E Proceedings ICID2018 PDF

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
INFRASTRUCTURE
DEVELOPMENT ICID 2018
21-22 DECEMBER 2018, JORHAT, ASSAM, INDIA
PROCEEDINGS
Editor: Dr. Atanu Kumar Dutta

Editorial Board Members:
Mr. Sulaem Musaddiq Laskar
Mr. Baharul Hussain
Organized by
Jorhat Engineering College

Assam, India
Jointly with
Malnad College of Engineering

Karnataka, India
Supported by
TEQIP III
Venue:
Department of Civil Engineering, Jorhat Engineering College
Jorhat-785007, Assam, India
www.jecassam.ac.in, www.icidjec.org
From HOD’s Desk
Dr. Prasanna Kumar Khaund

Head of the department
Civil Engineering College, JEC
It gives me immense pleasure to preside over the holding of ICID 2018. Infrastructure
development is key to development as a nation. The topic is more pertinent for a place like
Assam, a state which is languishing in spite of vast natural resources in her possession for
lack of infrastructure. In this backdrop the department found it worth to organize an
international event to offer a platform to young minds of the state, nation and the world to
share ideas from the leading lights in this field.
The themes covered in this conference encompass all the relevant topics in the subject
including its effect on society at large. It is thought that a total picture will come out of the
deliberations and will act as guiding light to the policy makers of this region in particular and
the nation in general.
An international event such as this will not see its day but for the support of the
sponsors and good wishes of our well-wishers. The major funding comes from TEQIP-III
under MHRD, Govt. of India, for which I express my deepest gratitude to the NPIU, North
East and to Dr. Diganta Hatibaruah for coordinating with the same. I am very much thankful
to Zydex, NRL, Shyam Steel, NEECON, GDCL, VJ enterprise other well-wishers for
financial helps and special thanks to PWD (R&B), Nagaland, Kohima, Rural Works
Department, Arunachal Pradesh, APWD (Roads) Assam for their cooperation and
encouragement. I thank Principal, JEC for her help and constant encouragement.
The last but not the least, I offer my heartfelt thanks to all the faculty members of the
department in general and the committee members in particular for their whole hearted
cooperation.
From Editorial Board
It is a great pleasure and privilege for us to be in the Editorial Board of this Proceedings for
ICID 2018 and we thank the department for entrusting us with this responsibility.
This volume embodies the spirit behind the conference and encapsulates the technical
contributions in the conference. It gives overviews of the works being carried out by various
researchers.
The full length papers are included in this volume. The keynote contributions are
included to offer the readers a feel of state-of-the-art in the field of infrastructure
development, its possible impacts and ramification to the society at large.
We thank the Head of the Department, Prof. P. K. Khaund for guiding the Editorial
Board. Thanks go to our PG students Mr. Halim Islam, Mr. Partha P. Baruah, Mr. Mriganka
Dattabaruah, Mr. Sayed Injamamul Hussain, Ms. Khagana Burahgohain, Ms. Rituparna
Mazumder and Ms. Merina Englenpi for their constant effort in preparing the Proceedings.
We thank all the faculty members for their valuable suggestions regarding content and form.
Thanks to all the keynote speakers for taking the time out of their busy schedule to send their
keynote speech write-ups. Also thanks to all the presenting authors for sending their technical
papers in time.
Hope this Proceeding will serve its purpose.
Editor: Dr. Atanu Kumar Dutta

Editorial Board Members
Mr. Sulaem Musaddiq Laskar
Mr. Baharul Hussain
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Keynote Lectures
Paper ID Title and Author Page No.
ICID2018_K_001 Upgrading Development Infrastructure In Assam 1
Prof. Nayan Sharma, University of Nottingham, UK
ICID2018_K_002 3D Crustal Velocity Model for Ground Motion Simulations in 9
North-East India
S. T. G. Raghukanth, IIT Madras, India
ICID2018_K_003 Present Review of Studies of Meteorological Disasters in the 10
Northeastern Region of India Subcontinent
Taiichi HAYASHI
ICID2018_K_004 Infrastructure Development & our Attitudes are Two Key 16
Elements for Sustainable Development of Assam
Kamal C. Sharma
ICID2018_K_005 Opportunities and Challenges in Infrastructure Development – 17
Role, Responsibilities and Relevance of Academic Institutions
Hemanta Doloi
ICID2018_K_006 Road Development under Infrastructure Development in India 18
K. C. Dhimole
ICID2018_K_007 River-research to Evolve Sustainable-projects for People with 23
Ecofriendly Climate-resilient Technology (RESPECT)
Arup Kumar Sarma
ICID2018_K_008 Artificial Intelligence Approach for Modeling Ground Improving 27
Materials Used In Earthquake Hazard Mitigation
Hemanta Hazarika, Siavash Manafi Khajeh Pasha, Norimasa
Yoshimoto
Technical Papers
Theme A: Transportation Engineering
ICID2018_A_001 A Study on Vehicular Traffic Flow at the Mission Chariali Road 43
Intersection of Tezpur, Assam, India
Manipuspak Hazarika, Meher Jessia, Nilutpala Bordoloi, Kukil Kakoli
Phukan, Jayanta Sarma, Anurag Saikia, Bedabrata Borah, Bikram
Saikia, Himansu Nath
ICID2018_A_002 Construction and Maintenance of Roads Using Cold Mix in High 48
Rainfall Area - A Case Study
Sanjay Deori, Dipak Basumatari, Nibir Pran Borah and Rajib Das
ICID2018_A_003 Filtering Behaviour of Motorized Two-Wheelers and Cars in 57
Urban Roads
Sanhita Das, Ashesh Choudhury, Porishmita Saikia, Akkiraju Lakshmi
Ksheeraja, Nishant Deka, Jahangir Alom, Akhilesh Kumar Maurya
ICID2018_A_005 Estimation of Earthwork Along Proposed 4-Lane Jorhat Bypass 62
using GIS
Debashis Das, Anil Kr. Ojha, Mrinal Kr. Dutta, Mr. Koushik Kalita
ICID2018_A_006 Analysis and Prediction of Remaining Service Life of Road 67
Network
Koushik Kalita, V. S. Landge, Vivek Hokam
ICID2018_A_007 Impact of Geometric Characteristics on Capacity of Hill Roads 71
Achyut Das, K. Ramachandra Rao, G. Tiwari
ICID2018_A_008 Study of Motorcycle Helmet Use Pattern in Rural and Urban 94
Roads Using Structural Equation Model: A Case Study of Nagpur
City
Bahuguna Dalai, Koushik Kalita, V.S.Landge
Theme B: Environmental Engineering

ICID2018_B_001 Development, Fabrication and Performance Evaluation of an 103
Improved Biomass Cooking Stove Using Different Biomass Fuels
Ashish Sovasaria, Nabajit Dev Choudhury
ICID2018_B_003 Legislative Framework of Developed and Developing Countries 109
For Construction & Demolition Waste Management
Dharati Sote-Wankhade, Vasudha Gokhale
ICID2018_B_006 Biodiesel Production and Evaluation of Performance and 117
Emission Characteristics of Calophyllum Inophyllum
Kishor Kumar S, K S Jayantha, Subhash Kalki D and Kavya T R
ICID2018_B_008 Sustainable Homes in Steel: Prospects For Future Development 123
of Indian Housing Sector
Poorva Kulkarni
ICID2018_B_009 A Study on Applicability of Existing Evaporation Models with 128
Particular Reference to Kakodonga Watershed in Jorhat, Assam
Upasana Kashyap, Khairuz Zaman, Sudip Basack
Theme C: Geotechnical Engineering

ICID2018_C_001 A Study on Stability of Earthen Dam with Bentonite Mixed Silty 134
Soil
Pranamee Baruah, Prasanna Kumar Khaund
ICID2018_C_002 Shear Strength Analysis of Sand and Egg Shell Mixes 140
Natasha Kakati, Bikash Das
ICID2018_C_003 Prediction of California Bearing Ratio (CBR) From Index 143
Properties of Fine Grained Soil
Arunav Chakraborty, Anasuya Goswami
ICID2018_C_004 Field CBR Test Study on Two Layered Flexible Pavement 149
Reinforced with Coconut Coir Mat
Bibha Das Saikia, Biplab Gogoi, Krishna Gogoi
ICID2018_C_005 Behaviour of Geotextile Reinforced Stone Columns 154
Manita Das, A.K.Dey
ICID2018_C_006 A Study on Behavior of Micropile Groups in Soft Clayey Soil 159
Nirmali Borthakur, Ashim Kanti Dey
ICID2018_C_007 A Study on Design of Support System of Tunnel Using Phase2 165
Program
Arindom Dutta, Mrinal Kumar Dutta
ICID2018_C_008 Improvement of Brahmaputra Bed Silt for Embankment 170
Construction
Jessia Meher, Bhattacharjee Arup
ICID2018_C_010 A Modelling Approach for Cohesion & Friction Angle Attribute 176
on Overburden Dump Slope Stability Analysis
Joba Goswami, Biswajit Paul, Mrinaljyoti Adhyapok
ICID2018_C_011 Performance Study of Different Indigenous Fibres in Improving 180
Bearing Capacities of Soil
Shamsuz Zaman, Bikash Kumar Sah, Nayanmoni Chetia
ICID2018_C_012 Numerical Modeling of Earthen Dam: Validation with Field Data 186
Priyanka Talukdar, Arindam Dey
ICID2018_C_016 Effect of Lime on the Permeability of Black Cotton Soil Treated 192
With Mine Tailings for the Construction of Earthen Dams
Krishnaiah A.J, Ramesh H.N, K.V. ManojKrishna
ICID2018_C_017 A Review on Ground Improvement Using Stone Column 197
Partha Pratim Baruah, Arup Bhattacharjee
ICID2018_C_021 Compaction and Strength Characteristics of Bentonite-Sand-Rock 202
Quarry Dust Mixes
Hemanga Das, Tinku Kalita, Malaya Chetia
ICID2018_C_022 Comparison of 1D Equivalent Linear and Nonlinear Ground 208
Response Analysis for Different Soil Profiles
Amar F. Siddique, Binu Sharma
ICID2018_C_023 Improvement of Cohesionless Soil Using Bentonite for Earthen 212
Dam or Embankments
P.K. Khaund, Anindita Bhuyan, Bhaskar J Pegu, Doli Choudhury, Jumei
C Konyak, Rajdeep Kalita, Sumanna Kakoti
ICID2018_C_024 Improvement of Cohesive Soil Using Coir Fibre 216
P.K. Khaund, Richita Sarmah, Nilakshi Das, Avishek Goswami, Pritam
Bhattacharyya, Chandan Jyoti Dutta, Aditi Lahkar
ICID2018_C_025 Static Analysis of Tiered Reinforced Soil Retaining Wall 219
Seema Kumari, Sudipta Saikia, Arup Bhattacharjee
ICID2018_C_026 Road Embankment Construction With Brahmaputra Silt 224
Kashmiri Deka, Arup Bhattacharjee
ICID2018_C_027 Influence of Core Composition on Stability of Earthen 228
Embankment Under Rapid Drawdown Condition
Rupali Sarmah, Anshul Kumar, Arpit Chaudhary, Sourav Bhardwaj,
Pankaj Thakur
Theme D: Structural and Construction Engineering
ICID2018_D_002 Effect of Base Width of Concrete Gravity Dam and Tail Water 234
Presence on Dynamic Response of Concrete Gravity Dam
Including Soil-Fluid- Structure Interaction
Manish Hazarika, P.K. Khaund
ICID2018_D_003 Time History Analysis Including Soil-Fluid- Structure Interaction 239
in Concrete Gravity Dam
A. Parasor, Atanu Kumar Dutta
ICID2018_D_004 Study on Fluid-Structure Interaction in Elevated Water Tank 244
Sutanuka Nath, Atanu Kumar Dutta
ICID2018_D_006 Seismic Behavior of an Elevated Intze Type Tank for Different 249
Staging Configuration
Mriganka Borkotoky, Nayanmoni Chetia
ICID2018_D_008 Numerical Study of Axially Loaded Short Steel Tube Columns 254
Palash Dey, Rohit Kumar Gupta
ICID2018_D_009 Limiting Shear Strength Expression For RC Corbels 257
Leon Raj J, Katari Durga Bhavani, M L Sai Ranga Rao, Sanjay Deori
ICID2018_D_011 Energy Efficient Buildings: An Overview 263
Dipak Basumatari, Sanjay Deori, Khirod Buragohain, Nibir Pran
Borah, Rajib Das
ICID2018_D_014 Verification of Size Effect in Pervious Concrete 267
T.Chockalingam, J.Leon Raj, C.Vijayaprabha,
ICID2018_D_022 An Analytical Study on Composite Action Between the Various 273
Shear Connectors on Sandwich Panel
R. Pavithran, K. Aarthi
ICID2018_D_023 A Study of Sloshing Effect Subjected to Dynamic Load in A 279
Liquid Storage Tank with and without Internal Obstructions
K. Sridhar, C. Vijayaprabha
ICID2018_D_024 Utilization of Various Waste Materials in Concrete as Admixtures 286
Shamsuz Zaman, Nayanmoni Chetia, Koushik Kalita
ICID2018_D_027 A Study of Variations of M-K Relationships for RCC Columns 291
Under Fire Loading
Ankit Borgohain, Sriman Kumar Bhattacharyya
ICID2018_D_028 Application of Ferrocement in Construction Engineering: A 298
Review
Akachi Cheran Momin, Supran Chakravarty, Ingti Chutia
ICID2018_D_029 Utilization of quarry Dust in the Development of Self Compacting 303
Concrete Using Bagasse Ash and Rice Husk Ash
H.S.Narashimhan, Karisiddappa, M. Ramegowda
ICID2018_D_030 Linear Static Analysis of An Irregular (L Shaped) Building for 309
Progressive Collapse
Augustin Karadigudd, M. T. Venuraju, K. S. Manjunath
ICID2018_D_031 Utilization of waste and recycled materials in concrete: a 314
review
Mriganka Kr. Duttabaruah, Nayanmoni Chetia
ICID2018_D_034 A Review on Structural Health Monitoring 319
Hitesh Kumar, Nayanmoni Chetia
ICID2018_D_035 Experimental Investigations on Buckling Modes of Corroded and 324
Uncorroded Compression Members
K.C. Manu, A. Cinitha, G.S. Palani, M.S. Kalappa, T.P. Jeevitha
ICID2018_D_036 Study of Frame- Shear Wall Interaction Problem Against Lateral 329
Loads From Numerical Approach
Richma Devi, Atanu Kumar Dutta
ICID2018_D_037 Green Building Technology 335
Nitisha Mazumdar, Antara Banerjee
ICID2018_D_038 A Review Paper on Blast Resistant Structure 339
Rituparna Mazumdar, Nayanmoni Chetia
ICID2018_D_041 Challenges in Design and Construction of World’s Tallest Rail 345
Bridge
Saibaba Ankala
ICID2018_D_042 Direct Displacement Based Seismic Design for T-Shaped RC 352
Framed Structure
Mrinmoy Kirtania, Probhakar Chakravorty
ICID2018_D_043 Study on Mechanical Behaviour of the Cement Mortar Containing 356
Eggshell and Seashell as a Replacement Material
S.M. Murali Ram Kumar, C. Vijayaprabha
ICID2018_D_044 Applicability of Net Zero Energy Building (NZEB) Concept in 361
the Residential Sector in India
Prajakta Dalal-Kulkarni, Vasudha Gokhale
ICID2018_D_046 Flood Proof House: An Alternative Approach to Conventional 366
Housing Technology
Gautam Das, Mousom Mrinmoy Kashyap, Niranjan Konwer, Atanu
Kumar Dutta
ICID2018_D_047 Potential Use of Geopolymer: A State of The Art 372
Sulaem Musaddiq Laskar, Sudip Talukdar
ICID2018_D_048 In-Plane Free Vibration and Wave Propagation of Composite 379
Curved Beam using Spectral Element Method
Baharul Hussain, Manoranjan Barik
ICID2018_D_049 Bond Strength of Concrete Substrate And Repair Material- A 385
Study on the Methodology
Sayed Injamamul Hussain, Sulaem Musaddiq Laskar, Baharul Hussain
Theme E: Hydraulics and Water Resource Engineering

ICID2018_E_001 Analysis of Flow of Groundwater through Wells and Associated 392
Land Subsidence
Othillia N Mara1, Sudip Basack,, Vesalu C Ruho, Ghritharta Goswami
ICID2018_E_002 Analysis And Control Of Flow Parameters Through Sluice Gate 397
In Dam: A Case Study In India.
Ghritartha Goswami, Sudip Basack
ICID2018_E_003 Hydrological Assessment of the Transboundary Brahmaputra 401
River Basin using SWAT
Pulendra Dutta, Arup Kr. Sarma
ICID2018_E_004 A Laboratory Study On The Effectiveness Of Submerged Vanes 407
In River Training Work
Anupal J Baruah
ICID2018_E_005 The Effect Of Variation Of Seismic Coefficients And Location Of 411
Drainage Gallery On The Base Width Of A Concrete Gravity
Dam
Sukanya Talukdar, Dr. Prasanna Kumar Khaund
ICID2018_E_006 A Study On The Sediment Trapping Efficiency Of Permeable 417
Spur (Porcupine) Models In A Meandering Reach Of A Field
Channel Model
Biplob Gowala, Bhargov Phukan, Rituparna Goswami
ICID2018_E_008 A Study On The Effect Of Permeable Spur In Flow Diversion 423
From Near Bank Within The Straight Reach Of An Experimental
Field Channel
Shekhar Jyoti Baruah, Mr Rituparna Goswami, Dr Prasanna Kumar
Khaund
ICID2018_E_009 Effect Of Urban Settlement On Watershed Hydrology Of Fatasil 430
Hill Of Guwahati City
Sagarika Patowary, Arup K Sarma
ICID2018_E_0010 A Study On Change In Morphology Of River Brahmaputra Due 436
To Post Construction Effect Of Koliabhomora And Naranarayana
Setu Bridge
Nayani Deka, Dr.Pankaj Goswami
ICID2018_E_0011 Comparison Of Quadratic Polynomial Regression And Cubic 442
Polynomial Regression For Prediction Of Rainfall Runoff Model
At Brahmaputra River Basin At Pandu Location, Assam
Pranami Borah, Dr. Triptimoni Borah,
ICID2018_E_0015 Development Of Vulnerability Index For River Bank Erosion 447
Tapasranjan Das, Tina Sultana, Dr. Arup Kumar Sarma
ICID2018_E_0016 Trend-Stationarity In Rainfall Data And Effect Of Spatial Scale 453
On Areal Mean Of The Rainfall Data: A Case Study On
Chikmagalur District In South India
Yogendra B E, Chinmayi.B.Y
ICID2018_E_0017 Numerical Models for Relative Scour Parameters around 459
Impermeable Spur Dikes
Dharmendra Nath, Utpal Kumar Misra
ICID2018_E_0018 Capacity-Utilization Analysis Of Irrigation Projects: A Case 464
Study
Ujjal Borgohain
ICID2018_E_0019 Comparison of soil moisture derived by using SWAT model and 470
remotely sensed GLDAS
Dilip Kumar, Rajib Kumar Bhattacharjya
ICID2018_E_0020 A Stydy On Soil Hydraulic Properties In Unsaturated Soil For 476
Different Location Of Guwahati City Using Retc Program
Banakshi Bora, Triptimoni Borah
ICID2018_E_0021 Water Quality Analysis Of Brahmaputra River At An Urban 481
Stretch Of Guwahati City Using Hec-Ras
Rubia Sultana Choudhury, Triptimoni Borah
ICID2018_E_0022 Rainfall Runoff Modeling Of Pagladiya River Basin 486

Atiqur Rahman,, Bipul Talukdar
ICID2018_E_0023 A Study On The Effects Of Land Use Change On Storm 492
Hydrograph Of Kakodonga Watershed
Upasana Kashyap, Sanjoy Bhuyan, Dr. Sudip Basack
Theme F: Infrastructure Planning and Management

ICID2018_F_004 Speculating Urban Form for Sustainable Growth: Interpreting 497
Climatological Parameters As Determinants.
Subhasish Borah
ICID2018_F_005 Open Spaces for Sustainable Development of Cities, A Case of 502
Hassan City, Karnataka, India.
Mohan Kumar Chavan, Dilip Kumar Das, Sachin B. Patil, Nethra H. R
and Yashodha M.J
ICID2018_F_006 GIS Based Multi Objective Approach for Village Planning and 509
Development
Guruprasad K, Yogendra B.E.
ICID2018_F_007 Sustainability in Infrastructure Development 515
Nipun Jain, Tharun Dolla, Vijayan Chelliah , Boeing Laishram
ICID2018_F_008 Prequalification of Public-Private Partnership Municipal 521
Infrastructure in India
Tharun Dolla and Boeing Laishram
ICID2018_F_009 Modelling Evacuation Behaviour of A Health Care Unit Building 527
on Fire Occurrence with Matlab Program
Shirolkar Meera , Gokhale Vasudha
ICID2018_F_010 Sustainable Infrastructure Development in North-East-Case 533
Study of NERUDP Project
J.Pathak, R. Vishwanathan
ICID2018_F_011 A Detail Study on Bamboo Reinforced Concrete Beam 539
N.Chetia
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT
21-22 December, 2018
Jorhat Engineering College, Assam, India
KEYNOTE CONTRIBUTIONS
UPGRADING DEVELOPMENT INFRASTRUCTURE IN ASSAM
Prof. Nayan Sharma, Ph.D

Former Professor, IIT Roorkee,
Honorary Professor of River Science, University of Nottingham, UK
Email:nayanfwt@gmail.com
Even after implementation of twelve Five-Year plans spanning over sixty seven long years, there
are many more miles to go before the burgeoning chronic problems of poverty and unemployment
in Assam are resolved. The main inhibiting factors in short are: i) glaring weaknesses in
infrastructure development of core sectors, ii) discordant institutional framework, iii) technology
obsolescence, iv) lack of dedicated capacity building campaign to create high-skilled human
resources on required scale to support and sustain the desired big push for accelerating economic
growth of Assam.
SLUGGISH AGRICULTURE AND VERY POOR IRRIGATION SUPPORT
Since for bulk of population agriculture is the prime source of livelihood, achieving sustained high
agricultural growth is very much crucial for Assam. A booming agriculture with diversified well-
planned cropping pattern could very well make a significant impact on tackling poverty and rural
unemployment. This will give stimulus to engender growth of labour intensive agro-based
industries for absorbing unemployed skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled labour force.
The agricultural output and food grains yield in Assam are not only low and sluggish, but
are falling behind the national average. Besides other inherent deficiencies, upgraded
infrastructure and distribution practices for irrigation to boost agriculture through crop
intensification and high productivity are sorely lacking. Major impedance to agricultural growth
can be attributed to very poor irrigation development, non-existent crop-water-use management
hampered by very low irrigation efficiency, and also use of sub-standard nature of other critical
inputs such as spurious seeds etc.
Achievement made by state Irrigation infrastructure in creation of irrigation facilities has
been utterly disappointing. As per Assam Govt. Statistical Handbook of 2018, during 2016 – 2017
the Net Irrigated Area brought under irrigation in course of twelve Five Year Plans is just about
1.81 Lakh hectares against Net Cropped Area of about 28 lakh hectares which gives a meagre
irrigation achievement percentage of 6.5% for Assam. In sharp contrast, states like Punjab and
Haryana have made remarkable strides by bringing respectively 98% and 84% of cropped area
under irrigation achieving high cropping intensity and productivity levels. Even the national
average of 72.74% is far ahead of that achieved in Assam.
Due to abysmally low irrigation development and stagnant agricultural growth, the Kharif
food grains productivity in Assam is only 1.73 tonne/ha as against 3.74 tonne/ha of Punjab, 3.53
tonne/ha of Haryana and even the national average food grains yield of 1.92 tonne/ha is still higher
than that of Assam.
1
Keynote Contributions
PALTRY POWER PRODUCING INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT
Even though Brahmaputra basin is endowed with the highest hydel potential in India, the power
development status in Assam is extremely low mainly due to poor planning. Reportedly, the
energy requirement in Assam was worked out at 5967 Million Units during 2010-11, whereas
the generation of electricity in the State was only 1707.762 MU, compelling ASEB Ltd. to heavily
purchase the huge power deficit from other sources at much higher rates to meet the power
demand.
Ironically, in spite of being endowed with cheaper eco-friendly clean hydro power
potential as high as about 70,000 MW in the Brahmaputra basin, Assam is having a paltry
installed capacity of hardly about 400 MW - that too after 67 years of twelve Five Year Plans.
Such abysmally low power availability is seriously coming in the way of economic growth
through industrialization and modernized agriculture to generate employment for poverty
alleviation.
Notably, hydro power projects have very much longer life being endowed with renewable
energy source, compared to very limited life of coal / gas based power projects with depleting
energy sources. Furthermore, thermal power projects are known for very high CO2 emission, in
contrast to almost negligible emission in case of hydro power. As reported in a general
comparative study in an international journal (given in REFERENCES), cost of power
generation per unit (KWH) decreased from 140.4 to 24.8 paise for hydro power, whereas for
thermal power the same increased from 148.7 to 240.1 paise over a period of 36 years from 1971
to 2007. This study is very much revealing which should engage the attention of planners, policy
makers and stakeholders.
Thus, it is notable that generation cost hugely decreases over time for hydro power, in
contrast cost of thermal power generation significantly increases with time due to ever rising cost
of coal, gas, fuel, transportation cost and inflationary economic pressures. Furthermore, hydro
power stations are able to instantly respond to instantaneous power demand as these are used for
peaking, in contrast to thermal power stations which are basically base-load stations requiring
significant time lag for starting as well as closure of power house operation. In future solar power
plants too may potentially act as peaking stations, but prior to that cost-effective breakthrough in
power storage battery technology is the main prerequisite in this regard.
Till that time, Assam will increasingly have to depend upon hydel dams to provide for
much needed peaking power, as other means of base-load power generation e.g. thermal cannot
meet instantaneous power demand.
CHRONIC FLOOD AND EROSION SCENARIO
The economy of Assam is very seriously undermined by recurring spells of flood and erosion
devastations. As per findings of a comprehensive satellite imagery based study by Prof.Nayan
Sharma for NDMA, Govt. of India in 2012, about 127 km2 of prime land mass are annually lost
to erosion by the Brahmaputra river and its tributaries.
Due to all these inhibiting factors of : i) inadequate infrastructure development, ii) chronic
flood and erosion problems, iii) stagnant agriculture and iv) acute power shortage, the rate of
2
unemployment in Assam has been soaring around 6.3% as against 1% in Gujarat, 3.1% in
Himachal Pradesh, 1.8% in Punjab, 3.2% in Haryana, 2.8% in Maharashtra, with the all- India
average rate being 3.8%. In the above context, the urgent need of the hour is to bring about planned
upgradation of key development infrastructure of core sectors for solving the burning problems of
Assam strictly on professional basis.
SUGGESTED DEVELOPMENT INFRASTRUCTURE UPGRADATION
In the above context, some of the new technologies that may be considered for use are briefly spelt
out below:
Flaw in WR Planning - Convert Hydel Dams to Multi-Purpose Storage Dams Using Piano Key
Weir & Fuse Plug Technology
A serious flaw in the present-day approach for Water Resources Planning in Assam and NE
Region can be attributed to planning and implementation of single purpose hydel dam projects by
government agencies such as NEEPCO, APGCL, NHPC etc. Similarly, irrigation projects had
been oriented for developing Kharif irrigation only, without any significant provision for Rabi
crops and other potential benefits like incidental hydro power, drinking water etc. There was
budgeted provision for generating incidental hydro power in Dhansiri and Bardikorai Irrigation
schemes which practically remained non-starter. Only recently few old Irrigation schemes like
Pahumara, Dekadong, Rupahi, Champamati etc. are being planned for incidental hydel
generation.
All existing and under construction hydel dams like Ranganadi, Doyang, Kopili, Umiam,
Karbi Langpi, Lower Subansiri had been planned for hydro power without any reservoir storage
space for flood cushion and other benefits. Therefore, during heavy rains these dams could not
hold back inflows in excess of their reservoir capacity and have been regularly causing
devastating floods in downstream areas. Furthermore, the reservoir operating Rule Curves of
these dams require revisit for upgradation through comprehensive reservoir simulation and
optimization studies.
It is suggested here by the present author to upgrade the infrastructure of these hydel
dams into multi-purpose storage dams by incorporating flood cushion, irrigation, environmental
flows etc. This will entail modifying existing dam infrastructure with latest Piano Key Weir and
as required Fuse Plug / Fuse Gate technology. In recent years these techniques have been
gainfully used by Electricité de France (EDF) in several old French dams.
Also, since year 2008, Prof.Nayan Sharma is closely associated in design, modelling and
implementation of Piano Key Weir technology for diversion dam of 120 MW Sawra Kuddu Project
in Himachal Pradesh.
Notable advancements have been made in dam engineering technology aided by advances
in computer simulation techniques using high speed computing system and robust numerical
analyses. It is now feasible to develop reasonably safe designs of big dams founded on intricate
geo-seismic conditions to withstand high peak ground accelerations triggered by big earthquakes.
During April 2015 big Nepal earthquake of 7.9 Richter Scale magnitude with transient
high PGA of 0.6g value to 0.2g, the 114 metres high Kulekhani Dam safely withstood the
3
earthquake without suffering any damage from very strong ground vibrations. Paradoxically, the
same Nepal quake completely devastated numerous buildings in Kathmandu with scores of human
casualty. Notably, the aforementioned Kulekhani Dam was nearer to the epicentre than
Kathmandu city..
In JAPAN, during the BIGGEST EARTHQUAKE of 9.0 magnitude Richter scale in 2011,
the following high dams (amongst many more others) safely stood massive ground vibrations
(while numerous buildings toppled taking many human lives) –
• 131 M high Miboro Dam
• 110 M high Shimoshiiba Dam
• 100 M high Tamagawa Dam
Upgrading Infrastructure To Modernize Irrigated Agriculture
The existing obsolete and non-functional irrigation facilities warrant radical overhauling through
adoption of year-round storage based irrigation system in place of the existing seasonal diversion
irrigation infrastructure which is utterly incapable to support high agricultural growth by stepping
up cropping intensity and productivity. Some of the recent advances made in the realm of irrigated
agriculture namely Regulated Deficit Irrigation (RDI) and Partial Root Zone Drying (PRD)
techniques could be considered for adoption on a pilot basis along with empowered institutional
framework of Farmers’ Cooperatives for optimal irrigation water management, with phase-wise
introduction of demand-based automated irrigation system. To start with on pilot basis, partially
automated Downstream Control system may be introduced in distributary canals in phases, to be
followed up later with fully automated On-Demand Dynamic Regulation system.in the entire
irrigation network after equipping with required physical hardware and software as being done in
canal systems of Sardar Sarovar Project for Gujarat, MP, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Subarnarekha
Project in Odisha and Jharkhand in phases and partially in Chambal command in MP.
Such an automated irrigation system will have least human intervention, while achieving
very high irrigation efficiencies relating to – Field Application Efficiency, Delivery Efficiency,
Deep Percolation Efficiency, Conveyance Efficiency and importantly Crop Water Use Efficiency.
This is the outline ULTIMATE VISION and to realize that VISION of high level Optimal
irrigation Water Use from the current very low level, will require political will with able supports
from technocrats and stakeholders.
Climate Change Vulnerability – BRAHMATWINN Project Study
BRAHMATWINN, the European Commission sponsored International Research Project on

impact of climate change vulnerability on the Brahmaputra and the Danube River was undertaken
by 18-partner International consortium. BRAHMATWINN was coordinated by Prof. Wolfgang
Flugel of Germany, and Prof. Nayan Sharma was a research partner & Indian Team Leader. The
core findings indicated that the temperature is projected to increase appreciably in the
Brahmaputra basin in the coming decades due to climate change with much higher rises of winter
temperature in the region of the Tibetan Plateau. This may trigger profuse melting of glaciers in
the Himalayas along with occurrence of short duration highly intense precipitation. The
4
summarised findings can be accessed from the published book on BRAHMATWINN by Springer
(given under REFERENCES).
The above stated climate change effects are likely to cause both intense floods and
droughts in Assam. Considering the very narrow configuration of Brahmaputra valley, it will be
naïveté to believe that traditional measures like embankments, revetments, spurs etc. will be able
to provide effective solution to the chronic problem of flood - erosion in the Brahmaputra. From
a purely technical standpoint, safely designed multi-purpose storage dams of required dimensions
in the Brahmaputra basin will be the prime solution for the chronic flood - erosion problems along
with other complementary measures.
To Develop Infrastructure of Inland Navigation Waterways For Cheaper Eco-Friendly Goods

Transportation In Brahmaputra Basin
To facilitate cost-effective and eco-friendly freight transportation, it is suggested to develop and

maintain infrastructure for all-weather inland navigation surface connectivity in the waterways
with docking terminals in the main stem Brahmaputra, Barak and their tributaries. This will
accrue significant benefits such as -
I) will provide cheaper mode of surface BULK transportation of goods to nooks &
corners of Assam with negligible Green House Gas Emission; will require to take
advantage of sprawling river network of Brahmaputra and Basin Basins,
II) will relieve ever increasing transportation pressure on road transport,
III) will promote inter-modal goods transport network by strategically combining inland
navigation transport-rail transport-road transport in synergy for much wider
connectivity coverage of rural, semi-urban and urban areas, and
IV) facilitate incidental benefits implicitly from navigation channel fairway developments
in the form of improved flood conveyance and stable river morphology resulting in
better flood management.
The above will require both lab & field based studies to develop cost effective
solutions to arrest the ever-increasing braiding behaviour of the Brahmaputra & its
tributaries through systematic closure of the secondary channels. About fifty years
back, pilot studies were initiated by the then Assam Govt. at five trial sites on the
Brahmaputra with French collaboration (ECAFE) during 1968 – 1973 using Bottom
Panel technique. Promising results were obtained at three sites on the Brahmaputra
namely – Alikash, Dharapur and Hatimura. Inexplicably, such an initiative with great
promise for Brahmaputra river inland navigation fairway development along with
implicit erosion control using the cost-effective Bottom Panel technique was not
followed up further by the authorities.
For holistic solution of chronic flood and erosion problem of the Brahmaputra basin, vigorous
pilot field studies have become essential to develop and apply cost effective and relatively eco-
friendly emerging techniques such as - RCC Jack Jetty, Submerged Vanes, Trail Dykes, Chevrons
to upgrade the age-old highly capital intensive methods of boulder spur and boulder bank
revetments. After conduct of lab based experimental studies, Prof.Nayan Sharma has successfully
5
used Jack Jetty, Submerged Vanes and Trail Dykes for river training in the Ganga River as well
as in the Solani and the Bornadi Rivers in recent years.
Early Warning System for Flood Forecasting & Disaster Management
Rule Curves for reservoir operating schedules of hydel dams in North East Region require
modification (after structurally upgrading for flood storage space). The grim lesson to be learnt
here is – Periyar basin in Kerala received 12 Billion Cubic Metre (BCM) of water in three days
of exceptionally heavy rainfall during August 15 – 17 of 2018 , which was more than double the
capacity of all 44 dam reservoirs at 5.8 BCM. Significantly, all reservoirs of Kerala dams
including the multi-purpose ones cater only to hydel generation, irrigation, drinking water,
without any space for flood cushion. This resulted in the massive flood deluge inflicting severe
toll on lives and property.
Therefore, It is essentially required to use state-of-the-art multi-satellite GPM
precipitation based Early Warning System in the Brahmaputra basin for flood forecasting with
maximum possible lead time. This will need to conjunctively use high resolution Digital
Elevation Model (DEM) data of watershed areas and stream topography for synchronized
operation of hydrological and hydraulic models for real time flow simulation of overland flow,
flood flow propagation and flood forecasting.
REFERENCES
1. Adesh Sharma, International Journal of Arts and Sciences, 3(9): 125 - 143 (2010)
2. Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2012, Govt. of India, Ministry of Agriculture, Department
of Agriculture and Cooperation, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Table 4.1.2 State-
wise yield of Kharif Foodgrains pp. 131
(http://eands.dacnet.nic.in/Publication12-12-2012/Agriculture_at_a_Glance%202012/
Pages85-136.pdf)
3. Directorate of Economics & Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India Statewise
Foodgrain ; Production, And Yield (2002-03 and 2003 - 2004) , Water Data 2005, Table no.
2.5
4. Dobler, A., Yaoming, M., Sharma, N., Kienberger, S., and Ahrens, B. (2011): Regional
climate projections in two alpine river basins: Upper Danube and Upper Brahmaputra. –
Advances in Science Research Journal, 7, 11–20, 2011, doi:10.5194/asr-7-1-2011,
http://www.adv-sci-res.net/7/index.html. Published by Copernicus Publications, Germany.
5. Economic Survey, Assam, 2011-12, The Directorate of Economics & Statistics, Government
of Assam pp 5-6.
(www.ecostatassam.nic.in/ads_economic%20survey_2011-12.pdf)
6. Gupta U. P., Sharma Nayan and Ojha C. S. P. (2006): Performance evaluation of submergence
ratio of a rectangular submerged vane with a collar, International Journal of Sediment
Research, Beijing, China, Vol. 21, No.1, March- 2006, pp 42-49.
7. Gupta U. P., Sharma Nayan and Ojha C. S. P. (2007): Performance Evaluation of Tapered
Vane, Journal of Hydraulic Research, IAHR, USA, Vol. 45, No. 4, 2007, pp 472-477.
6
8. Gupta U. P., Sharma Nayan and Ojha C. S. P. (2010): Enhancing Utility Of Submerged Vanes
With Collar, Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, by American Society of Civil Engineers, USA
Vol. 136, No. 9, September 1, 2010, pp 651-655.
9. Irrigation Potentials - 2006-07 - Ministry of Water Resources, Finance Commission of India,
Table 11 pp 44
10. Land Use Statistics brought out by Ministry of Agriculture for 2000-01 from MoWR, Govt.
India
(www.wrmin.nic.in/writereaddata/linkimages/statewiseirrigated2079753822.pdf)
11. Lang, S., Kääb, A., Pechstädt, J., Flügel, W.-A., P. Zeil, P., Lanz, E., D. Kahuda, D.,
Frauenfelder, R., Casey, K., P. Füreder, P., Sossna, I., Wagner, I., , G. Janauer, G., Exler, N.,
Boukalova, Z., Tapa, R., Lui, J., and Sharma, Nayan. (2011): Assessing components of the
natural environment of the Upper Danube and Upper Brahmaputra river basins. - Advances
in Science Research Journal, 7, 21–36, 2011, doi:10.5194/asr-7-1-2011, http://www.adv-sci-
res.net/7/index.html, Published by Copernicus Publications, Germany.
12. M. Leite Ribeiro, M. Bieri, J.-L. Boillat, A. J. Schleiss, G. Singhal, and Nayan Sharma (2012):
Discharge Capacity of Piano Key Weirs, published in Journal of Hydraulic Engineering of
American Society of Civil Engineers, USA, Vol. 138, No. 2, February 1, 2012, pp 199-203.
13. M. P. Akhtar, Nayan Sharma, and C. S. P. Ojha (2011): Braiding process and bank erosion in
the Brahmaputra River, International Journal of Sediment Research, Beijing, China, Vol. 26,
No. 4, 2011, pp. 431–444.
14. Nayan Sharma and Afework Ashagrie (2012): Simulation Study for Channelization of the
Brahmaputra river in Assam, published in Water and Energy International Journal, CBIP,
Volume 69, No. 6 June 2012, Page 30-36.
15. Nayan Sharma and Harinarayan Tiwari (2013) “Experimental study on vertical velocity and
submergence depth near Piano Key Weir” Labyrinth and Piano Key Weirs II Published by
CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, London pp 93 – 100.
16. Nayan Sharma, Fiifi Amoako Johnson, Craig W. Hutton and Mike Clark “Hazard,
Vulnerability and Risk on the Brahmaputra Basin: A Case Study of River Bank Erosion
published in The Open Hydrology Journal, 2010, Vol. 4, pp 211-226.
17. Nayan Sharma,(Ed.) “River System Analysis And Management”, SPRINGER, 2017
18. Nayan Sharma, and Wolfgang-Albert Flügel,(Eds.) “,Applied Geoinformatics for
Sustainable Integrated Land and Water Resources Management (ILWRM) in the
Brahmaputra River basin - Results from the EC-project BRAHMATWINN”, SPRINGER,
2015
19. Nayan Sharma et. al. Final Report on Brahmaputra River Erosion And Its Control, National
Disaster Management Authority of India, 2012
20. Power data from "ALL INDIA REGIONWISE GENERATING INSTALLED CAPACITY
OF POWER". Central Electricity Authority, Ministry of Power, Government of India.
December 2013.
21. P. K. Swami, A. Dwivedi and Nayan Sharma, Lacey regime equations for river Brahmaputra,
International Association of Hydraulic Research (IAHR), Journal of Hydraulic Research, Vol.
46, No.5(2008), pp.707-710.
22. Statistical Handbook, 2018, Directorate of Economics & Statistics ,Govt of Assam
7
23. Unemployment data from Report On Employment Unemployment Survey 2011-12. Government
Of India, Ministry of Labour & Employment, Labour Bureau Chandigarh.
8
3D CRUSTAL VELOCITY MODEL FOR GROUND MOTION SIMULATIONS IN

