before m ajor mnin1enance. It is not a guarantt.-ed life l:!Xpt'.etancy.
i--·
I.
2. h should be no1cd 1hn11he avnilahle colours are limitt'CI.
9
]
~
-5·
.....
00
U>
• 1rnerior:
high ris/r. buildings with high humidity and corrosive
aun ospheres, e.g. chemical plants, S\'VITTlming pools, pape.r
manufacturing plants, etc. In these cases, it is recon1n1ended
that specialist advice is soughL
For steelworlt in concaa with a tnasonry outer skin it is recommended

that d1e steel is ga Ivan ized or, alternatively, it is blast-deaned and one
coat of solvent-free epoxy (dry film th.ickness of 450 µm) is applied.
If the steelwork is ga lvan ized, two coats of heavy duty birun1en (total
dry fi ln1 d1ickness of 200 µm ) should be applied.
12.5 Method and localion of application

Spraying is the most widely adopted 1nethod for applicati on of paint
syste111s in a 1'Vorkshop 1'Vith a coatroUed environment, often with
forced ventilation. Bod1 air-fed and airless spray are possible. Airless
spraying is now n1ore co1n1non, as application rates are higher and
overspray is reduced. Brush application is usuaUy carried out on site,
\'V here co ntrol of the local environnient is more difficulr.
Site coating of previously pritned steel\\•ork is often pre.fe.rred by
steeh'Vork contractors as it allows the steel\'VOrk to be moved rapidly
out of d1e workshop and on to site. "The othe.r main advantage is that,
as d1e final coat will be applied on site, repair of da1nage caused by
transport and e.rection is not required and the finished appearance
\'/i ll be more unifonn.
Ho,.,,eve.r, a nun1ber o firnpona nt aspects sho uld be considered, as
noted ear lier:
• die qua lity of the site-applied finish coat will be inferior to that
applied in the worksho p, particularly if th e aun osphere is
polluted o r in coastal regio ns (bo th chlorides and ' "ind-bfo,.,,n
sand, fo r exa mple, ca n penetrate a considerable distance
inland)
• aJJ painf\'lork should be deaned on site, befo re application of
d1e site coat
• on-site coatings should gene.rally be applied by brush
• damage to paint systen1s should be minimised by the careful use
of strops, wrapped chains or lifting lugs.
'I11e steeh'lork for the Igus Factory in Ge.rmany \"35 blast-deaned

and prepared wid1 its pri1nary coating before being transported to
site.1he fina l protective coating was applied o n site (see Figure 12.2).
12.6 Protection of connecti ons

'fh e niethod of protecting the co nnections depends on die type of
coo oection and the sys te1n used for th e steel\'VOrk. In severe
enviro nn1ents, ga lva nized bolts tnay be used.
12.2 lhe Igus factory, Cologne (archit(!{'t: Nicholas Grimshaw & l'>arln~rs)
Non11a l bearing-type bolted connections require protection of Lhe

contact surfaces. Al d1ough a prim iag coat is sometimes
recon11uended, it is worthwhile to treat the contaa surface to at least
d1e san1e standard as the main steelwork. as it is unlikely that these
sw·faces \viii be repainted. lo extreme cases and over a long period,
corrosion between d1e surfaces can lead to lamination of the steel
and fa ilure of the connection.
For h igh-strengd1 friction grip-bolted co nnections, the faying or
contact su rface should be free from any containment or coating
which \\'Ould reduce the slip factor required in the conneaion. Most
paint systen1s will be detrin1ental to the frictio nal resistance, but
son1e inorganic zinc silicate prin1ers and spray n1 etal coatings can
increase d1e slip factor, and, hence, improve d1e resistance o f d1e
co nnection co shea r force. Where required, the faying surfaces should
be n1asked to prevent painting of the surfaces. All high-strength
frictio n grip (HSFC) co nnections sho uld be sealed rou nd their edges
when d1e bolL~ have been tightened. After making d1e connecti on,
die area should be painted to repair any da1nage caused to die paint
system, and to protea the exposed part of the connection.
12.7 Detailing of exposed steelwork to reduce

corrosio n
General guidance on factors relevant to me corrosion protection of

exposed steehvork are as fo llo,vs:
• Avoid sharp edges, sharp co rners, caviues, crevices, etc. Edges

and corners ca n be sn1oo med to improve me adhe.~ion o f the
coating. It is usual to app ly an additional 'stripe coat' to edges
and welds.
• For co rrosio n protection, welded conneaions are preferred to
bolted connections. llull-\velded co nnections are preferred to
lap joints, and co ntinuous welds are preferred to intern1ittent
\velds wh ich can crea te pockets in which rusting could occur.
• Lap jo ints should be orientated so as to prevent build-up of
\vater or con ta n1inants.
• Drainage holes should be provided where necessary, but do not
allo\v \vater to ru n on to oilier parts of the structure.
• Seal 'box' sections. If box girders are fully sealed, corrosion of
d1e interior steel surface 'vill not occur. Where it is difficult or
inipract icable to obtain a complete seal, desiccants such as
3
silica-gel can be used, at me quantity of about 250 g/n1 of
void. 1his process is effective for two to three years. TubuJar
sections, \vh ich are sealed during fabrication, need no internal
treatment.
• Provide free circulatio n of air around th e strUaure. TI1is
increases the rate of drying o f the surfac.es. Premacure
breakdown of protective coatings can occur in sh eltered areas
where nio isture remains in contaa wid1 d1 e coating for long
periods. In such situatio ns, additional pro tective layers should
be co nsidered.
• Elin1inate dead-nat surfaces and crevices \vhere deb1is and \Yater

might accun1ulate. ln addition, suitable accessibility for routine
maintenance and inspection should be provided in highly
sensitive locations.
• At foundation level, steel is more susceptible to corrosion and
dan1age. For example, a concrete plinth \vith a sloping top can
be provided, although this n1ay n ot be architecturally
appropriate in all circumstances.
• Waterproofing of exposed concrete slabs is in1portant to keep
water from penetrating to the steel benead1. ·n1is is in1portant in
car parks.
12. 8 Contact with other materials
General advice on contact \vid1 other 111aterials is given as fo llows:
• Avoid connections bet\veen different n1etals or, alternatively,

insulate the contact surfaces. Materials sud1 as zinc and
alun1inium offer sacrificial protection, \vhereas others sud1 as
stainless steel, could cause accelerated corrosion of carbon steel
at the contact surface.
• Provide an adequate depili of cover and quality of concrete to
encased sections.
• Separate steel and timber by me use of coatings or sheet plastics
(many woods are potentially corrosive due to their treatments).
Chapter 13
Fire protection
Fire resistance is a requirenJent ofall naiio na l Bu ilding Regulations

in order to ensure stabiJi ty of Lhe suuctu re in the event of fire, to
prevent fire spread, to alJo'" nJ eans of escape o f the occupants and
aJso for Lhe safety of fue fighters. Although not stated t:.'\'.p licitly in
reguJations, fue-resistance n1easures aJso ensure protection aga inst
dispropo rtionate damage, so that sn1all fires \v ill not require n1ajor
structuraJ repair. Fire resistance requiren1ents are a function of:
• the size of the building ( especiaJly tl1e height)

• the fire load (combustible content~)
• the presence of 'active' fire protection n1easures, e.g. sp rinklers .
A ho listic 'fire engineering' approad1 r~1 n be used to predict the

severity of fires, and their effec1 on the prin1ary suucture. Fire
engineering is ofien used to justify the use o f u nprotected steel
suuaures in airpon tem1inals and sports h alls, etc., where fire loads
are low and Lhe n1eans of escape are good.
The following sections present th e strategies that may be
employed to ensure the fire safety of sLeel su·uctures. depend ing on
whetl1er the steelwork is concealed (i.e. is not visually important) or
is exposed to view.
13.1 Forms of fire protection
The SCI and the Association of Specialist Fire Protection Contracto «rs
and Manufacturers Lld (ASFP) have produced detailed gu idance_,.,
listing the majority of approved n1aterials a nd prese nting tab les of
protea.ion thicknesses for various periods of fire res istance.
In prindple, the 111ain forn1s of fire protection to steel n1embers
that may be considered, are as follo,vs:
• Sprayed protection around the profile o f tJ1e member. Sprayed

materials may be of a variety of forn1s, indud ing, for exa111ple,
cementiLious materials and vern1icuJite-rement.
• Board protection as a box around the Lne1nber. BoaTd protection

can be fixed o n secondary noggins or, in son1e cases, to itself lo
form the box. BoaTd protea ion is preferred for colw11ns because
it forms the finished shape of the colwnn. Softer forms of
protection, based o n mineral fibre. are also available for bean1s
and trusses.
• Wrapp ing in a fue-protecrive layer and sheathing by pressed
nletal panels to p reserve the arcbitecrural profile of the men1ber.
56
• Cono·ete encasement of l-sections. Partial encase1nent bet\veen
the flanges o f I-sections ca n achieve good fire resistance2t and
can be introduced as an off-site process.
• lntumescent coatings, \Vh icb expand on heating to provide an
insulating layer. Esse ntia lly these coatings have the appearance
of paint, but th icker coatings can have a fibro us appearance.
• (',o ncrete-fi ll ing of tubu lar colu1nns, induding th e provision of
add itio nal reinfo rce ment for larger periods of fire resistance.
• Wates-fi lling of tubular sectio ns, as pan of a con tinuous tubular
suucture, sud1 as a roof truss or an external strucrure.
Essentially, the d1oice of fue-protection method depends upon a

nuu1ber of £1crors, su1nn1arised as follo\vs:
• Initial cost of application .

• Appea rance, if exposed to view.
• Durability and life to first maintenance.
• Compatibility with the environment (during construction and
in service).
• Co mpatib ility with the corrosion-protection systen1.
• Size and shape of the nlen1ber.
• ln1plications fo r the constructio n progra1nn1e.
• Avo idance of mess and dust during installation .
• Ab ility for the protection to be applied off-si te.
• Maintenance and repair after damage.
Fire-protection syste1ns are generally assessed o n a failure ten1p-

erature of 550°C, wh icl1 co rresponds approximately to 60o/o of the
original strength of the steel n1en1ber. Some Lnanufacrurers present
design tables for a range of failure temperatures, whid1 Lnay be useful
\¥hen selecting the fire protection required for lightly stressed members.
13 .2 Sprayed and board protection
Sprayed protection is app lied manually by spraying around d1e

profile of the section, and is a potentially 1nessy operation, \¥hid1
resu lts in a rough surface texture. "therefore. sprays are generaUy used
in co ncealed app licacions, such as bean1s with suspended ceilings. A
typica l sprayed protection lO cell ular beam is sho\vn in Figure 13. 1.
'lhey are cost-effective and a relatively fast site operation. For 111os1
app licatio ns, a spmy th ickness o f 20 to 30 mn1 wo uld be suitable.
Boa rd protecti on is of two types: hard boards and softer boards.
Hard boards, such as fire-resistan t plasterboard can be used as a
Fire procec1io11 19 1
13. I Spr;iyoo prol<!<1 ion 10 cellular

l>eams
facia, whereas softer boards are usually co ncealed. Boards provide a

box' protection around the nlen1ber, and are held in place by a light
fran1ework. The enclosed box is usually 70 to 100 mn1 vvider than the
steel section.
13.3 lntumescent coatings

Lnturuescent coatings are applied as paints and are preferred v;here
the steelwork is exposed to vie\v (Figures 9.2 and 13.2). 'They expa nd
on heating to form an insulating layer \vhich protects the steel sectio n.
"!here are two basic types of these coati ngs:
• thin-film coatings ( <2 n1n1 thick) - these coatings ran easily

achieve 60 1ninu1es' fire resistance and, for beams and colu1nns,
90 1ninu1es. They are generally appropriate for internal
applications
• th ick-fiJn1 coatings (3 to 6 n1111) - these coatings can provide

up to 120 n1 inutes' fire resistance (or longer in some cases).
They are often appropriate for external applications.
TI1in-filn1 coatings are a particular type of coating and not a thinner

filn1 of a th icker system. Thin-filn1 coatings retain the basic shape of the
steel section, whereas thick-film coatings can appear relatively coarse,
and niay have an 'orange peel' te.'Ctille. Finishing coats may or n13y not
be applied on site. So1ne fabricators prefer on-si te application rat11er
13.2 Use o f imumescent coating than factory-applied coatings, as handling on site may cause son1e
tn a curved ponal frame structure at da n1age. Fu1thermore, touching up of the sw£1ce does not ad1ieve the
Cheltenham Racecourse san1e qua Iity of fin ish as a factory appl ied coating.
In the factory, the paint wou ld be sprayed, \vhereas o n site it
\vou ld be app lied by brush o r roller, which has a different visual
effect. Arch itects generally take the view that o n-si te painting is
preferred to ensure a consistent finish . However, o n-si te application
is n1ore expensive, a nd the control of thickness and the preven tion of
co ntan1ination ca n be difficu lt.
Off-site application of intun1escen t coatings has been used on a
11un1ber of recent projects and is gaining popularity because of its
implicatio ns o n a reduced constructio n programme, panicularly in
111ulti-storey buildi ngs (Figu re 4.11). Guidance on the use of off-site
57
intun1escent coatings is given in an SCI publication. 111ey are
applied as a single coating of up to 1.5 mm iliickness in o rder to
speed up the drying operation. A high level of quality control can be
ad1ieved in off-site p rocesses (see Figure 13.3).
TI1 e exposed area of tubular sections is considerably less than for
open sections, such as 1 -b~uns. "Therefore, tubular sections heat up
less quick ly in a fire, and so require less fire protection to ad1ieve a
specific fire« resistance. Gu ida nce is given in the ASFP/SC I
publirat ion." SHS or RHS require a slightly greater coating thickness
tha n CHS be.cause of possible c.racki ng of the inturnescent coating at
13.3 lmun1escent coating to cellular tl1e co rners o f die sect ion.
beam being measured for its coating
thickness
13.4 Partial encasement by concrete
Many forn1s of steel co nstruction have been developed, such as

