SUSTAINABLE EXPLOITATION OF BORASSUS AETHIOPUM,

ELAEIS GUINEENSIS AND RAPHIA HOOKERI FOR THE

EXTRACTION OF PALM WINE IN CÔTE D’IVOIRE

M. MOLLET1 , F. HERZOG2∗ , Y.E.N. BEHI3 and Z. FARAH1

1
Institute of Food Science, ETH Zürich, Switzerland; 2 Swiss Federal Research Station for Agroecology and
Agriculture, Zürich, Switzerland; 3 Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques, Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire
(∗ author for correspondence, e-mail: felix.herzog@fal.admin.ch; fax: +41 1 377 72 01)

(Received 9 November 1999; accepted 22 April 2000)

Abstract. In the rural areas of developing countries palms are major sources of many products. One of these
is palm wine, which has an important role for nutrition, income and social life. In the Côte d’Ivoire (West
Africa), palm wine is extracted from three different species: Borassus aethiopum Mart., Raphia hookeri
Mann & Wendland and Elaeis guineensis Jacq. As the extraction methods are destructive, palm stands are
locally threatened by extinction. This could have serious consequences not only for the nutritional situation
of the population but also for their income. Field visits were conducted in order to assess the degree of
sustainability of palm wine extraction in eight villages of Côte d’Ivoire’s three major agro-ecozones. Based
on the annual palm wine need for consumption and commercialisation and on the availability of palms,
a sustainability index was calculated for each palm species in each village. The occurrence of palm trees
depends on the vegetation type. B. aethiopum is a typical savanna tree (> 20 palms per hectare) and is almost
absent in other vegetation types. In 75% of the villages the exploitation of B. aethiopum is not sustainable.
The preferred vegetation type for R. hookeri is the forest along the rivers (> 33 palms per hectare) compared
to the other vegetation types of the forest zone (< 5 palms per hectare). Due to the high preference for the
palm wine of this species its exploitation is not sustainable in any of the selected villages. The distribution
of E. guineensis depends mostly on human activities, the main vegetation types being plantations (34 palms
per hectare), fallow land and cultivated fields (15 palms per hectare) and the forest along the rivers (31 palms
per hectare). The exploitation of this species is in general sustainable throughout all ecozones with some rare
exceptions.

Key words: Borassus aethiopum, Elaeis guineensis, forest inventory, human nutrition, non-timber tree
products (NTTP), palm wine, Raphia hookeri, sustainability index, sustainable harvest.

Abbreviations: B. – Borassus; E. – Elaeis; R. – Raphia; spp. – species.

1. Introduction

In many rural areas in tropical developing countries palm trees are a source of numer-
ous substantially important products, providing food, household medicines, fuel, wood for
building and household tools but also primary materials for local industries (Blanc-Pamard,
1979; Rugalema et al., 1994; Sullivan et al., 1995). In West-Africa mainly the following
palm species are exploited: Ron-palm (Borassus aethiopum Martius), Raffia-palm (Raphia
hookeri Mann & Wendland), African Oil-palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.). One of the palms’
major products is their sap, which is well known by the population of the tropics all around

Environment, Development and Sustainability 2: 43–57, 2000.

© 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.
44 m. mollet et al.