NORTH-EAST INDIA
Dr. S. T. G. Raghukanth
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India
The present study focuses on developing a 3D crustal velocity model and applying it to perform
ground motion simulations for North East India. The study region encompasses area between 89°E
to 97°E longitude and 22°N to 30°N latitude. The calibration of the material property is based on
48 shear wave profiles available for the region along with the geotectonic features reported in the
literature. The 3D material model arrived from the study is implemented in a finite element
framework for ground motion simulations. The developed model is validated using the strong
motion data available for four events; 1988 Mw7.2 India–Bangladesh earthquake, 2011 Mw6.3
India–Myanmar earthquake, 2013 Mw5.5 Assam earthquake and Mw5.2 Bhutan earthquake. The
simulations are able to capture the prominent features of the recorded data up to 2Hz. Hence, the
developed model can be implemented for estimating ground motions (< 2Hz) in the north eastern
region of India. The simulated results can be used to estimate region-specific hazard and the
displacement-based design of structures
9
PRESENT REVIEW OF STUDIES OF METEOROLOGICAL DISASTERS IN THE

NORTHEASTERN REGION OF INDIA SUBCONTINENT
Taiichi HAYASHI
Center for SouthEast Asian Studies, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
ABSTRACT
Countries in the northeastern region of the Indian Subcontinent such as India, Bangladesh and
Nepal are suffering by the meteorological disasters almost every year. These disasters have
caused much damage to the human life and infrastructure. However, ordinal floods in every
year bring benefits such as water resources, purification of the environment, and the increase
of agricultural products. We have carried out the field research of many kinds of meteorological
disasters such as cyclones, floods and tornadoes. Furthermore, the intensive observation of
meteorological factors conducted for more than fifteen years including the upper layer sounding
and maintenance of the rain gauge network with high time resolution. In this paper, we
summarize the results of above studies and present the future research project plan of the
collaboration with India, Bangladesh and Nepal.
INTRODUCTION
The northeastern region is affected by various kinds of natural hazard including tropical
cyclones, flooding, tornadoes, drought and many others. In terms of proportion of population
affected by natural hazards, Bangladesh had the highest death rate, 3910 per million persons for
the 1947-1981 periods (Burton, Kates and White, 1993). Tropical cyclone and flood hazards in
the northeastern area in the Indian subcontinent are well known for their large amount of damage
and death. Sitting in a peculiar geographical location, flood perhaps is the most costly and
debilitating natural hazard in this region. Construction of embankment along river banks and in
the coastal belt is the popular means of combating flood disaster. In addition, flood prone areas
delineation and hazard assessment is done using the traditional surveys and mapping methods
which has many pitfalls (Smith, 1997). Thus, this region has not been yet achieved major success
in reducing flood loss. The situation of flooding may aggravate in future due to the climatic
changes which may lead to the loss of major portion of this region to the loss of major portion.
In this paper, we review the meteorological disasters in this region, such as cyclones, floods.
CYCLONE
“Cyclones” are the tropical cyclones in the Bay of Bengal, same as “Typhoon” in the
northwestern Pacific and “Hurricane” in the North America. The typical cyclone in the Bay of
Bengal is shown in Figure 1, the cyclone Sidr in November of 2007.
10
Figure 1. Satellite picture of Cyclone Sidr in the Bay of Bengal at 0530Z in November 15, 2007.
The annual average numbers of cyclones in the South Asia are 1.6 in the Arabian Sea and
3.1 in the Bay of Bengal. The annual numbers of strong cyclone with wind speed of more than
33m/s are 0.3 in the Arabian Sea and 1.0 in the Bay of Bengal. The monthly occurrences of
cyclones in the Bay of Bengal are 27 in November and 24 in October of the post monsoon
season, and 17 in May of premonsoon season. The tracks of cyclones in the premonsoon and
the postmonsoon seasons are shown in Figure 2 a , b.
Figure 2 a). Tracks of cyclones in the Figure 2 b). Same as Fig. 2a) except for
pre-monsoon season (March to May). the post-monsoon season (October to December).
The cyclone “Sidr “ landed at the southwestern coast of Bangladesh on November 15, 2007
and around 4200 persons killed or missed by the severe storm surge. In Figure 3, the distribution
of affected area by the cyclone “Sidr” in Bangladesh is shown. The most serious damaged area
was concentrated at the southwestern coastal region including Sundorban, the world heritage.
The most of the mangrove forest was completely damaged.as shown in Figure 4.
11
Figure 3. Distribution of damaged area Figure 4. The damaged

Mangrove forest
by the cyclone Sidr. in Sundorban.
However, the number of the killed person decreased drastically compared with the past
cyclone case. In 1970, 300,000 to 500,000 persons were killed in one cyclone and 140,000 persons
in the Killer cyclone in 1991. The main reason of the decrease of number of died and missed
persons are prevalence of cyclone shelter in the coastal region of the Bay of Bengal. Figure 5
shows the typical cyclone shelter. At present, more than 2,000 shelters are completed. One shelter
can accommodate 500 to 1,000 persons during cyclone passing.
The construction of cyclone shelter is so effective to decrease the human damage in
cyclone. The other measure is the Doppler radar for monitoring the movement of cyclone. Two
high resolution radars are installed and watching cyclone approach, and the early warning is
realized.
Figure 5. Cyclone Shelter at the Coastal region. Figure 6. Annual rainfall from 1990
to 2000.
12
FLOOD
Flood is the other serious disasters in India and Bangladesh. However, the monsoon comes to this
region every year, therefore this long term floods have some merits to the human life in
Bangladesh. People in Bangladesh have their life style with the long term flood for their long
history. In Fig.6, the annual rainfall amount is shown from 1980 to 2000. Especially, serious flood
occurred in 1987, 1988, 1998 and 2004.
Figure 7 a). Inundated area in 1998 flood. Figure 7 b). Inundated area in
2004.
Figure 7 a) and b). The inundated area in 1998 is concentrated along the Ganges and
Brahmaputra rivers. In 2004, the inundated area is mostly along the Meghna basin in the
northeastern area.
RAINFALL OBSERVATION
Severe flood during long term in Bangladesh is caused by the invasion of the exterior water from
outer countries, mainly from India. Therefore, the basic observation of rainfall in the northeastern
region of the Indian subcontinent is important. Therefore, we planned the temporally and
spatially high resolution measurement network in the northeastern regions of the Indian
Subcontinent, in Assam, Meghalaya and Bangladesh from 2006. We made up the observation
network in Assam, Meghalaya and Bangladesh for measuring rainfall continuously. Fifteen
raingauges are installed in Assam, five in Meghalaya and around twenty in Bangladesh. In Assam,
raingauges are installed along the Brahamapurta river and mountainous area in the southeastern
hill regions. In Meghalaya, we installed raingauges in the steep slope of southern part of
Meghalaya Plateau. In Bangladesh, we installed around twenty raingauges in whole nation
land and especially concentrated eleven raingauges in Sylhet District in the northeastern region,
which is the region of the downstream of Meghalaya plateau. Several automatic weather stations
were also installed. The distribution of weather sensors is shown in Figure 8.
13
Figure 8. Rainfall measurement network in the Figure 9. Daily rainfall at Sohra

Notheastern region of the Indian Subcontinent. (Cherrapunji) in 2007.
BRIEF RESULT
We appreciate very much for the collaboration with Gauhati University, Indian Institute of
Technology, Guwahati in Assam, NorthEastern Hill University in Meghalaya, Bangladesh
Meteorological Department and SAARC Meteorological Research Centre in Bangladesh. They
made their efforts to maintain the measurement system in this region and supply the
meteorological data such as surface, aerological, satellite and radar data, which are very important
for our analysis.
The rainfall in the northeastern regions of Indian subcontinent has several time scales
behaviour, such as annual, seasonal, intraseasonal and diurnal variations. In this region, rainy
season starts from June and withdraws in late September, and this season is called as the Indian
summer monsoon. Even in the rainy season, active and break phases appears alternatively and
the period is around ten to two weeks. This period is unique characteristics of rainfall behaviour
in this region. The daily rainfall variation in Sohra (Cherrapunji), one of the heaviest rainfall
occurrence in the world, is shown in Figure 9. Active and Break phases of rainfall are clearly
separated with the some term period. Spatial distribution of rainfall observe by our measurement
network is shown in Figure 10. This figure shows the annual rainfall amount in 2007 and 2008 at
the measurement stations from north to south in Assam, Meghalaya and Bangladesh. The huge
amounts of rainfall were observed in the southern slope of the Meghalaya plateau. The amounts
in Assam and Bangladesh were relatively small compared with those of Meghalaya.
14
Figure 10. Spatial distribution of annual rainfall in 2007 and 2008 in Assam, Meghalaya and
Bangladesh.
REFERENCE
1. Burton, I., kates, R.W. and White, G..E., 1993. The Environmnet as Hazard, 2nd Edition,
Gulliford, Newyork.
2. Smith, L.C., 1997. Satellite Remote Sensing of River Inundated Area, Stage and
Discharge: A Review, Hydrological Processes, 11, 1427-1439.
15
INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT & OUR ATTITUDES ARE TWO KEY

ELEMENTS FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF ASSAM
Mr. Kamal C. Sharma
IBN Inc., USA
Infrastructure development is the development of physical and organizational structures,

fundamental services, and facilities for economic growth of a country for development, providing
key services, construction of basic facilities etc. for improving the quality of life.
Transportation is the most important component of infrastructure development. In India
the railway transportation infrastructure is well developed but the highway infrastructure is the
most important infrastructure for the development of Assam & the Northeast. By roadway any
interior part of the NE India can be reached. Assam is rich in tourism related objects and has a
varied diverse culture. From strategic point of view, excellent roadway network is vital for the
security of Northeast region against some hostile neighbors. Easy movement of goods and services
are very important for development of this frontier state of Assam and it neighboring states.
A sustainable development of Assam is possible only if the unemployment of the people
can be reduced and create more buying powers for the population. Construction alone does not
create lots of jobs. Once construction is over, only few employments can be generated for
maintaining the particular facility. Small business creates more jobs than any other type of
industry. In India of course so far Government creates more jobs, which is not true in many
advanced countries.
Public private partnerships are very important for creating capital for infrastructures and
employment generating industries. The people should not rely solely for Government’s effort for
the constructions of different infrastructures. Efforts should be made to attract private
entrepreneurs to develop industries and businesses in Assam and North Eastern Region. There are
lots of areas where young generation can develop businesses.
Training and mentoring of youths are very important for development of state. Usually
Assam has the manpower to grab all the middle and upper middle order jobs. But major concern
the people do not respect the dignity of labor for doing the low level jobs and present generation
boys and girls are reluctant to go for competitive, high paying managerial and executive jobs.
The following change of attitude is needed for further development of state of Assam.
(1) Having the mentality of belonging to a Developed Nation,
(2) Respecting the Dignity of Labor,
(3) Volunteering for Community Developments,
(4) Mentoring the Young Generation,
(5) Creating a friendly and peaceful Assam,
(6) A business oriented mindset,
(7) Developing competitive mindsets to excel in all fields.
The people should believe in themselves as modern and advanced can achieve that.
16
OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES IN INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT –

ROLE, RESPONSIBILITIES AND RELEVANCE OF ACADEMIC INSTITUTIONS
Dr. Hemanta Doloi
The University of Melbourne
Infrastructure is the backbone of a society and without appropriate infrastructure for meeting the
purpose, a society can’t function. While society is formed by the people and for the people, it is
absolutely necessary to understand stakes and responsibilities of all parties involved not only in
forming the society but also reside in the society. Infrastructure, the so called backbone, is highly
capital intensive. In any society, government agencies must take the responsibility for creating the
same. However, in practice, the government agencies with sole responsibilities especially in
Indian context are failing to create necessary infrastructure for meeting the bare minimum
expectation of the society. In the current wave of unprecedented transformation, this is almost a
high time to unfold some of the known unknown around the infrastructure creation, address the
challenges and capitalise on the opportunities.
Infrastructure refers to integrated and interconnected provisions of both hardware and
software that collectively support in performing daily activities of community at every level(e.g.
personal, community or business levels. in the society). While an example of an infrastructure
hardware could be telephone or internet cables, without appropriate software or electronic support,
the hardware alone does not work. Similarly, while telephone is one of the many necessities of
modern society, the dependencies of community on whole raft of other infrastructure provisions
such as power, water, sanitation, health, education, agriculture etc. make the overall infrastructure
being highly interconnected and operationally complex. While government of the day is certainly
responsible for providing the basic infrastructure services to the community, the best way for
creating, delivering, operating, maintaining and even end of service life recycling requirement is
not necessarily known to them. Government provides governance and governance is always based
on available or proven solutions and appropriate technical advice. Technical solutions are
generally developed based on research and development and with a long lead time for
implementation. There is no any optimal solution that fits in every single situation and any context.
Rather appropriate contextualisation is absolutely necessary for applying the generic knowledge
to make it work in a specific context. This is where the academic community can clearly link
between the knowledge creations versus knowledge implementation for supporting mankind. In
the infrastructure creation process, the role of all stakeholders in the society must be realised and
appropriately accounted. In this paper, drawing from the international experience and
observations, the author is going to make a clear exposition around roles, responsibilities of the
key stakeholders including the link between the higher education community and relevance of the
technical education in the context of the emerging needs in Assam. The discussion should open
up meaningful debate among the attendees in the conference especially professional and academic
communities and open up ideas for meeting the challenges in the local context.
17
DEVELOPMENT OF RURAL ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE UNDER PMGSY IN

ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA
K.C Dhimole
Technical Advisor to CM, Arunachal Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh is geographically divided into six natural regions. The Western parts of
Kameng District and Tirap District from the first two regions of the topography of Arunachal
Pradesh. The other three distinct topographical regions consist of the upper, middle and the lower
belts of the state as well as the foothills. The topography of Arunachal Pradesh is characterized by
mountainous ranges and sub-mountainous terrains along the northern parts. Abrasion by the rivers
that flow through the mountains has created a broad valley, which is a major feature of the
geography of the state.
The Upper reaches of Arunachal Pradesh bordering Bhutan (160 Km), China (1080 Km)
and Myanmar (440 Km) is having no road connectivity for inter-district, inter-basin
communication. Only means of communication is porter-trek routes, single-rope twine cable
crossings, log bridges, foot-suspension bridges, helipads and ALG for supply of essential
commodities and transportation of defense personnel and civilians.
Arunachal Pradesh is said to possess the largest area among the states in the North Eastern
part of India and ranks 15th nationally. Arunachal Pradesh, which is also known as the 'Land of
Dawn-Lit Mountainous', is encompassed by the Shivalik ranges. From the snow-capped
mountains of the eastern Himalayas to sparsely populated mountainous areas in the extreme north-
eastern part of the state, these lofty slopes form an indelible part of the area in Arunachal Pradesh.
The area in Arunachal Pradesh is divided into twenty two districts at present.
The topography in Arunachal Pradesh is characterized mainly by an undulating hilly terrain
but a number of rivers also flow through the state. Dibang, Kamla, Kameng, Kamplang, Lohit,
Noa-Dihing, Siang, Siyum, Subansiri and Tirap are some of the major rivers draining the area.
The Arunachal Pradesh is one of the remotest and strategic state in the North –East India
bordering China, Myanmar and Bhutan. This is the largest state in the North-East India with
respect to the area and its population is the thinnest in the country, which is about 14 persons
/sq.km. The State had a poor connectivity, about 25%, at the time of launching of Pradhan Mantri
Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) during 2000-2001 and over last fifteen years the connectivity is
now improved to 52% with construction and 6900 km provided connectivity to 1061 habitations
(villages). This is an important flagship programme which has substantially improved the
connectivity and over-all socio-economic development in the State.
18
Rural Connectivity becomes a critical component in the socio-economic development of

rural people by providing access to amenities like education, health, marketing etc. It has been
established that investments in rural roads lifts rural people above the poverty line. The evidence
also indicates that as the rural connectivity improves, the rural poverty levels come down.
There had been imbalanced development of the rural road network in country. Some States
provided cent per cent connectivity while some others did not have enough financial resources at
their disposal and consequently connectivity remained at low levels. There were also problems of
inadequate funds for maintenance, upgradation and rehabilitation of existing rural roads. A
network approach and provision of sustainable accessibility with assured maintenance was
virtually absent.
Some of the major constraints and bottlenecks in providing rural connectivity faced are
insufficient funds with States for rural roads, inadequacy and unpredictability of funds for rural
roads, inadequate maintenance of rural roads by many States due to inadequate funds, inadequate
maintenance of MDRs resulting in pressure on rural roads, quality and specifications not strictly
adhered to, layers of informal sub-contracting at the cost of quality, some roads constructed
without bridges etc.
With this as backdrop, Government of India had launched Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak
Yojana in the year 2000 to provide connectivity to unconnected eligible habitations and
upgradation of select existing roads to the standards. The system followed in implementation has
several new aspects and is found to be acceptable for rural roads development.
The primary objective of the Programme was to provide connectivity by way of All-weather
roads to unconnected habitations with population 1000 and above by 2003 and those with
population 500 and above by 2007 in rural areas. In respect of hilly/ desert/ tribal areas, the
objective is to link habitations with population 250 and above. Up-gradation of selected rural
roads to provide full farm to market connectivity is also an objective of the scheme, though not
central. The Programme has since been implemented by the Ministry of Rural Development,
Government of India. A brief description of the implementation strategy adopted by the Ministry
of Rural Development during 10th and 11th Plan period under PMGSY was decentralized planning,
standards and specifications, Detailed Project Reports (DPRs) and scrutiny, institutional
arrangements and HRD, procurement Process Quality Assurance, maintenance, online
Monitoring, Management and Accounting System operations manual and Programme Monitoring.
In the Year 2003-04, detailed District Rural Road Plans were made in every district of the
country including Arunachal Pradesh and Core Networks to ensure single connectivity to all
habitations eligible under the programme were identified. Based on this Core Network data
formulated on the basis of 2001 census, the position emerged that unconnected habitations were
1,70,594 numbers which required about 3,69,331 km new roads. Also upgradation of existing
roads measuring 3,68,278 km was also estimated. With respect to Arunachal Pradesh the core
network length of 21,487 km was identified.
PMGSY is being implemented since the Year 2000. The projects for 1,62,219 habitations
have been sanctioned out of total 1,78,184 eligible habitations by clearing the proposals for
6,77,914 kms roads. In Arunachal Pradesh, a length of 13,911 kms have so far been sanctioned
and 7,069 kms constructed by providing connectivity to 1,061 habitations.
19
During the last decade, the investments in road sector have increased many folds. To absorb
the increased investments for creating efficient road infrastructure, it was required that the
capacity of the implementing machinery as well as contracting industry should also increase in
pace with the quantum of investment. The capacity of the road infrastructure agencies has
enhanced in the last decade, however, the pace of increase could not commensurate with the pace
of investment resulting in time and cost overruns of the road projects in the country. In case of
rural roads, the challenge was more prominent because of the fact that the works are located in far
flunged interior rural areas, where, the constraints are multi fold. Capacity of implementing
agencies as well as local contractors is relatively much lower compared to those operating in better
locations.
Rural roads comprise over 85 percent of the road network and their being kept in serviceable
condition is crucial to the rural / agricultural growth and affording means of access to millions of
rural people to social facilities viz. medical, education as also to market. Lack of maintenance
affects the poor people badly as the time for access to markets and other social infrastructure is
increased. There is potential danger, then, of these assets falling into disuse and eventual
disintegration. Hence, the challenge lies in both expansion of the network to provide road links to
unconnected habitations and at the same time maintenance of the existing vast rural road network
built at huge cost to the economy over the past over fifty years.
GIS Architecture is an essential tool to be placed on comprehending the information of
spatial and non-spatial data over a space and time. Rural Road Network comprises of group of
nodes and links. The Network Configuration is a combination of these links with a directional
orientation to the nodes which are the centre heads of the habitations spread over the space. As
20
most of the features are static in nature there is a need to Geo-Reference permanently and the
dynamic interactions in terms of planning, construction, maintenance can be visualized over a
time on this spatial frame. To create the rural asset, GIS is a great supportive tool which connects
advance technologies and the conventional practices on a common platform.
Environment is a transitional medium between infrastructure creation and traffic
interactions and it should be visualized in a continuous process on the rate of change of
environment with reference to infrastructure geometrics, road condition and traffic mobility. The
overall objective is to minimize the Carbon Footprints. There is a need to plan environment
pacifiers by creating plantations, noise barriers and vibration absorbers along the road. Mobility
levels, accessibility, road geometrics and connectivity patters are some of the hidden
characteristics which influence the environment in rural sector. The ultimate objective is to
promote a good level of service to the road user and good environment to the non-road user living
in the neighbourhood areas. The environment sustained planning is possible with technology,
software interface, spatial mapping and simulation of the traffic interactions before constructing
the road. With the GIS interface, overlay of transect mapping on topographic sheets may further
improve the road geometrics due to optimal locations of side drains, CD works and gradient
fixation.
In most of the States, the quality control aspect in construction of Rural Roads is being
monitored by two tier structure and the responsibility of both tiers of quality mechanism fully
vests with the State Government. The first-tier is generally headed by an Executive Engineer who
is actually executing the construction of Rural Roads and is at the work implementation level. At
the second-tier there is an independent vigilance & quality control wing which randomly inspects
the Rural Road works and issues observation memos regarding the quality of work. A three-tier
quality mechanism is presently institutionalized under PMGSY.
It has been suggested that the specifications prescribed for construction of Rural Roads
under PMGSY programme should be uniformly followed for construction of all Rural Roads
irrespective of the scheme through which it is being constructed. Also, it is suggested that the
three tier quality monitoring system adopted for PMGSY works may also be adopted for
construction of other Rural Roads in the State with State specific modifications. It is suggested
that there should be a single agency in-charge for construction and maintenance of Rural Roads
in the States for comprehensive planning, construction and maintenance of Rural Roads to be
constructed under different schemes. In Arunachal Pradesh also the rural infrastructure is
responsibility of the Rural Works Department.
As per the Programme Guidelines of PMGSY, 2015, the blocks bordering international
boundary in the States (as identified by the Ministry of Home Affairs), however, all habitations
within a path distance of 10 km may be treated as a cluster for this purpose. This cluster approach
would enable provision of connectivity to a larger number of habitations, particularly in the Hill/
mountainous areas. Further, the cluster approach in respect of Arunachal Pradesh State has been
extended from International border blocks to International border districts of the State by clubbing
population within a path distance of 10 km and treating as a cluster for eligibility. With this
provision, more than 15% habitations have also become eligible for connectivity and proposals
have been submitted to the Ministry of Rural Development for consideration and sanction.
21
All the eligible habitations to be connected by March, 2019 as per the directives of the
Ministry of Rural Development and now the State is preparing the DRRP (District Rural Roads
Plan) to switch over to PMGSY-II. The Ministry has fixed a target of 550 km under PMGSY-II,
which is mostly upgradation and to be completed by March 2020. On completion of this
programme a majority of habitations about 80% would be connected by a good all-weather road.
This is one of the important infrastructure is being developed in the rural areas of the State for
overall socio-economic development.
References:
1. PMGSY Programme Guidelines
2. Annual Report 2017-18, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, New Delhi.
3. Working Group on Rural Roads in the 12th Five Year Plan, Ministry of Rural
Development, October, 2011
4. Online Management, Monitoring and Accounting System (OMMAS), NRIDA, Ministry
of Rural Development.
22
RIVER-RESEARCH TO EVOLVE SUSTAINABLE-PROJECTS FOR PEOPLE WITH

ECOFRIENDLY CLIMATE-RESILIENT TECHNOLOGY (RESPECT)
Prof. (Dr.) Arup Kumar Sarma
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, India
ABSTRACT
With exponential growth of population while water related hazards like flood, river bank erosion
and water pollution are increasing at an alarming rate, scarcity of fresh water on the globe is also
becoming a major concern. Climate change impacts have aggravated the threat on the water sector.
River being an easily accessible source of fresh water, its sustainable utilization and management
through holistic basin level planning with due emphasis on socio-economic aspects is necessary
and the sustainability aspect should be examined from economical, ecological and social point of
view. With increasing concerns about ecological sustainability and riparian right, the basin level
planning has now become more challenging for a trans-boundary river, and it calls for use of
ecofriendly technology. Scope of developing a basin level planning with use of ecofriendly
climate resilient technology to have win-win situation for all riparian countries/states are presented
through a case study of Brahmaputra Basin. Need of multidisciplinary applied research for
achieving the goals is also highlighted.
INTRODUCTION
Climate Change and anthropogenic impacts have aggravated the flood, drought and erosion
problem in most of the river basin over the globe. The high temporal variation of precipitation
and high rate of catchment erosion are the root cause of present worst flood scenario of Northeast
India. Our studies on impact of climate change on tropical and subtropical region has shown that
temporal variation of precipitation will farther increase with time to cause more flood and longer
dry-spell (Serur and Sarma, 2017; Gupta et.al. 2018). Progressive degradation of the tributary
watersheds due to rapid and unplanned developmental activities has induced more sediment into
the river system (Sarma et.al. 2016). Reduction of depression storage due to filling up of low lying
areas for other purposes has reduced water retention capacity of the basins. These combined
effects have made both the flood and water scarcity situation worst. Increase in total basin storage
in any form can help reducing flood and erosion problem and also can enhance water utilization
scenario, which at present is extremely low (less than 4% of its potential in Brahmaputra Basin).
Water of large transboundary river system like Brahmaputra can be augmented to near natural
condition and utilized for sustainable development of the society through holistically designed
multipurpose projects with due emphasis on socioeconomic needs and political constraints. A
multidisciplinary applied research along with development of a river water monitoring system is
needed to find the best combination of implementable projects for benefit of people in a
sustainable manner.
SCOPE AND BENEFITS
Ecological Management Practices (EMPs) (Sarma et.al, 2013), Downstream Regulating Ponds
(Rajnarayan and Sarma 2011) Sustainable Accommodation through Feedback Evaluation (SAFE)
(Sarma et.al. 2012, 2016) are some of the technological concepts which can be applied along with
a River-Reservoir-Canal system (Fig-1) to achieve multiple benefits as mentioned below:
23
 Flood attenuation through detention storage in low height cascade reservoirs/barrages in

tributaries and ponds in catchment to have effective total flood control storage (flood
cushioning).
 Flood moderation by regulating flow release from different tributaries in a coordinated way
based on forecasted as well as observed rainfall in different sub basins and also considering
sensor supported modeling based real time inflow/outflow forecasting to/from different
reservoirs/barrages.
 Extensive implementation of Ecological Management Practices (EMPs) in the upper catchment
of these reservoirs will reduce sediment and water yield to a natural (undisturbed) condition.
This will minimize siltation and the system will thus perform in a sustainable manner. Also the
combination of vegetation will be design through Optimal EMP concept (Sarma et.al. 2013,
2015) to have economic benefits and people’s participation during the implementation and also
on long term basis. EMP will also involve sustainable approach of rainwater management
application for multipurpose benefits through innovative pond-well system. Breakeven for
EMP implementation is expected in 10 years, however detail calculation is needed.
 Reduction of sediment to a natural condition will reduce scope of side channel activation in the
river due to sand bar formation and will reduce river bank erosion problem.
 Lesser deposition of sediment in the mid channel will make desiltation through selected
dredging economically feasible. In addition to solving bank erosion problem, this will also help
in maintaining the channel for navigation. Scope of commercial utilization of sediment can also
be explored.
 Irrigation from these reservoirs/barrages and from the canals in the form of Ganga canal will
provide irrigation benefit in interior area and will provide opportunity for involvement of the
society.
 Domestic water supply from these storages along with installation of water treatment plant will
provide quality drinking water in rural areas.
 Hydropower generation from these reservoirs by installing power plant at downstream along
with a regulating pond to nullify diurnal variation (Maya R.R. and Sarma A.K.,2011) of flow
will provide ecofriendly power. Installation of this system will nullify ecological disturbance
due to diurnal variation.
 Navigation through the connected canal-river system will have low cost transportation and will
help bringing product of interior location to market or the traders can also come to interior
location to collect those products.
 Developing the reservoir areas to have tourist accommodation and various other tourist
activities including tracking, rafting, boating, and canal bank marketing etc will yield socio-
economic benefits.
 As the reservoirs will be created by low height cascade barriers, submergence will be low. Such
suitable location will have to be identified through desk top DEM study.
 As the barriers are of low height, failure risk is very low or almost nil.
 Damage at downstream due to flow release in the event of extreme flood condition is also low,
as the released water will first be flowing through a defined canal system to the main canal and
then from the cross drainage work to the Brahmaputra through a protected river reach of the
tributaries.
 The system will provide win-win situation for all riparian country/state, as the water through
Irrigation canal can flow even to Bangladesh, and the upstream country/state can enjoy power
benefits and benefit of EMP based ecological restoration to reduce landslide and soil erosion
problem. Also EMP will provide economic benefit in the form of raw products and finished
products through small scale industries.
24
 The project will include development of a sustainable river monitoring system by collecting
water quality data in critical locations keeping in mid the locations of existing gauge and
discharge station. This will help understanding quality change, if any, with time and will also
help monitoring sudden changes in quality, if any, which will serve as an index to indicate
impact of any activities in the upstream basin irrespective of territorial boundary. This will be
vital information for proactive disaster management.
 As the project will be multidisciplinary in nature with due consideration to engineering,
agriculture, geology, social science, environmental science, ecology and many more, it will
also provide ample opportunity of collaboration among several institutes of the regions.
 As the project package will be prepared to have win-win situation to all riparian states or even
countries, this will form a basis for better cooperation through scientifically based political
negotiation, particularly in water sector.
CONCLUSION
More detail study is necessary to design optimal EMP combinations for each of the tributary
catchments. Scope of social development through EMPs need to be quantified and training about
EMP concept is necessary to have people’s participation. Best locations and number of low head
barriers, alignment of canal system and cross drainage work can be identified through link
simulation optimization study. Flow forecasting infrastructure is necessary for achieving flood
mitigation. Such project package covering entire basin will be cost intensive and therefore, will
have to be prioritize to implement in a phase manner. As the Characteristic of northern and
southern tributaries are different, one tributary from northern side and another from southern side
of the basin can be taken up for pilot implementation.
Figure 1. Rough Sketch of River-Reservoir-Canal System
REFERENCE
1. B. Sarma, A. K. Sarma and Singh V. P., Optimal Ecological Management Practices (EMPs)
for Minimizing the Impact of Climate Change and Watershed Degradation Due to
Urbanization, Water Resource Management, 2013, 27:4069–4082
2. Maya R. R. and Sarma A.K., Minimizing Diurnal Variation of Downstream Flow in
Hydroelectric Projects to Reduce Environmental Impact, Journal of Hydro-environment
Research, 2011, 5, 177-185.
25
3. G. Shivam, M. K. Goyal, and A. K. Sarma, Index-Based Study of Future Precipitation

Changes over Subansiri River Catchment under Changing Climate, Journal of
Environmental Informatics, doi:10.3808/jei.201700376.
4. Serur Bedewi A. and Sarma A.K, Climate change impacts analysis on hydrological
processes in the Weyib river basin in Ethiopia, Theoretical and Applied Climatology,
Springer, TAAC-D-17-00521R2, 2017.
5. A.K.Sarma, B.Sarma and S.Das, Estimating Sustainable Carrying Capacity of Flood Prone
Hilly Urban Area, Urban Hydrology, Watershed Management and Socio-Economic Aspects,
Water Sc. and Tech Library 73, 2016,(DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-40195-9_23)
26
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE APPROACH FOR MODELING GROUND

