Q3 “Scientific method is a systematic and organized series of steps that scientists adopt for

exploring any phenomenon in order to obtain accurate and consistent results. These steps involve
observation, description, control, and replication”.

Psychology is a science

It employs the scientific method for gathering knowledge and information. It uses scientific
procedure that is essential to be adopted in order to carry out psychological research; otherwise
the research will not be considered authentic, reliable, or scientifically valuable.

These are the main components of any science or scientific discipline. The methods of how to
gather, process, and analyze information properly and accurately are very important in
psychology as well.

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The term ‘science’ refers to the body of knowledge obtained by methods based upon systematic
observation. As a systematic observation, sociology fulfils all the requirements of a science. It is
objective, empirical, logical, value-neutral, and parsimonious. It has other characteristics of
science also such as verifiability, reliability, precision, accuracy, predictability and the power of
generalisation. All allegations leveled against its scientific nature are partially true.

According to Anthony Giddens (2000), “Science is the use of systematic methods of empirical
investigation the analyses of data, theoretical thinking and the logical assessment of arguments to
develop a body of knowledge about a particular subject matter. According to this definition,
sociology is a scientific endeavor”.

1. Sociology is a Social Science:

Sciences are commonly divided into natural and social sciences. Natural science studies natural
phenomena (animate and inanimate both). Astronomy, biology, chemistry, physics and geology
are all natural sciences. Social science is the study of various aspects of human society. The
social sciences include sociology, anthropology, economics, political science etc. Sociology
broadly studies human behaviour, man in society, social life of human beings and the structure of
society. It is neither philosophy nor socialism as is sometimes thought but a social science.

2. Sociology is Generalising science:

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This is an important feature of sociology which distinguishes it from history which is

particularising (idiographic). For instance, sociology is not interested in a particular war (e.g.,
war of Mahabharat) but in war or revolution as a recurrent social phenomenon. Sociology seeks
general laws or principles about human behaviour and association. It is interested in formulating
generalisations of general validity.

3. Sociology is an abstract science:

The concerns of sociology are relatively abstract not concrete. As a science, it proceeds on a
plane of abstraction. For example, sociology is interested not in particular families but in the
family as a social institution that exists in all societies—modern or preliterate.

4. Sociology is categorical science:

Sociology is concerned with the questions of what, when, how or why and where about man and
society and not what ought to be. It gives categorical judgments rather than normative ones. It is
this feature of sociology that distinguishes it from ethics or moral and political philosophy.

5. Sociology is a pure science:

Sociology is engaged in the acquisition of knowledge and not in its application. This distinction
is like chemistry and pharmacy, physics and engineering or biology and science of medicine.

6. Sociology is both rational and empirical science:

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As an empiricist, a sociologist collects facts and as a rationalist, he coordinates and arranges

them.

7. Sociology is a generalistic science:

The nature of sociology is synthesising and generalising. It is not a specialistic science like
economics or political science. The focus of sociology may be special one, as is the focus of
every other science, but its area of study is general.

P.A. Sorokin has given the following paradigm and explanation about its synthesising character:

In all above phenomena, whether economics or political science or ethics, a, b, c occur. These
are the social factors that they all have in common. It is on this level that sociology operates and
it does not, of course, investigate the special factors like d, e, f, g, h, i, etc., which are the subject
matter of study of specialised sciences like economics, ethics or political science etc. The focus
of sociology may be special one, as is the focus of every other discipline but its area of inquiry
(subject matter) is general.

Sociology as a Science:

There exists a great controversy about the exact nature of Sociology. The question whether
sociology is a science or not? Perhaps continue to confuse the mind of Sociologists since long.
Perhaps due to this Sociologists got divided among themselves into two opposite groups. As a
result two opposite views are available about the nature of Sociology. For one group of
Sociologists Sociology is a science because Sociology adopts and applies the scientific method.
Founding fathers of Sociology Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim and others subscribe to this
view. Others hold different view and opine Sociology is not a science. German Sociologist Max-
weber do not accept sociology as a Science.

Sociology

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Auguste Comte opines like other natural sciences sociology also governed by some natural laws.
Hence Sociology is a Science. Others also asserts that Sociology is as much a science like
political science, economics, psychology etc. But before forming any opinion or subscribing to
any particular view we must know what is a science? And if sociology is a science how far or in
what degree sociology does conform to the notion of science.