the world (Essiamah, 1983; Swing and De Ley, 1977). This sap can be transformed into
sugar (Martin, 1950), vinegar (Adams, 1982) and alcoholic beverages, mainly palm wine
(Bassir, 1968; Bismuth and Menage, 1961, Cunningham, 1990a; Portères, 1964; Profizi,
1988; Tuley, 1965a). The importance of palm wine for nutritional purposes (Bassir, 1968;
Blanc-Pamard, 1979; Böni et al., 1994; Herzog, 1995; Herzog et al., 1995; Morton, 1988)
and as source of cash income (Cunningham, 1990b; Monnier, 1977; Okereke, 1982; Tuley,
1965a) is already well known.
In Côte d’Ivoire, as in many other regions, destructive tapping methods are used; either
through excision of the terminal bud while the palm still stands (B. aethiopum, R. hookeri)
or after it has been felled (E. guineensis). Several authors (Essiamah, 1983; Gautier-Béguin,
1992; Monnier, 1977; Portères, 1964) fear negative economic and ecological consequences
if these destructive tapping methods are continued and recommend to use non-destructive
ones, or to regulate exploitation and replanting (Ayernor and Matthews, 1971; Maydell,
1983; Monnier, 1977; Morton, 1988; Niang, 1976; Portères, 1964; Tuley, 1965b).
The aims of this study were to assess the current status of B. aethiopum, E. guineensis
and R. hookeri populations in the major ecological zones of the Côte d’Ivoire to derive an
understanding of the impact of palm wine tapping on the palm population structure and
on the palm stand situation. The human population density, land availability and access to
markets can potentially influence the intensity of palm exploitation. These factors were taken
into consideration to calculate the level of exploitation, which is expressed as a sustainability
index. In addition to the factors already mentioned, economic and socio-cultural factors such
as price, price elasticity with cash crops or other alcoholic beverages, net cash income for
tapers and local land tenure rules also affect the offer and demand of palm wine. These issues
were also studied but will be evaluated elsewhere. In conclusion some recommendations
are made to increase the sustainability of this important activity.

2. Methodology

2.1. study sites

The three main ecological zones of Côte d’Ivoire were taken into consideration for the
selection of the study sites: the forest, the forest–savanna transition zone and the savanna.
In the forest zone four villages were selected and two in each of the other zones. Villages
with expected differences in the intensity of palm exploitation were chosen, depending on
the possibility of selling palm wine to outside markets or not. Preferences for consumption
were also taken into account, as they influence the level of exploitation (Table I). As a
reference, two sites were selected as control plots. In the east of the Côte d’Ivoire, in the
‘Forêt Classée de la Bossomatié’ along the Bossomatié River, there are almost undisturbed
stands of R. hookeri. As a reference for a natural stand of B. aethiopum, the LAMTO reserve
in the south of the V-Baoulé was chosen. It was assumed that at these sites, because of the
absence of human activity, a natural palm stand structure and density could be found. As
the propagation of E. guineensis depends mostly on human activity, it was not possible to
find a natural palm stand.
 sustainability of palm wine exploitation 45

TABLE I. Selected villages according to ecological zones and expected level of palm wine exploitation

Ecological zone Village Major palm Expected Population Distance to Access to

species level of next market market
exploitation place (km)
Forest Kouadiokro R. hookeri Low 1563∗ 12 Difficult
Prakro R. hookeri Medium 640∗ 5 Good
Bebou R. hookeri High 2131∗ 12 Dry
season only
Kouadiokouamekro R. hookeri, High 92∗ 5 Good
E. guineensis
Forest-savanna Bringakro E. guineensis Low 1989∗∗ 20 Difficult
transition
Assouakro E. guineensis High 650∗∗ 13 Good
Savanna Angbavia B. aethiopum Low 580∗∗ 22 Difficult
Bendressou B. aethiopum High 950∗∗ 4 Good
∗ Kientz, (1993).
∗∗ Pers. comm. Sousprefect of Djekanou.