IMPROVING MATERIALS USED IN EARTHQUAKE HAZARD MITIGATION
Hemanta Hazarika1, Siavash Manafi Khajeh Pasha2, Norimasa Yoshimoto3
1. Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
2. Postdoctoral Fellow, Department of Civil Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
3. Associate Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Yamaguchi
University, Japan
ABSTRACT
Scrap Tire Derived Materials (STDM) mixed with soil are often being used as geomaterials in
civil engineering projects for reducing dynamic loads acting on geo-structures and soil
liquefaction remediation purposes. On the other hand, any soil dynamic analysis involving STDM
needs an estimation of dynamic characteristics of these materials. Predicting dynamic properties
of STDM-soil mixture is a complicated task because there are large numbers of factors affecting
dynamic properties of mixture which might have complex relationships with each other within the
soil-STDM system. There have been several attempts to evaluate and predict dynamic
characteristics of STDM-soil mixtures using simple mathematical expressions. However, all those
studies have been focused on case studies of some specific types of STDM and soil mixtures
without considering various aspects of their dynamic behavior. This study presents application of
artificial intelligence technique in predicting dynamic properties of gravel-tire chips mixtures
(GTCM). Two Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques, Support Vector Machine (SVM) and
Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) were employed for modeling shear modulus and damping ratio
of TDGM. Test results have shown that shear modulus and damping ratio of the granular mixtures
are remarkably influenced by gravel fraction in GTCM. Furthermore, shear modulus was found
to increase with the mean effective confining pressure and gravel fraction in the mixture. It was
found that a feed-forward multilayer perceptron model with back-propagation training algorithm
have better performance in predicting complex dynamic characteristics of granular mixture than
SVM one.
Keywords: Shear modulus; damping ratio; tire derived geomaterials; gravel-tire chips mixture;
support vector machine; artificial neural network.
INTRODUCTION
About 1 billion of waste tires in quantity are generated annually in the world. In 2017, over 1
million tonnes waste are scraped in Japan. One common disposal practice is to dump scrap tires
in large landfills. In Japan more than 63% of those waste tires are used for energy production
purposes. However, this can increase emission of hazardous gases such as CO, CO2, and SO2 to
the atmosphere and consequently causes global warming and climate change. Reusing waste tire
materials as Scrap Tire-Derived Materials (STDM) can help preserving our ecosystem.
The most important challenge of introducing new earthquake mitigation measures into
civil engineering is to find a balance between the economic costs of seismic mitigation measure
and environmental impacts. STDM either as standalone or mixed with soil are being implemented
in several civil engineering applications as alternative non-dilative geomaterials geomaterials for
vibration isolation and liquefaction remediation purposes (Hazarika et al., 2010). Low unit
27
weight, high hydraulic conductivity, and high elastic deformability are some of the unique
characteristics of these geomaterials (Edil and Bosscher, 1994, Foose et al., 1996, Hazarika et al.,
2010).
Soil dynamic analysis (such as ground response analysis) involving STDM and STDM-
soil mixture needs an assessment of dynamic behaviour and estimation of dynamic properties of
these materials. Sand-STDM mixture is being used as a conventional geomaterials for preventing
seismic and liquefaction-induced damage (Hazarika et al., 2008, Tsang, 2008, Hazarika and
Abdullah, 2016). Studies on sand-STDM mixtures have already confirmed effectiveness and
efficiency of implementing STDM as additive material to sandy soil in improving dynamic
performance and liquefaction resistance of soil (Hazarika et al., 2008, Tsang et al., 2012).
A series of undrained cyclic triaxial and 1-g shaking table tests were performed by
Hazarika et al. (2007) to study the effect of reinforcing sand with tire chips on the dynamic
response of quay walls. They observed that residual lateral displacement of the quay wall was
limited in reinforced backfill in comparison to that of unreinforced one. Feng and Sutter (2000)
conducted a series of torsional resonant column tests on sand-rubber mixtures. The tests were
performed on materials prepared either air-dried or with a small quantity of moisture, using dry
spooning or under compaction methods. They found that shear modulus decreases as rubber
inclusion increases in the mixture. However damping ratio was found to be not significantly
affected by rubber inclusion in the mixtures. Anastasiadis et al. (2011) conducted torsional
resonant column tests on sand-rubber and gravely soil-rubber mixtures to investigate small strain
shear modulus and damping ratio of reinforced granular mixtures. They have considered different
combination of sand-tire chips mixture with rubber inclusion in the range of 0 to 35% by mixture
weight. They found out that shear modulus tends to decrease by adding rubber inclusion to the
sand. However damping ratio was found to be slightly improved by rubber inclusion in the
mixtures.
Low hydraulic conductivity of sand, high liquefaction susceptibility of sand, particles
segregation potential of sand and STDM in binary mixture are some of the key issues associated
with utilization of sand-STDM mixture in geo-structures (Mashiri et al., 2015, Anvari and
Shooshpasha, 2016). Gravel-Tire Chips Mixture (GTCM) has been recently introduced to civil
engineering applications with the goal of providing solution for drawbacks of existing methods
(Niiya et al., 2012, Hazarika and Abdullah, 2016, M. K. Pasha et al., 2018). It is well known that
gravelly soil possess higher permeability in comparison to that of sandy soil (e.g. Sherard et al.,
1984).
It is quite difficult to introduce a mathematical model for dynamic properties of STDM-
soil mixtures that can capture relationships between essential parameters, including the soil and
STDM type, void ratio, STDM content ratio, confining pressure and loading conditions. Majority
of previous empirical models proposed for estimating dynamic characteristics of reinforced
granular soils with tire chips are actually modified version of Hardin hyperbolic model (Hardin,
1978). Implementation of such complex empirical expressions may require definition of a large
number of parameters that needs to be calibrated against experimental data. Furthermore, these
models showed poor performance when higher percentage of tire chips are present in mixture. In
28
addition, footings constructed on gravely soil yields higher bearing capacity in comparison to that
of sand (e.g. Nakhaei et al., 2012).
In recent years Artificial Intelligence (AI) technique has been implemented in several fields of
geotechnical engineering to predict behaviour of sophisticated systems. For instance, ANN
technique has been implemented to estimate the soil characteristics soil permeability (Park, 2011)
and shear strength parameters as well as (Besalatpour et al., 2012) predict the behavior of
foundations (Park et al., 2018, Shahin, 2014).
There is no study on the dynamic properties of gravel-tire chips mixtures specially in the range
of medium to large shear strains. Main objective of this study is to introduce new model using
Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and Support Vector Machine (SVM) approaches that can
simulate complex dynamic characteristics of GTCM mixtures taking into account important
features of granular materials. Therefore, a series of stress controlled undrained cyclic triaxial tests
were conducted on GTCM with different gravel fraction at an effective confining pressure of 50
and 100 kN/m² to examine the influences of gravel fraction and effective confining pressure on
shear modulus and damping ratio of GTCM. The obtained experimental results were used to
construct ANN and SVM models for predicting dynamic properties of GTCM.
MATERIAL PROPERTIES AND TESTING PROCEDURE
A series of large cyclic triaxial tests were carried out on specimens of 100 mm in diameters by
200 mm in height to assess liquefaction resistance of gravel and GTCM. Particle size distribution
of the gravel and tire chips is measured following the standard specification in JGS 0131 and
plotted in Figure 1. The maximum grains size of TC and gravel were limited to less than 1/6 of
specimen diameter to avoid the effect of sample size on the results of experiments. According to
JGS 0131, gravel is classified as poorly graded (GP). Regarding shape and maximum grain size
of Scrap Tire-Derived Materials (STDM), they are classified as tire chips (TC). Specific gravities
(Gs) of gravel and TC were obtained 2.81 and 1.17 respectively.
Figure 1. Particle size distribution of Gravel and tire chips
Under-compaction method was used for preparation of specimens. In order to obtain a

desired ratio of gravel to tire chips, gravel and tire chips were weighed separately and then mixed
together by hand and placed into mold and sequentially compacted into 10 layers. Samples were
saturated by allowing deaired water to flow through from the bottom of the sample. 200 kN/m²
backpressure was applied to specimen in order to increase degree of saturation (B>0.95). Samples
were consolidated to the effective confining pressure of 50 and 100 kN/m². Stress-controlled
undrained cyclic triaxial tests were conducted at a constant frequency of 0.1 Hz, relative density
29
of 50% and different cyclic stress ratios (𝜎𝑑 ⁄2 𝜎3𝑐́ ). Where 𝜎𝑑 and 𝜎3𝑐́ are amplitude of cyclic
deviatoric stress and mean effective confining pressure respectively.
Evaluation of shear modulus (G) and damping ratio (D) can be calculated from following
expressions:
𝜏 −𝜏 1 (𝑞 −𝑞 )
𝐺 = 𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝛾𝑚𝑖𝑛 3 × 𝜀 𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝜀 𝑚𝑖𝑛 [1]
𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑞,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑞,𝑚𝑖𝑛
1 ∆𝑊 1 ∮ 𝜏𝑑𝛾
𝐷 = 4𝜋 = [2]
𝑊 4𝜋 (0.125×∆𝜏×∆𝛾)
Where 𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 and 𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 are maximum and minimum deviatoric stresses respectively. 𝜀𝑞,𝑚𝑎𝑥
and 𝜀𝑞,𝑚𝑖𝑛 are maximum and minimum deviatoric strains, respectively. τmax and τmin are the
maximum and minimum shear stresses corresponding to the maximum (γmax ) and minimum shear
strains ( γmin ), respectively.
∆τ and ∆γ are the difference between maximum and minimum shear stresses and shear
strains, respectively. ∆W is the area of the hysteresis loop and W is the area of right triangle shown
in Figure 2 a MATLAB code was written to accelerate the calculation process.
𝜏
∆𝑤
w
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝛾𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝛾
𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜏𝑚𝑖𝑛
Figure 2. Definition of cyclic modulus and damping ratio
Typical stress-strain hysteresis loop of GTCM is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Stress-strain hysteresis loop of GTCM with GF=44%, 𝜎́ 3 =100 kN/m2 and
𝜎𝑑 ⁄2 𝜎3𝑐́ =0.3.
SHEAR MODULUS AND DAMPING RATIO
The shear modulus curves of GTCM samples with different GF (%) are shown in Fig.4. For the
GTCM specimens with GF=100% and GF=87% shear modulus decreased drastically with the
shear strain within the few cycles of loading, this reduction in shear modulus with an increase in
30
shear strain can be imputed to a decrease in gravel inter-particles contact due to rapid building up
of pore water pressure during the cyclic loading. As is evident from Fig.4, rubber fraction did not
significantly affect the shear modulus of specimen with GF=44% and 30% and shear modulus of
specimens at higher shear strains are almost identical.
This is probably because gravel inter-particle contacts are minimal (especially at very high
shear strains >1%) where GTCM matrix is mainly formed by tire chips particle with relatively
low stiffness in comparison to that of gravel particles. GTCM samples with gravel fraction
GF<100%, experienced higher deformations resulted in shifting shear modulus degradation
curves rightward. Variation of damping ratio of GTCM mixtures with gravel fraction and shear
strain is shown in Fig. 5. Damping ratio slightly increases with decreasing gravel fraction from
100% to 44%.
The reduction in damping ratio value may happen due to rapid increase in the pore water
pressure during cyclic loadings. High pore water pressure decreases inter-particle contacts
resulting in significant reduction in frictional energy loss in soil skeleton with the number of cycles
and axial strain (Brennan et al., 2005, Mashiri et al., 2016).
GF=100%
GF=87%
GF=30%
GF=44%
(a)
GF=44%
GF=30%
(b)
Figure 4. Effect of gravel fraction on shear modulus reduction curves of GTCM: (a)
30%≤GF≤100% (b) 30%≤GF≤44%
31
GF=87% GF=30%
GF=100%
GF=40%
Figure 5. Effect of gravel fraction on damping ratio of GTCM
SUPPORT VECTOR MACHINE
Support vector machines (SVM) are popular supervised learning tool in machine learning capable
of analyzing data for both classification and regression. This method was first introduced by
Vapnik et al. (1997) and follows structural risk minimization principle that looks up to minimize
upper bound generalization error. If the target variables involve categorical data a SVM model
need to be used, however when the target variables are continues data Support Vector Regression
(SVR) model should be employed.
If a set of observation data are given as {(x1, y1), (x2, y2),…, (xk, yk),} where xi ∈ Rn input
values and y ∈ Rn. The ε-insensitive loss which is the magnitude of the difference between the
predicted value and the radius ε of the tube function can be expressed as follows:
0 𝑖𝑓 |𝑦 − 𝑓(𝑥)| ≤ 𝜀
𝐿𝜀 (y)={ [3]
𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 |𝑦 − 𝑓(𝑥)| − 𝜀
f(x) = {(𝒘𝑇 𝒙 + 𝑏)} = 0 [4]
Where b = bias and w = weight vector. The main objective in SVR is to find a function,
f(x) that almost has a 𝜀 deviation from the actual output (yi). So this goal can be achieved by
minimizing the following expression:
∥𝒘∥
𝜓(𝒘) = 2 = 0.5𝒘𝑇 𝒘 [5]
Subject to the following constraints:
+𝑦𝑖 − {(𝑤 𝑇 𝑥 + 𝑏)} ≤ +𝜀 [6]
𝑇
−𝑦𝑖 + {(𝑤 𝑥 + 𝑏)} ≤ +𝜀 [7]
by introducing slack variables 𝜉𝑖 , 𝜉𝑖 * (i = 1…n), optimization function now can be expressed :
𝜓(𝒘, 𝑏, 𝛼) = 0.5𝒘𝑇 𝒘 + 𝐶 ∑𝒎 𝒊=𝟏(𝜉𝑖 + 𝜉𝑖 *) [8] Subject to the following constraints:
𝑦𝑖 − {(𝑤 𝑇 𝑥 + 𝑏)} ≤ 𝜀 + 𝜉𝑖 [9] −𝑦𝑖 + {(𝑤 𝑇 𝑥 + 𝑏)} ≤ 𝜀 + 𝜉𝑖 ∗ [10]
Where C = constant known as the regularization or penalty parameter. The function in Eq.
(8) can be transformed in the form of a
Lagrange function as follows:
Therefore, the goal would be maximizing the following expression:
1
𝑊(∝, ∝∗ ) = − 2 ∑𝑛𝑖,𝑗=1(∝𝑖 +∝∗𝑖 ) (∝∗𝑖 −∝𝑖 )𝐾( 𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑗 ) + ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑦𝑖 (∝∗𝑖 −∝𝑖 ) − 𝜀 ∑𝑛𝑖=1(∝𝑖 +∝∗𝑖 )
[11]
Where K is the kernel function and defined as follows:
𝐾( 𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑗 ) = ∅(𝑥𝑖 )∅(𝑥𝑗 ) [12] ∝ , ∝∗ and b are calculated by solving
the above expressions considering following condition:
32
∑𝑛𝑖=1(∝𝑖 −∝∗𝑖 ) = 0, 0 ≤∝𝑖 , ∝∗𝑖 ≤ 𝐶, 𝑖 = 1, 2 , 3 , … 𝑛. [13]

The regression function can be rewritten as:
f(x)=∑𝑛𝑖=1(∝𝑖 −∝∗𝑖 ) 𝐾(𝑥 . 𝑥𝑖 ) + 𝑏 [14]
Radial basis function (RBF) was used to identify the support vectors along the function
surface.
In this study, the comprehensive data sets collected from experimental program were used for the
development of SVR model.
Support vector regression based model for predicting shear modulus and damping ratio of GTCM
can be expressed as follows:
G=SVR(GF,σ́ 3 , σd ⁄2σ́ 3 ,γ) [15]
D=SVR(GF,σ́ 3 , σd ⁄2σ́ 3 ,γ) [16]
A data sets consisting of 3006 shear modulus and damping ratio measurements of GTCM
was employed in our analysis. 2970 data sets out of 3006 were randomly chosen for training and
validation of proposed model whereas the remaining 36 data sets were selected to test the
constructed model. Before the training of SVR model data sets were randomly shuffled, in order
to make sure that the model is not learning a specific order and faster convergence is observed.
The algorithm utilized for data shuffling was simply relied on selecting two data rows (consisting
of the input and out puts) randomly and swapping them together. Figure 6 shows the observed and
estimated values of GTCM shear modulus for different gravel fraction at confining pressure of
100 kPa.
It is worthwhile to mention that the SVR models of shear modulus and damping ratio yield
the coefficient of determination of R2= 0.95 and R2=0.8 for training data sets. It can be observed
from the Figure 6 that SVR model is capable of predicting the complex, nonlinear dynamic
behavior of granular mixture with high accuracy.
A comparison between predicted and observed values of shear modulus and damping ratio
of GTCM for independent testing data sets is displayed in Fig. 7. It is should be noted that new
testing data sets were not used for training the SVR model. The coefficient of determination is
reduced from R2= 0.95 and R2=0.8 for training data sets to R2= 0.91 and R2=0.71 for new test data
sets of shear modulus and damping ratio models respectively.
(a)
33
(b)
Figure 6. Comparison between observed and predicted values of shear modulus for training data
sets using SVM: (a) GF=55%, (𝜎𝑑 ⁄2𝜎́3 )=0.25 ; (b) GF=44%, (𝜎𝑑 ⁄2𝜎́ 3 )=0.3.
Although SVR based model shows a satisfactory generalization ability and can predict
shear modulus of granular materials with relatively high resolution but yields slightly lower
performance in generalization and estimation of damping ratios of GTCM. Lower performance in
prediction of new test data might be result of very disperse nature of damping ratio versus axial
strain.
ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK (ANN)
Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) are one of Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques that inspired
by function of human biological nervous system and mimics brain problem solving process.
The concept of ANN is first introduced by McCulloch and Pitts (1943) but first training algorithm
for a feed-forward multilayer perceptron is introduced in 1986.
The application of ANN in civil engineering is introduced in the early 1990s by Goh
(1994)which involved the feasibility of ANNs to predict the liquefaction potential of soil.
Selection of appropriate ANNs architecture is one of the most essential and complicated tasks of
building a model.
In this study, the feed-forward ANN in which information moves forward from the input
layer directly towards output layer through any hidden layers was selected. Back propagation
learning algorithm (BPP) which uses the gradient decent laws and is suitable for prediction
problems, is implemented. A total number of 3006 shear modulus and damping ratio values of
GTCM are used as the database for building ANN model. 36 out of 3006 data sets were selected
to independently test the proposed model.
34
(a)
(b)
Figure 7. Comparison between observed and predicted values for new testing data sets using SVR
at GF=87%, (𝜎𝑑 ⁄2𝜎́ 3 )=0.25: (a) Shear modulus (b) Damping ratio
In this study, the feed-forward ANN in which information moves forward from the input layer
directly towards output layer through any hidden layers was selected. Back propagation learning
algorithm (BPP) which uses the gradient decent laws and is suitable for prediction problems, is
implemented. A total number of 3006 shear modulus and damping ratio values of GTCM are used
as the database for building ANN model. 36 out of 3006 data sets were selected to independently
test the proposed model. The goal of the model is to estimate shear modulus and damping ratio of
gravel and GTCM for a given gravel fraction (GTCM) and mean effective confining pressure. The
architecture of the network is determined as follows and is illustrated in Fig. 8.
Input vector {X} = {σd ⁄2σ́ 3 , γ, σ́ 3 ,GF (%)}
Output {Y} = {G }
Output {Y} = { D}
A MATLAB code is written to determine neurons (nodes) in the hidden layer by a trial
and error method. In this method, training of networks starts with minimum number of nodes in
the first hidden layer and sum squared error is calculated and compared with the allowable
threshold error. If the error exceeds the threshold value, next neuron is added to the hidden layer.
The above iterative process is repeated until the desired stopping criterion is met.
In order to reduce time consumed during training process of ANN model, maximum
number of neuron in each hidden layer is limited to 8. In order to have efficient model with high
performance and reduce the noise, size of input space and have a smother relationship, the input
data are preprocessed using Min-Max normalization method before training process starts.
35
Eight training algorithms have been assessed for this study. The Levenberg-Marquardt
algorithm which has been shown to have better performance for training moderate size of a
Multilayer Perceptron (MLP) was selected for training the ANN.
The data is randomly divided into three subsets: training (60%), validation (20%), testing
(20%). During the learning or training process, training data sets are used to obtain ANN
parameters in each layer (Weights and biases) by minimizing the error function. In order to avoid
overfitting the network, the error on the validation data set is monitored during training process.
The training will stop when the error on the validation data set begins to rise. Further training of
network will over fit data and prevent generalization. At the next stage, the training data set is
introduced to the ANN and its performance is evaluated.
Figure 8. Structure of ANN model

In this study, the proposed neural network model has 4 nodes in the input layer, 6 nodes
in the hidden layer, and 1 nodes in the output layer (Figure 8). Once the ANN performance is
evaluated, ANN is utilized to conduct a parametric study. As is mentioned at the beginning of this
section, the optimum number of hidden layers and neurons in each hidden layer are obtained based
on criterion defined to terminate the training process.
Mean squared error between the target and predicted values of all outputs over all possible
configurations was monitored constantly. In order to assess the performance of ANN model, the
measured error during the training process is plotted with that of error measured during testing
process, training will stop where the testing errors starts to rise while the training errors constantly
decreasing. Training must stop to avoid overtraining and final performance of ANN is measured
at this point.
After training of ANN model is over, in order to assess the performance of proposed ANN
model in predicting shear modulus of GTCM, predicted values of model for training, validation
and test data sets are plotted against the target values. As can be seen from Figure 9 and 10, there
is such a strong correlation between estimated and target values of shear modulus for all three
datasets. Figure 11 shows the comparison between the predicted values of shear modulus for
GTCM with GF=87% at the effective confining pressure of 𝜎́ 3 =100 kPa and stress ratio of
(𝜎𝑑 ⁄2𝜎́ 3)= 0.25 by ANN model simulation and laboratory results. It should be noted that new
tested data set were not used for training of ANN model.
36
Figure 9. Best validation performance of ANN model
As can be seen from the plot, predicted and the measured values of shear modulus are in
very good agreement. Performance of ANN model is assessed by performing a linear regression
between the network outputs and the corresponding targets. A very high coefficient of correlation
(R= 99%) is obtained for the tested data set (See Fig. 12).
(a)
(b)
37
(c)
Figure 10. Performance of the ANN Model over: (a) Training; (b) Validation (c) Test datasets
Figure 11. Comparison between observed and predicted values of shear modulus for testing data
sets using ANN at GF=87%, (𝜎𝑑 ⁄2𝜎́3)=0.25 and 𝜎́ 3 =100 kPa.
Figure 12. Performance of the ANN Model over new tested data set
CONCLUSION
In this study, a series of cyclic triaxial test were carried out to investigate dynamic properties of
GTCM as a new TDGM. In addition, Support Vector Machine (SVM) and Artificial Neural
Network (ANN) techniques were used to simulate shear modulus and damping ratio of GTCM.
The following conclusions can be drawn:
38
 For a given relative density and confining pressure, shear modulus and damping ratio of
GTCM are highly influenced by rubber inclusions for samples with GF from 100% to 44%.
 A feed-forward artificial neural network model with back-propagation training algorithm
can be employed to model sophisticated dynamic characteristics of granular mixtures with
relatively high resolution.
 Outcome of this study show that the Support Vector Machine with the RBF kernel function
shows satisfactory performance on generalization and prediction of the training and test
data sets and yields relatively low statistical error.
 Although result of ANN and SVR model showed that both the models are suitable tools for
estimation dynamic characteristics of granular mixture in terms of performance parameters
i.e. R-value, RMSE, but ANN based model yields better performance on generalization of
training data sets in comparison to that of SVM.
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40
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Theme A: Transportation Engineering
41
Theme A
Transportation Engineering
28
42
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
JORHAT ENGINEERING COLLEGE
JORHAT, ASSAM, INDIA
A STUDY ON VEHICULAR TRAFFIC FLOW AT THE MISSION
CHARIALI ROAD INTERSECTION OF TEZPUR, ASSAM, INDIA
ICID2018_A_001
Manipuspak Hazarika1, Meher Jessia2, Nilutpala Bordoloi3, Kukil Kakoli Phukan3, Jayanta Sarma3,
Anurag Saikia3, Bedabrata Borah4, Bikram Saikia4, Himansu Nath4
1. Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Girijananda Chowdhury Institute of Management
and Technology, Tezpur, Assam, India
2, 3, 4. B.E. students, Department of Civil Engineering, Girijananda Chowdhury Institute of Management
and Technology, Tezpur, Assam, India
ABSTRACT
This study is intended to know the flow pattern of different classes of vehicles at the Mission Chariali road
intersection of Tezpur by conducting classified traffic volume study for three different hours of the day for a period of
15 days. During the study period, maximum and minimum PCU/hour for outflow traffic was observed at the road
towards NH 715 (811 per hour) and at NH 15 towards North Lakhimpur (616 per hour). Similarly, for inflow traffic, the
maximum and minimum PCU/hour were observed at the road towards NH 715 (704 per hour) and at NH 15 towards
Mangaldai (530 per lane per hour). Due to the small size of the traffic police point and inefficiency in control, the
crossing manoeuvre and massive traffic jams during peak hours is a matter of concern. Both public and private
vehicles are also seen to be parked irregularly which blocks up a portion of the carriageway. It is recommended to
broaden the existing meeting roads with an elliptical shaped rotary at the centre as well as install an automated
traffic signal system which will reduce the intensity of road accidents and traffic jams to a great extent and ensure
smooth flow of traffic.
Keywords: Traffic volume, PCU, parking, spot speed, rotary
1 INTRODUCTION 2 STUDY AREA
Road Transportation is the backbone of economic The area selected for the study is the four legged
development for any region and a country in road intersection at Mission Chariali located
general. Proper planning, construction and between 26.6608⁰ N latitude and 92.775⁰ E
maintenance of these roads promote good longitude at a distance of 5 km from Tezpur Town.
connectivity between the inter-state boundaries. A Mission Chariali is the meeting point of people
large number of vehicles ply in these roads from different places as well as of different classes
everyday which pass through important towns, of vehicles which ply from Tezpur to different parts
creating traffic jams which are a common of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. At this point,
occurrence. Tezpur, the cultural hub of Assam three National Highways meet, NH 715 leading
and known for its glorious history and green towards Jorhat, NH 15 (towards North Lakhimpur),
surroundings is equipped with all amenities of a NH 15 (towards Mangaldai) and the city road
modern day city life. Amidst the hustle and bustle towards Tezpur town.
of a city life, Tezpur today is home to several
developmental activities which though have paved
the way for change and development, yet in
certain aspects its serenity seems to have
affected due to haphazard planning. Construction
and execution has made the smooth flow of daily
activities not at par with the requisite standards.
For example, due to the centralized location, the
town faces a lot of problems; traffic congestion
and parking being one of the major ones. As
transportation is inevitable for strategic
development of any place, so this study is
intended to address the problem of improper
traffic management which is still prevalent at
Mission Chariali of Tezpur and to make the public
aware regarding the prevalent burning issue.
Figure 1 Layout of the study site
43
Theme A
3 WORKING METHODOLOGY AND
RESULTS
3.1 Traffic Volume Study

Traffic Composition at Mission
Chariali Since the beginning of the work, apart from
literature review, extensive study on the existing
3%
traffic conditions at Mission Chariali was done.
7% 3-Wheelers After considering several pros and cons, classified
14% traffic volume study was done for a period of 15
2-wheelers
days at three different hours of the day (8:30-9:30
35% 4-wheelers am), (3:00-4:00 pm) and (7:00-8:00 pm) by
Bus, Truck manual counting to study the existing traffic flow
41%
pattern, parking and crossing manoeuvre. The
Bicycles
inflow and outflow traffic crossing and merging out
from Mission Chariali was counted and the total
traffic was converted to respective Passenger Car
Units (PCU/hour). High PCU values indicate
Figure 2 Traffic composition at Mission Chariali heavy traffic plying through Mission Chariali along
NH 715 mostly.
Considering the above site, it is seen that daily on
an average, 5000 vehicle meet and cross through Table 1 Peak hour PCU’s at the four intersecting
Mission Chariali which creates massive traffic roads of Mission Chariali
jams, particularly during the school and college Location Day Traffic Vehicle/hr PCU/hr
going hours. Most of the vehicles and road users Time direction
do not follow the road safety guidelines while
driving and crossing the road. Although several Towards NH
Traffic
road margins are provided, still the efforts are not 715 Day
going 862 811
upto mark. Due to small size of the traffic police (8:30-9:30 10
out
point at the centre, U-turn manoeuvre is one of the am)
major problems faced by the drivers of heavy Towards
vehicles while intending to change from one lane North
to another, especially during peak hours of traffic Traffic
Lakhimpur Day
flow. Also, due to the unavailability of an going 718 662
NH 15 10
automated traffic signal system, management of out
(8:30-9:30
traffic is very casual as most of the people are am)
seen driving two-wheelers recklessly without
Towards
wearing helmets and E-Rickshaw drivers stop and
Mangaldai Traffic
ply passengers at any point of their choice. Day
NH 15 going 776 671
Parking is one of the major concerns at Mission 5
Chariali as both public and private vehicles are (8:30-9:30 out
seen to be parked on both sides of the road which am)
blocks up a portion of the carriageway. So, to Towards
Traffic
identify these problems faced by the public and Tezpur Town Day
coming 682 675
come up with some remedial measures, this study (3:00-4:00 9
in
was conducted. pm)
3.2 Parking Study
Parking is seen as a major problem at Mission

Chariali as most of the vehicles are seen to be
parked illegally by blocking a part of the
carriageway. Due to this pedestrian flow is
affected during the peak hours of traffic flow. For
getting an insight into the existing on street
parking pattern, a 12- hour study was done to
know the period of accumulation and parking.
Parking is maximum mostly during 10:00 am - 12
noon and tends to be less in the later part of the
day. Also, due to the non-availability of footpath
Figure 3 A view of Mission Chariali on one side of the road towards Tezpur town,
44
Theme A
pedestrians taking the route to and from Mission
Hospital and through the weekly bazaar face a lot 90
No. of parked vehicles

80 78
of problems while crossing the road at peak hours 70
of traffic flow. So, it is highly recommended to 60 55 62
broaden the existing meeting roads and facilitate a 50
40
45⁰ on-street parking system to accommodate 30
maximum traffic. 20 32 30 12
10
140 0
120 119
100
80
60
40 20
20
0 Time
9:00-10:00
10:00-11:00
11:00-12:00
12:00-1:00
1:00-2:00
2:00-3:00
3:00-4:00
4:00-5:00
5:00-6:00
6:00-7:00
7:00-8:00
8:00-9:00
Figure 7 Variation of On-Street parking at the road
towards Tezpur town for 12 hours
Time 3.3 Accident Study
In a road intersection, accident studies are

Figure 4. Variation of On-Street parking at NH 715
intended to identify the potential locations where
for 12 hours
majority of accident takes places as well as to
know the possible conflict points. In the present
70 study, 24 conflict points were identified at the
58
60
Mission Chariali road intersection since there are
50
40 two lanes with two-way traffic in all four legs of the
30 intersection. Although four traffic
20 separators/median of 1 m wide is provided at all
25
10 5 the existing roads of Mission Chariali point, un-
0 intentional clash among vehicles during peak
9:00-10:00
10:00-11:00
11:00-12:00
12:00-1:00
1:00-2:00
2:00-3:00
3:00-4:00
4:00-5:00
5:00-6:00
6:00-7:00
7:00-8:00
8:00-9:00
hours and accidents do occur often due to

reckless driving during the off peak hours, high
dose of drinking menace and reluctance of the
drivers to traffic rules. Potholes are present near
Time the NH 15 leading towards North Lakhimpur and
along NH 715 which are potential points of
accidents particularly during the monsoons. As
per the information obtained from the local traffic
Figure 5 Variation of On-Street parking at NH 15 police, four major accidents took place at Mission
(towards North Lakhimpur) for 12 hours Chariali in and around the study period. In a
particular major accident, a heavily loaded truck
approaching Mission Chariali from NH 15 (North
70 63 Lakhimpur side) was about to take right turn
60
50 towards Guwahati via Mangaldai (NH 15) collided

40 with a passenger car coming from Tezpur town
30 side and intending to turn left. Causalities were
20
10 7 severe as a portion of the car got stuck in the
0 truck and the driver of the car died immediately at
the spot. So, it is seen that due to non-availability
of automatic traffic signal system and appropriate
space for taking a turn, accidents do occur often
at the diverging and merging conflict points.
Time 3.4 Spot Speed Study
Spot speed is the instantaneous speed of a

vehicle at any instant of time at a specified
Figure 6 Variation of On-Street parking at NH 15 location. Spot speed analysis in a road
(towards Mangaldai) for 12 hours intersection is useful to know the existing trend of
traffic flow, the speeds maintained by different
45
Theme A
vehicle user while driving and meeting the
intersection etc. In this study, spot speed study 30.0 26.7
% of vehicles observed
was done manually by measuring the time taken 25.0
by different vehicles in crossing a straight distance
20.0
of 40 metres. For this, a distance of 40 metre was
measured along the road leading from Mission 15.0
Chariali towards NH 715 and the road entering 10.0
Tezpur town to study the spot speeds of outgoing 5.0
and incoming vehicles between two defined points 3.0
and at a peak hour of traffic flow, the movement of 0.0 0.0
0 50 100
the vehicles were monitored and the time taken to
cross the 40 metre distance was counted by a Mean speed, kmph
stopwatch. By this method, it was possible to get
an estimate of the average spot speeds Figure 8 Frequency distribution curve for the spot
maintained by different by vehicle users as well to speeds of the outflow vehicular traffic
aware them to slow their vehicles for smooth flow
of traffic.
120
Table 2: Spot speed study for the outgoing 97.4
100
vehicles at or below
vehicular traffic
Cummulative % of
different speeds
Speed c.f. 80
v1 f2 %f. fxv SD
range (%) 60
40 39.5
0-10 5 8 3.0 3 40 16200
10-20 15 15 5.6 8.6 225 18375 20 3
0
20-30 25 27 10.2 18.8 675 16875
0 50 100
30-40 35 55 20.7 39.5 1925 12375 Mean speed, kmph
40-50 45 71 26.7 66.2 3195 1775
Figure 9 Cumulative speed distribution curve for the
50-60 55 42 15.8 82.0 2310 1050 spot speeds of the outflow vehicular traffic
60-70 65 26 9.8 91.8 1690 5850
Table 3: Spot speed study for the incoming vehicular
70-80 75 15 5.6 97.4 1125 9375 traffic
80-90 85 7 2.6 100 595 8575 Speed c.f
v1 f2 %f. fxv SD
range (%)
90-100 95 0 0.0 100 0 0
0-10 5 11 3.6 3.6 55 22275
Total 266 100 90450
1v: 10-20 15 19 6.3 9.9 285 23275
mid speed (kmph); 2f: no. of vehicles in each speed;
%f: percentage frequency; c.f: cumulative frequency; 20-30 25 33 10.9 20.8 825 20625
SD: Standard Deviation
30-40 35 52 17.2 38.0 1820 11700
𝛴𝑓(𝑣−𝑣𝑚 )2 40-50 45 82 27.1 65.1 3690 2050

SD in speed, σ = √ [1]
(𝑛−1) 50-60 55 51 16.8 81.9 2805 1275
Where, f: no. of vehicles in each range of speed
60-70 65 31 10.2 92.1 2015 6975
vm: mean speed of all vehicles, n: Total no. of vehicles
90450 70-80 75 15 5.0 97.1 1125 9375
Therefore, SD in outflow speed = √ 80-90 85 8 2.6 99.7 680 9800
(266−1)
= 18.47 kmph 90-100 95 1 0.3 100 95 2025
109375
Spot speed of most vehicles = 45 kmph Total 303 100
Upper speed limit = 85th percentile speed 1v:mid speed (kmph); no. of vehicles in each speed; 2f:
= 58 kmph %f: percentage frequency; c.f: cumulative frequency;

Lower speed limit = 15th percentile speed SD: Standard Deviation
= 22 kmph 109375
Speed for highway geometric design Therefore, SD in inflow speed = √
=98th percentile speed = 74 kmph (303−1)
= 19.03 kmph
Spot speed of most vehicles = 45 kmph
Upper speed limit = 85th percentile speed
46
Theme A
= 58 kmph be constructed near the large open space lying
Lower speed limit = 15th percentile speed vacant near Mission Hospital to eliminate the
= 20 kmph woes of illegal parking on the streets. As a whole,
Speed for highway geometric design public awareness is must in order to adhere to the
=98th percentile speed = 79 kmph requisite highway standards and development.
ACKNOWLEGMENT
30.0 27.1
% of vehicles observed
25.0 The authors are highly grateful to Dr. Deheswar

Deka, Former Professor & Head, Department of
20.0
Civil Engineering, Girijananda Chowdhury Institute
15.0 of Management and Technology (GIMT)-Tezpur,
10.0 Assam for his valuable suggestions and help
throughout the study and also to the local traffic
5.0
3.6 0.3 police personnel for providing necessary help and
0.0 information during the field work.
0 50 100
Mean speed, kmph REFERENCES
Das, D., Ahmed, M.A. and Deb, S.2016. A Case

Figure 10 Frequency distribution curve for the spot Study on Performance Analysis of
speeds of the inflow vehicular traffic
Uncontrolled Intersection in Silchar, Assam,
Proceedings of 1st International Conference on
120 Civil Engineering for Sustainable
Development-Opportunities and Challenges,
Cumulative % of vehicles
100 100.0
Assam Engineering College, Guwahati,
different speeds
80 Assam, India, 1, 373-378.

at or below
60 65.1 Goswami, A., Ahmed, M.A. and Boro, D.2015.

Traffic Management Study in Silchar, Assam,
40 International Journal of Advanced and
20 Innovative Research, 2(1): 43-49.
3.6 Kadiyali, L.R.2011. Traffic Engineering and
0
Transport Planning, 10th ed., Khanna
0 50 100
Publishers, Delhi, India.
Mean speed, kmph
Khanna, S.K. and Justo, C.E.G.2010. Highway
Figure 11 Cumulative speed distribution curve for the Engineering, 9th ed., Nem Chand & Bros.,
spot speeds of the inflow vehicular traffic Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India.
Khanorkar, A.R., Ghodmare, S.D. and Khode,
B.V.2014.Impact of Land Width of Road on
4 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Passenger Car Unit Capacity under Mix Traffic
in Cities on Congested Highways, International
In course of an road intersection like Mission Journal of Engineering Research and
Chariali, where a mix proportion of vehicular traffic Applications, 4(5): 180-184.
pass through it every day, possibility of getting the Manikantan, M. and Siddiraju, S.2016.Road
desired results is impossible until and unless the Safety and Accident Reduction, International
existing roads are widened and an automated Journal of Science and Research, 5(6): 1487-
traffic signal system is installed to make a hassle- 1490.
free management of vehicular traffic. From the Ramachandran, S. and Aravindan, S.2017. An
various studies conducted here, it was found that Analysis of Traffic, Transportation and
majority of vehicles ply towards and away from Operations of Nargolport, India- A Case Study,
Tezpur via NH 715. Moreover, to keep a check on International Journal of Civil Engineering and
the speed limit of the drivers, it was found that Technology, 8(6): 465-476.
85% of the vehicles maintain an average speed Saikia, P.J. and Bhagabati, A.K.2013.Prospect of
equal or less than 58 kmph during the day. If the Buchanan’s Traffic Planning Approach in Small
roads are widened and converted to a two-way, Towns of India: A Case Study in Tezpur Town,
three lane highway with an elliptical rotary at the American Journal of Engineering Research,
centre, intensity of traffic jams and accidents can 2(10): 229-238.
be reduced to a great extent. Moreover, to keep
the carriageway free from vehicles and provide
enough space in crossing for the pedestrians, an
off street parking system and mini bus stand may
47
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF ROADS USING COLD MIX
IN HIGH RAINFALL AREA - A CASE STUDY
ICID2018_A_002
Dr. Sanjay Deori, Dipak Basumatari, Nibir Pran Borah and Rajib Das
Applied Civil Engineering Group, Engineering Sciences & Technology Division
CSIR-North East Institute of Science and Technology, Jorhat, Assam, India
ABSTRACT
Cold mix technology developed by CSIR-CRRI, New Delhi was used in construction and maintenance of roads in
CSIR-NEIST campus at Jorhat, Assam during the year 2015. Different types of cold bitumen emulsion produced by
Bitchem were used for pre-mix carpeting along with seal coat and tack coat for strengthening and maintenance of
roads length about 6.5 kilometres. Semi Dense Bituminous Concrete (SDBC) with tack coat was used for
maintenance of existing concrete road surface of about 200 meters length as a pilot study. Semi Dense Bituminous
Concrete (SDBC) with Bituminous Macadam (BM) used for new construction of roads about 70 meters length. All the
mixes were produced in a nearby cold mix plant and laid mechaniseway under strict supervision and quality control.
Excellent performance have been observed for the last 3 years on all the road pavement sections except few cracks
developed over the SDBC surface in the existing concrete road section due to propagation of concrete slab joints. It
can be concluded and recommended from this study that the cold mix technology developed by CSIR-CRRI is
suitable for construction and maintenance of roads in high rainfall area. The details will be discussed in the full paper
as a case study.
Keywords: Cold-Mix, Maintenance, Semi Dense Bituminous Concrete, Bituminous Macadam
1 INTRODUCTION Worldwide, researchers and road engineers have

focused mainly on two major issues primarily
Bitumen in different forms is mainly used as environment problem and energy conservation in
binder in bituminous mixes for construction and road construction and for development of new
maintenance of flexible pavements. The bitumen technologies which are environment friendly and
binder is a semi-solid thermoplastic material with energy efficient. The cold liquid bitumen emulsion
high viscosity at ambient temperature is not can be used in road construction in a big way
workable for road construction. This semi-solid bring about both energy saving and pollution
material can be transformed into workable liquid control by eliminating heating of both bitumen and
form in three ways (a) by heating, (b) by blending aggregate for preparing the bituminous asphalt
with petroleum solvents to form cutbacks, and (c) mixtures.
by emulsifying in water to form bitumen emulsion
(Deori et al., 2013). 1.1 Bitumen Emulsion
Bitumen in semi-solid form is heated to
elevated temperature around 160-165°C to make Bitumen emulsion is a liquid form of bitumen in
it liquid workable state which is accompanied by which a substantial amount of bitumen particles is
large emission of hydrocarbon, green house suspended in a finely divided condition in an
gases, and other volatile pollutants resulting in aqueous medium of water and emulsifier. In this
degradation air as well as the environment. The aqueous condition, bitumen is the dispersed
road construction and their maintenance with the phase and water is the continuous phase. Stability
conventional hot mix method is mostly beneficial of an emulsion is achieved by the use of an
and durable in dry areas of arid and semi arid emulsifying agent contained in the aqueous
region. But some time it is not feasible and even phase. Based on the type of the emulsifier used,
not desirable in areas such as heavy rainfall area Bitumen emulsions can be:
such as North eastern region of India where Anionic: Bitumen globules being electro-negatively
intermittent rains throughout the year affect charged and the aqueous phase, alkaline.
production and laying of hot mix and also in areas
of cold climate such as high altitude and hilly Cationic: Bitumen globules being electro-positively
areas where hot bitumen gets solidified quickly charged and the aqueous phase, acidic.
and losses its binding property as soon as it
comes in contact with the existing cold pavement Non-ionic: In these, Bitumen globules are neutral.
surface. Alternatively, Cut back bitumens were,
therefore specified to overcome such problems 1.1.1 Classification of Bitumen Emulsion
but these too require little heating and are
accompanied by emission of solvent oil used as Each type bitumen emulsion is further divided into
cutter which also creates environment problem. Rapid setting (RS), Medium setting (MS) and Slow
48
Theme A
Setting (SS) grade depending upon the breaking 2. Need of the study
time of emulsion. The breaking time is less for
Rapid setting grade of emulsion whereas medium The existing internal roads in CSIR-NEIST
and slow setting emulsions are having more campus were needed strengthening and
breaking time thus allowing mixing with coarse maintenance for a long time. The bituminous
aggregate and fine aggregate. The recommended roads were totally damaged and the concrete
uses of these grade of emulsions are given below: roads started worn out concrete materials from its
surfaces. Thus it was decided for strengthening
Type Recommended uses and maintenance of existing roads using
Rapid Setting A quick setting emulsion used environment friendly cold mix technology for
(RS) : for surface treatment, Surface having its various benefits.
Dressing (SD), Penetration
macadam, Penetration 3 MATERIALS AND METHODS
grouting and tack coat
application. 3.1 Study Area
Medium Setting A medium setting emulsion
(MS): used for plant or road mixes The present study area covers the internal roads
with course aggregate for of CSIR-North East Institute of Science and
Premix carpet (PMC), Base Technology (NEIST), Jorhat located at Pulibor in
Course (BM), Mix seal Jorhat district. CSIR-NEIST, Jorhat campus
surfacing (MSS), Surface consists of internal roads interconnected in the
dressing (SD) and tack coat official as well as residential colony for movement.
application. The roads are considered Low Volume Roads
Slow Setting A slow setting emulsion used (LVR) as there is no heavy traffic on these roads.
(SS) : for plant or road mixes with
graded of fine aggregate in The total length of the roads is more than
MSS, DBM, and BC. This 7.00 kilometer and width varies from 3.5 m to 7.0
emulsion is also used for m. The existing main roads are of cement
slurry treatment dense asphalt concrete pavement and the other roads are of
concrete, prime coat and tack bituminous pavement. A small new section of 70
coat application. meters long was designed and constructed using
cold bituminous mix.
1.1.2 Advantages of Bitumen Emulsion
3.2 Description of Work and Materials used
The advantages of using bitumen emulsion over
3.2.1
conventional paving grade bitumen are given Strengthening and maintenance of 6.5 kilometer
below (Pundhir, 2011): existing bituminous road having poor surface
condition. This road section was laid with the
 It is a cold application bitumen binder. following layers:
 It does not require heating of binder and
aggregate.  Strengthening of bituminous road section
 It does not pollute air and environment. was done with Water Bound Macadam
 The thermal oxidative hardening of bitumen is (WBM) of 150 mm thickness compacting
checked while using emulsion and thus with vibratory and static roller 8-10 tonnes
enhances service life of pavement. in two layers spreading with screening
 It contains anti-stripping agent and reduce the materials. The physical properties and
water damage. It is beneficial in high rainfall gradation of the materials are given in the
and snow bound area. Table 1 and 2.
 Ease in handling and laying of road surface
with simple equipments which increase the Table 1. Physical properties WBM materials
work output.
 The emulsion can be used with damp Physical Properties Values IRC limits
aggregate. Aggregate Impact Value 29.23% 40% (max)
 The maintenance and construction of road are Aggregate Crushing
quite possible in rainy season and bad 22.73% 30% (max)
Value
weather.
 It saves energy and bitumen.
49
Theme A
Table 2. Gradation of WBM materials Stability to mixing with cement 1.7 Max 2
IS sieve size Percent Limit as per Miscibility with water nil Nil
(mm) passing IRC:SP:20
Test on residue
80 100 90-100 (a) Residue by evaporation, 65.06 60
50 46.3 25-60 %, minimum
40 12.83 0-15 (b) Penetration25ºC/100g/5sec 72 60-120
(c) Ductility 27ºC /cm 100+ Min 50
25 1.13 0-5
(d) Solubility in 99.03 Min 98
20 0 0 trichloroethylene , by
mass %
 25mm thick open graded premix carpet 3.2.2 Maintenance of 200 meter existing
(OGPC) cold mix was laid as surface concrete road section was done using the
course over the compacted WBM layer. The following layers:
seal coat was applied after spreading a tack  30mm thick Semi Dense Bituminous
coat layer over the OGPC surface. The size Concrete (SDBC) cold mix was laid over the
and quantities of the aggregates require for concrete surface. The tack coat was applied
OGPC is given in the Table 3. The details of on the concrete surface prior application of
the bitumen emulsion which was used as SDBC.
binder in, OGPC, SDBC, BM, seal coat and
tack coat are given in the Table 4 and 5. 3.2.3 A 70 meter long new flexible road section
was designed and constructed with the
Table 3. Quantities of aggregates OGPC per 10m2 following layers:
Area
Coarse aggregate of nominal 0.18 m3  Cement stabilized sand was used for filling
13.2mm size: compacted 300 mm thick as subgrade.
(passing IS: 22.4mm sieve and
retained on IS: 5.6mm sieve)  250mm thick granular material was laid as
Coarse aggregate of nominal 0.09 m3 Granular Sub-Base (GSB) over the
11.2mm size: subgrade.
(passing IS: 13.2mm sieve and
retained on IS: 5.6mm sieve)  150mm thick Water Bound Macadam
(WBM) was laid over the GSB.
Table 4. Quantities of bitumen emulsion per 10m2
Area  50mm thick Bituminous Macadam (BM) was
For Open Graded Premix 20 to 23 kg over WBM as binder course. The Prime
Carpet (OGPC) coat was spread over the WBM prior laying
(Slow Setting emulsion) of BM course.
For Seal Coat 10 to 12 kg  30mm thick Semi Dense Bituminous