5 1
SlitndeJ/ and partially encased colu1nns, 2' which do not require
additional fire protection.
In Sli1nde/1, only the bottorn of tlle beam flange is exposed, and tl1e
re.n1aining part of the steel section is encased by the concrete or the
slab. ln fire conditions, the upper part of the section resists tl1e
applied n1on1ent, despite the n1uch reduced srre.ngtll of the bottotn
flange. 'The range o f the. Asyn1n1etric Slimjlor Beams (ASB) section has
been designed to ad1 ieve 60 111inutes' fire resistance. Additional
protection niay be app lied to the bo tto m flange fo r lo nger fire-
resistance periods.
Parti all y encased columns are formed by placing concrete bel\veen
the fl anges (usually as an off-site operati o n). Bar and link
reinfo rcement may be attac.hed to the steel section. In fire conditions.
the fl anges of the colu mn (o.r bea111) are exposed bu t die steel 1<Veb,
Fire procec1io11 193
concrete and bar reinforcernent ren1ain relatively cool and resist the
applied coa1pression. A fire resistance of 60 o r 90 minutes can be
achieved, depending on the amount of rcinforcen1ent provided .
Fully encased columns are rarely used in modern steel
construaion, except \vhere durability or resistance to impact is a
concern, or a long period of fire resistance is required. The size o f the
encased column is usuaUy 150 to 200 nm1 \v ider than that of the
steel sea ion.
13.5 Concrete filling of tubular sections

25 3
·rubula r steel colu1nns can be filled with concrete, " to provide up
to 120 n1inutes' fire resistance \vith additiona l bar reinforcemenL
Concrete filling is carried o ut on site and so t11e fast erection times o f
steel co nstructio n are 1naintained.
1he advantages o f using concrete-filled tubular sections are:
• the steel section dispenses \Vith the need for formwork and
supports the lo ads during construction
• the erection sd1edule is not dependent on the concreting
operation or curing time
• the columns are slender and possess good co n1 pressio n
resistance
• additional external fire-protection is not necessaty for up to 60
minutes' fire resistance
• if required, fire pro tection can be added later to increase the fire
resistance.
Concrete filling of tubular sections requires no special equipment

and t11e filling operati on may be integrated into oilier co ncreting
opera tio ns. However, it is necessary to provide venti lation ho les in
the colu111n \val ls to prevent t11e dangerous build up of steam
pressure inside me co lumn in me event of a fire. Two fu ll dia 1neter
holes placed diametricaU y opposite ead1 other, both at the top and
botton1 of each sto rey height, have been used in testing and have
proved to be adequate. TI1e holes are positioned outside the level of
any floor slab or screed A drain hole should also be provided at the
base of a column to pre~t \Vater collecting if it is left standing
empty on site prior to filling.
for large-diameter tubular colun1ns, concrete n1ay be pun1ped 13.4 Cheung Kong Tower, Ho ng Ko ng
fron1 tbe base of tbe colu1nn through a valve, as \Vas done at Hong with large d iame1er concre1e·filled 1ubular
Kong's Cheung Kong to\\•er (Figure 13.4). ·n1e valve is later cut away columns (a rchi1en: C'.esar Pelli &
Associa1es Inc.)
when the concrete has gained adequate strength . 1\vo or three storeys
may be filled in this method A detail is illustrated in Figure 13.5.
Considerable research has been undertaken into the structural
and fire- resistance perforn1ance of concrete-fi lled hollow sections,
ain1ed a t develo ping design procedures fo r t11is form of constructio n.
lhe results o f recent researd1 in the subject is incorporated into
natio nal and international rodes of ~racti ce. Calcu lation 1n ethods
are included in Eurocode 4 Pan 1.2.4 ·111e fire resistance aspects o f
41
co ncrete-filled sectio ns are also covered in BS 5950 Part 8 .
13.5 Val\'I? used for concrete filling of

large diameter wbular columns
13.6 Water fi lling of tubu lar sections
Water filli ng is often 1nentioned as a method of providing fire

resistance to tubular structures, but is rarely carried out in practice. 1l1e
earliest and n1ost well-kno~·n example is the external struaure to Bush
Lane House in Ca nnon Street, London (see Figure 13.6). At the ne\v
Cargo Handli ng Facility of Hong Kong Airpon, the long-span tubular
trusses were water filled to provide 120 minutes' fire resistance, and d1e
prototype trusses were fire reseed co prove their effective perforn13nce.
111ese curved trusses are ill ustrated in Figure 13.7. The pre-requisites of
1his systein are a con1inuous passage for water mrough d1e tubular
suucture, wh ich is i1self probleiuatical in srruaural design 1ern1s, and
die need for a water replenishment system, \vhich is fed by gravity.
58
Guidance is given in an SCI publication.
13.C> \.Va1er-ftlled
1ubular fa(ade
meinbers a1 llush
1~1ne 11ouse, Lo ndon
( archi1ec1: Arup
Assodmoes)
13.7 Curved water-filled roof trusses

at the £1ACTI..Supenerminal One
Cargti l fandling Facility. I lo ng Kong
Internat ional Airpon (arrhitect: foster
13. 7 Fire protection by enclosu re and l'anners)
If the steelwork is exposed, protection by an addit ional enclos ure is

probably the most con1n1on forn1 of protectio n and, with open
sections, it adopts the rectangular or squa re form of die member it
encloses. Encasing tubular steel, particu larly CHS sections is more
probleinatical, yet architecturally d1e resu lts do not necessarily
detract from the original forn1.
At Kansai International Airport, Renzo Piano dad the cigar-
shaped columns \vith a glass reinforced cen1ent (G RC) ftrep roofing
which provided 60 minutes' fire resistance. "The plasticity of the G RC
was used to give the columns soft and o rgan ic forms, and to
con1plement the exposed steehvork. Exan1ples of these details are
13.8 Fire e ngineering
As the nature o f fire protection of buildings and the safe evacuation

of occupants becomes 1nore co1nplex, a fire-e nginee ring approacll
ca n be unden aken \vhicll may justify the use of unprotected
steelwork, provided o ther 'con1pensato1y 111easures' are incorpo ra11.-cl,
sucll as sprinklers/mechanical s111oke exu·act systems, etc. "T11is is
13.8 !Zlre cl3d

(Olumns, Kansai
Airpon (arch itl'<'t
Renzo Piano)
panicularly i1nponant for buildings in wh ich traditional fire

protection is aesd1eticaUy or fw1ctiona lly not desirable, sud1 as in
sports stadia, railway stations, large halls, etc.
The standard fire-resistance test, and d1e tables of requiren1ents in
the Building Regulations '"hid1 relate to it, provide d1e 1neans of
amieving satisfuaory perfonnance of structures in fue. Co nditions
during a real fire. ho"•ever, differ fron1 d1ose during a standard fire
test Methods have been developed v.1hid1 enable d1e behaviour of
struaures in rea I or ' natural' fires to be predicted '"ith greater accuracy.
It is possible to det11onstrate d1at internal steehvork may be
designed as w1pro 1eaed in cases where:
• d1e buildings have lo'" fire load

• the steelwork supports o nl y die roof
• aa ive fire protea ion 1neasures are installed - th ese measures
1nay indude fire detection devices, sprinklers, and/o r other
s1noke contro l systen1s.
Recent full-scale fue tests on an eight-sto1y composite steel framed

building at BRE Oudington bave den1onstrated that composite
beams nlay be designed as unprotected in 111any cases for buildings
59
wim up to GO minutes' fire resistance. 'TI1is good behaviour in fue
n1ainly occurs due to tensile men1brane aaion in d1e floor slab, " 'him
is a property of composite struaures.
The 'fue engineering' approadl would nom1a lly be carried out by
a fire engineering consultant, who, in broad tern1s, would consider
me overalJ risks and effects of a fire on the structural stability. An
overall strategy '"ould be developed to deal wid1 d1is fire scenario. It
differs from the normal design nlethods, requ iring fire protection for
me individual elements of structu.re. based on a notional fa ilure
ten1pe.rature.
1he fire engi neeri ng rneL11od can be divid ed into four 1nain stages:
2
l. Detern1ination of L11e fire load (expressed as kJ/m floor area or
2
k&lin of wood equivalent).
2. Prediction of L11e 111axin1un1 fue tei11pe rature.
3. Prediction of me n1axitnun1 steel te111pei·ature.
4. Assessment of me structural stability (induding loss ofbracillg
men1bers).
Fire engineering is not gene.rally used for sn1all buildings '"here

the expense of more detailed analysis is unjustified. Nor is it an
approadl that can be used for buildings wh ich are subject to a
mange of use. sum as advanced faaory units, especially where
occupancies are not ' fixed'. It can be advantageous in struaures sud1
as sports halls o r airport terminals ivhere the d1a nge of use is
unlikely and the fire load is lo1v and predictable.
13.9 External steelwork
SteeJ,vork that is external to the building envelope can be designed

611
as unprotected, if the heal en1anating fro111 L11e windows o r other
openings in the fac;ade does aot cause the strength of the steel to
reduce to a point where it ca uaot suppon the appHed loads.
Architectw·aJly, th is is less of a problem fo r exte.raal columns than for
external bea ms, which are often in the direa path of the Hau1e energy
fron1 a '"indo'" be.low.
Various design methods exist for external stee.l\'\IOrk subject to
direct Hames or radiant heat. These methods have been used to
justify a w ide range o f structural designs. Additio nal measures, sud1
as shie.lding of the bea n1, can also be introduced . ·These approach es
are norn1ally mo re a pprop riate for build.ings '" ith discrete ' "indov.rs
in heavy weight fac;ades, such as brickwo rk, rather than continuo us
'"i ndows in lightwe igh t fac;ades.
·n1 e te mperature of the exposed steel would no nnally be designed
to be below 600 °C in order tha t it possesses reasonable st rength
retentio n fo r structu ral efficiency under the reduced loads in fire
conditio ns.
Chapter 14
Site installation
The following seaions refer to practical aspects of steel consuuction,

including bolting. " 'elding, deflections a nd allowance for to lerances.
14.1 Bolting
A limited range of bolt diameters and lengd1s is usually detailed on

a given projea, depending on the plate or elen1ent th ickness to be
joined. Fully threaded bolts are gaining popularity as they can be
used with a range of plate or men1ber thicknesses.
Countersunk holes and bolts are often appropriate for use on the
outside faces of colw11ns o r bean1s to avoid protrusion of the bolt
heads, although fabrication using countersunk bolts is n1o re
expensive. In cenain cases, countersunk bolts n1ay also reduce the
achievable resistance of Lhe connection.
Structural bolts fall into t\\IO groups: 'ordinary' o r 'black' bolts,
and preloaded or high-suengd1 friction grip (HSFC) bolts. All bolts
are available i11 a range of lengths, ava ilab le generally at 10 111rn
increments, and various dia1neters, but the industry standards for
general application are 20 and 24 rnn1 dian1eter grade 8.8 bolts. 1:u11y
dueaded bolts are produced in a small range of lengths and, for M20
grade 8.8 bolts, the preferred length of bolt is 60 n1rn.
Preloaded or HSFC bolts are generally only used in applications
where the bolt slip v.rould othen.,,ise in1pair the structural
performance, or where the structure is exposed to dynam ic or fatigue
loading. HSFC bolts are produced fron1 d1e san1e material as grade
8.8 bolts but have a larger head and stronger nut to avo id tensile
failure during tightening by a torque \Vrench. Because a connection
using HSFG bolts relies o n friction ben\leen the steel interfaces
ramer than the bearing capacity of the bolt, a co nnect ion using
HSFG bolts 1nay require n1arginall y n1 ore bolts d1an a sirnilar
co nnection using grade 8.8 bohs. ·111e hi gher cost of HSFC bolts a nd
meir tighteni ng procedure 111eans that they are n1ore expensive than
grade 8.8 bolts.
Minin1um and 111axin1un1 bolt spacings and edge distances are
specified in BS 5950 Pan 1. l11ese requiren1ents for connections
14. l Minimum and maximum bolt .,

spacings a nd edge dislances in
cunnl'Ctions subject to shear forces Mn. Max.
~ •• IAO Ill or (4()nm+41)'
~+-- -(j)- -- -$- --g.r:-o1 ••s, 1.40

2.5d
Ill or (4()nm+41)'
141 a 200 mm·
~
'2 2.5d 161oc200mm·
.i..__-$----$--- D = hde diamaer

d = oo• dneter
1 = d\Dmess d ihilner pla1e
• =-whfw'I suqec110 possitie ootrosOO
subject to shear in the bolts are sun11narised in Figure 14 . 1.