The forest zone is located in the southern part of Côte d’Ivoire. It is mostly semi-deciduous
forest with Afzelia africana, Triplochyton scleroxylon and Celti spp. as dominant species,
but in the northern part, Mansonia altissima is dominant. The climate belongs to the Guinean
type, with an annual average rainfall of 1300–1400 mm. The rainy season is divided into
a major period (March–July) and a minor period (September–November), interrupted by a
short drier period, followed by a long dry season of about four months. An isohyet of around
250 mm per year is recorded. The mean annual temperature is between 25 ◦ C and 28 ◦ C, with
a minimum of 19 ◦ C and a maximum of 33 ◦ C. The soils are mainly ferralitic clays, more or
less degraded (Avenard et al., 1971; Vennetier, 1978; World Resources Institute, 1990).
Three of the forest villages are located in the east, near Abengourou. The main ethnic
group of this region are the Agni with a population density of 10–21 inhabitants per km2 in
1975, with an average annual growth rate of 2.7% (Vennetier, 1978). The main food crops
are plantain, taro, and yams, followed by maize, cassava, groundnuts. The fourth forest
village (Kouadiokouamekro) is near the Taı̈ National Park in the West with the Baoulé as
the main ethnic group, which is not native to this zone. A population density of 35–50
inhabitants per km2 and an average annual growth rate of 2.7% were recorded (Vennetier,
1978). The main staple foods are rice, maize, cassava, followed by plantains and yams. In
all four villages, coffee and cacao are the main cash crops.
The villages chosen in the transition zone between forest and savanna as well as the
villages in the savanna zone are located in the V-Baoulé, a V-shaped encroachment of
the savanna into the forest in central Côte d’Ivoire. The savanna is from the Brachyara
brachylopha, Loudetia simplex type with a high presence of B. aethiopum. The climate is
classified as ‘transitional equatorial’. There is a similar pattern of dry and rainy seasons as in
the forest zone, but the main dry season lasts five months. The average annual precipitation
is 1100–1400 mm. During the dry season an isohyet of 450 mm is recorded. Temperature
does not vary greatly through the year, mean temperatures ranging between 26 ◦ C and 29 ◦ C
with a minimum of 20 ◦ C and maximum of 33 ◦ C. Soil types range from ferralitic clay to
46 m. mollet et al.

very sandy hydromorphic clay. On the first type forest vegetation dominates, followed by
tree-, shrubby savanna and going into a grass grown savanna on the sandy soils (Avenard
et al., 1971; 1973; Blanc-Pamard, 1979; Herzog et al., 1995; Kientz, 1993; Monnier, 1968;
SODEFOR, 1994; Spichiger, 1975; Vennetier, 1978; World Resources Institute, 1990).
The main ethnic group is the Baoulé but also other ethnic groups are present, mainly
coming from the northern part of the Côte d’Ivoire or northern neighbouring countries. The
population density is between 21–50 inhabitants per km2 , with an annual average growth
rate of 2.7% (Vennetier, 1978). Yam, maize, rice and plantain are the main staple foods,
groundnuts, cassava and millet come second and coffee and cacao are major cash crops.

2.2. experimental design

The palm inventory was made along transects. For each village, five transects were equally
disposed, taking the village as the centre and starting point until the end (border) of the
communal land. In the three villages of the eastern forest zone an additional transect was
laid along a river in order to sample the R. hookeri stands. As a reference for natural
B. aethiopum populations, in the LAMTO reserve five equally disposed transects of 2 km
each were disposed, starting from one central spot which was determined at random.
Along the transect the different vegetation types were measured and recorded (Gautier-
Béguin, 1992). Fifteen parcels of 30 m × 30 m per transect were then randomly selected
(based on random number spreadsheet). On each parcel, the palm trees were inventoried
according to age groups as described by Hiernaux (1975) for B. aethiopum, by Tuley (1965b)
for R. hookeri and by Monnier (1977) for E. guineensis. All palms which had at least one
fully developed leaf were recorded and were classified as available for exploitation within
a palm generation. Dead palm trees and palms under exploitation were recorded separately.
The arithmetic mean values of the inventory parameters of all the parcels of the five
transects were calculated and taken as base data for further calculations. Through a general
linear models procedure (GLMP) a significance test between the different vegetation types
was conducted using SAS software. GLMP was chosen because the number of parcels for
each vegetation type differed and there was no (statistically) normal distribution of palm
populations.
For each village, the communal land area available for palm wine tapping was estimated
from the pentagon formed by the five transects. From this area and the average number of
palm trees recorded by vegetation type, the total number of palms (TPS) was estimated for
each palm species:
CLA × VT × MPS
TPS = (1)
100
where TPS – total palm stand (number of trees); CLA – communal land area (ha); VT –
vegetation type in % of the communal land area; MPS – mean palm stand per hectare.
In order to assess the local quantity of palm sap produced by the different species, in each
village the sap production of palms was recorded daily during the period of productivity of
individual palm trees in collaboration with palm wine tappers. These measurements started
during the dry season (February) and finished in the rainy season (July).
 sustainability of palm wine exploitation 47