Meaning of Science:

Science is a body of systematic knowledge. Science is based on reason and evidences. A science
is “a branch of knowledge or study dealing with a body of facts or truths systematically arranged
and showing the operation of general laws.” Science collects facts and links them together in
their casual sequence to draw valid inferences. Science adopts scientific method. Scientific
knowledge is acquired through observation, experimentation, generalisation etc. Science has the
following characteristics such as objectivity, observation, accurate prediction, experimentation,
accurate measurement, generalisation and cause-effect relationships.

Sociology is a Science:

According to Auguste Comte and Durkheim, “Sociology is a science because it adopts and
applies the scientific method. Sociology does make use of scientific methods in the study of its
subject matter. Hence Sociology is a science. It is a science because of the following reasons:

(1) Sociology adopts scientific method:

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Sociology studies social events by adopting scientific method. Though it cannot do experiment
with men in a laboratory still man’s social behaviour is subject to scientific investigation like
natural phenomenon. It employs scientific methods as scales of Sociometry schedule, case study,
interview and questionnaire which is used to quantitatively measure social phenomenon.

(2) Sociology makes accurate observation:

Observation is possible in the field of sociology even if it does not possess a laboratory. Accurate
observation is also possible outside the laboratory. The whole social world is the laboratory of
sociology. ‘Newton did not invent their laws inside a laboratory. Sociology makes observation of
tribal marriage at the time of occurrence. Even if Sociology does not possess a laboratory still it
makes accurate observation. Hence Sociology is a science. Besides laboratory experiment is not
the only criteria of science.

(3) Objectivity is possible in Sociology:

Like natural sciences Sociology also makes objective study. The statement that dowry is a social
evil is an objective statement which is based on facts collected by sociologists. Further Survey
and revivification proves this. Sociology can also make objective study of social phenomena.
New techniques and methods are also introduced to make social phenomena more objective.
Hence Sociology is a science.

(4) Sociology describes cause-effect relationship:

Like natural sciences Sociology also traces the cause and find the answers. While studying
family or population growth Sociology has traced the relationship between family
disorganisation and divorce and population growth and poverty. Family disorganisation is the
cause of divorce and population growth is the cause of poverty. Thus sociology describes cause-
effect relationship in social disorganisation and population explosion. Hence sociology is a
science.

(5) Sociology makes accurate measurement:

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Sociology, like natural sciences also accurately measures social phenomena or relationships. By
using statistical method, socio-metric scale, scales of measurement sociology effectively and
accurately measures social relationships. Hence Sociology is a science.

(6) Sociology makes accurate Prediction:

Like natural sciences sociology does frame laws and attempts to predict more accurately. On the
basis of cause-effect relationship sociology can accurately predict about future.
If there will be dowry in society then it will lead to suicide, poverty. Cuvier opines this
predictive value of Sociology is improved day by day. As Sociology matures day by day it
predicts more accurately.

(7) Sociology makes generalization:

The notion that generalization drawn by social sciences are not universal proved wrong. Like
natural sciences Sociology became able to draw generalization which is universally applicable.
The concept of incest taboo-prohibited sex relationship among blood relatives is a universal
truth.

Sociology is Not A Science:

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There are some others like Max-weber who deny the status of science to Sociology. He said
Sociology can’t be an objective Science. However, those who deny the status of science to
Sociology they put forth following arguments:

(1) Lack of objectivity:

Sociology cannot be called a science because it cannot maintain complete objectivity with social
phenomena. Sociologist has his own prejudice and bias hence he cannot observe his subject with
complete detachment. Complete objectivity in the study of human behaviour is impossible
Sociology deals with social relationships which cannot studied like physical objects. Hence
objectivity is not possible in Sociology.

(2) Lack of Experimentation:

Sociology is not a science because it can’t make experimentation. Sociology deals with human
relationships which cannot be put to laboratory test. We can’t see or weigh human relationship
because it is abstract in nature. We can’t do experiment with abstract things.

(3) Lack of Prediction:

Like natural sciences Sociology can’t accurately make prediction. Natural Sciences make
prediction on the basis of certain data. But Sociology deals with social relationships and human
behaviour which are so uncertain and peculiar that we can’t make any accurate prediction about
it. We can’t predict what will be one’s behaviour at a certain point of time nor we can predict
about the trends or speed of social change. Hence sociology is not a science.

(4) Lack of accurate measurement:

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Sociology can’t make accurate measurement like natural sciences. There are definite standards of
measurement like k.g. Meter by which it is possible to measure things. But in Sociology we have
no such measuring instruments. Besides sociology deals with social relationships which is
qualitative in nature which can’t be measured. Hence Sociology is not a science.