Maximum edge distances a re inU"oduced o nly '"here !here is a risk of
corrosio n between Lhe plates. An e.xample of a bolted connection
with a shaped gusset plate is illustfated in Figure 6.22.
14.2 Welding
Most fabrication shops use manual u1etal arc (MMA), sen1i-

auton1atic and ful ly automatic equipment, depending on the \veld
type and the length of run. "!he detailing of the steel,,•ork must take
account of the \velding procedure. 'Ihe welding processes that are
con1111only used are shown in Table 14.1.
\!Velding equipment has become 111uch lighter, and more readily
portable and easier to use in site applications. Normal MMA \Velding
techniques are usua lly emp loyed for si te welding. although prebea1
Table 14. 1 Commonly used welding processes
Process Automatic or Shielding Main use \<\lorksh op Comments 1'1aximum size

manual or site fillet weld in
single run
Manual me1al arc Manual Flux coating Short runs \<\lo rkshop Fillet welds 6 mm
{MMA) on electrode or site larger than
6 mm are
usually m uJtj-
pass, and
are relatively
expensive
Submerged arc Automatic Powder flux Long runs or \<\lorksh op or Vlith twin heads, 10 mm
(SURARC) deposited h eavy buu occasionally simultaneous
over ar<" nnd wdds o n si1e welds either
recyded side of joim
are possibl.:
Metal inengas Automatic Gas Short or long \<Vorksh np MIC has Smm
{M IC) or semi- (generally runs replac~d manual
automatk C02) welding in many
workshops
SitP insrallarion 201
'e~
ROCO !11P 14.2 Butt and fillet welds between ~1eel
i~
•
!!!
-+\ ~
4M11 ·
!"Ir ~~· ~t plates
f!:!
-tt1n
r:
~
f
a:
f
Fusion lace
Ful penelraliln butt ""'d Partial penetration butt \Veld
l •<i
L eg
Ii'
"'
Throo•
Single-Sided lilel Wt*I Dool>IG-sidod llBel weld
1nay be required for son1e types and thicknesses of steel. OveJhand or

downhand \velding is preferred because of the difficulty (and hence
the slow speed) of underhand welding. Situatio ns with underhand
site-welding should be eliminated by careful design.
14.2.1 fypes of tvelds
Two generic forms of \\•elded connection between steel plates and steel
sections are bun and ftllet \Velds, \vhich are illusu·ated in Figui-e 14.2.
Fillet welds are preferred in general co nstruction because of their
ease of placement and their 101\•er heat input. Syn1metrically placed
fillet welds reduce angular distortion when v.•elding p lates. Single-
sided fillet welds are usually only used in co nnectio ns betv.•een
hollow sections. Control of dist onion is often left to the skill of the
fabricator. Butt welds require preparation of the ends of the elements
to be welded and are therefore n1ore expensive. However, tl1ey can
achieve full strength of I.he connected elen1ents.
Welds always have a d1aracteristic rippled sur£1ce. Sometin1es it is
requested that they should be ground do\vn to a sn1ootl1 finish for
aesthetic or strucrural reasons. Welds suitable for grinding do\vn are
tnade a little larger, as metal is lost in grinding and the strength has to
be n1ainrained Of coUise mis involves additional work and cost.
Specifications frequently state 'AIJ \velds to be ground down'. It may be
pos.~ible to n1ake \vorth1vhile savings by specifying 'All visible welds to
be ground do\vn', unless there are structural reasons for removing
surface defeas, for exan1ple in a futigue sen~ itive co nnection.
14 .2.2 F11/et rvelds

Fillet welds are generally used to attad1 end-plates or b rackets. Fillet
welding is usually cheaper than butt we lding but it relies on
projections (of up to 15 mm) Lo be able to adequately place the \¥eld.
A fil let vveld can be specified by its throat thickness and/or leg
length. Where the throat thickness is not specified, the actual throat
thickness should not be less than 0.7 times the specified leg length
for concave fillet welds, and not tnore than 0.9 times the actual leg
length for convex fillet welds.
14.2.3 Butt welds
Bun welds join all or part of the cross-section of the connected

n1en1bers and may be sped.fled as full or panial penetration \Velds.
Partial penetration is often sufficien t depending on the loads 1.hat are
required to be transferred. ·nie prepara1.ion of the connected parts is
firsc made by shaping the ends of the places to the required depth of
the \veld.
Where ful l penetration is required, a 'backing suip' is placed at the
ren1ote side of the weld. Alternatively, the weld 1nay be niade fron1
both sides by preparing or shaping both sides of the plate. l-lo\vever
this is usually more costly than single-sided '"elding. Butt '"elds
should generally be made ln che factory. as qualicy control is difficult
to achieve on-sice.
14.2. 4 Welding coriditioris
Welding should be carried out in workshops or under controlled

conditions. Precautions should be taken during site \Velding to
protect the workpiece fron1 adverse weather conditions. When
surfaces to be welded are wet, or where the a1nbient ten1perarure is
o•c or less, the sections must be heated locally until they are wan11
to the touch for a d istance of not less than 75 1n1n on either side of
the jo int. i:unhermore, the surfaces to be welded should be dry; clean
and free from rust, o il, grease and paint (except \"eld through'
prin1er).
When subjected to elevated te1nperatures during '"elding or
cutting, fu1nes \vill be produced '"hid1 may be injurious to health. To
ensure that threshold li rnits are not e,'l(ceeded, the pruner paint
should be removed in the area '"bich is to be treated, or provision
should be n1ade for adequate ventilation during '"elding or cutting
'"bid1, if necessary, include local fun1e extraction.
14 .3 Welding tubular sections
Structural ho llow sections are n1ade fron1 steels co1nplying \'Vid1 the
31
req uirements of BS EN 10 210 and are thus of \Veldable quality. In
order fo r d1e steel to be we ldable, it is important that, a 1 the 1i111e of
order, the steel is specified as having a maxi1nun1 carbon equivalent
va lue as specified in 'tab le A2 or B2 of BS EN 10 210. A variel)' of \'Veld
de1.a ils may be employed for tubular me111bers and some assen1blies
14.3 Complex wdded node of t uhular can require comp lex we lding. for example as with the connection
column bet,'Veen the tubular column and its inclined anus in Figure 14.3.
In son1e special applicalions, distortion ofLhe cross-section due to

the welding process should be carefully co ntrol led, and it is necessary
to seek the fabricator's advice as to the approp riate details and
welding specification.
14.3.1 Manual nietal arc welding
Manual metal arc; (MMA) \Velding \Vas the welding process most
commonly used for SHS construction. Its use is being replaced by the
sen1i-au1on1atic or 1ne1al inen gas (M.IG) weld ing process wh id1 is
becon1ing the 1nore popular, especially for shop-,velded fabricatio n.
MMA is often the co1nmon process en1ployed in cases of restricted
access.
14.3.2 Fillet and fillet-butt tvelds
Fu let-bun \\•elds are used " 'hen \velding CHS or RJ-IS 1nembers, as the
ends of the incon1ing section may be profiled TI1e tern1s describe the
welding conditions which apply 1vhen various size ratios of braci ng
to the 1nain n1en1ber are involved.
Figure 14.4 sho1vs the 1veld details for nvo bracings 1neeting main
members of considerably different sizes. In both cases, welding
/
/
------~---------------
•
/
- . .,,t_. .. _ . _ .. ___ ..
----------------------
/
/
------- ~ ---------------
• /
I• /
I•
-----t-
•
·-·
I•
I
14.4 r-illet and fillei-butt ,wJds to Cl IS
manbt!rs
co nditions at the crow n are similar and so, for the san1e loads,
identical fillets \vouJd be used However, condjtions differ at tJ1e side
of the tube. I11e curvature of the larger main member gives good
conditions for fillet welds, whilst the curvature of the sn1aJJer main
nien1ber necessitates a butt weld. The change from fillet to butt
\velding must be continuous and smooth.
For calculating weld sizes, both types are considered as fillet
v.1elds. TI1e fillet-butt preparatio n is used where the diameter of the
bracing is one-third or 111ore of the diameter of the main 1uember.
14.3.3 Continuous u1elding
Continuous welding is preferred when conn eaing SHS or RJ-IS

n1en1bers, even if nol required struaurally. This is advised because of
the possible risk of co rrosion in the gaps between the elements.
·n1 e usua l practice in the fabrication of fra111es usi ng Lubular
sections is to \VOrk towards the open ends, that is to stan \veldiog in
the n1iddle of a frame and to work outwards o n aJternate sides lo tJ1e
ends. ·n1 is tends to reduce distonioo and avoid cumulative errors.
Flange connections are usuaJly associated with a tight tolerance
on tJ1e length of the component. It is good practice to ftrst co111plete
all ilie otJ1er \Velding before locating and welding on the flanges as a
fi11a l operation.
14 .4 Tolera nces
The National Structural Sceelworll Specification for Building

56
Corrst111ciion (the NSSS), published by the BCSA, is Lhe indusuy
sta nd ard for specifiers and fabricators. It provides greater unifon11ily
in specifica tio ns issued wil h tender a nd con traa docun1ents.
App ropriate to lera nces sho uld be agreed by a ll the panies at the stan
of tJ1e pro ject, as late d1anges to allow for these effects can be costly.
Deviatio ns ca n be dea.ll with by two n1eans: providi11g adjust111eot
to overco n.1e local lack-of-fit (e.g. shims). or providing clearance to
give two adjacent co111poneots separate zones. Bod1 adjusu11eot and
clearance provisions are often referred to as tolerances.
The tolerances provided in BS 5950: Pan 2 are permjtted
deviations set on behalf of the designer to rnsure consistency \vith
the design assun1ptions underlying BS 5950: Pan 1.
Two grneric types of to Iera ace exist:
• geon1etric variatio ns in seetioo size and also in the fabricated

n1en1bers
• men1ber deviat ions after the co n1pletio o o f the erected sLructure.
Limitatio ns o n these two forn1s o f to lerance are presented in Table

14.2 and Tab le l4.3. Stricter t.olerance limits 111ay be appropriate, bu t
thi s may lead LO increased cos ts of th e structure. Special
co nsideratio ns may be required for glazing supports. ·n1 e basic
56
din.1ensiona l to lera nces for rolled sections are given in tJ1e NSSS.
Table 14.2 Typical geomelric tolerances for steel sections (taken from the Nnrionnl S1nn1ural Sieelwork Spedficarion for Building
61
Omsrruction )
Oi terion for tolerance Acceptable toleraoces for section type
Rolled UJ3/ UC fabricated section
Depth ofsection. D (in mm)

Ds 180 +3.0 or - 2.0 mm ±4.0 mm
180 < D s 400 +4.0 or - 2.0 mm
400 < D s 700 +5.0 or 2.0 mm
D > 700 +6. O or 2.0 mm
\Vidth of section. B (in mm)

B s 110 +4.0 or 1.0 mm ±4.0 mm
llO<B S210 +4.0 or 2.0 mm
210 < B s 325 +4. 0 or 4.0 mm
B> 325 +6. 0 or 5.0 mm
Off-centre of web
102 < D <305 3.2 mm t5.0 mm
0>305 4.8 mm
Bow of web Greater of d/ 150 or 3 mm

Horizomality of Oange
BsllC) 1.5 mm Greater of B/ 100 or 3 mm
B> 700 2 0;. of ;, J> 6.5 mm
Venicality of web at suppon Greater of d/300 or 3 mm

Squareness of rue end not prepared for D/300
bearing (plan or elevation)
Squareness of cut end prepared for hearing D/HlOO

(plan or elevation)
Overnll length ±2 mm ±3mm

Straightness along length ofheam Greater of L/ 1()00 or 3 mn1 Greater of L/ HX>O o r 3 mm
Note:
L mtmher length
d weh depth
D section depth
B section width (all in mm)
Table 14.3 Acceptable tolerances in general steel construetion ( Nt1rional

61
Srruauml Siedwork Specifica1ion for Bui/din,~ Consrrucr:ion )
l.e\~I of adjacent beams ±S mm

Position ofnoor beams at columns ± 10 mm
Lewi at each end of the same heam S mm
Position o fheam from wall ±25 mm
Lelll:!I of foundations +()t o 3 mm
Position of holding d own bolts 20 mm
Maximum gap betw~'<!n hearing surfnee of column end D/1000 + I mm
(depth D)
14.5 Defl ections
Control of deflectio ns a nd long-tern1 moven1ent is important if other

elen1ents that are attad1ed to the structure may be adversely affected,
or if the use of the building is impaired, such as by \vater leakage. Jt
is not appropriate here to discuss the wide range of deflection limits
that are appropriate for different applications, but only to note
certain \\'ell-defined cases that the designer should address, as
follows:
• edge bea 111s supporting cladding, sudi as glaz~d fayides