For each village, the number of inhabitants, the average quantities of sap consumed and
sold daily were recorded during a survey. The total number of palm trees needed per year
(APN) to cover the village requirements was then calculated:
MDC + MDS
APN = NI × 365 (2)
MSP
where APN – total annual palm need (number of trees); MDC – mean daily sap consumption
(litres per person); MDS – mean daily quantity of sap sold (litres per person); MSP – mean
sap production (litres per palm); NI – number of inhabitants.
By comparing TPS and APN, a static appraisal of the relative degree of sustainability of
palm exploitation SSI was calculated, taking into account the time needed for the develop-
ment of all recorded palms, and expressed as a sustainability index. This index is specific to
each village and to each palm species. As the annual growth rate of the population and the
reproduction rate of the palms were not taken into account, these indices are static. In order
to obtain dynamic indices, these two factors would need to be evaluated through long-term
monitoring.
TPS
SSI = (3)
APN × GF
where SSI – static sustainability index; GF – generation factor (years between germination
and first fruit bearing); B. aethiopum – 35 years; R. hookeri – 15 years; E. guineensis – 7
years. The exploitation is considered sustainable if SSI ≥ 1.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. vegetation types and the palm densities

In the three ecozones, ten different vegetation types were recorded. Table II shows the
proportions of the vegetation types of the total communal land area.
In the villages of the forest zone, coffee and cocoa plantations were the dominating land-
use types. They made up more than 70% of the total communal area of Kouadiokouamekro,
a village which was established by immigrants for the almost exclusive purpose of cash crop
production. In the other villages of the forest zone, plantations together with fallow land
and cultivated fields accounted for at least 80% of the communal land. Only small patches
of secondary degraded forest and forest along rivers were observed. In the forest–savanna-
transition zone almost half of the village area was cropped land and plantations. The rest
was distributed between the tree savanna types and in a smaller percentage in the two forest
types (secondary degraded and along rivers). In the villages of the savanna zone, more than
half of the area belonged to the different savanna types, followed by agricultural land. The
rest again was divided into different forest types.
The occurrence of palm trees depends on the vegetation type. In Table III the relative
palm tree densities for each vegetation type are compared. The densities of palms differed
significantly (p < 0.001) between vegetation types but only for a part of the palm population
(R square between 53% and 64%).
48 m. mollet et al.

TABLE II. Vegetation types recorded in the different villages in percent of total area

Ecological zone Village Vegetation type (%)

GS BS TS SDF GF RF CF PL FL OT
Forest Kouadiokro 10.4 4.6 18.0 34.6 31.3 1.1
Prakro 6.6 7.5 23.5 39.8 22.4 0.2
Bebou 7.4 9.8 20.1 35.6 26.6 0.5
Kouadiokouamekro 4.0 19.9 70.8 5.3
Forest-savanna Bringakro 29.1 16.3 5.3 4.4 7.5 4.6 8.5 6.5 16.7 1.1
transition
Assouakro 21.9 2.5 0.9 11.3 8.2 3.6 11.0 12.1 28.1 0.4
Savanna Angbavia 45.0 10.0 5.3 1.9 5.6 6.1 8.6 0.6 16.9
Bendressou 42.4 11.3 1.6 3.2 13.6 0.6 22.9 4.4
GS – grass savanna; BS – bush savanna; TS – tree savanna; SDF – secondary degraded forest; GF – gallery forest;
RF – forest along rivers; CF – cultivated fields; PL – plantation land; FL – fallow land; OT – others.

TABLE III. Relative palm densities (number of palms per parcel of 30 × 30 m)

in all eight villages according to the vegetation type. Differences were tested
with a GLMP analysis and a T-test; vegetation type with different letters differ
significantly (p = 0.001)

Vegetation type B. aethiopum R. hookeri E. guineensis

Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
GS 1.753 0.788 a × × 0.064 0.067 c
BS 2.326 1.974 a × × 0.050 0.111 c
SDF × × 0.240 0.536 b 0.377 0.441 bc
GF 0.386 0.236 b 0.400 0.894 b 0.613 1.019 bc
RF 0.366 0.819 b 3.352 2.197 a 2.796 2.069 a
CF 0.144 0.139 b 0.124 0.083 b 1.361 0.380 b
PL 0.029 0.066 b 0.727 0.568 b 3.140 1.048 a
FL 0.311 0.314 b 0.061 0.100 b 1.483 0.594 b
R-Square 0.53 0.61 0.64
Pr > F 0.001 0.000 0.000
2 1
LSD 1.13 1.33 1.21
GS – grass savanna; BS – bush savanna; SDF – secondary degraded forest; GF – gallery
forest; RF – forest along rivers; CF – cultivated fields; PL – plantation land; FL – fallow
land; × – species not present in this vegetation type.