(Slow Setting emulsion) Concrete (SDBC) surface course was laid
over BM. The Tack coat was spread over
Table 5.Properties of bitumen emulsion used for the BM surface prior laying of SDBC.
OGPC
Properties Results Limits 3.3 Methodology adopted for preparation of Cold
Mix at plant
Viscosity, Say Bolt Furol 36 30-150
Viscometer, seconds at 25ºC The M/s Bitchem Asphalt Technologists Limited,
Storage stability test, 24hr, % 0.49 Max 2 Guwahati, the key licensee of cold mix technology
from CSIR-Central Road Research Institute,
Particle charge test +ve +ve
New Delhi has designed tailor made modified
Residue on 600 micron IS 0.015 Max bitumen emulsion with certain performance
Sieve, % by mass 0.05 additives like anti-stripping agent with medium and
slow characteristics used as a binder in cold mix
Coagulation of emulsion at nil nil technology in various applications of road
low temperature construction. The main feature of this cold mix
binder is that this binder has been customized to
use with the aggregates available from any source
50
Theme A
in India i.e. dusty aggregates, soil coated 3.5 Production of cold mix in the plant
aggregates, clean aggregates, damp aggregates,
pea gravel aggregates or the cal carious (lime A drum mix plant located at Sotai near Jorhat
mix) aggregates. Two cold mix binders “Supreme” town about 10 km. away from the actual site of
and “All in one” ideally designed and tried for road construction at NEIST was used in preparing
construction of cold mix application were used in the OGPC, SDBC and BM cold mixes using the
this study. Both the binders give better locally available aggregates and modified bitumen
performance when the mix is produced through emulsion as per the mix design. In this mixing
cold mix plant to use in the application of BM, plant, provision has been made to use cold
SDBC and OGPC. bitumen emulsion in place of hot bitumen for
The aggregate available from the local sources producing cold bituminous mix for road
in Jorhat district was used in preparation of construction. The cold bituminous mixes produced
bituminous mixtures. in the plant were transported in the trucks or tipper
3.4 Design of cold bituminous mix at plant site for laying in the site. The detail operational and
production process of cold mix in the plant are
Prior mixing in the plant, design samples were shown in the Figure 5 to 11.
prepared at the plant site to observe the optimum
quantity of binder content to produce the proper
mix in the plant. The detail design process of
bituminous mix using cold bitumen emulsion is
given in the Figure 1 to 3.
Figure 5. Operational Plant for Cold Mix
Figure1. Locally available aggregate for OGPC
Figure 2. Mixing of aggregates with emulsion Figure 6. Binder charging in the binder tank
Figure 3.Mix kept under sunlight to check breaking

time, setting time, adhesion & Lead time at Figure 7. Aggregate charging in the feeder bin
different percent of binder consumption.
51
Theme A
3.6 Laying of WBM layer and Prime Coat at site
The existing bituminous road sections were

strengthened by laying and compacting 150mm
thick WBM materials in two layers spreading with
screening materials. Cold bitumen emulsion of
slow setting grade was spread as prime coat as
per the specified quantity over the WBM surface
using pressure distributor. The details are shown
in the Figure 12 to 15.
Figure 8. Aggregate feeding to the drum mixer

through conveyor belt
Figure 12. Existing old WBM surface
Figure 9. Cold OGPC mix produced from plant
Figure 13. Cleaning of new WBM surface
Figure10.Cold OGPC mix is carrying through

conveyor belt
Figure 11. Collection and transportation of Cold Figure 14. Applying prime coat by pressure
OGPC mix in the Tipper distributor
52
Theme A
Figure 15. Prime Coated surface

Figure 18. Compaction by pneumatic and static
roller
3.7 Application of Tack Coat and OGPC mix at
site
The medium setting bitumen emulsion tack coat

was spread over the WBM surface before
application of the OGPC mix. After setting of the
tack coat, the OGPC mixes was laid using the
paver finisher. The pneumatic and static rollers
were used for compaction of the cold mix. The
laying and compaction process of the cold OGPC
mix are shown in the Figure 16 to 19.
Figure19. Completed OGPC surface after

compaction
3.8 Application of Seal Coat at site
The manually mixed Seal coat was applied over

the properly compacted OGPC mix and sealed the
surface. Tack coat was spread before application
of the seal coat as the OGPC surface became dry
in sunlight which gave a better bonding between
OGPC and the seal coat mix. The pneumatic and
Figure 16. Applying Tack Coat by pressure static rollers were used for compaction of the seal
distributor coat. The laying and compaction process of the
seal coat and the finish roads are shown in the
Figure 20 to 24.
Figure 17. Laying and spreading of Cold OGPC Figure 20. Manual mixing of Seal Coat aggregates
mix using paver machine with Cold emulsion binder
53
Theme A
3.9 Performance evaluation of road sections
All the road sections were regularly monitored to

observe the performance of the cold mix for the
last 4-years. During monsoon season, many times
some of these road sections were inundated in
water due to water logging in the campus. The
pavement surface condition was observed for the
parameters like cracking, raveling, bleeding,
depression etc..
3.9.1 The road sections laid with 25mm thick

Open Graded Premix Carpet (OGPC) cold
Figure 21. Laying of seal coat on OGPC surface
mix surface course over the compacted
WBM layer has been observed very good
surface condition for the last 4-years
without any damage and maintenance of
the pavement surface as shown in the
Figure 25 and 26.
Figure 22. Rolling on Seal Coat surface
Figure 25. Pavement surface condition after 4-yrs.
Figure 23. Completed Cold Mix road
3.9.2 The road sections laid with 30mm thick

Semi Dense Bituminous Concrete (SDBC)
cold mix over the concrete surface has
been observed transverse and
longitudinal cracks that were propagated
from the already existing concrete slabs.
Figure 24. Completed surface after lane marking No other surface damage has been
54
Theme A
observed in this road section. The surface
condition of this pavement section is
shown in the Figure 27 and 28.

(Close-up view)
4. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
Figure 27. Pavement surface condition after 4-yrs.  In this study it is observed that the cold
bituminous mix prepared using modified
bitumen emulsion produced by Bitchem
performing well in low volume roads. This
new cold mix technology is advantageous
and sustainable in high rainfall, flood affected
and remote areas.
 The bitumen emulsion based cold mix
asphalt such as Open Graded Pre-Mix
Carpet (OGPC), Bituminous Macadam (BM)
and Semi-Dense Bituminous Concrete
(SDBC) can easily be produced in an
automatic drum mix plant. This bituminous
mixes can also be transported in dumper or
truck, laying with paver finisher and
Figure 28. Pavement surface condition after 4-yrs. compaction by vibratory or static roller
(Close-up view) without any hindrance.
 During preparation as well as execution of
3.9.3 The 70 meter long new flexible road the mix using the same aggregates it was
section laid with 50mm BM and 30 mm observed that Cold mix binder CRRI-Bitchem
SDBC over GSB and WBM is performing “Supreme” was more suitable and result
very well. There is no any surface damage oriented than CRRI-Bitchem “All-in-One”
(i.e. cracking, raveling, pothole etc.) were depending on that particular aggregate
observed in this pavement section. The quality. Poor workability was observed with
surface condition of this pavement section “All in One” so it was modified at site to
is shown in the Figure 29 and 30. achieve better workability.
 The compacted cold bituminous mix
surfacing require atleast eight hours of
setting time in proper sunlight so that
adhesion between the bituminous mixes and
layers takes place for proper bonding.
 It is concluded that the modified bitumen
emulsion based cold mix asphalt such as
Open Graded Pre-Mix Carpet (OGPC),
Bituminous Macadam (BM) and Semi-Dense
Bituminous Concrete (SDBC) can be applied
for construction flexible pavements. The
maintenance of flexible as well as rigid
pavements can be done using dense graded
cold mix asphalt which is durable and
Figure 29. Pavement surface condition after 4-yrs. sustainable in high rainfall areas.
55
Theme A
5. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author acknowledges Dr. D. Ramaiah, former

Director, CSIR-NEIST, Jorhat for his initiative,
guidance and support in execution of this project.
The technical help and support provided by M/s
Bitchem Asphalt Technologists Limited, Guwahati
during execution of the project is highly
acknowledged. It is also gratefully acknowledge
the help and support rendered by all the staff
members of Applied Civil Engineering Group and
Civil Engineering and Maintenance Section of
CSIR-NEIST, Jorhat during execution of the
project in the field.
REFERENCES
Deori et. al (2013), Performance Evaluation

Report on Rural Roads Constructed using
CRRI-BITCHEM Cold Mix in Different District
of Assam, Final Project Report submitted to
PWD, Assam.
Pundhir (2011), Bitumen Emulsion in Road

Construction and Maintenance. National
Workshop on Sustainable Technologies for
Road Construction in North-East, September
19, 2011, CSIR-NEIST, Jorhat, Assam
56
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
FILTERING BEHAVIOUR OF MOTORIZED TWO-WHEELERS AND
CARS IN URBAN ROADS
ICID2018_A_003
Sanhita Das1, Ashesh Choudhury2, Porishmita Saikia3, Akkiraju Lakshmi Ksheeraja4, Nishant Deka5,
Jahangir Alom6, Akhilesh Kumar Maurya7
1,7. Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam, India
2. National Institute of Technology Silchar, Silchar, Assam, India
3. Kaziranga University, Jorhat, Assam, India
4. Ramaiah Institute of Technology, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
5,6. Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India
ABSTRACT
Motorized two-wheeler (MTW) has emerged as the fast transportation mode in many Asian countries due to its
compact size, convenience, flexibility and freedom in choosing high speeds and erratic trajectories. Such nature of
riding results in exhibiting dynamic maneuvering patterns on the road, such as filtering in between the two leading
vehicles. Although such behavior is commonly observed for MTWs in urban roads, cars are also observed to
perform filtering in which they tend to accept the lateral spaces defined by any two-leading vehicles, which indeed
may result in travel time saving, increased speed, congestion reduction, etc. The current study therefore attempts to
investigate the filtering behavior of MTWs and cars by utilizing trajectory data of multilane urban roads. This study
provides an elaborate investigation of the behavioral differences in the filtering and following maneuvers for both
cars and MTWs; addressing different influential variables that may affect the rider’s decision to perform a filtering
maneuver.The results of this study can find direct applications in micro-simulation model development, traffic
operations and safety management.
Keywords: Filtering; Motorized two-wheelers;Motorcycles;Heterogeneous;Cars
1 INTRODUCTION MTWs in traffic due to their compact sizes (Clarke

et al., 2004).
Recent advances in the Intelligent Transportation Although filtering of MTWs is a common praxis
Systems (ITS) applications and development of in developing nations, cars are also observed to
microscopic simulation models have led to an exhibit the filtering process in dense urban
increasing interest in evaluating the complex real- heterogeneous traffic environments.The desire of
world traffic flow phenomena. Differences in the the rider to perform a filtering maneuver is
maneuvering patterns, static and operational however dependent on the minimum traversable
capabilities of a wide variety of vehicle types, lateral width required by the rider to pass in
absence of lane discipline and interactions of a between the two lead vehicles, commonly termed
large number of vehicles with each other make the as pore size (Ambarwati et al., 2014) in the
traffic phenomena of non-lane based traffic literature, as well as the surrounding traffic
streams more complex. Such behavior provides conditions.In essence, each vehicle type
them more flexibility in occupying any available perceives a series of pores differently. Smaller
lateral space on the roadway irrespective of lane vehicles can utilize pores that bigger vehicles
markings. cannot due to constraints in vehicle dimensions.
Smaller sized vehicles in such traffic systems, Even a particular pore size accepted by the car
often take advantage of their compact sizes to riders may be rejected by a number of MTW
navigate through road traffic more efficiently. In riders. This can be attributed to a variety of traffic,
particular, motorized two-wheeler (MTW) riders in driver characteristics and situational factors which
dense urban areas are often observed to engage impedes the desire of riders to accept a particular
in complex maneuvers where they tend to utilize pore size.
the available lateral spaces described by other On modelling the filtering behaviour, Agarwal
surrounding vehicles on the road, commonly and Lämmel (2016) used an agent-based
termed as filtering or seeping (Agarwal and modelling framework for MTWs in which a
Lämmel, 2016) in the MTW-oriented literature. significant reduction in the average trip time was
Such nature of riding offers a significant reduction observed for the filtering mode. A study by Nikias
in travel time, emissions, risk of rear-end collision, et al. (2012) highlighted that filtering and
congestion and increase in vehicle speeds and overtaking from the free lane are the most
capacity, etc. However, many studies have frequent maneuvers of MTWs in urban arterials.
reported that the filtering behaviour of MTWs may Recently,Vlahogianni (2014) found that the MTW
result in crash-risk severities because bigger- rider’s decision to accept critical virtual lane widths
sized vehicles often fail to notice the presence of during filtering depends significantly on relative
57
Theme A
speed, spacing, heavy vehicle’s presence and longitudinal and lateral spacing, vehicle
occurrence of platoon of moving vehicles. dimensions, type of vehicle involved in filtering,
The peer-reviewed literature has however, type of interacting vehicles, etc. required for
highlighted the inabilities of the existing traffic flow understanding such behavior can be extracted
models to capture the dynamic filtering behaviour and analyzed. In order to extract data from the
of MTWs and cars simultaneously. A proper video, the subject vehicles (MTWs and cars)
understanding of such behavioral phenomena will performing filtering maneuver in between the
enhance the predictability and reliability of leading vehicles are initially identified from the
microscopic traffic simulation models, traffic video footage.
performance evaluation and safety aspects of the Image coordinates of the three interacting
riders at mid-block sections. vehicles’ positions on the road that are involved in
The current study therefore attempts to the filtering process are marked on the screen
investigate the filtering behavior of MTWs and using mouse clicks. The interacting vehicle pair is
cars by utilizing trajectory data of multilane roads tracked using frame-by-frame analysis till the full
at urban mid-block sections. The research work filtering process is completed. Each vehicle’s
provides an elaborate investigation of the position on the screen is recorded at different
behavioral differences in the filtering (when riders timestamps and the corresponding image
accept the available pores) and following (when coordinates are converted intoreal-world field
riders reject the pores) maneuvers of MTW and coordinates as devised by Fung et al. (2003). For
car riders; addressing different parameters that each interacting pair, vehicle dimensions and type
may significantly affect the rider’s decision to of subject vehicle, left and right front vehicles are
perform a filtering maneuver in urban mid-block also noted and marked on the screen by mouse
sections of non-lane based traffic streams. clicks. An elaborate description of the data
extraction procedure is detailed in Budhkar and
2 DATA COLLECTION AND EXTRACTION Maurya’s (2015) work.
After the data extraction process, the user
2.1 Research Data finally obtains the Cartesian coordinates of the
vehicle’s positions at different timestamps, their
For understanding the filtering behavior of MTWs vehicle sizes and the vehicle types, from which
and cars, video-recording technique is used to the vehicle speeds and spacing can be obtained.
collect video data from the mid-block sections of Though this is a time-consuming process, a
urban arterials. A total of two sections were detailed dataset of the movement patterns of
considered in the study: a three-lane section in MTW riders and cars during filtering on urban
Pune (road width = 10.5m) and a five-lane section roads can be evaluated.
in Mumbai (road width = 17.5m). The video
recording was carried out from the top of a high 3 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
rise building near the study area during daytime
and good weather conditions. 3.1 Description of the Extracted Data
The study sections were chosen based upon
the prerequisites for the camera calibration The data extracted from the video covers the
technique as described in Fung et al.’s (2003) entire process of filtering behavior where the
work. The trap lengths of both the selected subject vehicles pass in between the left-front and
sections were measured and traffic cones (initially right-front vehicles, and also certain cases where
placed on the roadside for a few minutes) served the subject vehicles tend to follow the leading
as reference points on the video. The screen vehicles due to its incapability to pass through the
coordinates of the corresponding four points are available lateral spaces. To describe the minimum
then marked and extracted from the video for the traversable lateral width required by the subject
camera calibration part (as discussed in 2.2).The vehicle to pass in between the leading vehicles
selected sections were straight roads and far from during the filtering process, the term ‘pore’ is used
any parking lots and upstream and downstream in this paper (Ambarwati et al., 2014). A graphical
signalized intersections. Both the sites had representation of the pore size considered in this
predominant percentages of MTWs and cars, and study is depicted in Figure 1.
significant filtering was observed behavior for both
the vehicle types during the data collection period.
2.2 Data Extraction through Trajectory Tracking
Modelling the filtering behavior of MTW riders and

cars requires a detailed trajectory dataset where
the desired parameters such as speeds, Figure 1. Graphical representation of the filtering
maneuver
58
Theme A
Before performing the filtering maneuver, the Filtering (Accepted pore) Following (Rejected pore)
subject vehicles can perceive only the lateral
spaces described by the leading vehicles and then
decide whether the spaces are sufficient to 3.5
accommodate the process of filtering. Accordingly,
Pore (m)
they decide either to filter through the available 2.5
lateral space (pore size), or follow the lead
vehicles due to its incapability to accept the
available pore. Pore size (𝑟𝑥 ) can be calculated as 1.5
the minimum of the lateral clearance between the
leading left front and right front vehicles, and that 0.5
defined by the right edge of the left vehicle’s rear -25 -15 -5 5 15
bumper with the left edge of the right vehicle’s Relative speed (km/h)
rear/front bumper. That is to say, when the front (b)
vehicles are moving in parallel to each other (case Figure 2. Variation of pore sizes and relative
1 of Figure 1), pore size can be defined as the speed during filtering and following behavior of (a)
minimum of r𝑝 and dy and for the second case, MTWs and (b) cars
pore can be defined as the minimum of r𝑝1 and r𝑝2 .
Each vehicle type requires sufficient pores to The figure illustrates that the rider’s decision to
accommodate the filtering movement. Specifically, accept or reject a pore depends on the speed of
a vehicle type will only accept a pore of a the subject MTW as well as the front vehicles’
particular size during filtering, while the same pore speeds. Usually, riders accept large pore sizes
size may be rejected by a number of drivers of the and tend to proceed at relatively higher speeds
same vehicle type or of different type of vehicle. than the leading vehicles to perform a filtering
maneuver. Hence negative relative speeds and
3.2 Preliminary analysis larger pore sizes are observed for the filtering
maneuver of both the vehicle types as compared
In total, the dataset resulted into 478 cases of to the following case. A summary of the
filtering and following cases for MTWs and 110 descriptive statistics of pore sizes, speed of the
cases of filtering and following cases of cars. For subject vehicles and relative speeds during
analysis, the interactions of MTW riders and cars filtering and following processes of both MTWs
with different combinations of left-front and right- and cars is presented in Table 1.
front vehicles were considered (cars, MTWs,
trucks, 3Ws). Several kinematic parameters such Table 1. Descriptive statistics of the kinematic
as speeds of all the three interacting vehicles, parameters during filtering and following
longitudinal and lateral spacing between the processes
vehicles were obtained, from which the relative Vehicle type Variables Mean SD Sample
speed is calculated as the difference of the
average leading vehicles speeds and the speed of Pore (m) 1.32 0.65
Following
the subject vehicle. Relative

speed 145
The variations of pore sizes and relative -0.09 3.29
speeds for both MTWs and cars during filtering (km/h)
(accepted pores) and following (rejected pores) MTWs
behavior are depicted in Figure 2. Pore (m) 1.91 0.69
Filtering
Relative 333
Filtering (Accepted pores) speed -11.91 5.03
3 (km/h)
Pore (m) 1.97 0.60
Following
2.5
Relative 54
Pore (m)
2
speed 1.97 3.89
1.5 (km/h)
Cars
1 Pore (m) 2.55 0.68
Filtering
0.5 Relative 56
0 speed -9.63 6.11
-30 -20 -10 0 10 (km/h)
Relative speed (km/h)
SD- Standard deviation
(a)
59
Theme A
It is evident from the table that MTWs and cars
require larger pore sizes and higher speeds than 0.8
Following Filtering
the leading vehicles’ speeds (that is, negative
Probability density function

0.7
relative speeds) to perform a filtering maneuver as
compared to the following case. Interestingly, an 0.6
increase in 0.6m pore size is observed for the 0.5
filtering maneuver for both type of vehicles as
compared to following. It can also be observed 0.4
that the average pore size accepted by cars and 0.3
MTWs during filtering are 2.55m and 1.91m
0.2
respectively. Because cars have bigger vehicle
dimensions than MTWs, they usually accept larger 0.1
pore sizes during filtering as compared to MTWs. 0
0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5
3.3 Marginal Distributions of the Considered Pore size (m)
Variables (b)
Several probability distribution models were used 0.14

Filtering Following

to fit pore sizes and relative speeds for both 0.12
MTWs and cars during filtering and following
maneuvers. The candidate distributions selected 0.1
for the study are logistic, Weibull, lognormal,
0.08
normal and gamma. The maximum likelihood
technique is employed to estimate the parameters 0.06
of the univariate models. Two goodness-of-fit test
statistics namely Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) and 0.04
Anderson-Darling (A-D) tests and the log-
0.02
likelihood value of each distribution are used to
check the suitability of a distribution. Accordingly, 0
a particular distribution is considered to be the -25 -15 -5 5
best-fitted one if the log-likelihood value is the Relative speed (km/h)
largest and the selected distribution passes the (c)
goodness-of-fit tests (i.e. the statistic values are
0.1
lower than the critical values at 5% significance Following Filtering
Probabilitty density function
level).
A comparative assessment of the selected 0.08
marginal distributions for pore sizes indicated that
lognormal distribution provided the best fit for both 0.06
the filtering and following cases of MTWs and cars
while normal distribution provided the best fit for 0.04
relative speeds for all the cases, although with
different set of parameter values. The best-fitted
0.02
distributions are presented in Figure 3.
0.7 0
Filtering Following -25 -15 -5 5 15
Relative speed (km/h)
0.6
(d)
0.5 Figure 3. Probability density functions for pore
size of (a) MTWs and (b) Cars and relative speeds
0.4
of (c) MTWs and (d) cars for the filtering and
0.3 following cases
The preceding figure clearly depicts that the
0.2 peaks of the univariate distributions occur at
1.75m for MTWs performing the filtering maneuver
0.1
while for cars, the peak occurs at 2.25m.
0 However, for the following case the peaks are
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 observed at 1.25m and 1.75m for MTWs and cars
Pore (m) respectively. Furthermore, it is observed that a
majority of the MTW and cars drivers maintain
(a)
higher speeds than the leading vehicles (the peak
60
Theme A
of relative speeds being observed at -10km/h for in non-lane based traffic streams of mid-block
both MTWs and cars. urban roads.
Considering the distribution pattern of pore
sizes that are perceived by MTW riders and cars 4. CONCLUSIONS
while filtering, it can be observed that the pores
accepted by the cars (1.5m-3.5m) are even The present paper attempted to model the
rejected by the MTW riders. Moreover, the same maneuvering pattern of MTW riders during
pore size accepted by a particular vehicle type filtering, using detailed trajectory data of six-lane
may be rejected by another driver of the same and eight-lane divided urban roads.
vehicle type. For instance, from Figure 3(a) it can Preliminary investigation on the behavioral
be observed that although MTW riders accept differences of MTWs and cars during filtering and
pore sizes of 0.7m-3m, the rejected pores lie in following maneuvers indicated that a majority of
the range of 0.25m to 2.5m, the peak being MTWs and cars accept large pore sizes and
observed at 1.25m. This large difference (0.25m- maintain higher speeds than the leading vehicles
2.5m) in the rejected pore widths can be attributed during filtering as compared to the following case.
to the differencesindriver characteristics, type of Moreover, an increment in 0.6m average pore size
lead and surrounding vehicles, etc. as well as is observed for cars during filtering with respect to
other supplementary factors such as perceived MTWs, although marginal difference in relative
safety, risks involved in filtering, joy of driving, etc. speed was observed.
which impedes the desire of riders to accept the The statistical results however indicated
available pore space. Similar to the observed different maneuvering characteristics of MTWs
differences in pore size, the peaks of the and cars during filtering and following the lead
probability functions for the speed data clearly vehicles. This signifies that the filtering and
signify a speed increment of 10kmph in filtering following behavior of MTWs and cars need to be
when compared to following irrespective of the modelled separately to understand the underlying
subject vehicle types involved in the filtering behavioral phenomena in non-lane based traffic
process. streams of mid-block urban roads. The results of
Further, to investigate the differences in the this study can find direct applications in micro-
movement patterns of MTWs and cars during both simulation model development, traffic operations
filtering and following, two statistical tests, t-test and safety management.
(assuming equal means) and F-test (equality of
variance) are conducted on pore size and relative 5. REFERENCES
speed as presented in Table 2.
Agarwal, A., and Lämmel, G. 2016. Modeling seepage
Table 2. Statistical test results for comparing various behvaiour of smaller vehicles in mixed traffic
variables for filtering and following manoeuvres of conditions using an agent based simulation.
MTWs and cars Transportation in Developing Economies, 2: 1-12.
F-stat =1.52, p<0.001 Ambarwati, L., Pel, A.J., Verhaeghe, R. and Van Arem,
Filtering t-stat=8.15, p<0.001 B. 2014. Empirical Analysis of Heterogeneous
Pore size Traffic Flow and calibration of porous flow model.
F-stat =1.24, p<0.05 Transportation Research Part C: Emerging
Following t-stat=6.31, p<0.001 Tehnologies, 9: 418-436.
Budhkar, A.K. and Maurya, A.K. 2015. A methodology
F-stat =0.66, p<0.10 to calculate inter-vehicular longitudinal distances in
Filtering t-stat=2.94, p<0.05 heterogeneous traffic. 3rd Conference of
Relative Transportation Research Group of India, Kolkata.
speed F-stat =0.69, p<0.05
t-stat=3.68, p<0.001 Clarke, D.D., Ward, P., Bartle, C.and Truman, W.2004.
Following In-depth study of motorcycle accidents, Department
for Transport, London, UK.
Fung, G.S., Yung, N.H. and Pang, G.K. 2003. Camera
calibration from road lane markings. Optical
The statistical results clearly indicate that the Engineering, 42(10): 2967-2977.
behavior of MTW riders and cars during filtering Nikias, V.A., Vlahogianni, E.I., Lee, T.C. and Golias,
behavior show distinct maneuvering J.C. 2012. Determinants of powered two-wheelers
characteristics. The same holds true for the virtual lane width in urban arterials. 15th
following case as well.This signifies that the International IEEE Conference in Intelligent
decision of the drivers to accept or reject the Transportation Systems, pp. 1205-1210.
perceived pores in their direction of travel Vlahogianni, E.I. 2014. Powered-two-wheelers
significantly differs according to the type of subject kinematic characteristics and interactions during
vehicle involved in the decision making process. filtering and overtaking in urban arterials.
Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology
Therefore, the filtering and following behavior of and Behaviour, 24: 133–145.
MTWs and cars need to be modelled separately to
understand the underlying behavioral phenomena
61
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
ESTIMATION OF EARTHWORK ALONG PRPOSED 4-LANE JORHAT

BYPASS USING GIS
ICID2018_A_005
Debashis Das¹, Anil Kr. Ojha², Dr. Mrinal Kr. Dutta³, Mr. Kaushik Kalita⁴
1 UG student, Department of Civil Engineering, Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India
2Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat ,India
3Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat ,India
4Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat ,India
ABSTRACT
Highways make a crucial contribution to economic development and bring important social benefits. As a result of
Rapid urbanization, traffic on Indian highways, in terms of volume and axle load is increasing at an alarming rate. In
such cases, to provide smooth mobility and accessibility,upgradation of single or two lane road to multilane road is of
utmost importance. Preparation of the subgrade is the foremost important step in the construction of new highway or
in the up gradation of the existing one and for which earth is the prime material. Estimation of earthwork in terms of
cutting and filling, being one of the major components of highway planning, design and construction, requires good
skill, knowledge and lot of paper works. Now-a-days, where time and labour is a significant factor, use of
geoinformatics like Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS) and Geographic Information System (GIS) is
preferable to a great extent. The main objective of the study is to estimate the quantity of earthwork required along
the proposed 4 lane Jorhat bypass, Assam by using DGPS and GIS.The field survey has been carried out
throughout the whole length of existing road using DGPS. ArcGIS software was utilized to serve the purpose.
Key words: subgrade, earthwork, DGPS, GIS, DEM
1 INTRODUCTION
Earthwork estimations for highway constructions has large area coverage without significant
and upgradations are tedious applications in civil reduction in precision.
engineering. Designing of any type of road A GIS is an organized collection of computer
pavement structure, rather it be flexible or rigid hardware, software, geographic data, and
and bituminous or non-bituminous, requires a personnel to efficiently capture, store, update,
supporting layer underneath known as the manipulate, analyze, and display all forms of
subgrade. If the existing soil is highly geographically referenced information. It has
compressible and susceptible to liquefaction, then gained popularity worldwide because of its
proper ground improvement techniques are to be comprehensive use in engineering applications
implemented prior to the construction of and big data nature. Attributes related to such
embankment and subgrade. This paper presents studiesin GIS mainly includes the point or station
the estimation of earthwork for the construction name, elevation, latitude and latitude, volume etc.
ofsubgrade and embankment needed for provided a geographic co-ordinate system is
conversion of existing 2-lane to proposed 4-lane fixed.ArcGIS software has 3D Analyst and Data
highway using survey data and sophisticated Management tools which help in assessment of
software techniques. earthwork based on the cut fill map generated by
After setting out the alignment, estimation of the analysis of the processed shape files of DGPS
earthwork becomes a prime concern for surveyors field data. Volume of terrains that do not have
and engineers and for which various analytical regular geometric structure can be obtained more
solutions based software becomes a blessing. But accurately by using 3D models of surfaces with
cross checking of the elevations obtained through respect to developing technology such as GIS
geospatial analysis of georeferenced satellite (Chamat and Anupriya 2018). A better perception
images of the field is a must as there might be of the work field can be provided by a DEM
numerous changes in physical strata with (Digital Elevation Model) tool of ArcGIS software
time.Geo-referencing involves image alignment in to create 3D model of the existing road surface
a co-ordinate system (Herbei et al. 2010). and the desired road surface for the proposed 4-
Keepingthis in mind, the site surveys must be lane highway with the help of DGPS elevation
carried outprior to software analysis with the data of survey points.
digitally processed field data in order to comply
and save time. The site surveys are to be
conducted using instruments viz total station,
DGPS (Differential Global Positioning System).
DGPS was preferred for this research work as it
62
Theme A
2 STUDY AREA 3.2 PROCESSING OF DGPS DATA
Trimble Business Centre (TBC) is DGPS data
processing software.The TBC suite is a desktop
application for processing and managing optical,
GNSS, and imaging survey data (Unavco 2018).
The raw DGPS data obtained from the field was
processed to a suitable format (shape file) for the
purpose of its analysis. TBC acts as a medium or
interface between the field data and GIS system.
The base and rover data, after importing to TBC
and specifying the base co-ordinate, must show
connectivity between base and rover points
(known as the baselines) in order to process them
to get the output dataof each of the
surveyed/rover points.
Fig 1.Google Image of Jorhat by-pass.
Jorhat bypass (on NH 37) is situated towards the

north of Jorhat town of Assam, India and serves
as one of the major lifeline, in terms of human
needs, to the nearby districts, other states and
Jorhat itself. This has a total length of 9.0 km
starting from the Tarajan point,Jorhat (26.7560° N,
94.1795° E) to Kenduguri bypass point, Jorhat
(26.772959° N, 94.249236° E). It is an all-weather
surfaced road and a flexible pavement consisting
of two numbers of lanes which carries the load of
light,medium and heavy commercial vehicles.
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1 GEOMETRIC DESIGN CONSIDERATION
AND DGPS SURVEYING Fig 2. TBC software where blue lines indicate the
baselines connected to the base point and the red
As per IRC guidelines, for multi-lane pavement, flags are the DGPS survey points.
the width per lane should be 3.5 mmaking it to a
total of 14.0 m for 4-lane highway. Width of 3.3 ANALYSIS ON ArcGIS
median considered is 2.0 m. The minimum
shoulder width is taken as 2.5 m based on IRC The shape files were added to the ArcGIS in the
recommendation (IRC 1983). form of layers with the feature class being points.
Keeping in mind the above considerations, the Feature classes are homogeneous collections of
site survey for data collection was carried out with common features, each having the same spatial
the help of tape, chain and DGPS at required representation, such as points, lines, or polygons,
points on and both sides of the existing pavement and a common set of attribute columns, for
for its expansion. The site surveying was executed example, a line feature class for representing road
throughout the whole length of 9.0 km at 20.0 m centerlines (ESRI 2018). With the elevation data
interval. Prior to the surveying of points, the of each point, TIN model along with raster
instrument (tripod and base) was set up at a surfaces and contour map, cut-fill map was
benchmark (R.L. 100.00 m) and the base (a created leading to the formation of attribute table
gound fixed station receiving the GNSS satellite showing the spatial and earthwork volume data.
signal) aswell as rover (movable station receiving
the corrected signal from base) was connected by 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
means of bluetooth.
63
Theme A
Fig 3. Aligned digitalrepresentationof georeferenced DGPS survey points in ArcGIS.
The DGPS survey points have been more which is a clear indication that the
represented as a layer with the co-ordinate embankment was constructed above the
system WGS 1984 in ArcGIS delineating the benchmark and well above the H.F.L of Jorhat i.e.
center line of existing pavement, existing and 87.37 m. (Water Resources Department, 2018).
proposed right and left edges of lane along with The existing pavement is also sufficiently higher to
their shoulders. prevent water logging effects.
Fig 5. TIN model of the existing surface created in

Fig 4. Frequency distribution of the surface ArcGIS.
elevations data
Triangular Irregular Networks (TINs)are a form
Table 1. Statistics of elevation data ofvector-based digital geographic data and are
constructed by triangulating a set of vertices
Sl. Result/Remarks (points) (Wikipedia contributors 2018). The
Description
No. (in m) purpose of TIN is to portray the terrain or any
1 Highest R.L. 100.888654 other surface in three dimensions. From the
2 Lowest R.L. 98.1963890 present TIN model of Jorhat bypass, it is seen that
3 Mean 100.068817 the regions having slight variation in surface
heights have widely spaced triangle vertices and
4 Standard Deviation 0.51727000 the portions with significant variation in heights
have higher vertex density resulting in closely
From the statistics, it is clear that there is not spaced triangles. This gives an idea about the
much deviation in elevation in the existing location and variation of slope.
pavement and the adjacent ground points has
elevation more or less ranging from 98.2m-99.8
m. In addition to that, the number of surveyed
points having elevation more than 100.00 m is
64
Theme A
Fig 8. Raster surface of desired elevation in