• sway deflection of unbraced fran1es subjea to \\'ind action
• vert ical moven1ent of low pi tdi ponal fra1nes o r roofs
• defl ect ion of bea ms supporting compann1en1 \Valls
• visua l deflections or insta llation o f raised noors in long-span
beams
• horizo nta l move men t of tall structures
• li mit to floor vibratio ns in specialist buildings, sud1 as hospitals
• use of isolati ng pads for deflection-sensitive equipu1ent
• n1ovement of supports to cranes and travelling machinery.
111e designer should agree sensible deflection limirs \Yith specialist

suppliers of the cladding and lifts, etc., and with che steel fabricator.
"The norn1al lin1it on deflections for beams subject co imposed load
37
is beam span/36 0, in order that deflections are not noticeable and
that partitions are not subject to cracking.
Stricter deflection li mits may be required in many of the above
r~1ses. A rota I deflectio n li1nit of 60 n1n1 is generally used for long
span interna l beams, subjea also to limits o n noor vibration. A lin1i1
of spa n/500 is often specified for edge bean1s supporting brittle
forn1s of cladd ing. It n1ay be necessary to pre-camber long-span
bea1ns (spa n > 12 m) in order to off-set permanent deflections whi ch
111ay be visua lly unacceptab le. 'th e a1nount of pre-camber is norrnally
set at half the ant icipated total deflectio n, but no t less than a
practical 111ini111u111 of25 tnm.
Chapter 15
Other design
consideratio ns
15.1 Pre-contract involvement of the fabricator
"The purpose and benefils ofLhe pre-contra cl involven1ent of Lhe steel

fubricaLor are:
• the particular skills and experience of the fabricator in si1nilar

projects can be identified
• the fabricator can coa1rneat on the practicality and cost-
effectiveaess of the proposed scbea1e
• practical details and an appropriate degree of standardisation
can be established
• the struaural engineer and ard1itect can incorporate c;om1nents
by the fabricator, and update their designs drav1ings as necessary
• more ac:rurate budget estin1ares can be prepared and monitored
as the design evolves.
15.2 Drawing examination and approval
Ln Lerms of dra\ving submission, Lhe architect sketd1es the detai ls Lhal

are required visually. "The structw·a] engineer then develops these
details and performs the structural calculations and refines then1 Vl•here
necessary, liaising and coordinating \vith the architect, as approp riate.
1he fabricator then produces detailed dra\vings for £1bricatioa of the
steelwork. based on the structural dra\vings, whid1 may be supplied on
disk. The major fabricators have computer-aided design (CAD) syste1ns
whim can be progranimed into shop n1ad1inery for £1brication.
Where the detailing is critical to the success of the sche.me, the
archirect shouJd insist on exan1ining the chosen dera ils for
con1 pliaace wid1 d1e design concept.
15.3 Key decisions/checklists
La uaditional design solutions, \vbere the steel is not exposed to view,

the design and detailing of die connections is usually ca rried oul by
the steel fabricator, who will use details which are the easiest and th e
most econo mic to fab ricate. la situations where the steel " 'ill be
vis ible, this route 01ay not lead Lo details acceptable to the ard1itecL
Changing the co nn ection details at a late stage to suit the
ard1 itectural require.meats will be a costly exercise for all parties,
including the structural e.aginee.r and fabricator. 'lbe.refore, typic.al
connections should be designed, and details established, before me
steeh'lork is te.nde.red.
Essentially, the fo llowing check-list deftaes the appropriate criteria
for d1ese decisio ns:
• the deta ils adopted 01ust be struaurally acceptable

• d1e structure and its detai ls should be econo1nic to fabricate
• the co ntractor ( fab rica to r) may prefer to detail his O\'ln
co nnectio ns, but the designer should be confident that his
design approad1 can be rea lised (this e1nphasises th e need for a
fabricato r LO be involved early in the project)
• the detai ls should be aesthetically pleasing and elegant
• the deta ils should lead to an efficient n1ethod of erection - d1e
size of sub-asseinb lies and the location of splices/lifting deats
are important aspects of me erection procedure.
'Th e designer should also define on the dra\'liags and in d1e

specification, d1e additional inforn1ation required by the fabriauor,
such as:
• d1e design loads a ad mon1e.nts for the connections

• if d1e connection is to be co ncealed or exposed
• ,.,,hed1er or not the details be es tablis hed solely by the fabricator
• ifd1e co nnectio n is to be bolted or welded (depending also on
aesthetic considera Lio ns)
• whether the we lds shou ld be ground smooth
• '"'he.ther d1e welds ca n be interminent (or, ahernatively, they
rnust be cont inuo us)
• d1e 1n ethod of removing the sag from tie rods, sud1 as by
turnbuckles, or d1e mreaded ends of the rods and forks
• specialist aspects, such as whether to use couplers rather than
turnbuckles (if accep table to me architect). Turaburkles can
have a left-hand and right-hand thread to tightm or tension it.
Turnbuckles are usually necessary in bars longe.r than 6 m.
'TI1e level of involve.meat of me fabricator in the design and

detailing of d1e co nn ections should also be established ·This
inforn1ation is also required at me te.ade.r stage in orde.r that d1e
fabricator ca n estimate costs accurately.
15.4 Fabricator's respons ibilities during erection
'fh e structu ra l des igner should provide an initial erection med1od

state.n1en1 as pa.rt of the Construction (Design and ManagenJent)
, •I
Regulauons 1994. The erector of me fran1e\"10rk must ensure
Oclier design ro11siderario11s 209
stability during erection, and, therefore, lifting lugs and other

elen1ents to be utilised during erection should be determined at the
fabricator's shop. If the lifting lugs are designed to be pern1anent
fixtures, the architect should liaise '"ith d1e £1bricator to ensure that
they are acceptable aesthetically in d1e final design. Where lifting lugs
are to be removed, provision should also be nlade for d1e reinoval,
grinding down and reinstaten1ent of protective coating.
15.5 Mock-ups and prototypes
Where co mplex o r innovative detai ls are proposed. it is often cost-

and tin1e-e1Tea:ive to construct a prototype o r n1ock-up of the
pro posed constructio n. ror exan1pl e. a critical factor in the vVaterloo
International project " 'aS I.he nine n1ontl1s lead-in time before
staning o n site. ·rnis enabl ed the fabricator to nlake a full scale mock-
up to test the assembly for buildabiJity. As a result of th is n1ock-up,
I.he connection details " 'ere i.J.i.1proved and son1e of the te1nporary
work arrangen1ents " 'ere revised. 1l1is helped the cladding and
glazing sub-contractors, and highlighted sensible tolerances on
installation. In particular, planar glazing requires very tight
tolerances, which may require erection trials of d1e support su·uccure.
The same principle 'vas applied to d1e La\v Facu lty at Can1bridge
(see Figure 4.16). TI1e project \Vas originally designed '"id1 cast
nodes, as it was envisaged d1at all castings would be the sa1ne. In the
final design, this \vas not 1he case. ·111e contractor offered a '"elded
joint which was accepted by d1e designers. TI1e glazing cleats on the
nodes were produced by investment casting (or tl1e lost wax process)
10 achieve a finer finish.
15.G 1'ransp ortation of steelwork

Current legislation requires tl1at loads up to .5.1 m wide require o ne
month's ootice for transportation, subject to a maximun1 length of
27 m and a maximum height requi.ren1ent of 4.93 nl. Smaller loads
up to 3.6 tu wide require no specific ootice (ald1ough d1ey 1nust
observe the same height and length liniits). Larger assen1blies should
be fabricated as sub-assen1blies of less than these dimensions, '"hich
are connected togemer on site. As noted earlier, d1e connection and
detailiog of the interfaces ben,reen these sub-assen1blies is very
imponant to the aesthetics and adequacy of the final design.
Chapter 16
References
and sources of
info11nation
This sectio n reviews sources o f info nnati on and useful contacts. It is no t

exhaustive. hut is intend ed to be a useful first step.
Further sources of Fi re ensi 11ee1i11g Steel specifio11io11 C:ORus CowRS

information ·1ne Steel Constructio n ·1ne British Constntctional Innovatio n Cenire
Institute Steelwork Association Sho tto n Wo rks
Castings Warrington Fire Research Corus Consiruction Centre Sho tto n
Casting Techno logy Centre Ltd Deeside
International Corus (Swind en Strip steel products Cl-IS 2NI-I
Tec.hnology Centre) Corus Colors Tel. 01244 892 4 34
Camposite consrr11a io11 Building Research
'Inc Steel C'nnstructio n Establishment Titbular cons1n1crio11 ( :0RUS ·n JBF.S AND PIPES
ln&.itltte Conis ·1\ 1bes and Pipes TcchniQI Marketing
Conis Consiruct.io n Centre Firl' pro1ecrio11 I'() Box 10 1
Asso rfati o n of Stn1rtuml Weltli ng red111ologi• Corby
Ca1111errio11s Fire Pro tection ·111e Wei ding Institute No nha nts
1he St~el Constructio n Contract o rs {ASFPC) NN 17 50/\
Insti tlll~ F'Teeplione05()(1 123 133
British Co nstrunio nal Ct1lva11izi11g Tel. 0 1536 40 21 21
Steelwo rk Associatio n lld 'Ille Galvanizas' A~sociation Sources of advice Fa.t. 0 153 6 404049
Corrosion Glazing BR111s11 Co NsTRucnoNAL CoRtJS SnuP

W & I Leigh Ltd Pilkingto n Glass Ltd SnmtWClRK AsSOCIATION Ill> PRODUCTS
Internatio nal Paints 4 Wh itehall Coun PO Box IO
Corus (Swinden lnmmescent Coatings Westm inster Newpo n
·1echno lo gy Centre) v.1& J Leigh ud Lond o n Gwent
Internatio nal Paints S\.VlA 2ES NP19 OXN
Curved sections Nullifire Tel. 0207 839 8566 Tel. 0 1633 755 171
'lbe Angle Ring C'n. Ltd Fax. 0207 976 I 634
Bamshaw Senio n Qw1/i ry assurance ( :0RUS Tin tNOt.OCV
Be nders lld British Constructional Coous CoN.o;rnumoN CF.NTR£ S\vinden Lahora tories
Steelwo rk Assodatinn Ud PO Bnx I lvtoorg;ue
E11viro1111w111111 issues f'rnd ingha m I lo use Rotherham
The Steel Constn1ctio n S/imdl'll Scunthorpe S. Yo rks
Inst itll!C Corus Construr tion Centre DN l 6 1BP SGO 3 /\R
Co rus (Swind~ ·1ne Sted Cnnstn1nion At/11iso11• wl. li11e: Tfl. 0 1709 820166
Techno lo gy Centre) Instiwte 0174 2 4 0;';060 FtL~. 0 1709 825337
212 Architect11ml Desig11 ill Steel
GAJ.VANIZf.R.~' /\ssOCIK!lON PILKINGfON GI.ASS LIMrrno BS 6399: The An of rlie S1rt1e111ral