B. aethiopum is a typical savanna tree (Monnier, 1977; Gautier-Béguin, 1992) with more
than 20 palms per hectare and it is almost absent in the other vegetation types. Some
B. aethiopum (around 4 palms per hectare) also occurred in the forest along the rivers and
the gallery forest. This is due to the expansion of these vegetation types into the savanna, in
the course of which B. aethiopum palms, which had grown up before, were then surrounded
by forest vegetation.
R. hookeri grows mainly in forests along rivers with an average of more than 33 individuals
per hectare. In the other vegetation types, it is significantly less frequent (below 5 palms per
 sustainability of palm wine exploitation 49

hectare) or absent (in the savanna) but there was no statistically significant difference found
between these types. Several authors described the same niche for R. hookeri (Profizi, 1986;
Gautier-Béguin, 1992).
The highest average mean densities of E. guineensis were recorded in the coffee and
cocoa plantations (34 palms per hectare) and in the forests along the rivers (31 palms per
hectare). On fallow land and in cultivated fields, more than 15 palms per hectare were
recorded; however, these figures differed not significantly from the other vegetation types,
except the savanna types, where E. guineensis occurred only occasionally (less than 1 palm
per hectare). This is explained by the fact, that the distribution of E. guineensis mostly
depends on human activities and is therefore related directly to the cropped areas. Only in
the savanna its preferred niche is the forest along rivers due to the need for a constant water
supply.
The species specific palm density was related directly to the vegetation type. The
high variability of mean densities (Rsquare < 0.65) is due to the distribution of natu-
ral palm stands. They typically occur in clustered stands which leads to high standard
deviation.

3.2. palm stand structure

The palm wine exploitation is directly influenced by palm stand structure (Table IV), as tap-
ping is only possible of the age classes mature (B) or senescent for E. guineensis and
B. aethiopum and mature (A) for R. hookeri shortly before they get into reproduction
(mature B).
The natural age distribution of B. aethiopum in LAMTO contains 20% of palms in a
development stage that can be used for wine production. In Angbavia and Bendressou, this
share is strongly reduced, indicating the palm’s utilisation. In Bringakro, the age distribution
is close to the natural situation. This is due to the low preference of the population for this
type of palm wine, B. aethiopum, therefore, is hardly tapped in this village.
The natural age distribution of R. hookeri at the reference site differs from the distribution
in the villages with two respects: the share of juvenile raphia palms is lower and the share of
mature (B) and senescent palms is higher. This can be explained by the fact, that this species
is tapped at the stage of mature (A) and therefore the subsequent age stages are almost absent
in the villages where tapping takes place. The higher percentage of the juvenile palms can
be explained by the higher light exposure of the seeds after the felling of the raphia palms,
which induces a higher germination rate.
For E. guineensis the age distribution recorded in the different villages could not be
compared with a natural palm stand, as this species is mainly present due to human activity.
But even so the absence or low percentage of senescent palms, shows an intensive palm
wine exploitation, which starts mostly when they reach mature age (B).
The total palm population (TPS) was estimated from the density of palm trees, as
recorded for each vegetation type and each village individually, and from the estimated
total area. Based on the consumption of palm wine and the quantities sold, the average
annual requirement of palm wine and of palm trees that need to be tapped to obtain this
quantity (APN) were assessed, taking into account the mean sap yield per palm and the
 50

TABLE IV. Age classes (percent of total palm stand) of the three palm species

Ecological Village or Age classes

zone control plot
B. aethiopum R. hookeri E. guineensis
J(A) J(B) M(A) M(B) S J M(A) M(B) S J M(A) M(B) S
Forest Kouadiokro 68.5 30.2 1.1 0.2 61.5 14.5 24.0 0.0
Prakro 65.6 30.8 2.4 1.2 40.2 30.3 29.5 0.0
Bebou 75.8 19.4 2.4 2.4 50.0 22.3 25.0 2.7
Kouadiokouamekro 53.6 42.8 3.6 0.0 38.3 31.6 30.1 0.0
FCB 48.2 30.2 16.5 5.1 — — — —
Forest-savanna Bringakro 38.2 38.2 3.7 16.3 3.6 50.3 25.3 23.2 1.2
transition
m. mollet et al.