Fig 6.Raster surface of existing surface in ArcGIS.
ArcGIS
The existing surface was converted to raster
Each of the cells or pixels of this new raster
surface containing uniformly spaced cells (or
surface were with the same elevation value of
pixels) holding the elevation values of the field.
101.00 m which was a clear indication of the
This was required to digitally represent the surface
uniform or leveled subgrade throughout the whole
elevation with respect to reference datum.
stretch.
Furthermore, the contour map (lines joining the
point of equal pixel or cell value) generated from
the raster surface revealed the suitability of the
contour pattern or the shape of existing landforms.
Fig 9. Cut-fill map in ArcGIS.
Fig 7.Generatedcontour map in ArcGIS.
For the upgradation of existing highway, Fig 9. Cut fill map where red,blue and grey denote
considering the rise of crown for straight line the filling, cutting and zero requirement of
camber of 1in 40 or 2.5% (heavy rainfall area) for earthwork throughout the whole length.
thin bituminous surface (Khanna et al. 2015)as
well as thickness of compacted subgrade as 600 The cut-fill map was created using the 3D
mm for National Highways (minimum being 500 Analyst tool and corresponding attribute table
mm [IRC 2012)],the desired elevation for the showing the volume of each cell was summarized
proposed 4-lane highway subgrade was set to in MS Excel to calculate the total amount of cut
101 m including various future aspects. With this and fill required for the execution of work.
desired R.L another raster surface, for the
purpose of creating cut-fill map, was generated. Table 2. Earthwork volumeanalysis results
Sl.
Item/Description Volume (m3)
No.
1 Fill 38946
2 Cut 0.001
From the cut fill map analysis results, it can be

concluded that more than 99.99 % of the
65
Theme A
earthwork was based on filling and the negligible International Journal for Scientific Research &
amount of cutting was due to small undulations or Development, 6 (3), 2000-2004.
upheaved soil observed during the site survey. ESRI. (2018). ArcGIS 9.2 Desktop Help- Feature
class basics. Retrieved from ESRI:
http://webhelp.esri.com/arcgisdesktop/9.2/inde
x.cfm?TopicName=Feature_class_basics
Herbei, M.H., Ciolac, V., Smuleac, A., Nistor, E.,
&Ciolac, L. 2010. Georeferencing of
topographical maps using the software
ArcGIS, Research Journal of Agricultural
Science, 42 (3), 595-606.
IRC. 1983. IRC 086: 1983 Geometric Design
Standards for Urban Roads in Plains, Indian
Roads Congress, Jamnagar House,
Shahjahan Road, New Delhi, India.
IRC. 2012. IRC 37:2012 Guidelines for the Design
Fig 10.DEM of the existing road and adjacent
of Flexible Pavements (Third Revision), Indian
ground surface.
Roads Congress, Kama KotiMarg, Sector-6,
R.K. Puram, New Delhi, India.
Khanna, S.K., Justo, C.E.G., Veeraragavan, A.
2015. Highway Engineering, Nem Chand and
Bros., Civil Lines, Roorkee 247667,
Uttarakhand, India.
Water Resources, Govt. of Assam (2018). Flood
Information System. Retrieved from Water
Resources,GovtofAssam:https://waterresource
s.assam.gov.in/portlets/flood-information-
system.
Wikipedia contributors (2018). Triangulated
irregular network. Retrieved from
Wikepedia:https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php
?title=Triangulated_irregular_network&oldid=8
58217255.
Fig 11.DEM of the proposed 4-lane (NH) over Unavco. (2018). Software- Trimble Business
existing surface. Centre. Retrieved from Unavco:
https://www.unavco.org/software/data-
5. CONCLUSION processing/postprocessing/tbc/tbc.html.
This research work carried out with combined
implementation of latest surveying technology
using satellite system, softwares like ArcGIS, TBC
etc. and IRC geometric design specifications in
addition to the use of drafting softwares like
AutoCAD makes the estimation or surveying work
more reliable than the conventional methods.
Much of the paper cum manual work is eliminated
and the time factor is greatly reduced which
influences the cost of project. This process has
reduced the complex calculations and the related
errors in connection to estimation of irregular
areas. Furthermore, its awareness and application
would help the contractors and engineers to
submit accurate bid and manage resources
profitably. However, it is advisable to go for both
reconnaissance and site survey work to ensure
the correctness and soundness of work.
REFERENCES
Chamat, L.R. and Anupriya. 2018. Calculation of

Cut and Fill of Earthworks with Quantum-GIS,
66
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
ANALYSIS AND PREDICTION OF REMAINING SERVICE LIFE OF
ROAD NETWORK
ICID2018_A_006
Koushik Kalita1, Dr. V. S. Landge2,Dr. Vivek Hokam3

1. Assistant Professor, Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India
2. Professor, VNIT Nagpur, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India
3. DGM, Nagpur Metro, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India
ABSTRACT
The remaining service life (RSL) of the existing pavement is unpredictable as numerous factors cause damage to
the road pavement. Most pavement construction activity planning is based on an annual or biennium fiscal time
cycle used by the agency. The planning steps are cyclical and depend on the time cycle appropriate to the type of
pavement asset. The process starts with input data that are fed into the performance prediction models to produce
predictions of future change in the construction trigger models. The outputs from the predictions are then used to
select the most appropriate construction or treatment strategy. The feedback cycle starts with documentation of the
actual condition observed over time as well as the actual construction activities performed. During the operational
phase, monitoring of pavement condition provides updated inputs for the next planning cycle and also to refine the
performance prediction models. This case study presents the methodology of determining the Remaining Service
Life (RSL) of some selected pavement sections of the identifiedroad network from industrial estates in Maharashtra.
RSL of a pavement section is defined as the time left in years, till it will become imperative to reconstruct the
pavement, provided no amount of maintenance or rehabilitation works are carried out in the intervening period.
Keywords: Highway Development and Management Tool (HDM-4), Remaining Service Life, Roughness Progression
decision making regarding maintenance,

1 INTRODUCTION rehabilitation and the efficient use of the allocated
maintenance budget.
There is a need to develop a process that helps to
Jianxiong Yu (2005) developed regression
maintain a pavement network in a safe and
serviceable condition in a cost effective manner. A equations to predict future pavement condition at
key component of an effective maintenance project level. In this study, by specifying pavement
system of road network is its ability to predict the condition rating (PCR) of 70 as the terminal
remaining service life of pavements. Remaining pavement status, survival curves were developed
Service Life is the projected number of years until based on historical PCR data using Cox
rehabilitation is required. It can be predicted using
Proportional Hazards method. The service life
the present pavement condition and the latest
rehabilitation action performed on that particular obtained from this study can be used to assist in
pavement. The evaluation of remaining service life pavement rehabilitation decision-making, overlay
is necessary to make optimal use of the structural design, and budget allocation.
capacity of the in-service pavement. It simply Yang et al. (2009) suggested that effective
represents the useful life left in the pavement until decision making for pavement maintenance and
a failure condition is reached. The knowledge of rehabilitation (M&R) requires accurate and reliable
remaining service life facilitates decision making in
assessment of pavement remaining life so that the
regards to strategies for reconstruction and
rehabilitation of roads, thereby leading to the timing and locations of M&R actions can be
efficient use of existing resources. scheduled in a way that optimizes the use of
allocated M&R budget and resources. The major
2 LITERATURE REVIEW advantage of the proposed model formulation lies
in its application at the network level where budget
Turki I. Al-Suleiman et al. (2003) presented a
and resources prevent costly pavement structural
methodology for predicting Pavement Remaining
data from being collected.
Service Life (RSL) using roughness data in terms
Chaitanya Kumar Balla (2010) determined the
of the International Roughness Index (IRI). The
methodology for predicting remaining service life
serviceability, roughness and age data pertaining
of pavement. The pavement condition data in the
to more than 400 sections of asphalt-surfaced
form of Pavement Condition Rating (PCR) were
pavements in DubaiEmirate, U.A.E. were
used to develop Kaplan-Meier survival curves for
collected and analysed. The developed RSL
different PCR thresholds. Average service life of
models were found very helpful in facilitating the
67
Theme A
the pavement network and remaining service life optimum analysis period of 10 years is chosen,
of individual pavements obtained from this study considering the fact that almost all pavement
can be used to assist in pavement rehabilitation sections will become candidates for reconstruction
in the next ten years, if no maintenance or
decision making and budget allocation.
rehabilitation work is carried out during this period.
Gedafa, D. et al. (2010) presented a ‘Analyze by Project’ method of analysis is chosen
methodology whether RSL was estimated from for this study. All these project details are
pavement surface deflections. Nonlinear specified in the ‘Project Analysis’ application of
regression procedure in the Statistical Analysis HDM-4, as shown in Figure 1.
Software and Solver in Microsoft Excel were used
3.2 Selected Pavement Section
in model development. Sigmoidal RSL models
have very good fits and can be used to predict Eight pavement sections, from an industrial estate
RSL at the network level based on the center included in the ‘Industrial Road Network’ database
deflection from FWD. have been selected for this case study. The
Jidong Yang (2011) has developed service life selected pavement sections are AR1, FSR1,
model in Florida dealing with the limited causal FPR1, GR1, ITR1, MR1, MR2 and SR1. The
selection of pavement sections for HDM-4 this
data present in the system database. The model
project analysis is shown in Figure 2. All these
achieves this by including the current pavement pavement sections belong to the ‘Medium
condition rating in the model specification and Serviceability’ group of pavements, as defined in
considering the boundary conditions of the Table 1
pavement deterioration process.
Gary E. Elkins et al. (2013) had presented the Table 1. Pavement Section Grouping as per
Maintenance Serviceability Levels
framework for replacing the current RSL
terminology with one based on more exact Servicea Traffic volume Pavement section
bility (AADT)
construction event terms. They provided a
level
detailed information on the research performed
Medium 500- 1000 AR1,FSR1,FPR1,GR
concerning remaining pavement life which was
(level 2) 1,ITR1,MR1,MR2,SR
intended for use by pavement managers and 1
pavement investment decision makers across the
United States.
Sivaneswaran, Visintine el al. (2015) 3.3 M & R Alternative
explained the RSI concept and outlines the
validation efforts using State Highway Agencies The purpose of this case study is to determine
and the Pavement Health Track analysis tool at the time period from now (i.e., year 2017) before
the national level. reconstruction of the pavement becomes due, if
ArySetyawana et al. (2015) evaluated the no maintenance is carried out in the intervening
condition of the road performance and damages period. Therefore, only one M&R alternative,
and calculated the remaining service life of the named as ‘Do Nothing Up to Reconstruction’,
pavement on East Line of South Sumatera, as isdefined for all selected pavement sections, as
well as examining the relationship between these shown in Figure 3.
two values.
Prohaska, Michael et al. (2016) has 3.4 Intervention Criteria
developed a probabilistic method of forecasting
The intervention criteria for the condition
the remaining service life (RSL) based on
responsive M&R alternative defined above are
International Roughness Index (IRI) when limited shown in Figure 4. As per this intervention
time series data are available based on data from criterion, the reconstruction of pavement will be
the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). triggered whenever the roughness value of the
pavement section exceeds 8 m/km IRI. Since
3 METHODOLOGY roughness incorporates the effect of all other
pavement distresses, the roughness value has
3.1 Input Data been assumed to be the main controlling factor for
triggering reconstruction of the pavement.
The input data for this study is included in the
‘Industrial Road Network’, ‘Industrial area Vehicle
Fleet’, and ‘M&R Works Standards’ databases. An
68
Theme A
3.5 PROJECT ANALYSIS
The ‘Project Analysis’ application module of

HDM-4 is executed for simulating the pavement
condition of the eight pavement sections under the
defined M&R alternative. No economic analysis is
required to be conducted in this case, as only one
M&R alternative has been defined.
Since the limiting value of roughness has
been selected as the deciding intervention
criterion, the progression of roughness value up to
the intervention level (i.e. Roughness > 8 m/km
IRI) shall trigger the reconstruction of the various
pavement sections in a particular year. Figure 4. Intervention Criteria for Selected M & R
Work
5. DETERMINATION OF REMAINING SERVICE

LIFE (RSL)
The remaining service life (RSL) in respect of

all eight pavement sections is determined as the
time period left in years before the reconstruction
of pavement is necessitated on the basis of
progression of roughness up to the intervention
level (i.e. Roughness > 8m/km IRI). Thus the RSL
values for the various pavement sections have
been determined and the same have been given
in Table 2 along with proposed reconstruction
Figure1.Project analysis application of HDM-4 year.
Table 2. Remaining Service of Pavement Sections

Sl. Pavement Proposed re- Remaining
No. Section construction service life
year (RSL in years)
1 AR1 2019 3
2 FSR1 2018 2
3 FPR1 2021 5
4 GR1 2018 2
5 ITR1 2022 6
6 MR1 2020 4
7 MR2 2019 3
Figure 2. Selection of Pavement Sections for 8 SR1 2022 6
Project Analysis
6 CONCLUSIONS
It can be concluded from the RSL values given in

Table 1 that, all the pavement sections included in
this case study will become candidates for
reconstruction with in next 2 to 6 years, if no other
maintenance measure is taken during the
intervening period. Therefore, these pavement
sections should be provided with suitable
maintenance and rehabilitation measures, as and
when they become due, during the design life of
Figure 3. Defined M & R Alternative for all pavement. Otherwise, all these pavement section
Selected Pavement Sections for PROJ-1 shall have to be reconstructed, which will involve
69
Theme A
huge expenditure for the road maintenance
authority. JianxioYu. 2005. Pavement service life estimation
and condition prediction. Thesis and Dissertations
REFERENCES for Doctorate of Philosophy in Engineering: The
University of Toledo.
ArySetyawana, Jolis Nainggolanb and Arif Budiartoc. Jidong, Yang. 2011. Forecasting Pavement
2015. Predicting the remaining service life of road Remaining Service Life with Limited Causal Data.
using pavement condition index. Proceedings of International Journal of Pavement Research and
the 5th International Conference of Euro Asia Civil Technology, ISSN 1997-1400, Chinese Society of
Engineering Forum (EACEF-5) 1877-7058. Pavement Engineering, 4(5): 301-306.
Chaitanya Kumar Balla. Prediction of remaining Prohaska, Michael, Baladi, Gilbert Dawson, Tyler
service life of pavements. Thesis and Musunuru, Gopikrishna, Jiang, Yan Jane. Single
Dissertations for the Master of Science Degree in Point Probabalistic Estimation of Remaining
Engineering: The University of Toledo, 2010. Service Life for Pavements Using LTPP Data.
Transportation ResearchBoard 95th Annual
Gary E. Elkins, Travis M. Thompson, Jonathan L. Meeting, 2016, Paper 16-6849.
Groeger, Beth Visintine, and Gonzalo R. Rada
.2013. “Reformulated Pavement Remaining Sivaneswaran, Visintine, Rada, Elkins and
Service Life Framework”. Technical report of Thyagarajan. Pavement Remaining Service
FHWA-HRT-13-038, November 2013. U S Interval: A Logical Replacement to the Remaining
Department of Transportation, FederalHighway Service Life Concept. Proceedings of the 9th
Administration, Research, Development, and International Conference on Managing Pavement
Technology, Turner-FairbankHighwayResearch Assets (ICMPA9) in Washington, D.C., May 18-
Center, Georgetown Pike McLean, VA 22101- 21, 2015.
2296. Turki, I. Al-Suleiman and Adnan, M.S. Shiyab. 2003.
Prediction of Pavement Remaining Service Life
Gedafa, D., Hossain, M., Miller, R., and Van, T. 2010. UsingRoughness Data—Case Study in
Estimation of Remaining Service Life of Flexible Dubai.International Journal of Pavement
Pavements from Surface Deflections. Journal of Engineering, 4(2): 121-129.
Transportation Engineering, 136(4): 342-352.
70
IMPACT OF GEOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS ON CAPACITY OF HILL ROADS
ICID_A_007
Achyut Das1, K. Ramachandra Rao2, G. Tiwari3
Abstract: The operations of traffic on hill roads are an important aspect that needs to be
understood. In order to ascertain the traffic performance, estimating the PCE values and
capacities are critical. PCE values are dynamic and vary with small change in any of the
influencing characteristics. These values and roadway capacities vary with the estimation
method adopted in the analysis. This study aims to understand the influencing factors for
estimation and eventually estimating the PCE values of different vehicle types on hill roads.
This study includes a review of various methods for estimating PCEs and capacity followed
by data collection on hill roads of the North Eastern state of India (Meghalaya state) and
Northern India (Himachal pradesh). PCE values are estimated based on the three important
methods identified. These are, i) Speed-area method, ii) modified density method and iii) area
occupancy method. For the data sets analyzed under the prevailing traffic mix, the volumes
were very low and the vehicles are predominantly cars, SUVs and trucks with negligible
proportion of two-wheelers. PCE values obtained from speed area method are on the higher
side for heavy vehicles and on lower side for motorized two wheelers compared with the
modified density method and area occupancy methods. . The passenger car equivalent value
for plain road was found as 4.49, 3.88 and 2.79 for truck, 5.36, 3.6 and 2.21 for buses, 0.24,
0.69 and 0.89 for two-wheeler by speed area, area occupancy and modified density method
respectively. But according to IRC:64-1990 for hill road and IRC:73-1980 for rural road , for
truck and bus the PCE value is 3 and for two wheeler it is 0.50 for both hill and plain road.
Modified density method and area occupancy methods show different PCE values yet these
two methods confirm that in hilly terrains having low level of traffic volume, range of PCE
values for heavy vehicles and motorized two wheelers decreases by a considerable extent. The
majority of National and State Highways of India is two-way two-lane undivided highway.
These two-lane two-way highway reach its maximum capacity very soon and so it needs
constant up gradation from two lane to four or six lanes because of the fact that there is a
steady increase in the growth of vehicles in India by approximately 7.5% to 8%.To
accommodate such growth of vehicular traffic, the existing highways need to be improved and
new highways need to be proposed and constructed. Hence traffic forecasts and capacity
estimation of a highway is crucial for the development of highways and also safety movement
of people and goods on inland modes. The road traffic in India is highly heterogeneous
comprising vehicles of wide ranging physical dimensions, weight, power and dynamic
characteristics. Hence, to understand the implications of capacity augmentation, traditional
method is used to establish the speed-flow relationship for the two lane two-way roads in
India. However considering limitations of the traditional method, efforts were made to
develop microscopic traffic simulation model for establishing speed-flow relationship and
roadway capacity for the two-lane two-way roads. Capacity also determined by HCM 2010,
Indonesia HCM, China HCM and results were compared. The heterogeneous traffic
conditions witnessed even on the hill roads is hampered due to the presence of motorized two
wheelers, slow moving commercial heavy vehicles. This in turn contributes to the changing
speed characteristics on the two lane two-way roads. The different percentage of traffic is
combined and traffic was plied on the road with changing simulation time, volume input and
speeds. The simulation was also run with changing the gradient. It means the effect of
influencing parameter gradient, lane width, shoulder width, traffic composition, directional
71
split, slow moving vehicles, rate of vertical curvature for SSD and OSD for crest and sag
curves on capacity of two-lane two-way roads under mixed traffic conditions are studied in
this paper.
Keywords: PCE, hill roads, capacity, area occupancy, modified density, HCM. KSSDcrest.
1. INTRODUCTION
Two-lane highways compose the predominant portion of most National and State
Highway system in India. Traffic operation on a two-lane two-way highway is unique. Lane
changing and overtaking are possible only in the face of on-coming traffic in the opposite lane.
The overtaking demand increases rapidly as traffic volume increases, while passing
opportunities in the opposing lane decline as volume increases. So flow in one direction
influences flow in the other direction. The problem is more acute in case of heterogeneous
traffic flow when speed differential among different categories of vehicles is quite substantial.
It increases the desired number of overtaking considerably with limited opportunities to
overtake. The estimation and knowledge of roadway capacity are essential for analysis,
planning, design and operation of transportation facilities. Capacity is greatly influenced by
roadway design, traffic mix and control conditions. Roadway conditions may consist of
various geometric parameters that describe roadways, such as the surface conditions, lateral
clearance, lane width, shoulder width, presence of intersection, grades and horizontal and
vertical alignments. For measuring level of service and highway capacity traffic flow and
vehicular interaction study is necessary and it is also necessary to work out effective traffic
regulations and control measures. Heterogeneity in traffic stream in India is the most
important issue affecting the accuracy of traffic analysis. In homogeneous traffic stream,
vehicles have similar acceleration characteristics. In homogeneous traffic car following and
lane discipline behaviour prevails, but in India, due to highly varying physical and driving
characteristics of vehicles present in the traffic stream it is difficult for vehicles to maintain
lane discipline. Different types of vehicles on Indian roads may be classified into the
following categories: (1) buses, (2) trucks, (3) light commercial vehicles, (4) cars, (5)
Motorized two wheelers, (6) motorized three wheelers, (7) bicycles and pedal rickshaws, (8)
animal drawn vehicles. The speed of these vehicles varies from 5 km/h to over 100 km/h
(Arasan and Arkatkar 2010). When vehicles of such distinct categories are allowed to mix and
move on the same roadway facility, they are bound to take any available lateral position for
maneuverability.
Traffic volume cannot be expressed in number of vehicles considering one class of
vehicle equal to any other class in heterogeneous traffic comprising different types of vehicles
with varying static and dynamic characteristics. This problem can be resolved by converting
various vehicles into a common unit (PCE). Highway Capacity Manual (TRB 2010) defines
PCE as “The number of passenger cars that are displaced by a single heavy vehicle of a
particular type under prevailing roadway, traffic and control conditions.”
Thus it is evident that the estimation of the PCUs is critical in terms of identifying the
capacity of hill roads. The PCE values and roadway capacity vary with the specific techniques
used in the analysis. . Hill roads present more difficulty in their alignment, design, layout,
construction and maintenance and they prove more dangerous. Due to heavy rainfall in hilly
areas, surface water flows quickly over the steep slopes which erode the roads, so surface
drainage has special significance and is very important. The uniform application of design
standards of geometric features is most desirable from the view point of safety and smooth
72
flow of traffic. Any change of these standards affects the capacity and safety of the roads.
Because of continuously increasing traffic demand and changing traffic mix it is important to
evaluate capacity of roads and enhance capacity to meet the future demand. The capacity of a
plain road is different from that of a hill road. Indian Roads Congress (IRC) has brought out
guidance for capacity estimation for Indian roads. The IRC 64-1990, deals with the capacity
of plain and hill road also. The capacity of hill road per single lane with low curvature (0-200
deg. per km) is 1600 PCE/day whereas that of plain road per lane with low curvature
(0-50degree per km) is 2000 PCE/day. In view of the changing traffic mix and new methods
of traffic density estimations, there is a need to relook at the capacity estimates suggested by
IRC guidelines. In this study we consider hilly terrain only. The capacity estimation of a road
is very much useful for road up gradation programs. Government of India has launched
several highways up gradation programs such as NHDP I-VII, for converting MDR to SH and
SH to NH (MoRTH). But the existing IRC standards are not upgraded time to time which is
very much necessary in the upcoming vehicle growth and technological development. In this
study NH-44A, SH-05 from Meghalaya state of N.E. region and NH-20 from Himachal
Pradesh of India have been selected for studying. Both states have 22429 square kilometer
area as hilly terrain for Meghalaya state and. 55673 square km area as hilly terrain for
Himachal Pradesh. Himachal Pradesh is placed in the western Himalayas and it covers a
region of 55,673 square kilometers with altitude variety from about 350 meters to 7,000
meters above the mean sea level. The Meghalaya state lies within 25.10 and 26.50 North
latitudes and 85.490 and 92.520 East Longitudes. The temperature range is approximately 2 to
36 degree centigrade depending upon the altitude ranging between 300 meters above mean sea
level (MSL) to 2000 meters above MSL. The characteristics of selected roads are that the
most parts of the N.Hs. passing through hilly area of N.E. are undivided. Shillong bye pass
road (N.H. 44 A), Shillong Cherapunjee road (S.H. 05) and Ghatta to Mandii (NH20) which
have been selected for collecting data also undivided two-way two-lane road only. Most of the
parts of the three road sections’ land use type are non-built up area. One of the three road
sections steep curves are more i.e. Shillong Cherapunji road section. The average pavement
width of the road sections for NH 44 A is 7.8 m, for the SH 05 is 6.8 m and that for the NH 20
is 7.0m. The average shoulder width for NH 44 A is 2.92 m, for SH 05 is 0.87 m and that for
NH 20 is also 0.87 m. At present design of hill roads are governed by IRC: SP: 48-1998 and
IRC: 52-2001. These have not been revised since 1998 and 2001 respectively. Due to change
of traffic conditions in the region and in view of the Ministry of Road Transport and highway
(MORTH) (Ref 24) up gradation programme it is important to estimate capacity of hill roads
and understand the impact of various geometric and traffic factors affecting hill road capacity.
Therefore main objective of this study was to
(1) To estimate the PCE for hill roads considering five categories of vehicles (i.e. Bus, Truck,
SUVs, car and two-wheeler) and two- lane configuration.
(2) To estimate the impact of road geometry factors (i.e. horizontal curve, vertical curve, lane
width etc.) on the capacity of hill roads.
The scope of the study is limited to comparison of different methods to estimate PCE on
hilly terrain under heterogeneous traffic conditions and the estimation of capacity of
undivided hill roads due to the effect of geometric characteristics such as gradient, curves and
the traffic characteristics such as directional split and traffic composition only.
The rest of the paper is organized into five sections. The next section provides the
review of literature. Section 3 presents an overview of the methodologies for PCE estimation
while section 4 gives the details of the data collection sites. Section 5 presents the detailed
results of PCE estimation and Section 6 and 7 present capacity analysis. Lastly, the
73
conclusions and further possible extensions of this study are presented in section 8 and 9.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
A variety of techniques and approaches were developed for determining the PCE values and
estimation of capacity in the past. These techniques are either based on empirical data
observed directly in the field or the data provided by the microscopic simulation models of
traffic flow under various controlled experimental settings. The process of estimating PCE
values are based on either of flow parameters: headway, delay, speed, density, queue
discharging etc. PCE calculation methods include headway method, density method, walker’s
method, multiple linear regression method, Speed-area method, modified density method and
area occupancy method etc. The PCE values vary with small change in vehicular, roadway
and/or traffic parameters. Anand et al (1999) present a methodology that relates PCE to
average effective width, the mean speed and the mean lower time headway. They conclude
that their PCE values are marginally lower than those defined by the Malaysian Road
Geometric standards. Chandra and Kumar (2003) argue that wider roads result in free
movement of vehicles. However, the speed increase is not uniform due to varying acceleration
characteristics of different vehicle types. Sirisoponsilp et al. (2001) observed that PCE
values for two-lane highways are more compared to multilane highways, reflecting the fact
that the effects of heavy vehicles are likely more severe on two -lane highways than on
multilane highways which allow more passing opportunities. In some countries, heterogeneity
is predominantly due to the presence of truck traffic. Demarchi and Setti (2003) suggest that
as more vehicle types with different PCEs are included in the traffic stream the error in the
estimation of flow values increase with the increase in density per lane. Tien-Pen et al (2003)
discuss a collaborative study on the influence of motor cycles on traffic characteristics in
Malaysia, Taiwan and Vietnam. PCEs for motorcycles are in the range of 0.0-0.33. However, a
value of 0.75 is used for design of roundabouts in Malaysia. Further, the PCE value also
depends on lane width besides motorcycle volume. Chandra (2004b) established the relation
between PCE and road roughness and found out that PCE for a vehicle type decreases linearly
with roughness; the slope of linearity depends on the type of vehicle. Arkatkar and Arasan
(2010) observed that PCE value increases significantly with increase in the magnitude of
grade as well as its length and effect of grade on the vehicle performance (speed) may not be
significant beyond a length of 1,600 m. In another study, Chandra (2004b) found that the PCE
values generally increase with the increase in length of the gradient. However, there is a
significant increase when heavy vehicle proportion is low while this increase is marginal for
large heavy vehicle proportion. Basu et al. (2006) studied that PCE of heavy vehicles or new
technology cars increases with an increase in its share in total traffic volume. For these
vehicle types, the effect of compositional variation on PCE is generally significant at lower
traffic volumes. They tried to establish the relation between PCE and vehicle composition and
found out non-linearity in PCE of each vehicle type with respect to traffic volume and its
composition. Arkatkar and Arasan (2010) found that PCE values vary traffic volume and
vehicle size under heterogeneous traffic conditions. They concluded that PCEs follow certain
trends based on vehicles less than and greater than the size of passenger car. The PCE value of
vehicles smaller than passenger car increases with increase of traffic volume and decreases
with the increase in traffic volume at higher flows. Opposite trend is observed in vehicles
larger than passenger car.
From the review of the previous studies, it is evident that the factors which influence
the PCE values are traffic composition, geometrics and pavement quality. The calculation of
the PCE values based on this understanding needs to be explored further. Taragin and
74
Eckhardt (1953) studied the effect of shoulder on speed and lateral placement of motor
vehicles and found that when two-lane pavements on main highways are 6 m in width or less,
shoulder should be constructed with at least 1.2 m of stabilized material, adjacent to pavement
plus additional width of grass and gravel. Prakash (1970) also observed that the highway
capacity is considerably influenced by the type and width of shoulder. Leyong (1978)
measured speed and capacity at 31 sites on rural highways in New South Wales. The sites had
varying lane and shoulder width and all sites had gravel shoulders. The data were analyzed
using multiple regressions and it was suggested that speed increased with increasing shoulder
width. Turner et al. (1982) found that the conversion of a shoulder to an additional travel lane
could be expected to increase average-speed of a two-lane highway by about 5 per cent for
volumes exceeding 150 veh/h. Yagar and Aerde (1983) found that speed changes
exponentially with change with lane width. Schofield (1986) studied the effect of light and
weather conditions on speed and capacity of two-lane roads. Ramanayya (1988) observed that
the capacity standards adopted in western countries do not take into account the mixed traffic
characteristics prevalent in India. Polus et al.(1991) investigated the impact of traffic flow and
capacity characteristics on two-lane highways. Several models were developed for studying
the relationships between flow parameters. The relationships varied from one road to another
and were dependent on the characteristics of each site. They concluded that the capacity value
is sensitive to the geometric characteristics of each site. Pursula and Enberg (1991) reported
from Finland that the highest flow rate measured on two-lane two-way road was 2500 veh/h
with a directional split of 50/50. Nakamura (1994) has discussed the concept of highway
capacity in Japan. He has suggested adjustment factors (YL) for lane width (WL) less than
3.25 m as being YL=0.24WL+0.22. Bang et al (1995) developed speed-flow relationship and
simulation model for two-lane road in Indonesia and found that free flow speed for two-lane
roads under ideal conditions is considerably lower in Indonesia than that of in developed
countries. Brilon and Ponzlet (1997) studied the influence of environmental factors on the
speed-flow relationships on German autobhans. Sahoo et al (1996) found that increase in
traffic volume decreases the speed of vehicles. Kumar and Rao (1998) observed that speed
density data could be reasonably represented by a linear relationship.Gibreel et al (1999)
studied the relationship between geometric design consistency and highway capacity based on
a three-dimensional analysis, considering combinations of vertical and horizontal curves.
They have compared the actual service flow rate as determined based on the observed traffic
flow data, and the theoretical flow rate as calculated based on highway capacity analysis. The
results show that the actual service flow rate is always smaller than the theoretical one with a
ratio ranging from 0.74 to 0.98. Gibreel et al (1999) argued that the difference is due to the
inconsistencies in geometric design. Therefore, a new adjustment factor called the consistency
factor is developed to account for the difference. Chandra and Kumar (2003) investigated the
impact of lane width on capacity using data from ten sections of two-lane roads in India. They
found that the capacity (C) in PCE/h of two-lane roads increases with total width (W) of the
carriageway, and the relationship between the two follows a second-degree curve, such as C=–
2184–226W2+8574W. The relationship can provide a capacity estimate for two-lane roads
with a carriageway width ranging from 5.5 to 8.8 m. Chandra(2004) studied the effect of road
roughness on the capacity of two-lane roads in India using eight road sections. The study
found that the free flow speed of a vehicle decreases with the roughness of the road surface.
The effect of roughness is more apparent in the speed of passenger cars than in heavy vehicles.
The speed–volume relationships drawn at different sections of two-lane rural roads indicated
that the capacity decreases with an increase in the road roughness. Chandra (2004) has found
with grades often go restricted sight distances which decreases capacity. It is also found that
each percent of upgrade decreases the capacity by 2.61 percent and for each percent of
75
downgrade increases the capacity by 3.09 percent. Yang and Zhang (2005) investigated the
impact of the number of lanes on highway capacity using field traffic flow data obtained from
Beijing. The findings showed that average capacity per lane decreases by increasing the
number of lanes on uninterrupted highway segments. Thus, the marginal decrease rate of
average capacity per lane by increasing the number of lanes is around 6.7%. Ben-Edigbe and
Ferguson (2005) investigated the impact of road condition, pavement distress on capacity and
capacity loss at two-way roads based on observations from eight sites in Nigeria. A capacity
estimation method that was based on extrapolation from a fundamental diagram which
represented the relationship between traffic flow and density was used. Capacities were
estimated for without distress and with distress road sections. It was found that capacities on
without distress and with distress sections differed significantly Next section presents details
of how the values can be calculated.
3. METHODOLOGIES
There is not much literature found on the PCE value estimation of heterogeneous traffic on
hill roads. An overview of various methods for estimating the PCEs for freeway segments can
be found in Ingle (2004). Some of these methods are presented below.
3.1 Speed-Area Method

For mixed traffic condition in India, PCE values can be estimated using Speed-Area method
(Chandra, 2004a). The concept of expressing the heterogeneous traffic in terms of car
equivalents if truck is considered as non-homogeneous was first proposed by St John (1976).
Detailed discussion on this aspect can be found in Prasetijo (2007). According to this method
PCE values for different type of vehicles under mixed traffic conditions are directly
proportional to speed ratio and inversely proportional to area occupancy ratio with respect to
passenger car. PCE value can be calculated using formula (Chandra, 2004a) (Equation 1);
VC ⁄Vi (1)
PCEi =
A C ⁄A i
Where,
VC and Vi – speeds of the car and the vehicle i under consideration
AC and Ai – plan area of the car and the vehicle i under consideration
3.2 Modified Density Method

In heterogeneous traffic conditions, vehicles do not use highway width or lane width as they
do in homogeneous conditions. Thus, the 85th percentile distribution width used by vehicles
reflects the density over a highway area instead of just length. The distribution of width used
by different type of traffic entities is determined from field observation and from this
distribution, 85th percentile width of each traffic entity is calculated. PCE value for different
type of traffic entities can be calculated as shown in Equation (2) (Tiwari et. al, 2000; 2007).
K car ⁄W85car (2)
(PCExi )j = [ ]
(qxi ⁄uxi )⁄W85xi
j
Where, for highway type j, Kcar is the density of passenger cars in heterogeneous traffic
(entities/km) and W85car is the 85th percentile car distribution width (m). qxi is the flow of
traffic entity group xi in heterogeneous traffic (entities/hour) and uxi is the space mean speed
76
of traffic entity group xi (km/hr). W85xi is the 85th percentile distribution width (m) for traffic
entity group xi in heterogeneous traffic and PCExi is the passenger car unit for traffic entity
group xi.
3.3 Area Occupancy Method

In Area Occupancy Method, the methodology suggested by Huber (1982) was used to
estimate PCE values. According to this methodology, a flow rate Qb of base stream (containing
only cars) and a flow rate Qm of mixed stream, containing a proportion Phv of trucks,
proportion Pc of cars and proportion Pmtw of motorized two wheelers, that shows the same
performance measure can be equated as:
Q b = (Ehv Phv Q m + Emtw Pmtw Q m + Pc Q m ) (3)
Where, Ehv and Emtv are PCE values for heavy vehicles and motorized two vehicles
respectively.
Area occupancy of a vehicle expresses how long this vehicle is moving on that section of the
road. In this study area occupancy is measured using the relationship (Mallikarjuna and Rao,
2006):
L
∑ni=1 (4)
vi wi li
ρ(A) =
TWL
Where, ρ(A) is area occupancy measured over space and time, wi is the width of ith vehicle, li
is the length of ith vehicle, while, and T is observed time period, W being the width of road
section that is considered to be constant for the entire road section L. This is the length of road
section under consideration, i.e., 30 m.
It is not clear how each method would perform in the given conditions. Thus a site for data
collection is chosen in hilly area which has reasonable length of the roadway on gradients.
Similarly in capacity estimation traditional method Speed-Flow relationship, Regression
analysis, Highway capacity manual (HCM) 2010, China HCM and Indonesia HCM were
used.
4. DATA COLLECTION
Present study is based on field data collected on 20 km stretch of two-lane two-way national
highway from Barapani Lake to Umroi (NH-44A), 20 km stretch of two-lane two-way state
highway from Shillong to Cherrapunjee (SH-05) and 20 km stretch of two-lane two-way
national highway from Ghatta to Mandii (NH 20), both NH 44A and SH 05 are in Meghalaya
state and NH 20 in Himachal pradesh. Each 20 km stretch was divided into sections of 1 km
and at every section traffic volume data was collected manually for 15 min. interval. Speed of
moving vehicles was recorded at each 1 km section for 15 min. interval using laser speed gun
with +/- 1 km/h accuracy. Thus one hour was spent at each section for traffic volume and
speed data collection. A camcorder was also used to record traffic on videotape. All the motor
vehicles were divided into five categories, i.e. two wheeler, passenger car, sumo cars (larger in
size and power compared to regular cars, look similar to Sports Utility Vehicles (SUV), bus
77
and trucks. Road geometric data were collected directly from the site investigation that
includes lane width, shoulder width, horizontal and vertical grade. Lane width and shoulder
width were measured at each 1 km section of the highway with the measuring tape. The
details of the road geometry are presented here.
The elevations (Reduced levels) of the surface of NH-44A at every 100 m were obtained. The
reduced level at 0.000 chainage (from Barapani Lake to Jowai Shillong Bye Pass Road) was
967.774 m. A sample of the road profile for 20 km is shown in Table 1. Two study sites in
Northeastern region of India were selected. Site 1 is a 20 km stretch of two-lane two-way
National Highway 44A from Barapani Lake to Umroi in Meghalaya state of India [Fig. 1].
The profile of this stretch is shown in Fig. 4. Site 2 is another 20 km stretch of two-lane
two-way State Highway 5 from Shillong to Cherrapunjee [Fig. 2], in Meghalaya state of
India; Site 3 is a 20 km stretch of two-lane two-way National Highway 20 from Ghatta to
Mandii in Himachal pradesh state of India [Fig. 3].
5. ESTIMATION OF PCE VALUES