(5) Lack of Generalisation:

Sociology can’t make generalisations like natural sciences which is universally applicable.
Sociology deals with human behaviour and no two individual are alike. Hence the conclusions
drawn by Sociology can’t be uniform or universally applicable. Social Phenomena is so complex
and complicated and is governed by so many factors that it is really difficult to draw a
conclusion which will be universally applicable.

(6) Terminological Inefficiency:

Sociology suffers from terminological inefficiency. Sociology has not yet became able to
develop adequate set of scientific terms. Many terms used in Sociology is vague and carry
different meaning to different persons. For example the term caste and class has not yet acquired
clear meaning. Hence Sociology is not a science.

The above argument shows that Sociology is not a science. But famous Sociologist Robert
Bierstedt in his book “The social order” clearly explain the nature of Sociology in the following
way:
(1) Sociology is a social and not a natural science.

(2) Sociology is a positive and not a normative science.

(3) Sociology is a pure science and not an applied science.

(4) Sociology is an abstract science and not a concrete science.

(5) Sociology is a generalizing science and not a particularizing science.

(6) Sociology is both a rational and an empirical science.

Q4 There are numerous topics that social psychologists investigate in their research. Many of
these subjects are related to social influence, social perception, and social interaction. Here are
just a few of the major areas of interest within social psychology.

Social Cognition

Social cognition is concerned with the processing, storage, and application of social information.
This research area is closely related to the field of cognitive psychology, a research area focusing
largely on the concept of schemas. Schemas are our general ideas about the world, how things
are, and how things work. These mental shortcuts allow us to function without constantly
stopping to interpret everything around us. We also develop associations between related
schemas, which plays an important role in the thought process and social behavior.

Attitudes and Attitude Change

Another major research area in social psychology involves the study of attitudes. Social
psychologists are interested in the components of attitudes, how attitudes develop, and how
attitudes change.

Researchers have identified three core components of attitude: an effective component, a

behavioral component, and a cognitive component. Often referred to as the "ABCs of attitude,"
these elements describe how we feel, behave, and understand.

Violence and Aggression

What causes violence and aggression? Social psychologists are interested in how and why people
engage in violence or act aggressively. Research in this area looks at numerous factors that may
cause aggression including social variables and media influences. Researchers often look at the
role social learning plays in producing aggressive behaviors and actions.

Prosocial Behavior

Prosocial behavior is another major research area in social psychology. Prosocial behaviors are
those that involve helping and cooperating. Researchers often look at why people help others, as
well as why they sometimes refuse to help or cooperate. The bystander effect is an example of a
social phenomenon in the subject area.

Much of the research in this area was prompted by the murder of a young woman named Kitty
Genovese. This case captured national attention when reports revealed that neighbors had
witnessed her attack and murder, but failed to call the police for help.

Research inspired by the Genovese case produced a great deal of information on prosocial
behavior and how and why people choose—or sometimes refuse—to help others.

Prejudice and Discrimination

Prejudice, discrimination, and stereotypes exist in any social group. Social psychologists are
interested in the origins, causes, and effects of these types of attitudes and social categorizations.
How does prejudice develop? Why are stereotypes maintained in the face of contrary evidence?
These are just a few of the questions social psychologists seek to answer.

Self and Social Identity

Our perceptions of social identities and ourselves are another important research area in social
psychology. How do people come to know and understand themselves? How do these self-
perceptions affect our social interactions? Social psychologists are interested in learning more
about how this inner life influences our outer lives and social world. Self-awareness, self-esteem,
self-concept, and self-expression are just a few of the factors that influence our social experience.
Group Behavior

The behavior of groups is one of the largest research areas in social psychology. Most people
realize that groups tend to behave differently than individuals. These group behaviors are
sometimes beneficial and positive, but they can also be detrimental and negative. Social
psychologists often look at topics such as group dynamics, leadership, group decision making,
conflicts, cooperation, and group influence.

Social Influence

Social psychologists are also interested in the role that social influence has on behavior and
decision making. Topics such as the psychology of persuasion, peer pressure, conformity, and
obedience are just a few of those studied in this area of social psychology.

Research has helped reveal the power of social influence and has uncovered ways to help people
resist influence.

Interpersonal Relationships

Social relationships play a major role in shaping behavior, attitudes, feelings, and thoughts.
Social psychologists study how these interpersonal relationships affect people by looking at the
attachment, liking, love, and attraction. How close relationships affect individuals, how
important interpersonal relationships are, and what causes attraction are just some of the areas
social psychologists look at in-depth.
Q5 Correlational Methods vs. Experimental Methods

Correlational methodologies and experimental ones are the two approaches to doing research.
Experimental studies allow the researcher to control the variables in the study, while
correlational ones involve just looking at the data that already exists. Experimental studies allow
the researcher to draw conclusions about one variable causing changes in another.