Assouakro — — — — — 42.8 18.6 38.6 0.0

Savanna Angbavia 69.3 23.4 2.2 2.9 2.2 29.4 35.4 29.4 5.8
Bendressou 54.5 35.8 5.2 4.5 0.0 50.0 16.8 33.2 0.0
LAMTO 51.3 20.7 8.0 12.0 8.0 — — — —
J – juvenile; M – mature; S – senescent; FCB – Forêt classée de la Bossomatié; LAMTO – Réserve naturelle de LAMTO; — is data not included in the analysis,
the total number of palms found through all transects being too small to show a representative age distribution.
 sustainability of palm wine exploitation 51

proportions of consumption of each palm species, which varied from one village to another.
The average sap production per palm was 120 L for B. aethiopum, 250 L for R. hookeri
and 100 L for E. guineensis. Through comparison of the actual palm stand and the total
palm need over a palm generation, a static index of sustainability (SSI) was calculated
(Table V).
The exploitation of B. aethiopum in the savanna zone was sustainable in Angbavia but
not in Bendressou (SSI = 0.64). The original hypothesis was confirmed that palm wine
exploitation was more intensive in Bendressou. This is due to subsistence consumption,
rather than to commercial palm wine tapping, which makes up only between 1% and 7%
of total palm wine need. The higher sustainability in Angbavia is mainly due to the smaller
number of people and the lower percentage of the population that consume wine originating
from this species as compared to Bendressou. For E. guineensis the palm wine exploitation
in both villages is sustainable, due to the low preference for this type of palm wine in this
region. Should the demand for E. guineensis palm wine increase, their stand risks to be
depleted rapidly as their effective number is relatively small. However, even where the wine
of E. guineensis was the preferred type of palm wine, as it was the case in the two villages
of the forest–savanna transition zone, the exploitation was sustainable. The situation was
different for B. aethiopum for which the exploitation was not sustainable in Assouakro and
the stands are being depleted. In contrast, B. aethiopum was hardly tapped in Bringakro.
This was explained by the local population by the fact that in former years the wine from
B. aethiopum was strongly preferred and therefore these palms were almost extinguished.
When they were no longer available, E. guineensis was increasingly used and, with time,
the population changed its preference to E. guineensis. A minority of the population of
Assouakro is traditionally banned from drinking palm wine of E. guineensis or B. aethiopum
and therefore a farmer recently introduced R. hookeri. Due to these circumstances, the
number of R. hookeri palms recorded in Assouakro was still small and their exploitation
has even not yet really begun.
In none of the villages of forest zone the exploitation of R. hookeri was sustainable. The
differences between the different levels of SSI are mainly related to the number of inhabitants
and the proportion of consumption of sap from this species, except Kouadiokouamekro,
where the low level of sustainability was mostly due to the population’s main priority to
expand cash crop plantations. Due to the same reason and re-inforced by the fact that it
is the preferred palm wine type, the exploitation of E. guineensis was not sustainable in
Kouadiokouamekro either. This was not the case in the villages of the eastern part of the
forest zone, where SSI of E. guineensis ranged between 6.4 and 12.4.

4. Discussion and recommendations

The study reports on the state of palm populations of three species used for palm wine extrac-
tion in eight villages in Côte d’Ivoire. Use of two of the species was largely unsustainable
(B. aethiopum unsustainable in three out of four villages and R. hookeri in all villages
where they were utilised, respectively). The exploitation of one species (E. guineensis) was
sustainable in seven of the eight villages where it was used for sap extraction.
TABLE V. Total palm stand per village, total palm wine need per year, total annual palm need, static sustainability index (SSI) for B. aethiopum (B. a.), E. guineensis (E. g.)
and R. hookeri (R. h.)