In the speed-area method, speed ratio of different type of vehicles, for each one km section of
20 km road stretch is shown. Based on the area occupancy factor and speed factor, PCE values
are calculated in Table 3.
Occupancy ratio is the ratio of rectangular space occupied by desired vehicle to passenger car.
The projected areas of different vehicle types are given Table 2. The vehicles larger than car
size have the area factors less than 1 while for the rest it is greater than 1. Based on the
rectangular area occupancy factor and speed factor, calculated PCE values of different type of
vehicle entities for NH-44 A, NH-20 and SH-05 are shown in Table 3. From this table it can
be observed that the larger the static plan area of a vehicle, higher would be its PCE value.
Tables 4, 5 and 6 show the 85th percentile width, average speed, traffic flow, traffic density,
adjusted density and density adjustment to unit area of road in entities per km per m
(entities/km/m) of the vehicles for every one hour period (9 am – 12:00 noon) PCE values
compared to homogeneous and non-homogeneous condition for NH-44A and SH-05 have
been calculated by taking the ratio of unit area concentration of passenger car and other traffic
entities. From the table 4, it can be seen that HVs have low speeds while MTW speeds are on
the higher side. Conversely the densities for HVs have high densities while MTW have lower
values. Similar trends were observed on the SH-05. Table 8 presents the PCE values for the
three road sections as comparison. Area occupancy for heavy vehicles, cars and motorized two
wheelers considering 30 m length of road section was calculated for every 15 minute interval
on both two-lane two-way highways. This area occupancy was treated as impedance. For
same impedance, mixed flow and base flow was taken from graph.
Flow rate Qb of base stream (cars) and a flow rate Qm of mixed stream, comprising of trucks,
cars and motorized two wheelers proportions of Phv, Pc and Pmtw respectively. Equation (5)
shows the same performance measure can be equated as:
Q b = (Ehv Phv Q m + Emtw Pmtw Q m + Pc Q m ) (5)
On rearranging this eqn. we can establish the relation between PCE value of heavy vehicle
78
and PCE value of motorized two wheelers as:
Qb (6)
Ehv Phv + Emtw Pmtw = − Pc
Qm
Equations were solved using graphical method. The solution gives a cluster of PCE values for
HV and MTW. Taking the average of these values, the PCE value of HV is 2.34 and PCE value
of MTW is 0.74 for NH-44A , 5.34 and 0.25 for NH-20 and 2.40 and 0.58 for SH-05.
6. ESTIMATION OF CAPACITY VALUES

In regression analysis method, the study of the effect of Observed flow, Land use, Access point,
KSSDcrest, KSSDsag, KOSDcrest, Gentle curve, Medium curve, Steep curve and percentage
of heavy vehicle (H.V.) on Speed through regression with SPSS for the combined data of
NH-44, NH20 and SH 05 (PCE is taken from area occupancy method, MDmethod, Speed area
method for converting flow from vehicle/h to PCE/h unit). Different models are made and
their results are observed and tabulated in table 9. The most of the model’s results show that
observed flow increases with increase of KSSDcrest, KSSDsag, KOSDcrest whereas
Observed flow decreases when independent variable ‘Steep curve’ increases. It is also
observed that amount of flow varies with the PCE value adopted.
In speed-flow relationship method, the observed volume and the theoretical capacity was
obtained as 1260 PCE/h and 1216 PCE/h respectively. Similarly for the Shillong-Cherapunjee
road the observed volume and the theoretical capacity was obtained as 410 PCE/h and 490
PCE/h respectively.
Capacity was also determined by different HCM methods. The results are tabulated in table
10.
In HCM methods’ results it is clear that though for the same capacity calculation method
getting different capacity value for the different passenger car unit value taken from different
passenger car unit determination method and level of service is obtained as C but only for
modified density method level of service is found as B.
7. ESTIMATION OF CAPACITY VALUES BY SIMULATION
. Simulation is adopted to produce speed-flow-density curves for various proportion of traffic

mix such as Car, MTW, Bus and Truck. Simulation helps in producing speed-flow-density
data for unobserved traffic conditions for instance capacity and synchronized traffic.
Microscopic simulation models such as VISSIM are regularly applied capacity constrained
transport situations. As the observed traffic flow was insufficient to determine capacity so
VISSIM was adopted to simulate the collected data. The speed for various vehicles was
supplied from the field to simulate as given below table 10.
Table 10: Speed data for simulation
Type of vehicles Minimum desired speed, Maximum desired speed,
km/h km/h
79
Car 20 55
Heavy vehicles 19 48
Two-wheeler. 20 50
Three wheeler 15 45
Maximum acceleration = 1.01 m/sec 2, Minimum = 0.34 m/sec 2
and average acceleration =
2
0.64 m/sec were given as an acceleration data. Traffic volume was 5000 vehicles/hour for
the first time simulation and10000 vehicles /hour for the second time simulation for the same
route and same vehicle composition. Increasing the volume means to look the LOS level as
observed traffic flow was insufficient for determining capacity so this simulation process is
adopted. the simulation result capacity was found up to 2667 to 3000 vehicles/h when traffic
volume of 5000 to 10000 was given as an input and LOS was found E but for the same data
when capacity was determined by HCM 2010 the LOS was found C.
Output was found for LOS is E for the roads also found that capacity increases with
simulation time and decreases with increase of number of heavy vehicles.
8. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In this study, PCE values of heavy vehicles Bus and Truck and motorized two wheelers for
NH-44A, NH-20 and SH-05 have been calculated using three different methodologies. These
are, (1) speed area method, (2) modified density method and (3) area occupancy method.
Calculated PCE values are shown in Table 8. PCE value of vehicles is dynamic in nature and
it varies with small change in any influencing parameter. It also changes with the specific
methodology adopted in calculation. The PCE values obtained from three different techniques
are significantly different.
Speed area method estimates higher PCE value for HV and lower PCE value for MTW. In this
method PCE values are directly proportional to rectangular area ratio occupied by desired
vehicle and passenger car and inversely proportional to speed ratio of desired vehicle and
passenger car. In hilly terrains, traffic volume is low and the difference in speed of different
class of vehicle is not as much as in plain terrains. But the difference in rectangular area
occupied by different class of vehicles is quite large. This results in high PCE values for
heavy vehicles and low PCE values for motorized two wheelers.
In the modified density method, unit area concentration considering 85th percentile width used
by different types of vehicle entities is taken for density calculation. Since most
non-homogeneous traffic does not use marked delineated lanes, to express heterogeneity unit
concentration reflects spatial distribution very well. In hilly terrain with low traffic volume,
Vehicle’s 85th percentile road width is less compared to plain terrain as they tend to avoid the
use of shoulder width. All the vehicles try to move in the middle of the road. These
characteristics of vehicles in hilly area affect PCE values. Due to low traffic volume and
tendency to use only pavement width reduce the range of PCE values of various types of
80
vehicles compared to plain terrain. Under low traffic volumes in hilly terrains, degree of
maneuverability for vehicles in general is not affected as much as in high volumes traffic on
plains. Thus, the PCE values for heavy vehicles on NH-44, NH-20 and SH-05 are lower
compared to the highways in plain terrains having large traffic volume. PCE value for MTW
is high here because of the fact that MTW are free to move and to take any desired position on
road.
PCE values using speed area method are on higher side for heavy vehicles and on lower side
for motorized two wheelers. Although modified density method and area occupancy method
show different PCE values, these two methods confirm that in hilly terrains having low level
of traffic volume, range of PCE values for heavy vehicles and motorized two wheelers
reduces. MTWs use full lane width and their PCE values are near to passenger car. PCE value
for passenger car itself is more in heterogeneous traffic conditions compared to homogeneous
traffic conditions. Previous literature shows that heavy vehicles have larger PCE values in
high traffic volume even if their proportion in the traffic mix is low. It is also clear that PCE
values obtained cannot be compared with those reported for homogeneous conditions. If one
has to achieve homogeneity then the data alone decide the range of PCE values. In this
context one can refer, Mallikarjuna and Rao (2006b) for generating PCE values in various
conditions. However, this is possible only when a simulation model is developed. The values
generated vary with respect to the occupancy and percentage of vehicle type in the traffic.
Further, it is quite clear that if over all traffic volume is very low then the effect of heavy
vehicles is not high as these vehicles do not affect the maneuverability in traffic flow. Webster
and Elefteriadou (1999) also found out that PCE values increase steadily as traffic volume
increases. It is also expected that PCE values for heavy vehicles will increase with traffic
volumes. So for highway capacity estimation, PCE values must be calculated under
synchronized flow conditions.
Using these PCE values capacity was determined by different methods and results showed
less value than that of standard value for two-lane two-way road. Capacity was so estimated
using simulation technic which showed the correct value for two-lane two-way road.
The following sections present the conclusions, recommendations and scope for future
research.
9. Conclusions and Recommendations

1) It can be concluded that modified density and area occupancy methods give better
estimates of PCEs in the hilly terrains as the speed-area method relies more on projected area
of the vehicle than on the ambient traffic conditions.
2) Further, these estimated PCE values are different from the values that are obtained in plain
terrains.
2) The trends of the PCE values are difficult to be identify, however if one needs to get these
values over the entire range simulation studies may be helpful..
3) As the PCE values are dynamic and they change with every small variation in influencing
parameter, these values correspond to the low traffic volume and high level of service.
4) PCE values calculated here cannot be used for capacity estimation, but these results offer
some interesting insights into the equivalencies, where the values obtained are different from
the values specified in the codes for hilly terrains (upgrades as in TRB, 2010).
5) Capacity was found low because of using these PCE values and low traffic in those roads.
6) Simulation result shows its correct value.
10. Scope for Future Research
81
1) There are no capacity estimation guidelines in India for hill roads. The one that comes
closest in terms of capacity estimation for heterogeneous conditions in India is IRC-106:1990.
The study presented in this gives an insight into the range of PCE values that can be used for
traffic equivalencies and capacity calculations on hill roads, thus there is a need to expand this
study to include hill roads capacity.
2) Extensive data collection on hill roads are needed to corroborate the trends observed in this
study.
3) For the unobserved ranges such as those near capacity and congestion, methods to be
adopted needs to be explored further.
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Mallikarjuna, C., and Rao, K.R. (2006a) Area occupancy characteristics of heterogeneous
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Figures
83
Figure 1: Data collection site1: National Highway 44A from Barapani Lake to Umroi,
Meghalaya (Source: Google Maps)
84
Figure 2: Data collection site2: 20 km stretch of two-lane two-way State Highway 5 from
Shillong to Cherrapunjee, Meghalaya (Source: Google Maps)
85
Figure 3: Data collection site2: 20 km stretch of two-lane two-way National Highway 20 from
Ghatta to Mandii, Himachal pradesh (Source: Google Maps)
Figure 4: Vertical Profile of NH-44 site
86
Tables
Table 1: Vertical profile of a section of NH-44A road considered

Distance RL (m) Distance RL (m) Distance RL (m) Distance RL (m)
(km) (km) (km) (km)
0.5 967.113 5.5 922.294 10.5 907.19 15.5 871.793
1.0 965.473 6.0 905.027 11.0 886.69 16.0 875.123
1.5 967.113 6.5 903.093 11.5 881.375 16.5 884.623
2.0 967.774 7.0 900.364 12.0 880.919 17.0 881.202
2.5 958.538 7.5 894.554 12.5 873.795 17.5 891.873
3.0 953.193 8.0 899.987 13.0 876.353 18.0 887.454
3.5 948.797 8.5 898.718 13.5 877.041 18.5 881.41
4.0 944.803 9.0 897.973 14.0 876.249 19.0 874.758
4.5 944.154 9.5 895.213 14.5 876.593 19.5 882.358
5.0 943.219 10.0 904.455 15.0 873.493 20.0 899.418
Table 2: Rectangular area occupancy factor

Vehicle Type Length, Width, Projected Ac, m2 Ai, m2 Af=(Ac /Ai)
m m Rectangular
Area, m2
Bus 10.1 2.43 24.543 6.3 24.54 0.25672
Truck 7.5 2.35 17.625 6.3 17.63 0.35735
Tata Sumo 4.5 1.75 7.875 6.3 7.88 0.79949
Car 4.2 1.5 6.3 6.3 6.3 1
TW 1.87 0.64 1.1968 6.3 1.2 5.25
87
Table 3: PCE estimation for NH-44A, SH-05 and NH-20 using speed-area method
Section NH-44A SH-05 NH-20
Bus Truck TS MTW Bus Truck TS MTW Bus Truck TS MTW
1 3.67 2.64 1.00 0.18 3.91 4.00 1.24 4.64 5.12 1.00 0.24
2 3.62 2.76 1.01 0.18 4.90 2.82 1.13 0.16 4.29 4.8 1.01 0.22
3 3.45 3.19 1.20 0.24 5.09 3.25 1.06 0.34 5.35 5.59 1.20 0.25
4 3.77 3.24 1.16 0.20 - 3.39 1.11 0.22 4.84 5.37 1.16 0.23
5 4.25 3.71 1.14 0.16 - 3.51 1.16 0.16 4.98 5.53 1.14 0.24
6 - 3.16 1.30 0.23 3.60 3.70 1.09 0.13 4.92 5.94 1.30 0.25
7 - 3.01 1.23 0.25 4.04 3.90 1.19 - 4.81 5.25 1.23 0.27
8 - 2.84 1.13 0.17 4.48 3.58 1.23 - 5.24 6.08 1.13 0.3
9 3.15 2.73 1.27 0.18 5.80 3.54 1.21 0.27 4.66 5.58 1.27 0.24
10 3.50 3.12 1.25 0.23 4.08 3.17 1.14 0.20 4.65 6.14 1.25 0.23
11 3.52 3.16 1.27 0.21 3.79 3.64 1.07 0.18 4.68 6.21 1.27 0.25
12 - 2.13 1.06 0.20 4.21 4 1.17 0.15 4.14 5.42 1.06 0.21
13 - 3.14 1.25 0.22 4.40 3.92 1.27 - 4.93 5.44 1.25 0.24
14 4.54 3.01 1.65 0.22 4.92 3.41 1.13 - 5.27 6.07 1.65 0.24
15 3.14 3.12 1.31 0.29 6.10 3.46 1.10 0.35 4.68 5.73 1.31 0.25
16 - 3.11 1.01 0.27 - 3.39 1.11 0.22 5.4 6 1.01 0.25
17 - 3.12 0.97 - - 3.62 1.16 0.18 5.19 4.7 0.97 0.23
18 - 3.29 1.03 0.19 3.80 3.65 1.08 0.18 5.41 8.14 1.03 0.26
19 - 3.08 1.02 0.42 4.54 4.24 1.25 - 5.86 6.36 1.02 0.27
20 3.65 2.96 1.12 0.38 - 3.56 1.25 0.22 4.91 5.17 1.12 0.23
Average 3.66 3.03 1.17 0.23 4.51 3.59 1.16 0.21 4.94 5.73 1.17 0.25
88
Table 4: Average speed, traffic flow and traffic density for NH-44A (20th June 2013,
Thursday)
Time interval Speed (km/h) Flow (veh/h) Density (veh/km)
HV Car MTW HV Car MTW HV Car MTW
6 AM-7 AM 45.58 51.09 43.58 40 57 2 0.88 1.12 0.05
7 AM-8 AM 39.87 39.49 32.96 63 77 9 1.58 1.95 0.27
8 AM-9 AM 38.24 39.03 49.60 30 107 21 0.78 2.74 0.42
9 AM-10 AM 35.69 38.90 49.70 36 88 13 1.01 2.26 0.26
10 AM-11 AM 43.15 48.72 37.79 54 117 17 1.25 2.40 0.45
11 AM-12 PM 42.72 51.76 47.06 42 88 7 0.98 1.70 0.15
Table 5: Density for 85th percentile road width and unit area concentration and PCEs for
NH-44A (20th June 2013, Thursday)
Time Density forecast 85th percentile road PCE Car unit
interval (car/km) width (m) density for
3.5 m lane
width
HV Car MTW HV Car MTW HV Car MTW Kcar/Wl
6 AM-7 AM 1.25 1.12 1.32 5.17 4.15 3.34 1.32 1.18 0.81 0.32
7 AM-8 AM 2.01 1.95 2.33 5.24 4.41 3.29 1.46 1.26 0.79 0.56
8 AM-9 AM 2.48 2.74 3.86 5.26 3.90 2.92 1.66 1.11 0.59 0.78
9 AM-10 AM 2.45 2.26 1.72 5.25 4.02 3.17 1.38 1.15 1.19 0.65
10AM-11AM 2.77 2.40 3.72 5.00 4.00 2.87 1.24 1.14 0.53 0.69
11AM-12PM 2.06 1.70 1.55 5.11 3.61 2.38 1.21 1.03 0.75 0.49
Table 6: Average speed, traffic flow and traffic density for NH-20 (22nd July 2013, Monday)
Time Speed (km/h) Flow (veh/h) Density (veh/km)

interval HV Car MTW HV Car MTW HV Car MTW
6 AM-7 AM 47.94 55.09 46.58 40 57 5 0.83 1.04 0.11
7 AM-8 AM 45.87 42.49 35.96 63 77 9 1.37 1.81 0.25
8 AM-9 AM 39.24 40.03 49.6 30 107 21 0.76 2.67 0.42
9 AM-10
35.69 38.9 49.7 36 88 13 1.01 2.26 0.26
AM
89
10 AM-11
43.15 48.72 37.79 54 117 17 1.25 2.4 0.45
AM
11 AM-12
42.72 51.76 47.06 42 88 7 0.98 1.7 0.15
PM
Table 7: Area occupancy for NH-44

Area Occupancy of Vehicles for 15 min. Period (sec)
Time HV Area Car Area MTW area Mixed traffic Area
Occupancy Occupancy Occupancy Occupancy
6am-7am 0.5 0.17 - 0.37
0.52 0.17 - 0.31
0.48 0.17 0.03 0.29
0.5 0.17 0.03 0.25
7am-8am 0.61 0.21 - 0.43
0.59 0.22 0.04 0.36
0.44 0.22 0.04 0.26
0.62 0.22 0.05 0.39
8am-9am 0.63 0.22 0.02 0.26
0.49 0.22 0.03 0.28
0.94 0.2 0.03 0.27
0.59 0.25 0.02 0.27
9am-10am 0.64 0.25 0.02 0.29
0.67 0.2 0.03 0.33
0.62 0.22 0.03 0.33
0.62 0.22 0.03 0.31
10am-11am 0.54 0.18 0.04 0.32
0.59 0.17 0.03 0.27
0.51 0.18 0.03 0.24
0.48 0.18 0.03 0.23
11am-12pm 0.53 0.17 0.03 0.27
0.52 0.17 0.03 0.26
0.54 0.16 0.03 0.22
0.53 0.17 0.03 0.34
Table 8: Comparison of PCE values

NH-44A SH-05 NH-20
Site →
Bus Bus Bus
Methodology ↓ Truck TW Truck TW Truck TW
3.66 4.51 4.94
Speed-Area Method 3.02 0.23 3.6 0.21 5.73 0.25
2.43 2.51 3.56
Modified Density Method 1.67 0.74 1.84 0.87 3.58 0.78
90
2.68 1.87 3.43
Area Occupancy Method 2.34 0.74 2.4 0.58 3.43 0.37
Table 9: Results of regression of different cases

Name Results
of
model
Model-1 Speed=40.06-2.615 land
use-0.525ccesspt+0.496KSSDcrest+1.575KSSDsag+0.013 KOSDcrest-0.772
Gentle-3.123 Medium -2.191 Steep -0.062 % H.V
Model-2 Speed = 48.93-0.257 % H.V. + 1.493 KSSDcrest, R2 = 0.893
Model-3 Speed = 33.379 -1.139 % H.V. + 3.814 KSSDcrest, R2 = 0.743
Model-4 Speed = 43.61 - 0.332 % H.V. R2 = 1.0
Model-5 Speed = 32.61 - 0.09 Observed flow -0.453 land use-0.861 Access point +2.136
KSSDcrest – 0.543 KSSDsag + 0.092 KOSDcrest- 0.032 Gentle -1.57 Medium –
0.945 Steep – 0.048 % H.V. , R2 = 0.336
Model-6 Speed = 44.937 - 0.009 Obsflow – 6.176 land use – 0.217 Access point + 0.519
KSSDcrest +0.182 KSSDsag + 0.11 KOSDcrest – 0.058 Gentle - 0.608 Medium
-0.155Steep – 1.632%H.V. , R2 = 0.436
Model-7 Speed = 25.482 – 0.756 % of H.V, R2 = 1.0
Model-8 Speed = 27.263 - 0.008 observed flow +11.86 land use-1.541 Access point +7.668
KSSDcrest + 0.537 KSSDsag + 0.081 KOSDcrest- 1.718 Gentle -5.13 Medium –
0.660 Steep – 0.391 % H.V. , R2 = 0.825
Model-9 Speed = 47.99 + 5.94 KSSDcrest+ 0.243 KOSDcrest – 1.13%H.V., R2 = 0.799
Model-1 Speed = 81.78 - 0.001 Observed flow -5.77 land use -1.83 Access point +4.675
0 KSSDcrest - 2.84 KSSDsag + 0.06 KOSDcrest- 3.46 Gentle -1.128 Medium –
1.99 Steep – 0.243 % H.V. , R2 = 0.882
Model-1 Speed = 77.43 - 0.225 Observed flow, R2 = 1.0
1
Model-1 (a) Log observed flow = 6.005+0.119lnKSSDsag-0.543steep, , R2 = 0.982
2 (b) Log observed flow = 5.555+0.175lnKSSDcrest+0.121lnKSSDsag-0.377steep,
R2 = 0.992
(c)Log observed flow = 6.212+0.231lnKSSDcrest+0.161lnKSSDsag-.354steep,
91
R2 = 0.981
Model-1 (a)lnCapacityorlogObservedflow=6.0050.543steePCErve+0.119logKSSDsag, R2
3 = 0.982
(b)Logobservedflow=5.555-0.377steePCErve+0.121logKSSDsag+0.175lnKSSDc
rest, R2 = 0.992
(c) Log observed flow=6.174 - 0.727steePCErve
+0.193logKSSDsag+0.075logKOSDcrest, , R2 = 0.979
Table 10: Capacity values by different methods

Capacity PCE values taken Capacity, PCE/h
method from
Speed-flow MDM 470, 583 and 280 PCE/h was found for NH-20,
relationship NH-44A and SH-05 respectively.
AOM 385, 1060 and 313 PCE/h was found for NH-20,
NH-44A and SH-05 respectively.
SAM 520, 1320 and 358 PCE/h was found for NH-20,
NH-44A and SH-05 respectively.
China HCM MDM
AOM 2142 PCE/h, D.O.S.= 0.33 and Speed = 28kmph
for light vehicles.
SAM 2142 PCE/h, D.O.S.= 0.37 and Speed=27kmph for
light vehicles.
IRC-73-1980. 2142 PCE/h, D.O.S.= 0.3 and Speed=28kmph for
light vehicles.
Indonesia HCM IRC-73-1980. 2512 PCE/h
MDM 2486 PCE/h
AOM 2510 PCE/h
SAM 2522 PCE/h
HCM 2010 MDM 3176 PCE/h and LOS = B
AOM 1952 PCE/h and LOS = C
SAM 1700 PCE/h and LOS = C
IRC-73-1980. 2070 PCE/h and LOS = C
92
HCM 2010 1600 PCE/h and LOS = C
. It is clear that though for the same capacity calculation method getting different capacity
value for the different passenger car unit value from different passenger car unit determination
method and level of service is obtained as C but only for modified density method level of
service is found as B.
93
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
STUDY OF MOTORCYCLE HELMET USE PATTERN IN RURAL AND
URBAN ROADS USING STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODEL: A CASE
STUDY OF NAGPUR CITY
ICID2018_A_008
Bahuguna Dalai1, Koushik Kalita2, V. S. Landge3
1. PhD Research Scholar, VNIT Nagpur, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India
2. Assistant Professor, Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India
3. Professor, VNIT Nagpur, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India
ABSTRACT
Use of motorcycle helmet has been found to be very effective in reducing head injuries and fatalities in
the event of crash. Despite mandatory helmet use law in India, the proportion of helmet use is very low
on rural roads compare to urban roads. This study is design to identify the reason for variation of helmet
use in rural and urban roads in Nagpur, a city in central India. A cross-sectional study was carried out in
2016-2017 to find the prevalence of helmet use in rural and urban roads in Nagpur. A standard
questionnaire survey was conducted to understand the knowledge, attitude and practice of motorcycle
riders. Approximately 66.4% of the motorcyclists were found to be wearing helmet in urban road whereas
in rural road it is only 34.3%. Use of helmet is higher for work/school/college trip; the presence of traffic
police checking point also increases the helmet use. Low level of helmet use was found if trip distance is
short and also if trip is for multipurpose. The finding of this study will be helpful in developing policies for
promoting helmet use among all section of the society, especially in rural part of city.
Keywords: Motorcycle; Helmet; Rural Road; Urban Road
1 INTRODUCTION and pillion (The Indian Vehicle Act,1988). But this

act is not applicable to a person belonging to Sikh
Motorcycle riders are most vulnerable to road community, who wear turban. Turban is a type of
traffic accident among others mode of transport. It headwear based on cloth winding worn mainly by
is estimated that motorcyclists are 26 times more Sikh men wearing a helmet above turban is not
likely to die in a traffic crash than the driver of possible as normal size helmet would not fit over
passenger cars (The United Nations Motorcycle turban. There is also an opposition to mandatory
Helmet Study, 2016). Wearing a helmet improves helmet law by women rider because of religion and
their chances of survival and also avoids injuries to cultural belief (Siddiqui et al., 2013). Figure 1
riders. There are many studies regarding helmet shows the motorcyclist in urban road while figure 2
use and mandatory helmet law in different shows a motorcyclist wearing a piece of cloth
countries. Studies in United States indicate that covering face and head. This type of headscarf is
death from head injuries increased following the worn by riders mostly in the summer to protect from
repeal of their motorcycle helmet laws (Muller, hot air in the month of April, May and June in
2004). Nagpur.
India has mix traffic in all the cities, consisting
of large number of motorcycle. Due to inadequate
public transport facility, people prefer to use motor
cycle and private vehicles. Almost 73% percent of
vehicles are motorcycle, and majority are used
within the city, as a result number of motorcycle
accident are also high. The use of motorcycle is
rapidly increasing in India, in Maharashtra the
motorcycle account for 72.69% of total registered
vehicle in 2015, with a growth rate of 10.38%
between 2005 and 2015 (Motor Transport Statistics
Report of Maharashtra, 2015). In Nagpur city, the
motorcycle consists of 73% of road traffic. Due to Figure 1.Motorcyclists at signalized intersection in urban
large number of motorcycle, the fatalities rate of road
motorcycle riders are also very high compare
others mode of transport.
The Indian Motor Vehicle Act 1988 stipulates
compulsory wearing of helmet by motorcycle riders
94
ICID 2018
1995). Weight and high temperature has also been

the reason for low helmet use (Li et al., 2008 ). Low
use of helmet by motorcyclist are also due to lack
of knowledge and Social practice and perceptions
(McKnight et al., 1995 & Orsi et al., 2012).
A unhelmeted motorcyclist is 40% more
likely to suffer a fatal head injury and 15% more
likely to suffer a non-fatal injury compared to
helmeted motorcyclist (NHTSA Report on
motorcycle helmet use, 2008). Helmet reduces the
Figure 2. Motorcyclists without helmet at un- fatality risk by 34% according to Dee (Dee,2009).
signalized intersection in rural road In Taiwan unhelmeted motorcyclist are 4 times
more likely to suffer head injuries and 10 times
In India, state traffic police is responsible for
more likely to have brain injuries than helmeted
regulating traffic, law enforcing, and educating
motorcyclist (Xueqen et al.,2011). The effective
public on road safety. Regular helmet use is very
helmet use enforcing policies can increase helmet
low due to inadequate law enforcement. In the year
wearing rates by 90% and help reduce head
2016, the Maharashtra state government made the
injuries (Servadei et al., 2003).
enforcement of law compulsory for all cities;
There is a significant association found
penalty for non-helmet riding has been increase
between helmet wearing and mandatory helmet
from Rs. 100 to Rs. 500 (approx. USD 1.6 to USD
use law. The observational study conducted in
7.5). In spite of strict traffic police checking, helmet
India estimated that less than 5% motorcycle riders
use has increased in certain road and location only.
use helmet in the absence of mandatory helmet
(Gururaj, 2005). In United States, Florida, it is
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
estimated that the use of helmet decreases after
the repeal of mandatory helmet law from 83% in
The fast growing use of motorized two-wheeled
1999 to 56% in 2000 (Hotz et al.,2002). The
vehicles has resulted in increase road fatalities and
implementation of mandatory helmet use law in
injuries among their users, the major concern are
California, increase the helmet use from 50% to
the head and neck injuries as they are the main
99% (Kraus et al.,1995).
cause of severe injury, disability and even death
Based on the above literature review the
among motorcycle users (A Road Safety Manual
present study is carried out in Nagpur City by direct
for Decision-Makers and Practitioners, WHO, 2006
observation of helmet use and self reported helmet
). The use of helmets is the most effective way of
use. The study will help in understanding the
reducing head injuries and fatalities resulting from
variation of helmet use in rural road and urban road
motorcycle crashes . It is estimated that nearly 88%
in Nagpur and factors associated with helmet use
of motorcycle fatalities are due to head injuries
and assist in promoting helmet use by developing
(Global Status Report on Road Safety, WHO,
evidence based policies.
2013). Motorcycles are the most unsafe form of
motorized transport among all others mode of 3 METHODOLOGY
transport (Huang et al., 2004 & Elliott at el., 2007) .
In Italy, 387 samples of adolescent motorcyclist 3.1 Study Area
were studied and found that the reasons for not
wearing helmets are mainly because of discomfort The study was carried out in Nagpur city; it
and lack of ownership of a helmet (Bianco et al, is one of the big city in central India, it is situated in
2005). Some more reasons found by United Indian state of Maharashtra. Two Asian Highway
Nations motorcycle helmet study are: helmet is passes through Nagpur, Asian Highway 46 (AH46),
only required for long trip, helmet is considered hot which is also the Indian National Highway, NH-6,
and uncomfortable, damaging effect on women’s and Asian Highway 43 (AH43), also the Indian
hairstyle, issue of Turban use, inconvenience while National Highway, NH-7. In the past years the
shopping, hygienic issue. unban agglomeration has rapidly expanded
Over the years many study has been conducted beyond the city’s metropolitan boundaries. In 1999
around the world and wide variety of factors has the government of Maharashtra included the rural
been found regarding helmet use. Some study areas near Nagpur under Nagpur metropolitan
estimated the major factors that significantly lower area. However in rural Nagpur the implementation
the helmet use are: visual and auditory capacities of traffic enforcement policies are still inadequate.
(Huang et al., 2008; Ranney et al., 2010 & The number of motorcycle in this city is one of the
Papadakaki et al., 2013). While other study shows highest in India approximately 73% of all motorized
that vision restriction is compensated by increasing vehicle. According to Napur police department
head rotation, thus hearing and visual acuity are most of the accident victims are motorcycle riders.
not overly restricted by helmet use (McNight et al., The present study is carried out to find the variation
95
ICID 2018
of helmet use in rural road and urban road in 3.3 Data Analysis
Nagpur.
Logistic regression was used to calculate
3.2 Study Design and Data Collection odds ratio and 95% confidence interval for variable.
The explanatory variables such as driving status
Direct observations and self reports are the i.e. driver/pillion, Gender, trip purpose, trip distance
two methods that are commonly used to were used to calculate odds ratio using IBM SPSS
understand the motorcycle user behaviors. In case 20. The analysis of questionnaire data consists of
of direct observations method the information combined data of rural and urban road.
collected are more accurate but it requires more
resources and also require trained data collectors.
Whereas self-reports are biased because of the 4 RESULTS
nature of self-reporting but these studies are
relatively less expensive and allow data to be In urban road a total of 6845 motorcycle were
collected on a larger set of factors associated with observed among them the prevalence of helmet
road user behaviors (Porter, 2011). In one of the use was found to be 4547 (66.4%), whereas in rural
self-reported helmet use study in India, it is Nagpur a total of 5430 observation was made
estimated that the self reported helmet use is among them only 1862 (34.3%) of riders was
nearly 1.3 times higher than the observed helmet wearing helmet as shown in Table 1. Helmet
use (Wadhwaniya et al., 2017). wearing among pillion riders is lowest in rural with
0.3% whereas in urban it is 1.6%. A total of 6345
3.2.1 Direct Observational Survey
riders participated in the road side interview. As
The observation survey was conducted for a shown in table 2, the self-reported helmet use is
seven randomly selected location based on higher than the observed helmet use. Female
connectivity within each of the selected rural and riders have reported of wearing about 83.4% while
urban road. The observation locations were male riders reported of wearing about 81.3%.
selected near intersection. Any type of helmet use Motorcyclist going for work trip wears helmet about
is counted as helmet wearing in this survey 83.5%, while for multipurpose trip, it is the lowest
irrespective of whether a helmet is standard or non- about 45.2%. Lower percentage of helmet use is
standard. Five rounds of observations were reported when trip distance is short about 18.5%,
completed in between February 2016 to March whereas for longer distance it increases to 65.3%.
2017. To account for variation in traffic, each Pillion riders have reported of wearing helmet only
location has been observed for at one weekday and about 2.4%, while driver of motorcycle wear about
one weekend day. To account for peak hours and 92.5%
calm period, the observation were made for
different time period each lasting for one hour: Table 1.Observed helmet use in rural and urban
morning 9–10 a.m; afternoon 12–1 p.m; 5–6 p.m. road in Nagpur
Two research assistant recorded the data on a
standard data recording form at each of the Total Helmet
Locations Observations Wearing
selected location, one research assistant recorded
Proportion, N
the helmet wearing riders and others recorded the (%)
unhelmeted riders.
Driver 6845 4545 (66.4)
3.2.2 Survey Questionnaire Urban Road
Pillion 2298 38 (1.7)
The questionnaire consists of close-ended
questions to extract information about general Driver 5430 1862 (34.3)
awareness of helmet use such as helmet use law, Rural Road
safety benefits of helmet, law enforcement and Pillion 2063 6 (0.3)
reasons for wearing and not wearing helmet.
Before beginning the questionnaire survey, the
verbal consent of the participant was first obtained.
Personal identifiers of the participants were not
recorded in the survey and also they were informed Table 2. Results of road side interview survey on helmet
that their participation in the survey is voluntary. use in Nagpur (rural and urban road)
Prior to the commencement of the
questionnaire survey the research assistants were Characteristics No.of Helmet
trained in the methodology and the type of data to respondents wearing,
be gathered. Total respondents 6345 N (%)
96
ICID 2018
Male 5542 4511 proportion of helmet use in urban road is higher

Gender (81.4) than that of rural road with odds ratio of 3.7. The
Female 803 671 variable associated with helmet use in both rural
(83.6) and urban road has been discussed below.
Driving Pillion rider 164 4 (2.4)
Status 4.1 Knowledge and attitude
Driver 6181 5717
(92.5) Motorcycle user awareness regarding
Trip Work trip 2721 2272 helmet use law and safety benefits has been found
Purpose (83.5) to be quite high as shown in table 3, with
School/College 1354 1034 approximately 99.5 % of respondents are aware of
(76.4) helmet use law and about 76% respondents agrees
Multipurpose 2270 1026 that helmet reduces fatality in case of accidents.
(45.2) The practice of helmet use is basically depends on
< 2 km 1332 246 the attitude of the riders, as many of the
Travel (18.5) respondents belief that they are skill driver (4.3%)
Distance 2 – 5 km 2411 858 and can avoid accidents, also about (14.3%) of the
(35.6) respondents believe that helmet is required only
where there is high traffic volume. This result is
5 – 10 km 880
1649 similar with other previous studies. Youngblood
(53.4)
found that a motorcyclist’s attitude is more important
>10 km 622 than their knowledge of the benefits of helmet use in their
953
(65.3) decision to wear a helmet (Youngblood, 1980).
4.2 Travel Distance
Travel distance is found to be a significant