Correlational Methods

In a correlation study, the researcher or research team does not have control over the variables in
the study. The researcher simply measures the data that she finds in the world. This allows her to
see if the two variables are correlated -- whether changes in one are associated with changes in
the other. Experimenters in such a study collect existing data, such as economic data from
governments, and analyze it using statistical tools. Sometimes, the results of correlation studies
can inspire hypothesis that can be tested with a more specific experimental one.

Correlational methodologies and experimental ones are the two approaches to doing research.
Experimental studies allow the researcher to control the variables in the study, while
correlational ones involve just looking at the data that already exists. Experimental studies allow
the researcher to draw conclusions about one variable causing changes in another.

Experimental Methods

In a controlled experiment, the research team has control over the independent variable and other
aspects of the experiment. This allows the researchers to make conclusions about whether the
independent variable really affects the dependent variable, as opposed to the variables changing
at the same time through coincidence. The researcher can also eliminate the effects of other
variables. For example, the researcher can add precise amounts of fertilizer to different areas of
the same wheat field, and measure the differences in wheat yield, as the other other factors, such
as rainfall, sun exposure and soil make-up, are the same.
Correlational methodologies and experimental ones are the two approaches to doing research.
Experimental studies allow the researcher to control the variables in the study, while
correlational ones involve just looking at the data that already exists. Experimental studies allow
the researcher to draw conclusions about one variable causing changes in another.

Differences and Overlap

The strength of the experimental treatment is that it isolates the relationship between the
independent and dependent variable. In a correlation study, there might be other influences on
the variables that make it hard to measure how strong the relationship between the two really is.
Experimental studies are often more expensive and difficult to run. Correlation studies can
explore a relationship to see if it is worth the later expense of a controlled experiment, as well as
study a larger data set than may be feasible in an experiment. Some researchers will use both
methods in a study, conducting an experiment and then carrying out correlation analysis on the
results.

Q7 Difference between Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning

The difference between classical and operant conditioning can be explained in various
dimensions i.e. they differ in nature of behavior, order of events, nervous system activity, nature
of responses and the associations they have.

1. Definition:

Classical conditioning is defined as a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus, when paired
with an unconditioned stimulus which naturally generates a response, becomes conditioned and
starts generating a response similar to that generated by unconditioned stimulus. This can be
explained through Pavlov experiment.

Operant conditioning is defined as a type of learning in which the probability of repetition of

preceding behavior is either increased by reinforcement or decreased by punishment i.e. the
repetition of behavior depends on the favorable consequences. This is explained through B.F.
Skinner’s experiment.

2. Basic Concept:

In classical conditioning, there is an association between two stimuli i.e. the conditioned and
unconditioned stimulus whereas in operant conditioning, there is an association between
behavior and its results. Reinforcement increases while punishment decreases the chance of
repetition of behavior.

3. Nature of Behavior:

Classical conditioning is based on natural or innate behavior i.e. inborn behavior whereas
operant conditioning is based on its environment to produce desirable behavior.

4. Order of Events:

During the initial stages in classical conditioning, i.e. before conditioning the response is due to
unconditioned stimulus (meat or food) but after conditioning, the response is due to conditioned
stimulus (ringing bell) which was once a neutral stimulus.

In operant conditioning, the order of events is based on reinforcement and punishment depending
upon the behavior shown.
5. Nervous System Activity:

The process of classical conditioning involves peripheral nervous system activities whereas the
operant conditioning involves central nervous system activity.

6. Nature of Responses:

The responses shown in classical conditioning are stereotype i.e. they are triggered by a specific
stimulus but the responses shown in operant conditioning are a part of flowing stream of
behavior and are not triggered by a specific stimulus.

Classical Conditioning

First described by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist

Focuses on involuntary, automatic behaviors

Involves placing a neutral signal before a reflex

Classical Conditioning

 First described by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist

 Focuses on involuntary, automatic behaviors
 Involves placing a neutral signal before a reflex
 Classical Conditioning
Similarities learning by association
Differences change involuntary behavior/reflex
passive learning
turn neutral stimulus into conditioned
stimulus to elicit a behavior
Operant Conditioning
learning by association
change voluntary behavior
active learning
reinforcement / punishment after a
behavior to strengthen / weaken it