Wrens Cou n Pilkingto n Architectural Loading for Buildings, Pans E11gi11eer
56 Victo ria Road Alexandra \~lorks 1 to 3 B. Addis. Published by
Sutton Coldfield St I Jelens Anemis 1994
West l\llicllands \M\10 3Tf BS EN 10034: 1993
B72 lSY Tel. 01744 692998 Strurtural steel I and J-l Arc/1i1ec1 ural Teachi11g
Tel. 0121 355 8838 Fax. 01744 4 51326 sections. Tolerances o n Resource: Studio Guide,
Fax. 0121 355 8727 shape and dimensio ns 2nd Edirio11
Published byThe Steel
TllE STEEL Co.'1STRUCT10N ENV 1090: Consirunion Institute.
INSTmm: Bibliography Erection o f steel structures 2000
SiIwood Park
Asrot '!lie following doruments BS 3 100: Arrl1irerrure i11 Sree/ - 11ie
Berkshire ('Ontain useful information Sperif1 rat ion of steel A11srralia11 Co11rexr
SL5 7QN but are n01 referr~d to rast ings fnr general Alan Ogg
Tel. 01344 623345 dirertly in the text engineer ing purpose Published by 'n1e Royal
Ftlt. 0 1344 6 22944 Ausimlian Institute o f
Bri tisli Sta ndar<ls BS 476: Pans 20 and 2 1 /\rchitects, 1987
'[)IEWEIDlNC INS1TTlITT BS EN 499: 1995 Fire test~ o n building
Ab ington Hall Vielding conswnables - materiols and Smrcrural S1eel111ork Desig11.
Abington general electrodes structures Srrucnffal Design Guide ro
Ca m bridge for manual metal arc BS 5950: Pan 1 : 2000
CB! GAL welding o f non alloy BS 8202: Published by the SCI
Tel. 01223 891 162 and fine grain steels Coatings for fire protection and BC:SA. 2001,
- classification of buildi ng elements 6th Edjtion
(Replaces BS 639: 1986)
BS 44 79: 1990 Scrucmral S1eelworl1 -
Specialist companies BS 3 692: 2001 De.s ign o f 3rticles to be Fabrica1io11
ISO metric prerisio n co3ted Volume One:
'1)1E ANCU: RINC (;(l. Lm hexagon bolts, srrews Publication No. 7/80
Bloom field Rond and nuts: meirir BS EN 22.<;.53: 1995 B. J. Davi es nnd
Tipto n units ~1elde.d, hr;ized nnd E. J. C rawley
West Nlidlands soldered jn ints - Published by the BCSA
OY4 9El I BS 4190: 2001 ~ymbolk represe ntation
Tel. Ol61 834 8441 ISO 1netrir blark hexagon o n drnwings (replnces Sr n1c111ral Steelwork -
Fa.t. (ll 61 832 4280 bolt~, screws and nut5 BS 499: Pan 20) Erec1io11
Publication No. 20/ 89
Jl..\RNSllAWSECllON BS 4395: Pan I : 1969 O ther useful p11blicatio11s W. H. Arch
BENDERS l.:m High strength frictio n grip Design in Sreel Series Published by the
Tipton Road bolts and associated nuL5 Vario us publications BCSA
Tividale, Warley and v.oashers for structural covering Adaptability,
West l\llicllands engineering: metric series: Slimflor, Slimdeli and Steel Co1um1crio11 Yearbooli
B69 3HY general grade. Cellular Bea ms. NlacMillan Scon, 2003
Tel. 0 121 557 8261 Corus publicmions
Fax. 0 121 557 5323 BS 5531: 1988 (avaibble from the Coru.~ \>\'eldi11g Process Ted1110/ogy
Code o f prnrtire for safety Constn1rtion Centre) P. T I Jou Id croft
CAs'nNC TF.OINOLOCV in erecting structural C.~mbridge University
INff,RN,mONAL fr;unes Arcl1i1en11re 111111 Q111srr11c1io11 Press, Cambridge. I 977
No. 7 E:lsi Bnnk Road in S I PP/
Sheffield BS EN 10027· I : I992 Ed itors: A. Blanc, NI. Sree/ Desig1wr's ,\.la1111a/
52 3PT Designation systems fnr l\llcEvoy and R. Pbnk 6th Editio n
Tel. Oll 4 272 8647 steel: steel names, Publ ished 1993 E ;ind Black,~! Sde.ntif1c,
ftLt. 0114 273 0852 principal ;y1nbnls PN Spon 2003

Refcrences and sources of i11for111n t ion 213
Sm1cnirlll Delllili11g in Steel Modular Constructio n Architect's working

tvl.YJ I. Bragas! Using Light Steel details
·lbo mas Telford, 2000 Framing: An Architect's
Guide Archirect's Worllill8 Dewils 1
Edited by David Jenkins
Sreel Detllilers' NlllllUlll SCI Publication P272
and Louis Dezan
A. 1-layward and Corrosion Protection Guide
F. Weare fo r Sreelworil in Building Arclrirect's Worfting Details 2
Blac1.-wcll Science, Ref urbishment Edited by Alastair Blyto n
2002 CArus publications
Arclrirect's ~Vorllillg De111ils 3
Edited by Susan Dawso n
RIBA CPD Pllckllges i11 rl1e Fire Prorecrion for Struc111ra/
Open u11T11i11g Sn"ies: Steel in buildings Architect's ~Vorl1i11g Deu1ils 4
Te11sio11 Sm1c11ires by 3rd Edition Ed ited hy Susan Dawso n
John "lbomton. See AJ Published by the AST'PC
16 Sept 1992 and the SCI Arrl1irer1'.~
Worldng De111ils 5
Edited by Susan Dawson
Tiie l111egr111io11 of
Srr11cr 11re lllld Setvirl'S in Srn1c111rn I !'ire Engineering
t\rclritect's Worlli11g Dewils 6
umg SJ1i111 Commercitd Investigation of Ed ited by Susan Dawso n
B11ildi11ss by Peter Broadgate Phase 8 Fire
Trebilcock. See AJ 30 SCI Publication Architect's ~Vorldng Details 7
Sept 1992 Edited by Susan Dawso n
Corrosio11 Pro1ecrio11 Srrucrural Fire S11fery:
Al I pub! ished by EMAP
of Sreelworll by Ken A Handbooh for Arcliicecrs Construct.
Johnso n. See AJ 30 and Engi 11ee1J
Sept 1992 SCI Publi(ati on Pl 97, Relevant case stud ies
The FllbriCllrimi mui 1999 deal ing with steel pro jeas
Ereaion of Steelwork by or useful details fro m these
Peter Trebilcock seven volumes nre
presented in the following
Brick Cltulding Ill Steel list (see overleaf).
Prm11e1l B11ildi11ss
Published jointly by the
Brirk Develo pment
Assncimion and British
Steel, 1986
S1n1cturlll S1eelwork
Fabrica1io11
R. Taggart. Corus
Co nstruaio n Centre
(see also reprint from
TI1e Strucnrral Engineer,
Vo l. 64A. No. 8. August
1986)
Liglu Sreel a11d Modular

Co11sm1crim1
Building Design
Using Cold f'Ormed
Steel: Consrrunio n,
Dem ii ing and
Practice
SCI Publication PI GS
2 14 Architect11ml Desig11 ill Steel
Page Title Architect
Arc/1itec1's ~Vomi11g Dett1ils 1

37 Profile metal cladding, Silverstone Press Facility Denton Scon Associates
53 /vletal dad ding system, YR.\.! Partnership offices YRM Pannership
57 Glazed runain wall, IBM O>sha m offices Foster and Panners
73 Profiled metal deck, Schwar.d<opf headquarters Denron Scon Associates
85 Steel frame, Liverpool University School of Architecture Dave King & Ro d McAllister
97 Canopy, Grande Arche, La Defense I 0 von Spreckelsen
101 Steel-framed hakonies. Riverside I lousing Richard Rogers Pannershi p
105 Steel-framed balconies, Private I louse David Wild
109 Balcony. Ingram Square I lousing Elder & C'.a nno n
113 Counterbalanced steel staircase. Sheri ngha m Leisure Pool Alsop & Lynll
121 Steel SL,i1Tase, Liverpool University School of Arch itecture O;ive King & Rod McAllister
125 Steel staircase. Riverside I lousing Richard Rogers Pacinership
129 Steel stai«ase. Schwai-"kopf headquaners Denton Scott Associates
133 Steel stairrase. Anist's Studio Er ir Parry Associates
Arcl1i1ec1's Womi11g Details 2

25 Blockworl<, (UJtain-\valling, steel !attire stn1cture, Leisure Centre, Doncaster FaulknerBrowns
37 Glazed entrance screen o ffices Bennetts Associates
45 Glazed cladding Ian Ritchie Architect
61 Glass cladding, Willis Faher & Dumas office build ing. Ipswich Foster and Panners
72 Membrane roo f. Imagination Buil ding. Londo n Herron Associates
97 Exposed structural steel frame, Exchange Ho use, Broadgate, Lo ndo n Skidmore, Owings & Merrill
105 Roo f level walkway, Ans Faculty, Bristol U niversity /vlacO>rmac Jamieson
Pritchard & Wright
113 Internal timber and steel spiral staircase Koen van Velsen
11 7 External timber and steel staircase, ·111c Arena, Stockley Park An1p Associates
157 Glnss lifts, offices, Stockley Park Foster and Panners
Arr11i1e.ct's \>\'orili11g Ol>1ails 3

13 Steel ha Irony struciun: to six storey private flats in Glasgnw The Davis Duncan Pannership
17 External and internal wall to hotel at I leathrow Airpnn, London Manser Associates
25 Eaves detail at Stansted Airpon Foster and Panners
56 Steel ponal frames within soli d brirkwall in Liverpool Street Statio n Architenure & Design Group
refurbishment, London
63 External wall with gun metal structure and glazed bays at Bracken I louse Michael I lopki ns & Parmers
()ffices, London
75 Roof glazing to John Le\\'is Department Sto re, Ki ngsto n Ahrends Buno n & Koralek
79 Roof and drum structure to Redhill Station ti cket Hall Troughton ,\4cAslan
83 Lightwell at lhe Royal Academy, Londo n Foster and Panners
87 Tubular steel suppons to metal sheet roof at Po nds Forge Swimming Pool. FaulknerBrowns
Sheffield
98 Stainless steel mansard roof on a steel frame to office building in Soho, London Hawkins Brown
110 PVC fabric roof srrunu"re to grandstand at Goodwood Rarerourse, Sussex Arup Associates
119 Steel roof stn1nure bridging between two blocks at Royal Insurance o ffices. Arup Associates
Peterborough
122 Glazed atrium in Edwardian warehouse conversio n, Covent Garden, London /estico & Whiles
154 Struciural services walkway a1 de Beers t est farility, Sunningh ill, Berksh ire OR.\llS Designers & Architecis
167 Circulation and intt:mal struciure of Bri1ish Pavilion at Sevill e Expo 92 Nicholas Grimshaw &
Panners
171 Pedesttian hridge at Strathclyde University Reiarh & I lall
Refcre11ces and sources of i11for111n t ion 215
Arc/1itec1's ~Volking Dett1ils 4

13 Adaptation of a proprietary glazing system, BRn: Perfor ming Ans and Cassidy Taggan Pannership
Technology School, Croydon
45 Double doors, Sculpture Gallery, Lee.d5 Jeremy Dixon, Edward Jones
59 Glazing & suppon suucrure. to a vaulted atrium, Shopping Centre, Non.\<ich Lamben Scon & Innes
75 A glazed steel roof & wall strueture, Sta ti on, East Croydon Alan Brookes Associates
79 A roof of air filled cushions Schl um berger Building, Cambr idge Michael 1-lopki ns & Partners
87 A curved profiled sheet, metal roof, Surgery, Swiss Cottage, Londo n Penrarch Limited
91 Space frame Vault, Bentall Centre, KingSton-upo n: lha me.s Building Design Partnership
99 A timber & steel church roof, Brentford , Middlesex Nlicbael Blee Design
103 Glazed wall and roof light, Factory, Glasgow 'lhe Ryder Nicklin Pannership
111 A barrel-vaulted plant enclosure, Public Li brary, Croydon Tihhalds Nlonro
118 A fahrir roof to a Stairwell, Re.gent S~ London Sheppard Rohson
I2 I An asymme.trir fabric roof, Channel ·1u nnd ·1enn inal , Srn1s.-x Building Design Paru1ership
125 Pitched roof with ate.oded eaves, Univias ity, Enfiel d, Middlest!X Rivington Street Studio
135 Bakony front & ligh1ing audi1orium. Southend-on-Sea, Esst!X Tim f'Oster Architects
143 Steel staircase and balusrrade, I lomdean Co mmunity Schon!, I lan1psh ire I lampshire (',ounty Council
Architects' Depanment
151 A staircase "~th glazed balustra de., 'lheatre, Edinburgh '!he law and Dunhar-
Nasmith Partnership
166 A freestanding glazed umbrella canopy, Sydney, Australia Harry Seidler and Associates
169 A glazed footbridge, Car Park, Sunderland Napper Collenon Partnership
Arcl1i1ect's Womi11g Derails 5

10 Churm Hall extension, Pinner Weston Williamson
22 Acoustically isolated external wall Simpson Associates
24 Triangular panels on :i curved facade Alsop & Stormer
32 External steelwork to pavilion Studio DO\mie
36 Class rainwater rondunor Nicholl Russell studios
44 Glazed wnll and supponing sun-screen Studio BMD
52 External steelwork in St Catherine's Oxfnrd I Iodder Assoria tes
64 Glazed farade and curved roof truss, Cardiff Bay Ahrends, Bunon & Kovalck
72 (..urved glass wall and tubular Vierendeel 1n1ss suppnn Foster and Panners
87 Steel framed wind tower, lnnica, Ca mbridge RI I Pannership
116 ('.ast structural nodes, Queen's Dock, Liverpool Da\<id ,\/larks, Julia Barfield
132 Steel bridge \\<Ith slate steps, Cable & \.\Tireless, Cnvenlry MacCormac Jamieson
Pritchard
144 Steel stairs, Channel 4 b ui lding Richard Rogers Partnershjp
156 Glazed canopy, UEA, Norv,,kh John Nliller & Panners
160 Student centre, University o f Liverpool King McAllister
172 Stainless steel lobby 1-lallet & Pollard
Arc/1i1ect's \.Vorlli11g Derails 6

7 Wall and gallery of a recital room Van Heynigen & I loward
23 Detailing profiled metal cladding Paul I lyan Architects
71 An u ndulm ing glazed roof Winter.;gill & f-aulkner
79 A curved glass roof/rnnopy DEGW
83 A spectacular day lit strunure founded nn ol d warehous ing Munkenbeck & Marshall
91 Junctions between mncrete and s1eel roof siructur.:s Richard Rogers Paru1ership
95 An inflated roof structure Da\<id Nlorley Arrhi1ects
HY7 An external steel safety staircase CZWG
2 16 Architect11ml Desig11 ill Steel
Arc/1itec1's \,Vomi11g De1t1ils 6 ( co111·i11ued}