Table 3. General view of helmet use in Nagpur factor, as very small proportion (18.5%) of
Total number of participants = 6342 N (%) respondents admitted of wearing helmet when
Aware of mandatory helmet use 6313 (99.5) travel distance is short (<2km). Approximately
Helmet use enforcement is 53.4% respondents admitted that they were helmet
4978 (78.5) if the distance of travel is more than 5 km. And for
effective
Helmet is very effective safety trip distance more than 10 km, helmet wearing
4820 (76.0) proportion increases to 65.3%. This may be
device
because in long distance trip, the riders are
Penalty is the correct method of
4230 (66.7) uncertain of the traffic condition and possibility of
enforcement
police presence. Trip distance association with
Mandatory by law 2345 (38.4) helmet use has also been found previously
Reason To avoid paying penalty 1427 (22.5) (Conrad et al., 1996 & Kulanatyan et al., 2011 ).
(s) for It’s a Protective device 1979 (31.2)
wearing Table 4. Logistic regression analysis of observed
Others 849 (13.4)
Helmet helmet use in Nagpur (rural and urban)
I Do not have a helmet 456 (7.2)
Reason My Helmet is damaged 323 (5.1) Characteristics Odds 95% p-
(s) for not I forget to wear 380 (6.0) Ratio CI value
wearing It is incontinence/ Rural road Ref
2936 (46.3) Urban road 3.7 3.5 – < 0.001
Helmet uncomfortable
Depend on road type 2245 (35.4) 4.0
Low traffic volume 906 (14.3) Driving Pillion riders Ref
I drive my motor- status Drivers 117.5 84.9 – < 0.001
272 (4.3) ( Urban 162.6
Cycle skilfully
I wear turban 69 (1.1) road )
I wear headscarf 786 (12.4) Driving Pillion riders Ref
hot weather 1369 (21.6) status Drivers 178.9 80.1 – < 0.001
( Rural 399.5
Others 773 (12.2)
road )
Ref = Referent
Table 4 shows the result of logistic regression 4.3 Weather Conditions
analysis on variables associated with helmet use in
rural and urban road. It is estimated that the
97
ICID 2018
The climatic condition plays a important role less strict. Also many of the riders in the rural roads
in helmet use in most part of India. The summer uses motorcycles for multipurpose uses like
temperature rise above 40oC in Nagpur city, so household activity, shopping etc. Helmet use was
wearing helmet feels uncomfortable. Some prefer very low among pillion riders both in rural and urban
to use a scarf, a piece of cloth wrap around head roads. Lower use of helmet by pillion riders is
as describe previously and shown in figure 1. From because traffic police don’t penalize pillion riders in
our study it is estimated that the approximately the absence of helmet. We have not investigated
12.4% respondents prefer to wear headscarf education level and its association with helmet use
instead of helmet, during summer month. Other but previous studies have shown that there exists
weather condition like dry and rainy condition has a relationship between education level and helmet
not been investigated. However previous studies use. Previous study in India has shown that a
have shown that there is an association between person with high education support helmet laws
helmet use and rain and dry condition. and also more likely to wear helmet (Wadhwaniya
et al., 2015).
4.4 Trip Purpose
Following are the limitation of the study.
Trip purpose also has a positive association First, Night time helmet use has not been
on helmet use. Approximately 83.5% of presented in this study, as from our preliminary
respondents prefer to wear helmet when they going investigation have shown that only a small
to work/office, while 76.4 % of school/college going proportion of riders use helmet at night. Others
traveler responded that they wear helmet regularly. study also shown that helmet use at night time is low
Approximately 45.2% respondents use helmet (Bachani et al., 2013). Second, we have not
when they are going for multiple task. The investigated the type of helmet i.e. whether
multipurpose use riders feel that carrying helmet is standard or non-standard helmet. But previous
inconvenience for them and also due to difficulty in studies have shown that type of helmet also has an
finding suitable place to keep helmet. The high association with head injury risk (Yu et al., 2011).
percentage of helmet use among the work/office Third, the road side interview may have been
goers is due to safety and place to keep helmet. biased as reported in other study (Wadhwaniya et
al., 2017). These differences can also be seen from
our observations and road side interview data.
Table 5. Logistic regression analysis of variables Lastly, we were not able to collect questionnaire
From road side interview data separately for rural and urban road. But we
believe that this combine data will provide general
Characteristic Odds
95% CI p-Value information about knowledge, attitude and
ratio
practices of helmet use in both rural and urban road
Male Ref in Nagpur.
Gender female 1.2 1.0 – 1.4 < 0.001 From our finding it can be suggested that
Driving additional and consistent enforcement policies are
status Pillion rider Ref required to promote helmet use in rural and urban
Driver 492.8 181.9 – < 0.001 road. Further study is recommended to investigate
1335.2 the type of helmet use and also alternative design
of helmet is recommended to remove
Trip
Work trip Ref uncomfortable and inconvenience due to hot
purpose
School/college 0.6 0.5 – 0.7 < 0.001 weather in summer.
Multipurpose 0.16 0.14 – < 0.001
0.18
6 CONCLUSION
Travel < 2 Km Ref This study is based on direct observation of helmet

distance 2 – 5 Km 2.4 2.0 – 2.8 < 0.001 use and questionnaire survey. From this study the
5 – 10 Km 5.0 4.2 – 5.9 < 0.001 prevailing status of helmet use in rural and urban
> 10 Km 8.2 6.8 – < 0.001 road in Nagpur has been known. Proportion of
10.0 helmet use in urban roads is approximately 66.4%
whereas in rural roads it only 34.3%. Higher use of
helmet use is attributed to strict enforcement,
5. DISCUSSION work/college/school related trip. Lower helmet use
is attributed to absence of enforcement, short
From our study it is found that the helmet distance trip, hot climate, inconvenience. The
use has been low in rural roads compared to urban finding of this study will be helpful in developing
roads in Nagpur. This may be due to the fact that policies for promoting helmet use among all section
in rural roads the helmet use law enforcement is of the society especially in rural roads.
98
ICID 2018
The conclusion drawn from this study is only

for Nagpur city, this result may not be taken as a Huang, B., Preston, J. A Literature Review on
general trend elsewhere. Motorcycle Collisions: Final Report. University of
Oxford Transport Studies Unit, Oxford. 2004
Available online at: http://www.osac.
Acknowledgments: The author would like to
eu/public/file/Huang%20e_a_%20A%20literature
thank Nagpur Traffic Police for their cooperation
%20review.pdf
while collecting data.
Ethical approval: Civil Engineering Department of Hung, D.V., Stevenson, M.R., Ivers, R.Q. 2008.
Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology, Barriers to, and factors associated, with observed
Nagpur, approved this study. motorcycle helmet use in Vietnam. Accident
Analysis and Prevention., 40(4) :1627–1633.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no
conflict of interest.
Kulanthayan, S., Umar, R.S., Hariza, H.A., Nasir,
Abbreviations M.T 2001. Modeling of compliance behavior of
motorcyclists to proper usage of safety helmets in
The following abbreviations are used: Malaysia. Journal Crash Prevention and Injury
RS Indian Rupees Control, 2(3) :239–246.
USD United States Dollar
Kraus, J.F., Peek, C., Williams, A. 1995.
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A., Morandi, A., Gnardellis, C., Chliaoutakis, J. 2011. Prevalence rates of helmet use among
2013. Barriers and facilitators of helmet use in a motorcycle riders in a developed region in China.
Greek sample of motorcycle riders: Which Accident Analysis and Prevention, 43: 214–219.
evidence. Transp. Res. Part F. Traffic
Psychol.Behav.,18 :189–198 Youngblood, J., Nationwide survey of rider attitude
concerning safety helmets (U.S.). In: International
Porter, B.E. 2011. Handbook of traffic psychology. Motorcycle Safety Conference Proceedings;
Conference held in 18–23 May, Washington, DC,
Ranney, M.L., Mello, M.J., Baird, J.B., Chai, P.R., 1980, 3, 1435–1465
Clark, M.A. 2010. Correlates of motorcycle helmet
use among recent graduates of a motorcycle Yu, W.Y., Chen, C.Y., Chiu, W.T., Lin, M.R. 2011.
training course. Accident Analysis and Prevention., Effectiveness of different types of motorcycle
42 (6):2057–2062 helmets and effects of their improper use on head
. injuries. International Journal of Epidemiology,
Servadei, F., Begliomini, C., Gardini, E., Giustini, 40:794–803.
M., Taggi, F., Kraus, J. 2003. Effect of Italy’s
motorcycle helmet law on traumatic brain injuries.
Injury Prevention, 9: 257–260.
Siddiqui, S., Arora, S.; Peipert, J.; Sagar,

S.; Crandall, M.; Swaroop, M. 2013. Survey of
helmet influences of female pillions in New Delhi.
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The United Nations Motorcycle Helmet Study,

United Nations Economics commission for Europe.
United Nations, New York and Geneva, 2016.
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unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/publications/WP29
/United_Nations_Motorcycle_Helmet_Study.pdf
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L.K., Gururaj, G., Hyder, A.A. 2015. The validity of
self-reported helmet use among motorcyclists in
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on Road Safety 2013: Supporting a Decade of
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100
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Theme B: Environmental Engineering
101
Theme B
Environmental Engineering
102
Development, Fabrication and Performance Evaluation of an

Improved Biomass Cooking stove using different biomass fuels.
ICID2018_B_001
Ashish Sovasaria1, Nabajit Dev Choudhury2

1Department of Energy Engineering, Assam Science and Technology University, Guwahati, Assam, India
2Department of Mechanical Engineering, Royal School of Engineering and Technology, Guwahati,
Assam, India
ABSTRACT
The biomass cooking stoves have undergone considerable growth over the period of time. Improving the thermal as
well as emission performance of biomass cookstove has been of interest to various researches. The present
research work outlines the development, fabrication and performance evaluation of an improved cookstove with
respect to thermal efficiency and other parameters, viz., fire power, burning rate, specific fuel consumption and
boiling time. An improved cookstove was developed with additional air-inlets for better combustion. It would be seen
that the insulation provided in the combustion chamber and the provision for primary and secondary inlets showed
good combustion efficiency and reduced fuel consumption for the stove as compared to other stoves available.
Water Boiling Test (WBT) was conducted with two biomass fuels, viz., sawdust briquettes and wood pellets to
evaluate the performance of the stove. The results indicated the thermal efficiencies respectively to be 28.17%,
32.8% and 34.3% for cold start, hot start and simmering tests performed using wood pellets. On the contrary, the
thermal efficiency readings were recorded as 30.28, 33.47 and 36.44 % for Saw-Dust briquettes on the WBT. The
results show that improved cooking stove can be implemented in rural India to prevent the deforestation.
Keywords: Improved Cooking stove, Primary and Secondary air inlets, Water Boiling Test, Thermal Efficiency.
1 INTRODUCTION to overcome problems of the conventional

stoves making way to improved biomass
In rural areas cooking is one of the largest cookstoves.
energy consuming activities. In fact, half of the Improved cookstoves (ICS) are designed with
total population cooks with bio-fuels. Open fires
the aim to get better cooking efficiency and
and primitive stoves are used for cooking since
release fewer pollutants. The improved
the start of human history. These stoves have
cookstoves must meet the cooking energy
come in various sizes and shapes which require
demands of rural people of developing
biomass as feedstock (Sonarkar et al. 2017). countries. It is the improved use of biomass in
Modern LPG cylinders, which are ubiquitous in households which leads to reduced fuel
most of the urban areas, are still not accessible
consumption. On the other hand, use of
to a large chunk of the population in the rural
improved cookstove reduces the fuel collection
areas. These people still depend heavily on
burden placed on women and children and also
biomass to meet their household cooking energy
saves the time (Sutar et al. 2015). Evaluating
requirements (Mehetre et al. 2017). the performance of a cookstove is an integral
Biomass cook stove is a major thermal energy part of the process of developing improved
conversion device amongst the biomass-fired designs. The performance of a biomass
technologies. From the open fires of prehistoric cookstove can be characterized in two
times and three-stone fires, cookstove designs categories, thermal performance and emission
evolved into shielded fires that paved the way to performance. Thermal performance is measured
the development of improved cookstoves in terms of fire power or input power of the
(Kumar et al. 2013). The traditional cookstoves cookstove, specific fuel consumption, efficiency
are characterized by low efficiency and high and turn down ratio, while emission performance
emissions. The design and dissemination of is measured mainly in terms of emission ratios
improved cookstoves with better efficiency and or emission factors of pollutants(Arora et al.
lower emissions has a long history of more than 2014). The most widely used laboratory test is
five decades (Mehetre et al. 2017). Since nearly the Water Boiling Test (WBT), which is a
3.5 billion people in the world use traditional simulation of actual cooking style. The latest
stoves to cook meals, efforts to improve the version of WBT (Version 4.1.2) provides a
efficiency of cookstoves have been increasingly methodology to test energy efficiency and
popular in the developing world (Mehetre et al. emissions simultaneously, in order to
2017). Over time, stoves have been developed
103
Theme B
understand the trade-offs that exist between is essential that, as far as possible, all
these two parameters. conceptual and systematic errors should be
identified, corrected and avoided during the
In recent years, the technical challenges in the
process of the development of acceptable
development of clean, efficient and also user-
friendly cookstoves has received greater international standards and protocols.
attention from the researchers leading to a new
The present work focuses on the improvement
generation of cook stove designs. Kumar et al.
of the existing design of PCS-1 cookstove. The
(2013) presented the review on the design,
development, and technological advancement of PCS-1 biomass ICS by Envirofit India is among
biomass cookstoves and the effects of traditional the most energy efficient high-performance, low-
biomass burning devices on the emission, cost biomass cook stove available in the Indian
health hazard, and environmental pollution. It market for low income families. The
was concluded and suggested that a cookstove performance is evaluated using standard WBT
must be carefully designed through testing and protocol and then a comparison of ICS with the
performance verification to meet the PCS-1 model is studied.
requirements of good thermal performance and
reduction in harmful emissions. Arora et
2 METHODOLOGY
al.,(2014) conducted experiments to investigate
the particle characteristics emitted from ten
2.1 Design of the Improved Cookstove
wood types combusted in a traditional and
improved cookstove. The performance of the
cookstoves was assessed on the basis of their After a detailed review of the PCS-1 cookstove
thermal efficiency using water boiling test design, the L-shaped rocket stove interior was
selected. Secondary air inlets are included in the
(WBT). Particle size distribution (PSD) with
design for improved combustion of volatile
respect to number, surface area and volume
matter and thus reduced emissions. The primary
was studied to find out most dominant PM size
range along with PM emission factors (EFs). It air inlet size was also increased to allow
was found from the experiment that the maximum intake of air for improved combustion.
The modified ICS is provided additional primary
improved cookstoves performed better as
air inlets around the circumference of the
compared to traditional cookstoves in terms of
combustion chamber near the bottom region of
thermal efficiency. An average 30% increase in
the combustion chamber. In order to allow
thermal efficiency was observed. TPNEF (Total
Particulate Number Emission Factor) and MEF maximum heat transfer to the bottom of the pot
(Mass Emission Factor) was also found to be and conserve heat from hot flue gases, the
nozzle was not added. Also, combustion
lower in improved cookstoves for all the ten
chamber size was reduced in the modified cook
types of wood. Gogoi et al.,(2016) developed a
stove design to allow improved combustion.
steady state heat transfer model to predict the
performance of biomass stove with varying
operating (composition, particle size and
moisture of fuel, air flow, ambient conditions)
and design conditions (size, shape and material
of combustion chamber, pot size). The study
indicated the effect of fuel physical and chemical
properties, stove physical properties, pot
physical properties and ambient conditions on
stove’s performance. They found that the waste
heats, with a scope for reduction, are primary air
heating, combustion chamber skin loss, flue gas
loss and pot side outer losses. The model
showed that high combustion chamber
emissivity results in higher efficiency. Also, the
efficiency could further be increased on a
selection of less pot height. Zhang et al. (2016)
reviewed several different approaches to a
widespread need for results of stove
performance tests to be comparable and
identified a number of calculations and
conceptual errors that materially affect the
Fig 1: Orthographic Views and Isometric View
outcome of stove tests. It was concluded that it
of the Improved Cookstove
104
Theme B
2.4 Performance Evaluation of the Improved

2.2 Materials and Specifications Cookstove
The stove has been fabricated with stainless In order to study the performance of the improved
steel of grade 305. Stainless steel has been cookstove, different parameters were evaluated
selected because of its high melting range using standardized Water Boiling Test (WBT).
(14000C), low thermal conductivity (16.2 W/m-K)
The water boiling test is a short and simple
to reduce heat loss and good malleability and
simulation of the common cooking procedure in
ductility properties. which a standard quantity of water is used to
Fibre glass wool was used to insulate the wall of simulate food. The WBT developed consists of
the combustion chamber. It is associate
three phases that immediately follow each other:
insulation made from fibres of glass organized
employing a binder into a texture almost like The WBT yields numerous indicators for
wool. The process traps several little pockets of assessing cookstove performance namely, the
air between the glass and these little air pockets thermal efficiency (H), firepower (P), SFC of the
ends in high thermal insulation properties. stove per unit of water boiled, burning rate(BR)
Because of its thermal and acoustic properties, and the time to boil(BT) a fixed quantity of water.
it is one of the most widely used forms of
insulation. It is known for its lightweight, high 2.5 Formulae Used
tensile strength and exceptional resilience. It
has a maximum service temperature of about The following equations are used to determine the
o
250 C. thermal efficiency (H), firepower (P), SFC of the
stove per unit of water boiled, burning rate (BR)
2.3 Fuel Specifications (T
Two different fuels viz. Saw-dust briquettes and 4.186∗(Pci−P)∗(Tcf−Tci)+ 2260∗Wcv

wood pellets were used for conducting the H= [1]
fcd∗LHV
Water Boiling test. The fuels were collected and
dried. The saw-dust briquettes were cylindrical fcd∗LHV
P= [2]
in shape with a diameter of 10cm and a height 60∗(tcf−tci)
of 8 cm. The briquettes had been dried and

fcd
stored for use. The wood pellets were too of SFC = [3]
Pcf−P
cylindrical shape but of much smaller size. The
pellets used were of approximately 1 cm 𝑓𝑐𝑑
diameter and 5 cm height. The pellets were BR= [4]
more uniform in shape and size than the 𝑡𝑐𝑓−𝑡𝑐𝑖
briquettes.
where (Pci -P) is the mass of water in the pot (g),
The proximate analysis of the fuels was carried specific heat of water is 4.186 J/g0C, (Tcf -Tci) is
out and also the calorific values of the fuels the change in water temperature measured in
were determined. 0C , W
cv is the mass of water evaporated from
Table1: Properties of fuels used the pot measured in g, and the latent heat of
evaporation of water is 2260 kJ/kg. The dry-fuel
Proximate Composition (%) equivalent consumed during each phase of the
test is represented by fcd, and LHV is the lower
Calorific Value
Fuel /Biomass
heating value (also called net calorific value)

(KJ/Kg)
Sl. No.
and is measured in kJ/kg. (tcf –tci) is the duration

Moisture
Content
Content
Volatile
Carbon
Matter
Fixed
of the specific test phase in minutes and (Pcf –

Ash
P) is the amount of water remaining in the pot

after boiling.
Wood 17.57
1 8.41 76.32 10.84 4.43
pellets MJ/Kg 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Saw-dust 20.2 The WBT test results of three phases conducted

2 7.46 72.54 14.93 5.08 for both the cookstove models (modified ICS
briquettes MJ/kg
and PCS-1) using the two biomass fuels (saw-
dust briquettes and wood-pellets) have been
105
Theme B
presented and variation among them is

compared as shown in table 2 and table 3. The lesser burning rate led to increasing in fuel
savings and was found good for PCS-1
The variations in efficiency noticed at various cookstove as compared to the modified ICS.
phases of WBT were due to the additional heat The lowest burning rates in both the stoves were
required to heat up cook-stove in the cold start seen in the simmering phase using either of the
condition that is accounted as the lost heat fuels. This can be attributed to a controlled
fraction. The simmering phase exhibited the supply of heat energy to maintain the
highest thermal efficiency on account of lower temperature 40 C below the local boiling point in
heat losses associated with process undertaken this phase.
at temperature 4°C lower to the local boiling The fuel energy consumed by ICS per unit time
point. The modified ICS presented a better links to the firepower. Higher fire-power is
performance as compared to PCS-1 cookstove
desired for high power phase and was found in
on account of proper air-circulation obtained
the modified ICS using both the fuels. The low
inside the combustion chamber due to primary
fire-power of the modified ICS in the low power
and secondary holes provided in the stove. In
phase suggests that the flame during use is
addition, the vertically elongated shape and consistent and stable. This contributes to
reduced chamber diameter of the ICS minimal loss of heat to the environment as
significantly improves airflow and mixing for
compared to an unstable and inconsistent
combustion within the chamber and also helps
flame.
to direct the heated air to the pot thus increasing
heat transfer. Table 3: Energy performance of ICS and PCS-1
cookstove using sawdust briquette as fuel in
Table 2: Energy performance of ICS and PSC-1 WBT test
cookstove using wood pellets as fuel in WBT
test Performance parameters ICS PCS-1
Cold start phase
Performance parameter ICS PCS-1
Cold start phase Thermal efficiency (%) 30.28% 26.6%
Thermal efficiency (%) 28.17% 24.9% Fuel burning rate(g/min) 17.6 16.38
Fuel burning rate(g/min) 19.45 17.92 Fire power(Watts)
5927 5516
Fire power(Watts)
5695.6 5249.52
Specific fuel
Specific fuel consumption(kg/kg of is 0.075 0.093
consumption(kg/kg of 0.104 0.117 water)
water) Boiling time (min)
10 min 13 min
Boiling time (min)
12 min 15 min
Hot start phase
Hot start phase
Thermal efficiency (%) 33.47% 30.86%
Thermal efficiency (%) 32.8% 28.49%
Fuel burning rate (g/min) 20 19.14 Fuel burning rate(g/min) 18.24 18.14
Fire power(Watts) Fire power(Watts)
5865.67 5606.18 6143 6073
Specific fuel Specific fuel

consumption(kg/kg of 0.097 0.110 consumption(kg/kg of 0.071 0.089
water) water)
Boiling time (min) Boiling time (min)
11 min 13 min 9 min 11 min
Simmer phase Simmer phase

Thermal efficiency (%) 34.3% 29.92 % Thermal efficiency (%) 36.44% 31.4%
Fuel burning rate(g/min) 8.53 6.52 Fuel burning rate (g/min) 9.47 5.42
Fire power(Watts) Fire power (Watts)
1346.6 1910.24
1571.1 1825.48
Specific fuel consumption Specific fuel consumption
0.147 0.159
(kg/kg of water) 0.11 0.133
(kg/kg of water)
106
Theme B
REFERENCES
The SFC of the modified ICS is lower compared Arora, P., Jain, S. and Sachdeva, K.,“
to the PCS-1 cookstove in both high power and Laboratory based assessment of cookstove
low power phases. This shows that the modified performance using energy and emission
ICS offers better fuel savings relative to the PCS- parameters for North Indian cooking cycle”,
1. This low SFC of the ICS is reflected in its time Biomass and Bioenergy, vol. 69, pp 211-221,
to boil. 2014.
Gogoi, B. and Baruah, D.C., “Steady state heat
The boiling times were respectively 12 min and
transfer modelling of solid fuel biomass stove ”,
11 min for the cold start and hot start process
Energy , vol. 97, pp 283-295, 2016.
using wood pellets as against the time duration
of 10 min and 9 min using saw-dust briquettes Jetter, J. J. and Kariher, P., “Solid-fuel
for the modified ICS. Whereas, for the PCS-1 household cook stoves: Characterization of
cookstove, the boiling times were 15 min and 13 performance and emissions”, Biomass and
min respectively using wood pellets as against Bioenergy, vol. 33, pp 294-305, 2009.
durations of 13 min and 11 min using saw-dust
briquettes. The time taken to boil water to its Kumar, M., Kumar S. and Tyagi, S.K., “Design,
local boiling point, in turn, affects the fuel Development and Technological advancement
consumption and cause variation in its in the biomass cookstoves: a review”, Renew
performance. Sustain Energy Rev,vol 26 , pp 265–285,2013.
Mehetre, S.A., Panwar, N.L., Sharma, D. and
Kumar, H., “Improved Biomass cookstoves for
4. CONCLUSION sustainable development: A review”, Renewable
and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 72, pp
It was found that the insulation provided in the
672-687, 2017.
combustion chamber and the provision for
primary and secondary inlets showed good Mukunda, HS. Understanding clean energy and
combustion efficiency and reduced fuel fuels from biomass. New Delhi: Wiley India Pvt.
consumption for the stove as compared to PCS- Ltd., 2011.
1 cookstove. Reduction in smokiness of the Raman, P., Murali, J., Sakthivadivel, D.
stove was also observed, making it user-friendly and Vigneswaran, V.S., “Performance
in health, comfort and convenience. The Evaluation of three types of forced draft
averaged thermal efficiency of the modified ICS cookstoves using fuel wood and coconut shell”,
is found to be better as compared to the PCS-1 Biomass and Bioenergy, vol. 49, pp 333-340,
cookstove. This can be attributed to increased 2013.
air flow for better combustion in the combustion
chamber due to the introduction of the primary Rupnar, A. and Chauhan , P., “Design ,
and secondary inlets. Also, the reduced size of Development of domestic cookstove suitable for
the combustion chamber provided for better different solid biomass fuel”, International
heat transfer to the pot, thus reducing losses. Journal of Environment, Ecology, Family and
The mean values determined for firepower, Urban Studies (IJEEFUS) , vol. 6(6), pp 15-22,
SFC, time to boil and burning rate of the 2016.
modified ICS demonstrated better results
compared to PCS-1 cookstove. These Sonarkar, P.R. and Chaurasia ,A.S. , “Thermal
parameters primarily indicate a reduction in performance of three improved biomass‑fired
fuel requirement and lead to saving to fuel. In cookstoves using fuel wood, wood pellets and
comparing the performance of the modified ICS coconut shell”, International Journal of
using two fuel sources, wood pellets and Environment, Ecology, Family and Urban
sawdust briquettes were significantly different Studies (IJEEFUS) , vol. 7, pp 13-25, 2017.
from each other. The performance showed Sutar,B.K., Kohli, S., Ravi, M.R., Ray, A.,
dependence on the type of fuel used. The “Biomass cookstoves: A review of technical
averaged thermal efficiencies for the modified aspects”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy
ICS were 31.75% and 33.39% using wood Reviews ,vol 41,pp 1128–1166, 2015.
pellets and saw-dust briquettes respectively.
Similarly, for the PCS-1 cookstove, the Zhang , z. , zhang, y. , zhou, y. , ahmed , r. ,
averaged thermal efficiencies were 27.9% and annegarn ,h. ,and dong, r. , “systematic and
29.62% respectively. conceptual errors in standards and protocols for
thermal performance of biomass stoves”,
107
Theme B
renewable and sustainable energy reviews, vol.

12, pp 153-173, 2016.
108
LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK OF DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPING

COUNTRIES FOR CONSTRUCTION & DEMOLITION WASTE
MANAGEMENT
ICID2018_B_003
Dharati Sote-Wankhade1, Dr. Vasudha Gokhale2
1,2 MKSSS’s Dr. B. N. College of Architecture, Karvenagar, Pune, Maharashtra, India
ABSTRACT
The economic development of every country is visible in its urbanization and industrialization. The rate of
development proportionately generates amount of Municipal Solid Waste(MSW) base on population, urban structure
and people’s attitude. Construction industry develops urban structure in form of infrastructure and buildings to
accommodate population and required services. At the same time, it exploits natural resources, consumes enormous
energy, creates pollution and generates huge amount of construction and demolition (C&D) waste which
accommodate large size of landfill sites for disposal.Various developed countries adopt C & D waste management
practices in their laws and legislation to reduce the amount of MSW as much possible extent. On the other hand, the
developing countries are still in formulation of strategies to be adopted to address the issue.This paper discusses the
laws and regulations and framework adopted by developed countries and its effect on reduction of amount of waste
from landfill. It converses on the strategies that are in process by the various developing countries. The findings are
expected to help to raising awareness for a change of institutional framework among policymakers, developers, and
stakeholders for an efficient C & D waste management in future.
Keywords: development, C & D Waste, landfill sites, laws and legislation
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Definition of waste
Industrialization which promotes economic
development of any country increases the Basel Convention by UNEP define wastes “as
demand for the improved education (educated substances or objects, which are disposed of or
workforce) and public works agencies (pleasant are intended to be disposed of or are required to
living conditions) that are characteristics of be disposed of by the provisions of national law”
urbanization.Along with industrialization and (TERI-BCSD, 2014). In one of report, NSCC
urbanization, the requirement ofspaces for defined waste as “an object or substance
accommodating and facilitating the rising discarded by its owner after use” is waste. Waste
population and providing services to them is is also defined as any losses reduced by activities
proportionately increasing.To suffice the that generate direct or indirect costs but do not
requirement of spaces like building and add any value to the product from the point of
infrastructure, construction industry play important view of the client” (Mahesh D. Meghani, 2011)
role in erecting them in urban areas.
1.2 Waste generation
From literature, it is noted that MSW is result of
unavoidable human activity, increase in disposal Municipal Solid Waste management of city is
income (economic status), standards of living, exclusively the responsibility of urban local body
public habits (consumption of goods and of the city. This service consumes excess
services), urban structure, local climate and budgeted amount in treatment and disposal of
technology adopted by the population of waste generated in the city.
country.Generally, waste generated from industrial
sector, commercial, domestic, institutional and The intense activities in the construction
municipal services are included in MSW, but industry contribute to overall socio-economic
landfills are under tremendous pressure from development, but it is also major exploiter of
Construction and Demolition (C&D) waste as it natural non-renewable resources along with
comprises a significant portion of the solid waste environmental degradation and significant amount
stream. of C&D waste generation. Although varying from
country to country, an enormous amount of C&D
Disposal of MSW is becoming serious and waste is generated worldwide, resulting in many
troublesome problem for human habitation all over economic, environmental and social problems
the world. As Land is precious natural resource (Yuan, 2012). In some cities the C&D waste, such
still Land filling is the dominant waste disposal as building rubble, concrete and masonry, can
option.
109
Theme B
represent as much as 40% of the total waste and the amount of C&D waste generated along
stream (Bhada-Tata, 2012). with its disposal strategies.
1.3 C&D waste The traditional method of dumping C&D waste

is landfill sites which are mostly located around
Various research papers on C&D waste are the periphery of city or the waste bury or burn on
studied and definitions elaborated by researcher site itself. The illegal dumping of C&D waste along
are taken into consideration. It expresses that the riverbed and roadside create nuisance to the
C&D waste can be considered as the waste environment and society. It is common to see
material generated by various construction huge piles of C&D waste, along roadside resulting
activities like new construction, renovation, in traffic congestion and interruption. Over the
demolition of building and infrastructure. The time, this waste finds its way into surface drains
reasons for C&D waste generation depends on by choking them. The waste from small
the social and economical development, construction, renovation or demolition sites, are
construction technology adopted, attitude of dumped into the nearby municipal bin/vat/waste
stakeholders, etc.The waste material generated storage depots, making the MSW heavy. It also
on construction site is by-product of construction degrades its quality for further treatment like
activity, leftover and un-used material on site, composting or energy recovery.
handling error by personnel, etc.
C&D waste affects the project cost due to
Table 1. C&D waste quantity and Recycling target achieved excess use of material and disposal charges of
Country C&D in Target Country C&D in Target C&D waste on landfill site, consumes time and
MSW( (%) MSW( (%) disturbs the activity flow on site. C&D waste
%) %) transfer to the landfill from site consumes fuel in
USA 29^ 73.5^ Asian transportation and manpower for up-loading and
Australia 42^ 57`` Singapore 23` 99` un-loading.
New South 73`` Hong 38^ Land
Wales Kong fill
2 C&D WASTE LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK
New 50** Japan 16^ 95``
Zealand Realizing the negative impact of C&D waste to the
EU Turkey environment, Governments at both national and
UK 30* 64.8^^ Thailand international levels have introduced various
Netherland 66* 98.1^ China 40^ policies and regulations to make construction
Finland 24* 26.3^^ Malaysia activities more sustainable.
Denmark 15* 94.9^ South 48 95
Korea International C&D waste prevention and
Germany 53* 86.3^ India 40^ minimisation is a new and emerging area
worldwide. Till 1945, no country has a history of
Source: *Eurostat 2010,**https://www.branz.co.nz/REBRI, active C&D waste minimisation or prevention.
^ (Ulubeylia S., 2017), ^^ (Tojo N., 2011),
`file:///C:/Users/DHARATI/Downloads/9783319124292- Even most of the countries did not start same until
c2%20.pdf, `` (Wijayasundara M., 2012) the 1980’s or later. Also,initial efforts of the
countries were generally weak and/or were
1.4 Issues with C&D waste notgiven a monitoring mechanism to ensure
compliance of waste management on site.
Construction activities are neither environment
friendly or sustainable; nor the C&D waste is bio- 2.1 Global scenario
degradable or toxic. The major environmental
pollutions from construction activities are typically The United Nations Framework Convention on
classified as air, water, soil and noise pollution. Climate Change (UNFCCC) which was adopted in
The various environmental impacts of C&D waste 1992 have been gradually begun to have
aredestruction of ecosystem by depletion of enforcing laws and regulations relevant to waste
natural resource, enormous use of natural (Shant A. Dajadian, 2014). Nationally the
resources for material manufacturing, huge government has undertaken a policy of awareness
energy consumption for operating on site and raising, promotion of good waste management
large land occupation for waste disposal. With all practicethrough voluntary agreements with
these cognizance of C&D waste, the personnel industry and contractual requirement in
are pleased for speed and cost as their financial government fundedprojects. The Environmental
tactic are based on same. They hardly concern Protection Agency (EPA) and Leadership in
the environmental impact of their work process Energy and Environment Design (LEED) from
2000 have introduced initiatives that highlight
110
Theme B
goodpractice to reduce C&D waste.State the project worth at least 300,000€. The literature
government encourages contractors, green also shows that some of the policies developed by
purchasing practices, competitions and increases UK government mainly focused on how to achieve
in the cost of landfill.All described waste is a reduction of C&D waste to landfill as highlighted
required to be manifested and then it should be in the “Strategy Sustainable Construction”.The
transferred to the landfill or an appropriate Government also keeps on striving to enhance the
facility.Still it is seen that there is currently nota efficiency of waste management through the
nationwide format for recording the effectiveness introduction of other fiscal measures and
of the measures implemented. legislation which will drive the construction
The Australian Government has taken the industry towards a closed loop production system
approach of co-operation with industry, national, (Jannatun Naemah Ismam, 2014).
state andlocal governments on C&D waste as part
to reduce environmental impact of building. The In Netherland, after World War II, building
WasteWise Construction Program which was a rubble created bydemolishing war-damaged
partnership between the government and buildings boost the market for recycling and re-
volunteered companies / associations from the using materials. Under “environmentally conscious
Construction industry, designed a program to building” practices, it was reported that in 1985
avoid waste and reduce the amount of C&D C&D waste recycling and reuse was 50% which
wastegoing to landfill. States have taken individual was risen to 91% in 1999 and in recent years it
action on C&D waste appropriate to their region. reaches to 95%. The Dutch Government has
utilised a number of different policies to encourage
New South Wales(NSW) implemented various waste minimisation,including:
initiates which was assisted by legislation the • Ban on landfilling re-useable and combustible
Waste Minimisation and WasteManagement Act C&D waste, introduced in 2000.
1995 passed by the State government to • Promotion of secondary (recycled) aggregates
encourage C&D waste.Waste Avoidance and by giving bonus to contractors
Resource Recovery Act 2001 has set up and in • Voluntary agreement with industry
February 2003, the NSW Government released • Research and development programmes
the first Waste Avoidance and Resource Recovery • Quality standards for recycled aggregates
Strategy with priorities for action to avoid waste, • Landfill tax which has been risen by seven times
recover and reuse more secondary resources,and since 1989.
reduce toxicity in products and materials as well Local and regional government incorporates
as littering and illegal dumping. The various strategies inBy-laws to encourage the segregation
implications like waste management plans, landfill and recycling of waste materials.
taxes, use of recycling material, training programs
are adopted for C&D waste management. In Finland,sustainable development policies
resulting fromthepolicies of EuropeanUnion, 1992
The Nationalgovernment of New Zealand has Rio declaration and the 2002 Johannesburg
set a specific target in relation to C&D Waste as it Summit were committed for C&D waste
set itself an aspiration of becoming a zero waste management. The Finnish Government as part of
country. In 2004 a partnership comprising the its 2002 National Waste Planhas also introduced a
Government, local authorities and commercial ban onwaste containing more than 5% bio-
interest groupshad studied on reduction of C&D degradable matter being deposited in landfills
waste. According tolocal government plans, the without pre-treatment.In local waste regulations
introduction of central register for waste carriers, some municipalities provide more specific
tracking for waste, licensing system for landfills guidance (and requirements) onthe sorting,
and cleanfills, levies on the disposal of certain collection and processing of C&D waste. Between
wastes to landfill/cleanfill and the use of these 1995 and 1997, C&D waste recycling is doubled
levies for use in waste minimisation strategies is and also the facilities to recycle C&D wastes have
implemented.This system expected change inthe increased till January 2007.
long term in order to support the national waste
strategy. Denmark hasan aggressive strategy to reuse
C&D waste. They have State tax on non-recycled
In UK, Her Majesty’s Government’s Annual waste and ‘agreement with Danish Contractors’
Report, United Kingdom, session 2010-2013, The Association on selective demolition of building
Site Waste Management Plans (SWMP) constitute materials which aided pre-separation of materials
of the regulations were made law under Section (Mathur, 2015). They have also developed a very
54 of the Clean Neighborhoods and Environment stringent legislation for demolition of building. As
Act. It described that the SWMP should be per this, the contractor has to apply for permission
prepared by both the client and main contractor of along with identifying and quantifying each
111
Theme B
constituent of C&D waste that likely to arise from established to improve the Singapore building and
demolition. Also the disposal strategy, waste construction industry to achieve sustainability. In
carrier system, environmental problems and addition, local construction industries adopted ISO
methodology to control it need to be identified. 14000 EMS for upgrading the performance of
The disposal of waste to landfill taxed at high environmental construction which enables the
rates and even refusal for movement of mixed country to manage the problem of illegal dumping
waste material is applied. The strategy also in a sustainable manner (Sasitharan Nagapan,
mentions that, there is no tax on materials sent for 2012).Construction Industry Training Institute
recycling. (CITI) aims the training for best practice for waste
In Germany, Ministry of the Environment, management to the existing workers and new
Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety, entrants. Environment Control Officer (ECO)
supported by the Federal Environmental Agency appointed on site to look after the management
promoted closed substance cycle waste and proper disposal of C&D waste. Contractor on
management and ensuring environmentally consultation with ECO should submit a site
compatible waste disposal. Construction material Environmental Control Programme to the NEA
manufacturers are responsible for ensuring that regarding plans for proper storage and disposal of
their products are designed in such a way as to wastes, etc. With all these actions, Singapore
reduce wastage. Building owners, developers and achieved high rate i.e @94% of C&D waste
their agents (engineers and architects) are recycling.The landfill monopoly of government
responsible for integrating a waste management provides the ability to control C&D waste disposal
strategy into their construction plan. This includes costs.Nevertheless, the construction waste and
the use of recyclable building materials. Regional the problem of illegal dumping are still rampant in
governments (the ‘Laender’) are responsible for the country.
the implementation and enforcement of
regulations meant to achieve C&D waste goals set In 1980, Hong Kong established and
by the Federal government of Germany and the implemented series of policies with aim of
EU. Local German authorities hold the primary reducing C&D waste generation and finally
responsibility for ensuring the proper treatment of achieving target of sustainable development by
C&D waste. From 2003, the Commercial Wastes Government and her executive arms over the past
Ordinanceregulates the separation of certain decades(Yashuai LI, 2012).A literature review
types of recyclable waste from the construction reveals that country is actively trying new C&D
and demolition industry. waste management policies based on waste
management philosophies available (e.g. 3R
2.2 Asian scenario principle and polluter pays principle). The policies
have formed an interlocking, and relatively
Currently, countries in Asia have their own effective policy framework for regulating C&D
definition of C&D waste as per its components waste management in the country(Lu W,
generated during the activity(Noraziah Wahi, 2013).The main authorities involve with C&D
2015).In countries like East Asia and Pacific waste in Hong Kong are the Environment
(EAP) regions, Japan, Hong Kong, Special Protection Department (‘EPD’) and the Civil
Administrative Region (SAR), India, Singapore, Engineering and Development Department
and Malaysia, among others, particularly in urban (‘CED’). The things changed when the Hong Kong
setting, have already been practiced 3R principles government implemented a Construction Waste
in C&D waste management (Vilas Nitivattananon, Disposal Charging Scheme (CWDCS) based on
2007).In Asia, AICs such as Japan, Hong Kong, Polluter Pays Principle in 2006. For this, the
and Singapore are well equipped with advanced Government has the duty to provide off-site
C&D waste management practices. In such sorting facilities to separate mixed materials. The
countries, there exist not only specific regulations inert material is then be used as public fill while
and norms for C&D waste management but also the decomposable organic waste has been taken
extensive research on recycling of C&D waste is into the main waste disposal stream (Noraziah
available. (Manowong E., 2010). Wahi, 2015). The “trip ticket system” enhanced by
government in 2004 to track and monitorthe
In Singapore, space for landfill is severely transportation route and destination of C&D waste
limited and at scarcity. Evens the natural generated by a particular construction project,
resources for manufacturing of building material preventstransporter from dumping the waste in an
are in shortage which results in importation of unauthorized area.
material for construction. National Environment
Agency (NEA) has overall responsibility of C&D In Japan, more than a quarter of a century of
waste and enforcement of illegal dumping problem research was on the reuse of demolished
with stringent rules and regulations. The concrete. In 1991, the Japanese government
Singapore Green Building Council (SGBC) was
112
Theme B
established the Recycling Law which applies to The policies implemented in the two exemplary
large-scale demolition projects that exceed a metropolitan cities − Beijing and Shanghai were
specified threshold and includes registration of found to be proactive. C&D waste in Beijing is
demolition operators, noise regulations and divided into architecture sediment, fragmented
countermeasures for asbestos.The former Ministry building material, and unrecoverable C&D waste
of Construction (MOC) (now named Japanese that go to disposal without reusing or recycling.
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport, The C&D waste disposal method in Shanghai is
Road) nominated demolished concrete, soil, more specific than that in Beijing. After onsite
asphalt concrete, and wood as construction by- sorting, the C&D waste is handled in any of the
products (Vilas Nitivattananon, 2007).Demolition three ways − directly recycled, recycled after
contractors are required to separate and recycle processing, or landfilled according to their
specific construction wastes such as concrete, characteristics (Beijia Huanga. b, 2017).
asphalt, and timber(Hyder Consulting, 2011, 20
October). The Malaysian government has proposed a
variety of C&D waste management actions. There
The most comprehensive regulation in Turkey are some actions been taken by the Construction
regarding the control and recovery of C&D wastes Industry Development Board (CIDB) for example
is the “Regulation of the Control of Excavation Soil as the Guidelines on Construction Waste
and Construction and Demolition Waste” number Management, even so, the results have not been
25406 enacted by the Ministry of the Environment translated in the form of legal instruments and
and Forestry which came into force on March enforcement.Consequently, the Malaysian
18th, 2004. This regulation includes general rules contractors seem to apply their own initiatives to
about administrative and technical subjects on the manage construction waste, which does not
reduction, collection, temporary storage, recovery, reflect the existing initiatives implemented by the
evaluation and disposal of excavation soil and Malaysian government. The failure of the
C&D wastes and its grouping were given connection between initiatives implemented by the
according to the regulation (Hakan, government and practiced is caused by lack of
2012).However level of applications and activities enforcement, lack of implementation and
in the scope of these regulations is not uncertainty over responsibilities among the
satisfactory yet. governing authorities (NURZALIKHA SAADI,
2016).Municipal council of Malaysia only provides
Thailand has no regulations specifically disposal services at landfill but does not interfere
pertaining to the management of C&D waste. The in C&D waste management since it is the
available environmental protection laws are responsibility of contractors to manage waste on
applied as fundamental guidelines for waste site. (Sasitharan Nagapan, 2012).
handling, transportation, and disposal. Regarding
the institutional initiatives, there are no regulations South Korea is one of the most extensive and
specifically dealing with C&D waste management the oldest recycling policies for C&D waste. The
in Thailand (Manowong E., 2010). country has a law on Acceleration of C&D Waste
Reuse / Recycling 2005 that provides for step-by-
In China, although there are some studies step demolition, and utilisation of recycled
discussed about the C&D waste management aggregates. C&D waste management is part of
status, a detail review of the C&D waste low carbon green growth strategy. It has adopted
management policiesat the national level is still separate building codes for recycled asphalt
absent. The environmental laws for construction concrete aggregates, recycled concrete
projects have been strictly imposed on municipal aggregates, and road pavements.
projects by the Standing Committee of National
People’s Congress from 2003. It emphasized the 2.3 Indian scenario
importance of preventing environmental pollution
from source. Also any new construction must In India,Construction industry is facing a massive
obtain EIA approval before breaking ground. In waste disposal problem in current scenario due to
policy framework for MSW management, the “trip increasing quantum of C&D waste. The key issues
ticket system” introduced with purpose to ensure and challenges for C&D waste include lack of
the contractor will properly dispose thewaste. Yet collection and segregation at source, scarcity of
there is no specific C&D law and low awareness land, dumping of construction waste, lack of
and willingness among contractors. In terms of awareness, etc. It is also a fact that urban area
guidelines, China has developed the same 3R does not have a mechanism to deal with
principle but different way of implementation is construction waste and there is no system to
recognized (Beijia Huanga. b, 2017). monitor the use of waste for construction purpose
(Jain M. , October 2012).
113
Theme B
Past Guidelines on C&D wastes have been and local government in their boundary. The lack
brought out by CPWD under Guidelines for ofthese meant that countries are often unable to
Sustainable habitat – Part IV: Guidelines on reuse know or realize the true impact of the approach
and recycling of C&D waste (March 2014) and theyused for C&D waste management. For this,
also by Building Material and Technology data collection is most important to capture the
Promotion Council (BMTPC) titled “Guidelines for impact ofthe approach and regular monitoring for
utilization of C&D waste in construction of dwelling identification where it is not working and need to
units and related infrastructure in housing be improved.
schemes of Government (Year 2016)”.In the
course of preparation of these Guidelines, it was Also, it is seen that as compared to developed
noted that there are uncertainties in estimating the countries or AICs, C&D waste problems and their
quantum of C&D waste generation This can be management are not yet widely recognized in
attributed to several reason like different methods developing countries or NICs, indicating
adopted to estimate quantum of C&D waste inadequacy of institutional changes linked with
generated, varying pace of development activities societal and economic problems due to this
in cities, redevelopment of cities due to rapid waste(Manowong, 2010).Enforcement is vital for
urbanization wherein demolition activities become the success of any approach applied, without it
necessary (CPHEEO, 206). effect of its application is neglected and uncared.
Ministry of Environment, Forests & Climate