Ecological Village Communal Total palm Annual palm wine (%)of palm wine Annual palm need Static sustainability
zone land area stand (TPS) need (l/year) consumption (palms per year) (APN) index (SSI)
(ha)
B. a. R. h. E. g. Consumptiona Quantity Total B. a. R. h. E. g. B. a. R. h. E. g. B. a. R. h. E. g.
sold
Forest Kouadiokro 1,573 11,248 40,303 456,396 12,775 469,171 0 8 92 1,629 619 0.5 9.3
Prakro 1,126 7,595 23,345 186,880 2,555 189,435 0 73 27 550 519 0.9 6.4
Bebou 2,922 20,742 33,501 622,252 0 622,252 0 94 6 2,335 386 0.6 12.4
Kouadio- 269 132 1,295 40,296 1,825 42,121 0 87 13 13 388 0.7 0.5
kouamekro
Forest– Bringakro 6,595 73,528 73,721 580,788 0 580,788 8 0 92 373 5,361 5.6 2.0
savanna
transition
Assouakro 2,113 1,054 2,233 31,594 189,800 9,125 198,925 3 4 93 50 32 1,850 0.6 4.7 2.4
Savanna Angbavia 1,861 35,974 10,184 169,360 1,825 171,185 70 0 30 999 514 1.0 2.8
Bendressou 2,888 52,974 4,959 277,400 21,900 299,300 95 0 5 2,369 150 0.6 4.7
a mean daily consumption per person = 0.8 L for all villages except Kouadiokouamekro where it is = 1.2 L.
 sustainability of palm wine exploitation 53

4.1. BORASSUS AETHIOPUM

The palm stands of B. aethiopum are overexploited in most villages, which could lead to
their local extinction. It has been shown in the V-Baoulé that, on the average, the population
meets almost 50% of its recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for vitamin C and about
15% of its RDA for potassium from the consumption of B. aethiopum wine. The contribution
is higher for men and for elderly people, the groups of the population with the highest palm
wine consumption. For them, the intake of other nutrients is also relevant, especially of
iron and niacin (Herzog et al., 1995). The disappearance of B. aethiopum could thus have
detrimental effects on the population’s nutritional status. However, as shown by the example
of Bringakro, consumption patterns can change and B. aethiopum wine could be replaced
by palm wine of E. guineensis, which has similar nutritional properties. Still, Doughty
(1979) stresses that any reduction in the number of foods available constitutes a danger to
the nutritional status of the populations of developing countries. Also, B. aethiopum yields
numerous other products used for handicrafts, construction, etc.
B. aethiopum could be preserved by intentional planting and/or by introducing non-
destructive extraction methods. Technically, planting works very well, as is shown by the
traditional practice of letting fruits germinate for consumption of the germs. However, it
takes about 35 years for B. aethiopum to grow to a size that can be exploited for palm wine
(Monnier, 1977), and this reduces the population’s motivation to engage in planting.
Non-destructive extraction methods are practised in Burkina Faso and Senegal, where the
extraction of the sap is stopped before the trees are too exhausted and they are left for two
years to regenerate (Maydell and Götz, 1985; Niang, 1976). In Asia and especially in south-
east Asia, the sap of Borassus flabellifer is extracted from the inflorescens and not from the
terminal bud (Theivendirarajah and Chrystopher, 1987; Chrystopher and Theivendirarajah,
1988a,b) and the trees can be used therefore over a long period.
Eventually, these methods could be introduced into the Baoulé region. The most appro-
priate way would be a south–south technology transfer from another West-African country
to a zone in the Baoulé region, where B. aethiopum has already been considerably decimated
and where therefore the population has become receptive to more sustainable methods of
palm wine production.

4.2. RAPHIA HOOKERI

R. hookeri is over-exploited in all villages of the forest zone. In addition, it is threatened

through the installation of cacao and/or coffee plantations. As their preferred habitat is
limited to a small area (forest along rivers), the risk of extinction is high. No alternative
method for the tapping of R. hookeri is known as yet, and as this species dies once the palms
bear fruit (Tuley, 1965a), only planting could stabilise the palm population.
It has been suggested to integrate R. hookeri with rice or vegetables in agroforestry systems
in the valleys (Wiese, 1988), or to create plantations along the rivers (Profizi, 1986). As this
species has the ability to produce suckers, it can easily be multiplied vegetatively, and the
time period until exploitation is relatively short (Monnier, 1977).
54 m. mollet et al.