131 Inserting a mezzanine Ooor Associated Architeas
1.51 (',anopy fo r perrol statio n Llfshutz Davidson
155 Anists o f the floating bridge Future Systems
159 An o utside roo m 'vith a view Anthony Grimsha'v A~oriates
Arcl1i1ec1's \,Volking Details 7

19 A glass-fihre dad wall and glazed deresrory Chris Wilkinson Architects
55 A touch of class CZWG
79 A curved n1etal mof with an eaves clerestory Aldington C'.rn ig & Coll ingc
87 A steel sraircase \virh a rasr-gl:tss balusrrade .McDowell and Benedeni
99 A gl:tss and steel sraircase Levin Bumsrein Assoriares
127 Radical inrervention Studio Downie
13 1 A swimming pool structure Studio E Archirects
135 A sreel strunure with 'tree' rolu mns Bennens A.ssoriares
155 T!1ken fmm a riverl>ank Smokes Stacey Randall
Corus publications on tubes

TD references refer to Corus publications available free o f charge from Corus,
Tubes & Pipes, Corby:
TD 167
Hor fin is/red /?HS 1111d CHS Sizes, Propenies tmd Tecli11ica/ Daw: BS 4848
Lisrs the s ize rnnge availa ble in hot finished and gives the 1cchniral infor-
1na1in n, geometric propenies a nd mlerance.~.
TD 328
SHS Wel1iing: /JS 5.135
Describes electric arc wlddi ng techniques applirabl" to RI IS and Cl IS.
TD 32.5
SHS Joiming
Describes numerous methods o f jointing structural hollow sections.
TD 349
Design in SHS: BS 5950
A brodlure for engineers to assist them in using SHS linlit state design to BS
5950: Part 1: 1990.
'ID 338
Design of 5H5 ~\te/ded Joines: BS 5950
A manual tn s implify the design nf predominantly axially londed welded
tubular jn ints compatible with the requirements of BS 5950: Pan I: 1990.
TD 359
Desig11 of Lmtice /loo/ Srr11n11res i11 S1n1cruml Hollow 5errion.1
A basic intrnduct inn into lattice rO(>f structures for framed industrial
buildings using S I IS.
References and sources of i11for111atiot1 217
TD 306
An l11trod11clio11 to Con1S Tttbes Elecair Welded Hot Formed Sr111cmml Hollow
Seaio11s
Describes the manufanure, quality •ontrol, specificati ons, tolerances, size
range and properties of welded SHS and lists comparable inten1atio nal
standards.
TD 304
Qua/icy Large Diamecer SAW Pipe
Describes the suhmerged ar• welded 1nanufanuring prnre.<;.S and the
specifications availahle for brge diameter pipes beyond the Ii mit of the BS
4848 range. and illustrates their use in typical ronveyanre, p il ing and
strunural applications.
TD 296
Drsig11 Mt1111111I for SHS Concrete Filled Columns - l'<irr J mu/ l'llrr 2
Design manual for rakulating the load bearing rapacity fnr bnth Cl IS and
RI IS columns (Pan I).
Design manual for ralrulating the fire resistance of RI IS col umns (Part 2).
·m 361
Desig11 for SHS Fire Resis11111ce co BS 5950: Part 8
Presents the different methods that can be used to obtain fire res istance with
hot finished SHS.
TD34 1
Cold form
Describes the manufanure and quality •ontrol of rol d-forn1ed S HSs and
RI ISs to BS 6363, and gives the size, range and technical infor mati on,
including geometric properties to BS 6363 and axial capacities.
CIDECr Puhlications on Construction with I Iollow Steel Sections (all

published hy Verlag ·ruv Rheinland, but available frnm the SC I).
L Design Guide for Circular Hollow Section (C HS) }oinrs wuter

Predomi11a11dy Sla1ic Loading.
2. Sm1cmral S1ability of Hollow Sections.
3. Desig11 Guide for Reaa11g11/ar Hollow Seccions (RHS) under Predominanrly

S u11ic Loadi11g.
4. Design Guide for Srn1cntral Hollow Section Columns Exposed ro FirP.
5. Design Guide for Co11rrere Filled Hollow Section Co/1111111s under Sttll ir t111d
SeL1111ir Loading.
Other CIDEC71' puhlkations:

n1b11lt1r Srr11n11res i11 Atrhitect11re. M. Eekhout, Un iv~rs ity of Delft
(available from the SCI).
218 Architect11ml Desig11 ill Steel
References 7 14 22
Trebilnxk P.J . and Mullt'.11 D.L. and lawson Rivi. Neal S. and Johnson R.
Note: Lawson R.M. Design of Slimflor Design of Cmnpasite
SC I refers 10 !he Steel Bui/dings Design fabrict1ted Beams 1LSi11g Tn1sses
Construction Institute. Using Cold Fonned Deep Composire Decking SCI Publicatio n P83
Sree/ Seclions: SC I Pub I ication P248
A11 Ard1irecr's Guide 23
SCI Publication 130 15 Bren P. and Rushto n I.
Lawson R.\>I, Mullei D.L and Parallel Beam Approach
I 8 Rackham J.W. - A Design G11ide
/111erfaas: Lawso n R.M .. Gn1bb P.J., Desig11 of A~ymme1ric SCI PubliCJtio n P74
Cunai11 Wall Co111wc1io11s Prewer J. and Slimflor Bewns wi1l1 Deep
ro Sreel Framl's ·1rebi kock P. Composice Declli11g 24
SCI Publir;uion PIOI ,\4od11/ar Cm1srn1rrio11 SC I Publicatio n P l 75 Newman C.M.
Usi11g l.ig/11 Steel 11ir Firr Ri!sis1a111"1' of
2 Fm111i11g: A11 An:liitect's 16 Web I11fiU Stel'I Co/1111111s
I11terfa«es: Guide J11e Sli111lleh Mt11111t1/ SCI Publication P 124
Cm111ectio11s Between Steel SC I Publication P272 Cnn1s Constn1ction
mu/ Otlier Ma1eri1ds Centre, 2000 25
SCI Publira1ion PI02 9 Chung KE and Narayanan R.
King C.lvl. and Brn"~' D.G. 17 Co11rpasi1e Co/1111111 Design
3 Design ofCwved Mullen D.L. to Eurocode 4
l11terfaces: Scee/ Design of RHS S/imflor SCI Publicatio n P142
Elec1ric Lift lnsrallario11s in SCI Publication P281 Edge Beams
Steel for Buildings SC I Publication Pl69 26
SCI Publicatio n P103 10 Rowdrill
SCl/NAL\>1 Lawson R.M. 18 Corus Tubes and Pipes
Desig11 of Composire Sia b L1wsnn R.M.
4 a11d Bea111s with Sreel Design of openings in 1/1e 27
Brown D.G. f)pd1i11g webs of Composice Be11ms Archi1ecn1Tf anti Co11srrucrio11
TI1e Cm1sm1rri011 SC I Publication P.~~ SC I/C l RIA Publicatio n i11 Ste.el
(Desig111111d M111wge111e111) P68 Chapter 20: · 1ensile
Reg11/111 io11s 1994: II Structures'
Allvice for Desig11m i11 1'vlcKenna P.O. and 19 Cheynan and 1lill
Steel Lawson R.M. L1wSon R.M. and Publishers
SCI Publiration Pl62 /)psig11 of Steel Framed McCnnnel R.E.
Bui/di 11gs for Seivice Design of Stub Girders 28
5 l11regmrio11 SC I Publication PUS 1\>lakowski, Z.S.
Joi11rs i 11 Simple Cons1r1ic1 ion SCI Publicatinn Pl66 A1111/y.sis Design and
·11ie Steel Constructio n 20 Co11s1T1icrio11 of Double
lnstitllle/ Bririsb u ( )wens G.W. l..a)'er Grids
Consrruaional Ward J. K. Design of Fabricaced Applied Science
Steel work Association Composite and Composire Beams i 11 Publisher, I 981
SCI Publicatio n P212 No11-Composire Buildings
Desig11 of Cellular SC I Publication P59 29
6 beams Scee/ S11pporrl'.li Gl1u.i11g
/oi111s i 11 Sreel Consrn1nion SCI Publication P 100 21 Systems
Mo111<?111 Co11nerrio11s L1wson R.M and SCI Publication Pl93
The Steel Construction 13 Rackham J.W
IOSI i1u1e/Bri1ish Mullen D.L. Design of Hm111c/1ed 30
Constructional Design of S/i111j1or Composite Be11111s i11 Srn1cnin1/ L/S1' of Glass
Steel work Assodai ion Co11srntct io11 B11iltli11gs lnsti1u1inn of S1ructural
SCI Publiraiion P207 SCI Publiratinn P llO SC I Publication P60 Engineers, 1999
References and sources of i11for111atio11 219
31 39 48 Contr:ictors and
B:iddoo N .R., Burgan B. BS 5950: Pan 3: 1990 BS EN 150 Jtl713: 1999 Manufacturers
and Ogden R.G Srn1Ch1ral use of steR/wodl in Protection ag11i11st corrosion of 3rd Editio n
Ard1iteas' Guide to building: Code of Practice for iron and steel in structures.
Stai11/ess Steel design in composite Zinc 1111d alwni11i11111 coati11gs. 56
SCI Publication P 179 consmtcrion: Section 3.1 Guidelines BS 8110 Pa rt 1
Composite beams Tile Scn1cniral Use of
32 49 Co11crere, 1997
BS EN 10113: 1993 40 BS EN 150 1291/1/: 1998
/-lot-rolled products i11 prEN I 994-1-1: Enrocode i/ Paine; 11nd 111rr11islies. 57
weldable fi11e grai11 sm1ctural Dcsig11 of composite sreel and Corro.~io11 procenim1 of s1eel Yandzio E. Dowling J.J and
steels cv11crl'lr sm1rntres P"n J. l: srnwr11res by protective plli111 Ne\\'lllan G.M.
General r11/11s and ntles for s)isrems Stn1cniml Fire Desig11:
33 /111ilding OffSirr Applied
BS EN 10025: I 993 50 711i11 Film l111umesrl'11t
/-lot-rolled producu i11 11011- 41 BS 7079: 1990 Oxiri11gs
alloy stn1ch1r11/ steels - BS 5950: Pttrr 8: 2000 Prep11m1io11 of steel substrates SCI Puhlirntio n Pl 60
tecl111ica/ delfr'l'T)' condirio11s S1n1c111ral use of sreelwod1 in /1eforr 11pplirntion of p11i111s.
building: Code of Pmcrire for (11/so 150 8501 · 1) 58
34 fire resistant design Bo nd G_V.L
BS EN 10210-1: 1994 51 Fire and Steel
Hot finis/1ed stntchtral 42 BS EN 8501: 2001 Cot1Sm1crio11: Water
lwllow seaio11s of 11011-alloy prEN1993-1-2: Eurocode 3 Prep11m lion of sleet sub-strates Cooled Hollow Co/w1111S
and fire gra i11 sm1crura/ Design of steel structures Pan before applia1tion of pai11ts SCI Publicatio n P38
steels 1.2: Sm1ctuml fire design. and re/aced products
59
35 43 52 Ne."1tlan G.M., Robinson
BS EN 10219: 1997 prEN1994-1-2: Eurocode i/ BS EN 8501/-2: 2001 J.Tand Bailey C.G.
Cold formed 111p/tlable Design of cvmposire s1 eel and Prepam rio11 of s1eel s11b-straies Fire Safe Design: A New
sm1n11ral steel S«rio11s of cv11crerr smtrntres Pan J .2: before 11ppliauio11 of Approarli ro ,\111/ri-srorl')'
11m1-t1/loy a11d fine grain Srn1cntral fire design p11i111s 11111/ re/111rd pnxlucts; Frampd Buildi11&1
steels A lrmsive bl11s1 rle1111i11g SCI Puhlir:ition P288
44
36 BS EN 10088: 53 60
BS EN 10155: Swin/ess stei!ls BS EN ISO Jtl61: 1999 Law ..\>l.R. :ind O'Brien T.P.
Sm1ct11ral steels wit/1 Hot dip g11lvm1iutl ro11tings Fire Safety of Bare
improve1/ 11tmasplieric 45 011 ji1bric111ed iron and steel External Stn1cnir1d Sreel
corrosion resisumr.e prEN1993-1·4: E11rocode 3 111ricles. Specifia1rio11S 1111d SCI Puhlicuio n P09
Design of sceR/ structures: P1111 test met/rods
37 1.4: General ntles; 61
BS 5950: Part 1: 2000 Supplementary rules for .5 4 National Stn1cntral Steeltvcrk
Sm1cntral use of steelwork srai11 less sreeJs BS EN 22063: 1993 Specifimrio11 for B11ildi11g
i11 b11ildi11g: Code of Pracrice Metallic and oclrer Co11smicrio11 (3rd Edi rio11)
for desig11 i11 simple and 46 inorganic coaci11gs. British Constructio n
a111ti111 IO l/S <'OllStrllC t io11: Baddoo N_R Tltermal spraying. Zinc, Steelwork Association.
/-lot rolled sect it111s Ol$tings in Co1urrucrio11 11/11111i11i11111 and their
SCI Puhlication Pl 72 alloys 62
38 BS 5950: Piln l
prENI 993- I - 1: E11rorode 3 47 55 S1n1crur;i/ uSI' of s1rrlworl1
Design of srnel srr11r111m 7111' Prroenrion of Co1Tosion l'ire Prorecrio11 for Srn1aur11/ i11 b11i/11i11gs: Sprrifirar ion
P11n I. I: I 993 011 Strr1<111ral S1ee/1vcrk Sree/ in B11iftli11gs for mmeril1/s, ft1briratio11 a11d
C.e11eml rull'S 111111 n1le:1 for Corus (fonne.r British Assori at ion o f Spcri:il ist ewction: HOl-rolled
b11ildi11g Steel) Publicatinn f'ire Prntertion sectim1S
Index
30 St ll<tary /lxe 94, 95 ball joints 135 brackets 74-5, l46-7 Channel 1\JnneJ, rentral
Ball-Eastway I louse H)7 brake pr~ss method l 6 1 amenity building 22
Baltic Square 'lbwer, Brit School, Croydon 66 channels 53
adjustments II 7 II elsinki 16 5, 167 British Standards 159-60, checklists 2<Tl -8
advantages of steel Banque Popu lai re, Renn es 164, 174, 212 Cheltenham Racecourse 192
construction 2 144 Broadgate, Lo ndo n 20 Cheung Kong l ower, I long
advice sources 211-12 bars 118-19, 121-3 brush applications 184 Kong 193
American Standards 165 BCE Place, 'lh ronto 23 Bush Lane House, Lo ndo n CHS see drcular hollow
angle sections beams 39- 56, 73- 9. 104 - 7 194 sections
bracing conneaions 84, 85 Bedfont Uikes, London 25, butt weld ing 161-2, 201, 202 Chur Station. S\\~tzaiand
glazing suppon brackets 43, 168, 169 124
146-7 Bentalls Centre, Kingsto n- C IDEC f publications 217
hot-rolled sections 8, 9 upon:llla1nes 135 C-sert ions 160 'cig;ir'-shaped columns 164
truss connenions 82-3 binders l 77 cable co nnectio ns 117-24 cirn11ar hollow section.~
appl kation of corrosion blast deaning 17 5, 178 cable ter minatio ns 118 (CllS) II , 53, 56, 98
proten ion 184 board fire protection 190- 1 cable-srnyed roofs see we 11/.w tubular sen ions
arched Stn1C'nires bolts ;ind bolting tension stn1nures cladding 28, 153
expressed strunural fonn cleats 78 rabies 66 Clmtcrl>ridge I lospit;il 33, 34
17, 19, 20-J countersunk bolts 199 Cambridge U niversicy, Law cleats 7 4, 7 8
ponal frames 32, 33 eye bolts I 23 faculty 54, 209 coatin~ 176-8, 191-2, 211
arched triangular lanke Flowdrill 105, 108 cant ilever stn.1ctures 27 cold bridging 153-7
grids 137 high-strength fricti o n grip Cargo I lanclling l'acil ity, cold.formed sections (CFS)
architecture 186, 199 I lo ng Kong Airpon 13-14, 163
exp ression o pponunities Hollo-Bo/; 105, 108-9 194, 19.S cold-rolled tubular sections
2- 4 preferred sizes 73 cnstellated beams 41-2, 52, 159
glazing interface details preloaded bolts 199 53 Cologne Airpon 92, IS 7
139- 40 site installation 199-200 castings and cast steel 14 7, Columbus International
ankuJation 32, 33, 67 tubular sections 88-94 167- 72 Exhibition Centre,
ASB see Asymmetric Slimflor types 199 cavity walls 176 Genoa 61
beams bowstring trusses cellular bea 1ns 41 -2, 48 columns
Asda Store, Tam\vonh 52 glazing suppon 14 3. 146 curved heams 52 bases 81-2, 94, 96
asy mmetric Slim/for beams types 63, 64, 65, 68-9 minimum bending r.idii 53 concrete-filled 56, 60
(ASB) 43, 192 brared frames 17, 29-3 1 sprnyed fire protection connen ions 73-7, 80-2,
athletic stadium, l'rankfun bracing 190. 191 94, 96, 104 -7
137 connections 84, 8.5, 123 Centre f'ompidou, P:iris 26, enr:ised/p.1ninlly enrosed
atr.ichments 114- 17, expression I 9 34, 35. 168 192-3
146-7 forms 35-8 CR: seP rold-fonned exposed tubular 56-9
austenitic stainless steels 164 Bracken I louse. London 168 section tubular masts 60- l
rolumns (a1111i1111ed) Corus publications 216-17 Entcrprise Centre, Liverpool nattened ends 88, 91
types 56 costs 10 Joh n lvloores Aeetguard, Quimper 113, IJ 4
welded nodes 94, 95 countecsunk bolts 199 Un iversity 1.56, 157 nexible end-plates 75
rommerrially available couplers 118-19, 121, 123 envelope/strurrure noor beams 39-41
spare frames 133-7 \,ranfield Library 23, 24 relationship 25-6 noor grillages 39-41
co mponents 165 crimping 88 enviro nmental issues 177, Flowdrill connections 105,
composite beams 45- 51 Crov.'11 Hall building 29 211 108
co mposite columns 56, 60 CUBIC space frames 137 erertion issues 2, 208-9 nush end-plate connections
ro mposire dei.:king 45-6 cuNed bea1ns Sl-6 Esplanade ·1heatre Co mplex, 76
romposite trusses 4 8, 50 curved structures 20- l Singapore 136 fork connections 119-20,
ro nrrctc 38, 56, 60, 190, runing ruhular sertions 87 Eurocode 3 160 122
192-4 exposed steelwork 28-9, frame design 27-38
rondensation 153-4, 175 56-9, 186-7, 197-8 Frankfun Airpon, IC
con ncrt ions Darling 1larhour, Sydney express ion 2-4, 17-26, st;nion 150
beams 73-9, 1()4- 7 94, 95 3 4-5, 96 French trusses 63
bolted 88-94 David Mellor Cutlery extended end-plate Fruit Market Callery,
hr.iring 84, 85 Factory, 1lathersage 1.54 connertions 76 Edinbuigh 178, 179
rast 170-2 decki ng 14, 4 3, 4 4, 4 5-6 exterior cnrrosin n functional requirements 3
rolumns 73-7, 80-2, 94, denertions 206 protertion 181, 183-4
96, 104-7 delta plates l 22 extern a I envelope steelwork
corrosion protectio n 184, Department fo r Trade and penetr.itions 153-7 galvanizing 178-80
186 Industry buil ding 149 external steelwork 28- 9, 'Gateway' Perkha m,
detailing rules 73 design 56- 9, 186-7, 197-8 London 12
exp ression 34- 5 architeaural expression 2-4 eye bolts 123 geometric tolerances 204 - 5
Flowdrill 105, 108 rastings 168 glazing interfuce details
forms of connection 71 connections guide 71 139- 51
Ho/10-Bo/1 105, 108-9 standards 160, l 64 fabric supponed stntctures Greenock spons centre 14 8
I-luck Born Blind fasteners tension structures 117 gusset-plate connections
109 opportunities 112- 13 fobrirated sertions 13, 82-3, 99, 10 1
1-seCt ions 71-85, 105-7 detailing 23-4, 49
industry-standard 72-3 ronnertions 71, 73 fohrirators 11- 12, 207, 208-9
information sources 211 ro~ion protection 186-7 fo ilure temperatures 190 II-sen ions I 60
key derisions 207-8 guidanre requin:1nents I fost-trark ronstrurt io n 39 llamburg Airpon 29, 70
buice construnion 82-4, key derisions 207-8 ferr itic sta inless steels 164 I lamburg City I listory
98-104 diagonal braring l 9 fernde C(lnnections 91 ,\iluseum 144 -6
members prepar.ition 87-8 douhle angle web cll:'.ats 74 fill et welds 201-2, 203-4 llanoverTtade I lall 11 5
pinned see pinned Double Fink trusses 63 fi llet-butt welds 203-4 I lat I !ill Visitor's Centre.
connections drawings sub1nission 207 fi lm thickness 177 Coodwood 154. 155
reinforcement 102-3 duplex stai nless steels 164 fin plates 74, 75, 78, 91-2 haunched composite
standardisation benefits 72 Dynamic Eanh Centre, Fina nrial ·nmes bu ilding, beams 48, 49-50
strength and stiffness 29- 31 Edinburgh 6. 25 Lo ndon 23 haunched connections 76, 77
tens ion strucrures 117- 24 Fink trusses 63 HD see holding down
tie- members 85 fire I-lea throw i\irpon Visitor's
trusses 82-4, 98-104 Eden Projen, Cornwall 136 engineering 195, 197, 211 Centre 141
tubular sections 87-109 elerrrir weld process 162-3 protection 176, 189-98, 211 Helsinki Airpon SI
Vierendeel misses 104, 105 electroplati ng 181 res ista nee 16() high-strength friction grip
see also individual furms enrlosu re I 95 fiuings preferred opt ions 73 (1 ISFG) bolts 186, 199
co ntinuous welding 161-2, end details (ti e rocls/rahle.s) fixed co nnect io ns see I !odder Assorimes' foot-
204 118-24 moment-resist ing bridge. ,\.lnnchester I 2
rord welded connenions 83 end preparation (1n embers) rnnnert io ns: rigid holding dovm (I ID)
cores 38 87-8 ronnert ions systems 81
corrosion l 20, 173-87, end -plates 75, 76, 78, nange plates 90-3. 103 holes preferred sizes 73
211 90-2 nats 66 holistic approarh 4
Index 223
Hollo·Bo/1 mnneelions 105, K-braring 35-7 Mengeri nghaisen see also angle sections;
108-9 Kansai Airport, Japan 12, Rohrbauweise see parallel flange
hollow sections see tubular 13, 195, 196 MERO system channels; Universal
sections key dedsi ons 207 -8 Mercha nt's bridge, Beams; Universal
l-lomebase, London 22 'kit o f part' 8 Manrhester 21 Columns
I-long Ko ngAviary 126, 127 lmee brad ng 3 5, 3 6, 3 7- 8 MERO system 135-6 (>perations Centre,
I-long Kong International metal inert gas (MIG) Waterloo 7
Airport 20, 21, 194, 195 wel ding 200 ()range Operational
horizo ntal bracing 35 Lrse<lions 160 metal spray ing 180-1 Facility, Darlington 7
hot-dip galvanizing 178-9 labour rosts 10 MIC see metal inert gas organisational requirements 3
hot-rolled steel sections lanire girders/trusses Millenn ium Bridge, ornament 5-8
8- 10, 159, 160-4 connections 82-4, 98- 104 Gateshead 12 Oxford ke Rink 11 3
see ti/so angle sections; forms SO, 62-70 Millenn ium Dome,
parallel flange glazing su ppon syste1ns 143 Greenwich 5, 117, 123
channels; Universal Law Faruhy, Ca1nbridge 54, MMA see manual metal arc paints 176-8
Bean1s; Universal 209 mock-ups 209 su tdso coatings
Columns Lea Valley Ice Skming Rink .52 Modern Art Glass building 31 parallel beam approach
1lowe tn1sses 63 Leipzig Messe (Ttnde Pair) mndular constn1<1ion 2, (PBA) 50-1
I ISFC see high-strength 56, 151 14- 1.5 parallel beam connections
fri(lion grip Limerick, visitor rentre 19 moment-res ist ing bases 81 74, 75
Huck Born Bl ind fasteners Lindapters 78, 79, 108 moment -resisting parallel chord trusses 68
109 lock rovers 121 ron nect ions 73, 76 parallel flange channel~
Hung Ho m Station, Hong London Eye 62 see a/w r igid connections (PFC) 8, 9
Kong 57 long-span beams 40, 47- 51 /vlotorola facto!)\ Swindon 68 partial concrete encasement
'hybrid' welded and bolted long-span portal frames 33 m ovem ent, long-term 206 190, 192-3
co nnections 104, 105 Lord's cricket ground, mull io ns 148-9 partial end-plate
Mow1d Stand 113, 117 multi-pla nar connections connections 93, 94
L'Oreal 168, 169 101-2 partial strength connections
1-sen ions 71 -85, 105-7, 160 wdwig Erhard I Jaus (Stock mult iple-cable ronnections 31
Igus Factory, Cologne 116, Exchange), Berl in 170 124 patina 165
184, 185 wfth.1nsa terminal , Munich Olympic Stadium Pavilion and Millennium
Imagination Building. llamburg airport 29 I 972 II 3 Dome, Greenwich 5
London 8 Murray Grove prnjeC1, PBA see parallel beam
in-Ii nc ronncClions 92-4 London I 4- 1.5 approach
inclined connections 99, 100 Manchester Ai rpnrt 13 4 Museum e>f f'niit, Peabody Trust's Murray CnJVe
industry-standard mansard portal frames 32 Yamanash i 140 project. London 14-15
con nections 72-3 mansard trusses 65 penetration of external
information sources 211-13 manual meta.I arr (tvlMA) envelope J 53-7
mland Revenue Head- welding 200, 203 N joint5 97 perforated sections 41-2
quarters, Noningham 7 manufa<luring method~ National Botanical Carden PFC see parallel flange
lnmos fa<lory, Ne,vpon 25, o pen sections 160 of Wales 20, 54 channels
125, 127 tubular steel 160- 4 National Indoor Arena for pigments 176
interfaces 1, 141-2 martensitic stai nless steels Sport_~, Birrni ngjlam 136 Pilger process 161
interior corrosion protection I 64 nodes 94, 95. 168-70 pin sets 121
173-4, 181-2, 184 masts 4, 60-1, 94 ' nod ing' 99 pinned bases 81
inturnescent coatings 190, material cost~ 10 Nodus system 133-4 pinned connections
191-2, 211 Mediatheque Centre, north I ight tn~~t'S 63, 64 detailing rules 73
iro n castings 170 Sendai 57 notch ing beams 78, 79 expressed strunu ra I form
members 17-18
deviation tolera nces 204-.i frame design 30-1 , 34-5
joists minimum bending preparation 87-8 open sen in ns tension struelures 120
radii 53 membrane structure.~ see ma nufartur ing methods tubular sections 88-90,
K joints 97 tensi on stn1nurcs 160 94 , 96
planar glazing systems 141, right-angl e connections 99 sorial housing 12 techniral chararteristirs
147 rigid connections 30, 34-5 socket term inntions l 18 159-72
planning requirements 3 see also moment-resisting solvents 177 weathering 159, 165, 167
Po mpidou Centre. Paris 26, r onnerti ons spare decks 134-.'i stiffeners 77, 104
34, 35, 168 rigid r-0res 38 spare frames/ grids 27, Stockley Parle, London 22
Po nds Forge, Sheffield 69, rigid frames 17-18, 29-31 129-37 stool cleats 74
96, 168, 171 rods 66, 117- 24 SPAC:Egr id system 137 Strasbourg Parliament 21
po nal-frame structures 27, rolled steel angles 8, 9 spade ends 121 Stratford Market Depot,
31-4 rotary forge method l 61 spangling 17 8 Lo ndo n 69
Pratt girders 62-3, 64, 65 Roy ·rno1nson I Iall, spans 4 7, 4 9, 133 Stratford Station, London
pre-contract issues 207 Toronto 55 special ist compan ies 212 23, 24, 26
precip ita tion-hnrdened Royal Life UK headquarters, speci firo t io ns stretch redun ion process 163
stoi nless steels 164 Peterborough 103 corros ion protective structural drawing1' 207
prefobri(o ti on primers I 78 treatm em 174 stn1cture/ envelope
preloaded bolts I 99 infnrmation sources 2 11 relationship 25-6
pressed terminations 118, Sar kier Gallery, London 17, stn1ctural steels l 59-60, stub girders 47 -9
121-2 I8 164-5 Stuttgan Airport 12, 13, 61,
primary beam., 39-40 saddle reinforce1nent 103 sp ider atta chm ents l 46-7 171, 172
Princes Square, Glasgow 59 Saga I leadquarters, Amen ity sp iral welding 164 submerged arr (SUBARC)
profile shaping 87 - 8 Building 54, 55 spliri ng and splice plates welding 163-4, 200
projecting fin plates 89, 91 Sainsbury Centre, Norwich 78, 80-L 93, 94 suppon attachments 146-7
protect ive treatment 3, 4, 32 sports centres/ stadiums 17, suppon locatio ns 132-3
specificatio ns l 74 Sainsbury's supermarket, 37, .'il, 117, 136, 137, suppon strucrures 14 3- 7
prototypes 209 Camden 115, 156, 157 148 surface preparation 174 - 5
Sainsbury's supermarket, spray ing 180-1, 184, 189, surface protenion see
Plymouth 61 190- 1 (OITOSIOn
quality as.~rance 211 St Paul's Girls School 7 square hollow sectio ns (SI-IS) suspended structures see
Sano1nat building, Helsinki rol un1ns and base details tension structures
119 56. 81-2 swaged terminations ll S,
radii o f curved beams 52, 53 Schiphol Airpon , co rn rno n sizes 11 121-2
R.1ngers Football Club 5 1 A1nsterda1n 57 fllowdrill ro nnen io ns 105, sway frames 17, 35, 36
rapid links 122 Schl umberger Research 108
rectangular hollow sections c~ntre, Ca1nbridge Hollo-Bolr ronnectinns
(RI IS) Ill , 11 7, 124, 127 JOS, 108-9 T joints 97
commo n sizes 11 sc-issor tru sses 63, 64 minimum bending rndii 53 tapered beams 48, 49
fl/owtlrill connections 105, SD255 decking 4 3, 4 4 welded connecti ons 97-8 tapered portal frames 32
108 seamless tubular sections 161 see also tubular secti ons tapered wi nd posts 14 3
Hollo-boll connections seated connectio ns 77 stainless steel 164-5, 170 te(hniral characteristics of
105, 108 - 9 seating rlea ts 7 4 standard portal frames 32 steel 159-72
minimum bending radii 53 secondary beams 39-40 sta ndards 72-3, 159-60, tee chords 83
Slimjlor edge beams 4 5 semi-rigid connections 31 164 - 5, 174, 212 tensile strength l59
welded connections 97-8 serial size 8, JO Stansted Airport 12, 61, 137, tension attachments ll4 - l 7
see also tubular sections shape formation of tubular l .'i6, 172 tensio n bars U8 - 19
reinforcement 102-3 sections 163 steel cores 3 8 tension strucrures 111-27
Reliance Controls, Swindo n sheradising 181 steel de(k ing thicknesses 14 expressed strucru ra I form
19 shrouds I 53 steels 17, 19, 21-3
Renault Parts Distribution SI IS see square hollow cast 147, 167-72 glazing support systems
Cen tre. Swindon 3, 4, sections des ign sta nda rds 160, 164 144-6
60, 115, 120, 126, side-pla 1es 78, 94 hot-rolled see hot-rolled welded nodes 94, 9 5
127, 154, 168 si te inst:illn1ion 199-206 steel sections we also mast,
repetition 29 sli1n floor bea ms 40, 4 1, 42-.'i speci fi c:itinns 159-60. tensioners, proprietary 12 2
RI lS see rectangular hollow Slimdeil 14, 4 2-5, 192 164-5 tent-type structures 25, 11 7
sertions Slim/lor 42-5, 192 stninkss 164-.'i, l 7() tenn inntions 11 8-24
Index 225
TGV statio ns 54, 55, 69, tension strunures 12.5 weathering steels 159, 16.5,
172 to rsional resistance 12 167
lhames Valley University 5 water filling 194-5 weh cleat connections 74
thick end-plates 76 welding 97-8, 180, 202-4 web npen in&~ 46-7, 48
three-dimensio nal frames see also circular hollow weldable structural steels
27-8 sections; reoangul ar standards 159
three-pinned !attire ponal hollow sections; welded brackets 74, 75
frame 32 square hollow sections welded end-plates 78, 90-2
tie atta(hments 114-17 rubular tru~ses 67-70 welded fin-plates 78, 89,
tie members 85 rumhurkles l 21 91-2
tie rod (Onncnions 11 7-24 tv.•o-clirnensional frames 27 welded nange-plates 90-2
tied ponal frnmes 32-4 two-dimensional trusses welded nodes 94, 95
toggle forks 122 98- 101 welded shear hlocks 75-6
tolerances 142, 204-5 welded side-plates 78
torsional resistance 12 welded tubular sen io ns
'lbwcr 42, London 165, 166 UB see Universal Beams manufanure 161-4
'lhyota I IQ, Swindon 67 UC se'' Universal Col umns wdcling
trace heating 154 UK pavilion, Expo l 992, conditions 202
transfer stru<tures 67 Seville 66 galvanized se<1ions 180
transpo nation of steelwork Universal Beams (UB) processes 161-4, 200-1
209 noor grillages 40 site installation 200-4
'tree' supports 133 hot-rolled standard tubular sen ions 90-107,
triangular lanke rrusses 101-2 seaions 8, 9, 10 180, 202-4
truncated pyramids 27 minimum bending radii 53 weld types 201-4
trusses Universal C'.olumns (UC) Western Morn ing News
articulatio n of elernenis 67 col umn base details 81-2 bu ilding. Plymouth
com positc 50 colwnns 56 25. 139. 141, 155
ronnenions 82-4 h ot-rolled standard \Nimbledon No. 1 Coun 58
forms 62-70 sections 8, 9, 10 w ind-truss suppon systems
glnzingsuppon systems 143 minimu1n bending radii .53 143
tuhulnr6 7-70 University of Brernen, Wi nclsnr Leisure Centre 20,
tubular senion Gennany 144 21
connenions 98- 104 wrapping I 90
tubular masts 60- 1
tubular senions vertical bradng l 9, 35-8
C IDEC;rpuhlir atio ns 2 17 Vierendeel connections X joints 97
common sizes 11 I 04, 105 X-braring 35-7, 123
(Onrrete filling 193-4 Vierendeel girders 50, 63-4,
co nnenions 87-109, 170- 2 65, 13 7
Corus publicatio ns 216-17 Vierendeel trusses 64, 65, Y joints 97
curved 52- 6 104. 105, 143 yield strength 159
examples 12-13 Y-isit0r Centre. Li 1nctick 19
exposed columns 56-9
fabricato rs 11
fire pro tcnio n 193-5 Warren girders 62-3, 64, 65
galvanizing 179-80 water-filled ruhular seainns
glazingsysrerns 14 7-51 I 94-.'i
influences 10- 11 Waterloo I nl en1ati onal
manufunuring methods Tenninal 12, 149, 1.'il ,
160-4 209
members preparation 87-8 \.Vaterlno Operations
spare frames 129-37 Centre 7
standards 159 waterproofing 1.53

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Architectural

Peter Trebilcock and Mark Lawso11

Also available as a printed book

·n1e Men1bership and Council Secretary

C.o rus (forn1erly British Steel) sponsored the preparation of this

Peter Trebilcock and Marl< Lawson

~ Spon Press Construction

Si1n ul1aneously published in !he USA and Canada by Spon PrESs

This edirion published in rhe Taylor & Francis e-Ubrary, 2004.

Spon Press is an lmp1int of rite 1ll)'IOT & Fmncis Croup

@ 2004 The S1cel Construction Institute

All rights rcS1:?1ved. No part of lh is book may be «'Printed or reprodu<otd or utiliSlld

The puhlisher makes no representation, express or implied. wi!h regard 10 the

Bricislt Librmy Om1/oguing in Publicacion Daw

Libmry of Cimgress Oualogin,~ in Pub/icar.ion Daca

ISBN 0-203-64 165-5 Mas1ere-book ISBN

ISBN 0-203-67700-5 (Adobe eReader Fonnat)

2 Introduction to expressed structural form 17

4 Types of beams, columns and trusses 39

5 Connection s b etween I-sections 71

6 Connection s between tubular sections 87

7 Tension structures Ill

8 Space frames 129

9 Glazing interface details 139

10 Steelwork penetrations of the external envelop e L53

ll TeChnical characteristics of steel 159

12 Corrosion protection 173

13 Fire protection 189

14 Site installation 199

15 Other design considerations 207

16 References and so urces o f info rmat io n 211

• general principles of steel design

·!he book indudes all aspects of the architectural uses of steel in

Angle Ring: 4. 16 D. Leistoer/anur: 7 .6

Pier Luigi NeJVi said:

Good derailing is a function of the spatial arrange1nent of the

Th e need for guidance on detailing

Connections to other 111atelia.ls

1.1 Advantages of steel construction

111e distinct advantages of the use of steel in Lnodem building

• 'll1e modula r nature of its fabrication (a 'kit of parts'), \\'hich can

1.2 Opportunity for architectural expression

Steelwork possesses various advantages for ardlitecrural expression ,

• External st ructures dea rly express their function .

In arch itectw·e, the decision to express or conceal the strucru.ral

Architectural requirernenrs (Colour P/ares 8, 13, 15, 16, 22 and 24):

• ]he required overaJJ visual effect of so lidity or tl<1nspare ncy;

F1111ctio11al req11ire111e111s (Colour Plate$ 3, 4, 5, 9 and 27):

• Building fonn and funn.ion .

Plt1nni11g or org1111is11cio1111/ requirements (Colour Plates 2, 10, 11. anrl 23):

• Local planning and statutoiy requiren1ents, ind ud ing b uild ing

Excellent e.~atnples fro111 the 1980s showed vvh at cou ld be

1.1 Portal-frame structure used in

1.3 Ho listic approach

1.4 Scale and ornament

Buildings shou Id be designed well at a range of scales. An

For exaiuple. the ranopy of Lhe pavilion bu ilding co nu·asts and

All of these ele1ue11ts ofscale represent opportunities for ard1 itectural

Lil arcb.irecrural composition, ornan1ent has traditionally been

• aniculated attadlmenr of horizontal and vertical n1embers

1.8 Operations Centre at Waterlcl(>. London , showing a

l.9 Orange Operational r11dlity. Darlington (architoo:

Relationships ca n be established bel\-veen the individual pans and