4.3. ELAEIS GUINEENSIS

The exploitation of E. guineensis was sustainable in all villages except in Kouadiok-

ouamekro, where the immigrants assign absolute priority to the establishment of cash crop
plantations. The cautious utilisation of E. guineensis is due to its integration – to a certain
extent – into the cropping systems. Palm oil is very important in the preparation of the local
dishes (Böni et al., 1994) and is regarded as more important than palm wine.
At the same time there is an increased readiness, especially by women, to plant oil-palms.
Because they also grow in cultivated areas (fields, coffee and cocoa plantations and fallow
land), they take advantage of the management of the food-crops or of the cacao/cafe trees
and are not endangered by habitat loss.

4.4. general

Palms, such as the ones examined here, are of such importance to local economies and
nutritional status of the population, that the palm populations, which are overexploited and
threatened of extinction at local level, need to be stabilised. This could be done either through
a change of the method of palm wine extraction (non-destructive) or through planting
programmes targeted at individual species.
The utilisation of natural resources in general, and of palm trees in particular, is ruled not
only by rational reasoning but also to some extent by traditional practices (Linares, 1993).
Encouraging sustainable harvests of non timber tree products (NTTPs) requires taking these
factors into account. For example, the right of exploitation is assigned to users by the local
chief for a certain area in a time frame of only a few months at most. A reduction of
yield through the application of non-destructive methods and/or investments in palm tree
planting will only be attractive if user/property rights are granted for many years. The
implementation of such measures depends on the local authorities to change exploitation
and land tenure rules and on the willingness of the population (or of particular groups within
the local community) to adopt them. Increasing population and pressure on communal land
and natural resources make such modifications inevitable if further land degradation and
biodiversity loss are to be avoided.

5. Conclusions

The sustainable exploitation of NTTPs would imply that they could be harvested indefinitely
from a limited area with negligible impact on the structure and dynamics of the plant
population being exploited (Balick and Cox, 1996). Sustainability indicators such as the one
proposed here can help to assess the degree of sustainability of the exploitation of NTTPs.
Sustainability indicators must consist of a combination of ecological and socio-economic
parameters.
Palms are important sources of NTTPs. The three palm species discussed here are among
Africa’s major economic palms (Johnson, 1996). E. guineensis occurs spontaneously and
is also domesticated (although not for the purpose of palm wine production), its harvest
 sustainability of palm wine exploitation 55

proved sustainable in most villages. B. aethiopum and R. hookeri only occur spontaneously
(classified as candidate palms for domestication by FAO (1995)). Their exploitation tended
to be unsustainable in the villages where they are the major source for palm wine (B.
aethiopum in three of four villages of the transition and the savanna zone, R. hookeri in the
forest zone).
The exploitation of palms for palm wine consumption will only be sustainable if the
population feels the need to change its habits accordingly. This will depend on many factors
including the overall economic situation, the availability of substitutes, customs and tradi-
tions. Endeavours to change exploitation patterns will not be successful in villages such as
Kouadiokouamekro, where the farmers’ main interest is cash crop production. It is more
promising in the other villages, where the populations’ motivations are more complex and
diverse. There, it would be worthwhile to test the adoption of non-destructive tapping meth-
ods and of the integration of palms into the agricultural system. South–south technology
transfer could provide pragmatic solutions which improve the population’s living conditions
while maintaining the integrity of their environment. At the same time, interesting insights
into the mechanisms which rule the management of natural resources in rural Africa could
be gained.

Acknowledgements

This study was made possible due to the financial support of the German Agency for
Technical Cooperation (GTZ) (FTWF/TÖB PN 96.2151.7-00.103), two GTZ projects in
the country (FCE, PACPNT) and the logistical support of the Centre Suisse de Recherche
Scientifique in Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire. The helpful comments of two anonymous referees
of this journal are greatly appreciated.

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