Changeand CPCB has brought “Guidelines on 4 CONCLUSION
Environmental management of C&D waste” in
compliance of Rule 10 sub-rule 1(a) of the C&D In India, the Guidelines for C&D waste are notin
Waste Management Rules, 2016 and has the form of legal instruments and enforcement.
attempted to address the issues pertaining to The Guidelines provide the requirement ofservices
abetment of adverse environmental impacts for collection, transportation and disposal at
arising from C&D waste management activities. landfill by local government, but does not interfere
As per these guidelines, Local authorities are in C&D waste management. There is no clear
responsible for arranging the collection, recycling guideline based on 3R practices at its generation
and disposal infrastructure of C&D waste, either stages like Design and Planning and Polluter Pays
on their own, or through other agencies. In any Principleat disposal stage for reduction of C&D
cases, the disposal costs will be borne by the waste from landfill. Also there are no guidelines
owners. But, there is no provision of charges for for the material manufacturing as per the current
disposal in landfills, which should be sufficiently market requirement in the entire management
high to encourage processing and recycling of strategy.
C&D wastes. Also, standards for C&D are not
properly formulated for waste utilization. Along After the entire literature study, the following
with this the information regarding C&D recommendations and suggestions are proposed
generation, legislative and regulatory framework for formulating strategies that can be applied for
and procedures to all stakeholders and common reduction of C&D waste
public is not available.The study shows the • Waste management practices and strategies
seriousness of government in handling the waste based on 3R Principles in construction plan
and is still struggling to overcome the problem. prepared for site
• Product design / manufacturing for maximum
recycling should be applied in norms to reduce
3 DISCUSSION waste
• Conduct Waste audit and appointment of C&D
Literature study indicates that some countries use waste manager on site for controlling waste
a combined approach to C&D waste minimisation • Pre-separation of C&D waste on site itself for
and prevention from landfill, using both incentives inert and no-inert materials
and punishment to achieve the goals. Whilst each • Trip Ticket system i.e. waste carrier system by
approach had its own pros and cons and it was registration number to vehicles and definite
hard to separate the exact reason for success and route for transport to avoid illegal dumping
failure due to a lack of quality data.However there • Waste collection centers and disposal practices
is no clear set method used to achieve C&D waste should be in place
minimisation and prevention at country level • Based on Polluter pays principle the norms like
internationally. Tax, penalty, waste charging system must be
implemented
The two most lacking factors found in the
review are data collection for C&D waste quantity
andforceful enforcement of strategies by national
114
Theme B
• High landfill levies for mixed debris or rejection Manowong, E. (2010). An assessment of stakeholders’
of C&D waste should be applied to reduce the influences on construction and demolition waste
load on recycling practices management - the case of thailand. The first
International Conference on Sustainability and the
• Rules for the industry related to issue, review Future, (pp. 1-8). Bremen, Germany.
and cancel licenses in case of failure in C&D Mathur, D. (2015). Slender waste: reducing the girth of
waste management by the personnel. construction and demolition waste to landfill in Alice
Springs. 49th International Conference of the
Only stringent laws and regulatory framework Architectural Science Association (pp. 706-715). The
can control the quantity of C&D from landfill and university of Melbourne.
save our planet earth. In India, to regulate C&D Mei Li, A. K. (2012). Improvement of the Statutory
waste, the concerned authority needs to arbitrate Framework for Construction and Demolition Waste
Management exemplified in Germany and Australia.
and settle the disputes within industry for
11th Urban Environment Symposium, (pp. 15-24).
management of C&D waste. Karlsruhe, Germany.
Noraziah Wahi, C. J. (2015). Critical Review on
Construction Waste Control Practices: Legislative and
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116
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
BIODIESEL PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION OF PERFORMANCE

AND EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS OF CALOPHYLLUM
INOPHYLLUM
ICID2018_B_006
Kishor Kumar S1, K S jayantha2, Subhash Kalki D3 and Kavya T R3
1
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Malnad College of Engineering, Hassan,
Karnataka state, India.
2
Professor and principal, Department of Civil Engineering, Malnad College of Engineering, Hassan,
3
Department of Civil Engineering, Malnad College of Engineering, Hassan, Karnataka state, India.
Abstract: Inflation in fuel prices and unprecedented shortage of its supply has promoted the interest in
development of the alternative sources for petroleum fuels. The present paper discusses with the various
phases of production of bio-diesel from calophyllum inophyllum seeds. The phases of shelling, milling,
extraction of seed oil and transesterification are discussed. Investigations were carried out to study the
performance, emission and combustion characteristics of Calophyllum Inophyllum seed oil. The results
were compared with diesel fuel, and the selected Calophyllum Inophyllum seed oil fuel blends (10%,
20%, 30% and 100%). The engine performance parameters such as specific fuel consumption, Brake
Thermal Efficiency and Exhaust Emission (CO, SOx, HC, and NOx) were recorded. The exhaust gas
emissions are reduced with increase in biodiesel concentration. The experimental results proved that the
use of biodiesel in compression ignition engine is a viable alternative to diesel. From the comparison of
results, it is inferred that the engine performance is improved with significant reduction in emissions for
the chosen oils without any engine modification
Keywords: Biodiesel, Calophyllum Innophyllum, Transesterification.
1. INTRODUCTION
Natural resources of conventional fuels (gasoline emission profile. It also enhance the life of diesel
and diesel) are declining steadily due to engine by providing more lubrication, resulting in
industrialization and motorization of the world. reduced premature wearing of engine components.
Fossil fuel availability constrain, ever increasing
price, and environment due to extensive use of 2. METHODOLOGY
fossil fuel are some of the concerns that lead to the
Step by step procedure of production of
search for such alternative petroleum products.
calophyllum biodiesel is given below
With this perspective, considerable attention has
been drawn towards the production of biodiesel as
2.1 Extraction of seed oil
a direct substitute or a blending option with fossil
fuel to increase its performance efficiency.
The extraction of oil from calophyllum
In the recent past, the crude oil prices have
inophyllum seed is done by using a method
increased immensely and the fossil fuels are
called mechanical expeller. Extraction requires
depleting. Global warming has become a global
passing the seeds through a screw crusher,
concern, which is highly contributed by the
generally called expeller, i.e. Screw Oil Expeller.
emissions of fossil fuel combustion products. Bio-
The oil is then filtered to make it clean enough
fuel has emerged as an alternative fuel for
for processing.
petroleum due to their agricultural origin, are able
to reduce net carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide
emissions.
Biodiesel is a diesel-equivalent processed
fuel derived from biological source, which can be
used directly in IC-engine. Moreover it is
biodegradable and non-toxic and it possesses low
117
Theme A
Fig.1:Deshelling of seeds Fig 2: .Oil expeller

Fig 4: Experimental setup
1 litre of seed oil is heated to about 600 on a hot plate

magnetic stirrer and it is transferred to a clean and
dry three necked flask.80 ml of Methanol and 2.5 ml
of H2SO4 is added and stirred at a constant speed of
800 rpm for 2 hours.
After the completion of reaction, the solution is
allowed to cool down and then transferred to a
separatory funnel and allowed to cool down for 12
hours. The formation of layers takes place, in which
the top layer formed is the processed oil, which is
brown in colour and the lower layer is the Free Fatty
Fig 3: Calophyllum innophyllum seed oil
Acid which has to be drained out, separating it from
the supernatant processed seed oil.The processed
2.2 Determination of FFA content of seed oil seed oil is then tested for Free Fatty Acid. The
resulting FFA was found to be again more than 4,
The fatty acid is a Carboxylic acid, with a long hence, the seed oil was again used to carry out the
aliphatic chain, which is either saturated or acid esterification process. Again the processed seed
unsaturated. The seed oil sample of 1 ml is taken in oil is tested for Free Fatty Acid. Since resulting FFA
a flask and 10 ml of iso-propyl alcohol is added was found to be 1 (less than 4), the seed oil was
(seed oil : iso-propyl alcohol is always maintained used to carry out the trans-esterification process.
in the ratio of 1:10). 2 drops of Phenolphthalein
indicator is added to the mixture of seed oil and iso- Table.1: weight of NaOH for transesterification
propyl alcohol and thoroughly mixed. This mixture
is titrated against a standard solution of Sodium FFA NaOH (gm)
Hydroxide (NaOH). On the completion of titration, 0 3.5
the colour of the solution changes from colourless 1 4
to light pink. The amount of NaOH consumed is
2 5.5
noted to calculate the Free Fatty Acid (FFA)
content of the scum. The FFA content of the scum 3 6.5
is calculated by the following formula 4 7.5
(28.2∗Normality of NaOH∗ml of NaOH consumed)
FFA Content = 2 2.4 transesterification
Weight of the oil
Transesterification is the process of exchanging

If the FFA content is below 4, a single stage of the alkaly group of an ester compound by another
production of biodiesel can be carried out i.e the alcohol. These reactions are often catalyzed by
Trans-esterification. If the FFA content is greater the addition of an acid or a base.
than 4, a two stage production has to be carried out The processed scum is transferred to a three
for the production of biodiesel, i.e acid-esterification necked flask and is kept on a hot plate magnetic
to reduce to FFA content below 4 and trans- stirrer, heated to 600. After the temperature
esterification reaches to 60◦, 120 ml of Methanol and 4 gm of
NaOH are mixed in a beaker and then added to
2.3 Acid Esterification the three necked flask, which is kept in a constant
stirring condition at a speed of 800 rpm. The
Acid-esterification is the general name given to the reaction is allowed to proceed for duration of 2
chemical reaction in which two reactants (typically an hours. After the reaction is completed, the solution
alcohol and an acid) form an ester as the reaction is allowed to cool down.
product.
118
Theme A
Upon cooling, it is then transferred to a separatory properties

density viscosity calorific
funnel, where it is allowed to settle down for a (kg/m3) (cst) value(kj/kg)
duration of 12 hours. The separation of layers Diesel 825 3.24 39311.6
takes place, where the upper layer is the biodiesel B10 830 3.16 38523.08
which appears brownish in colour. The lower layer B20 835 3.58 37540.30
is the Glycerine, an unwanted product that is
separated from the biodiesel, by draining it into a B30 840 3.86 37267.71
beaker. B100 890 4.18 31950.12
3.1.1 Variation of Density for Different Biodiesel-

Diesel Blends
Density of Biodiesel depends upon molecular

weight. Since the density of Calophyllum
Inophyllum biodiesel is more than conventional
diesel fuel, the density of different blends increases
with the increase in biodiesel percentage and same
can be observed in table 2. Calophyllum
Inophyllum Biodiesel has maximum density of 890
Fig 5: Formation of layer kg/m3. Among blends B10 has density close to
Diesel value i.e. 830 kg/m3.
The biodiesel is then washed with warm water
(60◦) in order to remove the methanol present in 3.1.2 Variation of Kinematic Viscosity for Different
the biodiesel. The biodiesel has to be washed till Biodiesel-Diesel Blends
the water used does not change colour after the
wash. The biodiesel is then heated to a Viscosity is one of the most significant properties of
temperature of 1000 to remove any traces of water biodiesel since it plays a vital role in fuel injection
content present in it. The biodiesel is then stored process of diesel engine. If the viscosity is high it
for further tests to be conducted on it. affects atomization process because of which
effective mixing of fuel with air will not takes place
and it in turn causes incomplete combustion .
Viscosity will be high for those oils having longer
chain length of fatty acid and is less for those oils
having more amount of unsaturated fatty acid.
From table 2, it can be observed that Calophyllum
Inophyllum Biodiesel has highest viscosity of 4.18
cSt. Among blends B10 has viscosity nearer to
diesel value i.e. 3.16 cSt.
3.1.3 Variation of Calorific Value for Different

Biodiesel-Diesel Blends
Fig 6: water washing Fig 7: Biodiesel
Calorific value of fuel is one of the important
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION parameter that determines efficiency of an engine.
Higher the calorific value of a fuel, larger amount of
3.1 Properties of Calophyllum Inophyllum Biodiesel heat will be released which increases the efficiency
of the engine. From table 2, it can be observed that
Different properties of biodiesel like Density, Kinematic as biodiesel percentage in blends increases there
Viscosity and Calorific value were tested using is a decrease in calorific value. It is because of the
hydrometer, viscometer and bomb calorimeter reason that since Biodiesel is an oxygenated fuel;
respectively. Calophyllum Inophyllum biodiesel was its calorific value is less compared to diesel. Diesel
blended with conventional diesel in the following has a highest calorific value 39311.36 kJ/kg and
proportions:- among blends B10 has calorific value nearer to
B10 10% Biodiesel + 90% Diesel diesel value 38523.08 kJ/kg.
B20 20% Biodiesel + 80% Diesel
B30 30% Biodiesel + 70% Diesel 3.2 Performance Evaluation
Table 2: Properties of Biodiesel
3
119
Theme A
In IC engine, the thermal energy is released by

burning the fuel in the engine cylinder. The It is observed that the brake thermal efficiency is
combustion of fuel in IC engine is quite fast but the low at low values of BP and increases with
time needed to get a proper air/fuel mixture increase of BP for all blends of fuel. For a blend of
depends mainly on the nature of fuel and the 30% the brake thermal efficiency is high at low BP
method of its introduction into the combustion values when compared with other blends of fuel.
chamber. Hence at the blend of 30%, the performance of the
engine is good.
3.2.1 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (B.S.F.C) 3.3 Emission Characteristics

Exhaust Emission (ppm)
Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (B.S.F.C.) is the Fuel
fuel consumed by the engine per unit of power CO HC SOX NOX
output or produced. It is desirable to obtain a lower
value of BSFC meaning that the engine used less fuel to DIESEL 0.063 10 5 649
produce the same amount of work.
B10 0.051 11 7 788
Brake Specific Fuel Consumption B20 0.073 19 5 802
15 B30 0.015 9 2 821

B.S.F.C (kg/kw-hr)
10
B10 The above table shows that all emissions with biodiesel
are lower than diesel except NOX. NOx emissions will
5 B20 increase when using biodiesel. This increase is mainly
due to higher oxygen content for biodiesel. The higher of
B30 NOX emission could be reduced either by the use of
0 catalytic converter.
0.07 0.7 1.4 2.1 2.8 The above analysis of biodiesel shows that the reduction
Brake Power (k.w) in CO emission is about 19% with B10 and 76% with B30
use on per litre combustion basis. CO emissions reduce
when using biodiesel due to the higher oxygen content
For fuel tested, decrease in B.S.F.C. was found and the lower carbon to hydrogen ratio in biodiesel
with increase in brake power. It can be seen from compared to diesel.
this graph that as Brake Power increases, B.S.F.C.
decreases to minimum at full load condition. By
observing related results at full load engine 4. CONCLUSION
condition, the value of B.S.F.C. for B10 blend is
minimum. The calophyllum inophyllum seed oil was
successfully extracted from the seeds. The oil thus
3.2.2 Brake Thermal Efficiency extracted was made to undergo the
transesterification process and conditioned. Bio-
Brake Thermal Efficiency is the ratio of the power diesel properties are then compared with neat
output of the engine to the rate of heat liberated by diesel. The blend B10 properties were close to
the fuel during the combustion. diesel properties. Calorific value of B10 is more
compared to B20 and B30. Reduced viscosity
which in turn increases the fuel automization
Brake Thermal Efficiency resulting in good combustion. From the
15 performance evaluation, it is observed that the
performance of C.I engine has increased by using
blended biodiesel in comparison with pure diesel.
B.T.E (%)
10
B10 From this study it is observed that the blended
biodiesel can be used as an alternate fuel for the
5 B20 C.I engine without any engine modification. It is
B30 inferred, from the results that the brake thermal
0 efficiency is higher for B30 and less fuel
0.07 0.7 1.4 2.1 2.8 consumption for B10.
Brake Power (kw)
120
Theme A
From the emission characteristics, it is concluded Research Journal of Engineering and

that biodiesel and its blends as a fuel for diesel Technology, vol: 4
engine have better emission characteristics 10. Kumar Deepak, Garg Rajnish, Tripathi R. K,
compared with diesel as follows: (2014), "Optimization of biodiesel production
(1) CO emissions are less compared with diesel process from low cost high FFA Polanga oil",
(2) NOx emissions for biodiesel and blended fuel International Journal of Scientific &
are slightly higher than that of diesel Engineering Research, vol:5
(3) From this analysis it can be concluded that B30 11. L C Meher, S N Naik and L M Das, (2004).
gives better performance with reduced pollution. “Methanolysis of Pongamiapinnata (karanja)
oil for production of biodiesel”, Journal of
Scientific & Industrial Research. Vol. 63, pp
913-918.
REFERENCES 12. Mahalingappa, M.C.Navindgi,
Dr.OmprakashHebbal, (2014).
1. A.S. Ramadhas, S. Jayaraj, C. “Performance, Combustion and Emission
Muraleedharan, (2004)“Biodiesel production Characteristics of Single Cylinder Diesel
from high FFA rubber seed oil”, Vol.84 335- Engine Using Custard Apple Seed
340. (AnnonaSquamosa) Oil”, International
2. Baljinder Singh, JagdeepKaur, Kashmir Singh, Journal of Research in Engineering &
(2010). “Production of Biodiesel From Used Advanced Technology. Volume 2,Issue 3
Mustard Oil and Its Performance Analysis in 13. ManojSarma, (2017). “Transestirification of
Internal Combustion Engine”, Journal of AnnonaSquamosa (Custard Apple) seed oil
Energy Resources Technology. Vol. 132 using montmorilloniteK-10 as catalyst and
3. Bobade S.N. and Khyade V.B., (2012).“Detail characterization of the fatty acid methyl
study on the properties of pongamiapinnata ester”, International Journal of Chemical
(karanja) for the production of biofuel”, Studies. Vol 5(4), pp 217-220.
Research Journal of Chemical Sciences. Vol. 14. MookanRangasamy, Krishmasamy
2(7), 16-20. Anbalagan, Sundaresan Mohanraj,
4. Chavan S.B., Kumbhar R.R. and Deshmukh VelanPugalenthi, (2014). “Biodiesel
R.B. (2013) "Callophyllum Inophyllum Linn Production from Pongamiapinnata Oil
(“honne”) Oil, A source for Biodiesel using Synthesized Iron Nanocatalyst”,
Production", Research Journal of Chemical International Journal of ChemTech
Sciences, vol:3, pp:24-31 Research. Vol.6, No.10, pp 4511-4516.
5. C.L. Butts, R. B. Sorensen, R. C. Nuti, M. C. 15. Nagarahalli M. V., Nandedkar V. M. and
Lamb, W.H. Faircloth, (2009). “Performance Mohite K.C. (2010). “Emission and
Of Equipment For In-Field Shelling Of Peanut performance characteristics of karanja
For Biodiesel Production”, Transactions of the biodiesl and its blend in A C.I. ENGINE and
ASABE. Vol. 52(5): 1461-1469. it’s economics”, ARPN Journal of
6. Doddabasawa, RavikumarPatil, (2014). Engineering and Applied Sciences. VOL. 5
“Biodiesel Production Cost Analysis from the 16. Pasula raju, k. bharadwaja (2016)
PongamiaPinnata: A Case Study in Yadagiri "performance analysis of i.c engine using
District Of Karnataka-India”, International diesel and ethanol blends", international
Journal of Science and Research. Volume 3 journal of professional engineering
7. Gaurav Dwivedi , Siddharth Jain , M.P. studies, vol:6
Sharma (2013) "Diesel engine performance 17. T.Elangovan, G.Anbarasu, L.Jeryrajkumar
and emission analysis using biodiesel from (2016), "Development of Calophyllum
various oil sources - Review", J. Mater. inophyllum Biodiesel and Analysis of its
Environ. Sci. vol:4, pp: 4434-447 Properties at Different Blends" International
8. Ganesha T, N Jagadeesh , Basavaraja K , Journal of ChemTech Research, vol: 9, pp:
Basavaraj Betur, (2017), "Biodiesel Production 220 - 229
from Calophyllum Inophyllum Oil using 18. Venkata Ramesh Mamilla, M. V.
Ultrasonication Method and Investegation of Mallikarjun and G. Lakshmi Narayana Rao
its Properties with Diesel and Kerosene (2013), " Performance analysis of IC
Blends", International Journal for Research in engines with bio-diesel jatropha methyl
Applied Science & Engineering Technology, ester (JME) blends ", Journal of Petroleum
vol:5 Technology and Alternatives Fuel, vol:4,
9. j.s.gitay, dr. g.r.selokar, (2017) "critical pp:90-93
analysis & performance evaluation of c.i.
diesel engine using bio diesel", International
5
121
Theme A
122
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
SUSTAINABLE HOMES IN STEEL: PROSPECTS FOR FUTURE
DEVELOPMENT OF INDIAN HOUSING SECTOR
ICID2018_B_008
Author Poorva Kulkarni1,

Dr.B.N.College of Architecture for women, Pune, Maharashtra, India.
ABSTRACT
Urbanization in India is resulting in significant additions to existing population because of large scale migration from
rural areas. This phenomenon is coupled with a tremendous need to provide accommodation to cater to rapidly
growing urban population. The unprecedented need to create a housing stock to satisfy basic needs is a matter of
concern for architects, planners and decision makers. Meeting this however, is more complex than simply building
more homes and shelters as current constructional trends in housing highly resource intensive, which makes
sustainable building challenging Thiscalls for environmentally friendly materials, waste reduction, and a commitment
to meet the long-term demands of a growing population. A good way to meet those conditions is to build with non-
traditional materials in Indian context steel in one of them.
The current research paper focuses on how effectively steel can be used probably in combination with other
construction material to achieve the mentioned objectives for sustainable housing. The researcher shows this new
paradigm of using steel in combination with other materials for human shelters can promote sustainable housing for
community living which is the need of the time.
Keywords: community living, steel, sustainable housing, urban area
1 INTRODUCTION
2. PRESENT NEED OF SHELTER DESIGN
Urban population in India has rapidly grown in the last
century.According to census 2011,the 31% of Indian Global warming and allied changes are creating
population live in urban areas. As per census data, hazardous conditions creating threat to environment
nearly 65 million people live in slums in India.The slums and human health.As we are moving ahead with the
are defined as ‘Residential area where dwelling are pace of time,society is making determined moves
unfit for human habitation’.(The Hindu,Oct towards achieving sustainability.Sustainable
01,2013)Such spaces are unfit for human habitation construction is important not only because of its
due to temporary nature of the dwelling,vulnerability to economic and social contribution,but also because of
get destroyed easily due to natural calamities like observed impact on the quality of our lives.The future
cyclones,earthquakes and floods.Similarly,the houses global challenge for the construction industry is to meet
are cramped, poorly ventilated and very unhygienic due the world’s growing needs ,while at the same time,
to lack of facilities of sanitation.All these factors are restricting the burden of impact occurred by
detrimental to health and safety of people.Due to lack of development activities. A cost effective and
money for people staying in rural areas,people have environment friendly design solution is required.
tendancy to get migrated in urban areas for Traditional construction practices like RCC inIndia are
employment and try to settle in temporary not at par with these requirements since they consume
shelters.These people are not in a position of a lot of natural resources and create a huge waste after
establishing permanent residences with good the life span of a building. Use of steel is very common
construction material which would give them a good for industrial sector in India considering the advantages
habitable space to live.This often results in construction of steel like ease of construction ,durability ,speed and
of temporary shelters commonly called as slums by recyclability. Unconventional practice of steel for
using any material which is available since there is no residential construction in India provides a better
time to wait for conventional RCC construction.People solution in terms of energy consumption and
are homeless and homes are required as early as environment friendliness
possible.The pace of urbanism is constantly increasing
and accelerating over time.It is estimated that by
2030,another 250 million would be added to Indian 3. STEEL AS A CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL:
cities(Habitat III,India,National report)This paradigm GLOBAL SCENE
change needs to be addressed immediately since this
will give rise to more and more slums in Indian urban For more than 150 years, steel has been used in the
areas.Poverty in India is often measured in terms of North American construction market. Today it remains
daily expenditure per person.It is equally essential to one of the strongest, most durable and economically
understand that access to basic aminities is also manufactured materials.
equally important and poverty should be measured in • In Sweden and Finland ,this has been
terms of access availability to basicaminities like good common practice for single-family timber
shelterto live for families. It is creating hazardous houses since the 1970s. (Milan Veljkovic,
conditions for health and safety of people December 2006)
123
Theme B
• Across Canada and the United States, A building is always a designed intervention into the
builders, developers and homeowners are natural setting of the environment .Thelifecycle of
finding out about the many benefits that steel building means production,useperiod,demolition and
has to offer in the residential concerned activities,materials used and energy flow
marketplace.’(Canadian sheet steel research generate inevitable impact on the earth. The choices
Institute, 1994) made by stakeholders of construction industry affect
• Building systems with light steel members, most environmental and economic issues.Thus,it is very
gypsum plasterboards and mineral wool have clear that sustainable practice is the need of time.
a wide spread use in the US, Australia and When given a proper thought, sustainability can be
Japan and are gaining market in some achieved by understanding before any action taken This
European countries. (Milan Veljkovic, goal can be achieved by getting knowledge about
December 2006) efficient use of durable ,cost effective and recyclable
• While it has typically been associated with materials and carefully monitored construction activity
skyscrapers and bridges, steel is emerging as by using best suited components in terms of a best
the material of choice for residential framing. sustainable construction practice. A good design
solution is fundamental to sustainable construction.
Decisions made at early stage have significant impact
4. STEEL CONSTRUCTION IN INDIA on the construction project and life time of building as
well. Sustainable design can be achieved with an
India is currently the world's 3rd largest producer approach of designing for better life and minimum
of crude steel and is expected to become the 2nd impact on environment.
largest producer of crude steel in the world Steel proves itself better over any conventional material
due to following reasons.
soon.(Report by ministry of steel ,India ,2017)
A common observation in Indian construction
Efficiency of material
practice is use of steel for industrial sector. For
effective implementation of any construction Steel possesses high strength to weight ratio. Steel
technology, three things are important. Availability building gives overall low impact. Construction waste is
of material, availability of technical know how for kept low due to efficient design specification and
execution and availability of labour to execute the products.Steel can prove itself to be most efficient
design. Looking at the tremendous development material in terms of ease of construction and speed.
of industrial buildings with new advancements in
Indian construction sector, it can be concluded
that implementation of steel construction Efficiency of energy:
technology is effectively done for industrial
Use of operational energy is strongly influenced by
bulidings in India but very rarely seen in case of design of any construction activity .Life cycle energy
residential buildings. It is the need of the time to consumption can be significantly reduced by using steel
use it for residential purpose. construction practice. Saving the energy is a big credit
The inability of the Indian construction industry to as far as sustainable building is concerned.
satisfy the country’s massive housing demand has
transformed housing demand and supply into one Complaisance:
of the major challenges. The Indian construction
industry is suffering from various deficiencies such Steel can be used efficiently for flexible and
as low productivity, small and unprofessional demountable buildings. Steel offers spaces which can
developers, huge waste, skilled labour shortages, be adjusted with the changes in use during life of the
building .Longer life of steel building and remount ability
defective management, unstable economy, severe enables the for use optimization, as compared to
fluctuations in demand and supply etc. Ignorance conventional RCC building .This is also significant
and a lack of information on sustainable criteria as compared to RCC building which does not
construction issues and solutions is a major allow such flexibility due to rigidity of joints. Steel
obstacle that needs to be addressed construction allows much flexibility due to possibilities of
Considering the potential advantages of Modern connections by using various methods of joining.
Methods of Construction like steel construction, it
has been hypothised that its application will Endurance:
resolve many of the above issues.
Steel is hardly consumed.This can be used again and
again with same physical properties like tensile strength
and strength to weight ratio. This is that virtue which
5.SUSTAINABILITY AND CONSTRUCTION makes steel the unique construction material in the
world.Research is being done all over the world to find
Sustainability is essential for long lasting development out various methods to achieve better physical and
of society.Thus,it is commonly understood that mechanical properties of steel .Steel components once
sustainability includes environmental,economic and manufactured are endlessly used for any construction
social concerns. endeavors.
124
Theme B
End of life impact: Evaluation of sustainability requires a life cycle

approach of a building.At every stage of life cycle, the
As far as conventional practice of RCC is sustainably is evaluated.In a highly populated country
concerened,the end of life of a structure is a big like India,steel is one of the most promising material
disaster in terms of the impact it creates on the earth considering its various advantages.Considering the
occupying land, causing unhygienic condition for life on future challenges of the world in terms of impact of
the earth.Steel as a material principally involves the naturally existing setting of the environment,it is
aspects of end of life impact.Steel building creates commonly understood that environment sensitive
minimum impact since they create minimal waste at the practices should be promoted to have minimum impact
end of the life of building.This material is reused and on the environment and adding value to the existing
recycled. environment.Environment sensitive practices is the
essence of safe and healthy environment for future
Recyclability and reusability: Indian generations.Mass production of components will
lead to economical assembly of steel buildings which
As discussed earlier,steel can be recycled to maximum would be able to cater to the constantly growing mass
extent.Reused steel products are components ,cladding housing need of India.
components,pedestrianbridges,sheetpiling,wall
elements and temporary structures(Sustainability of
steel frame buildings,WidmanJoakim)
Fig 1 Steel recycling over the world(From World Fig 2 Benefits of steel housing (From World steel
steel Association) Association)
6.SUSTAINABILITY AND CONSTRUCTION 7.STEEL TECHNOLOGY OF LIGHT GAUGE

STEEL FRAME IN HOUSING
Sustainability is essential for long lasting development
of society.Thus,it is commonly understood that Light gauge steel profiles are cold formed and are
sustainability includes environmental,economic and suitable for any type of construction project. Building
social concerns. with light gauge steel frame is an innovative design
A building is always a designed intervention into the solution for providing number of applications. While
natural setting of the environment .Thelifecycle of facing the challenge of providing mass housing
building means production,useperiod,demolition and solutions to the huge number of homeless people, light
concerned activities,materials used and energy flow gauge steel frame construction seems to be the best
generate inevitable impact on the earth. The choices solution.The total cost of building comes from many
made by stakeholders of construction industry affect factors like cost of raw material, designing efforts
most environmental and economic issues.Thus,it is very involved, necessary equipment, labour etc. If the steel
clear that sustainable practice is the need of time. building is compared with conventional RCC building,
When given a proper thought, sustainability can be many advantages are observed as far as steel is
achieved by understanding before any action taken This concerned.
goal can be achieved by getting knowledge about
efficient use of durable ,cost effective and recyclable 7.1 Why light gauge steel?
materials and carefully monitored construction activity
by using best suited components in terms of a best A study shows that choosing a light gauge steel
sustainable construction practice. A good design frame is an attractive alternative to conventional
solution is fundamental to sustainable construction. practices in India.The components are prefabricated
Decisions made at early stage have significant impact and preassembled steel components.The work on site
on the construction project and life time of building as is greatly reduced due to this.Similarly material
well. Sustainable design can be achieved with an efficiency and quality is also achieved.Speedy
approach of designing for better life and minimum construction achieves reduction of site work and
impact on environment. labourcosts.It is easy to handle on site due to highest
125
Theme B
strength to weight ratio(saving on foundation)There are construction is important not only because of its
inherent properties like strength and non combustible economic and social contribution,but also because of
qualities.These properties make steel a unique material observed impact on the quality of our lives.The future
in the world.Steel structure provides capacity to resist global challenge for the construction industry is to meet
the devastating events as fire,earthquake and the world’s growing needs ,while at the same time,
storms.Remodelling is possible since infill walls can be restricting the burden of impact occurred by
removed,replaced or altered. development activities. A cost effective and
environment friendly design solution is required.
Traditional construction practices like RCC inIndia are
not at par with these requirements since they consume
a lot of natural resources and create a huge waste after
the life span of a building. Use of steel is very common
for industrial sector in India considering the advantages
of steel like ease of construction ,durability ,speed and
recyclability. Unconventional practice of steel for
residential construction in India provides a better
solution in terms of energy consumption and
environment friendliness
8.CONCLUSION:
Steel hasbeen a versatile material considering many

properties like reusability, recyclability, endurance,
compliance and affordability. To provide a good solution
for continuously growing need of housing in urban
areas, steel housing is an affordable solution. Less
material use and less transportation will lead to overall
low cost houses. Due to prefabricated nature of steel
components, there is less waste and less clutter onsite.
Recycling and reusing of components make this
Fig 3, Construction of a home with steel(From technology environment friendly. The social impact of
World steel association,Affordable social housing) housing in steel is decisive. It has a capacity to give a
quality and comfortable solution to the deprived families
in the need of shelter. Since the migrated people have
no homes, steel housing provides a solution to them. It
can be installed in few days. Versatility of steel makes
them last longer. This is a new paradigm in the
construction practice of India which has the ability to
take the industry to new heights satisfying the need of
construction of affordable houses during very less time.
This paradigm when explored more, there is a
possibility that India becomes a country with no
individual without a home. This is essentially the need
of the time.Evaluation of sustainability requires a life
cycle approach of a building.At every stage of life cycle,
the sustainably is evaluated.
This could be summarised as follows:
Table 1 Use of steel in life cycle of a project
Phaseof Sustainability attribute

Construction
Planning phase Plan to use maximum material

Fig4 ,Example of a steel building from recycled steel.
(From Steel Construction institute publication)
Construction Offsite manufacture
PRESENT NEED OF SHELTER DESIGN phase Controlled quality
Global warming and allied changes are creating Dry system (Less water)
hazardous conditions creating threat to environment Low environmental impact.
and human health.As we are moving ahead with the Designand service Weight reduction of structure
pace of time,society is making determined moves life Thermally efficient steel solutions
towards achieving sustainability.Sustainable Prefabrication enables ease of
maintenance,
126
Theme B
extensions,modifications,flexibility.
End of life Easy dismantling
Recyclability potential without loss
of quality.
Thus,it can be said that more awareness and

promotion of housing in steel is the need of the
time.
REFERENCES:
Baris, B. (April 20th 2017). 5th International steel

industry and sector relations conference. World steel
association, Global steel industry,oulook,challenges
and opportunities. Istanbul: World steel association,.
Deepti Pande Rana, A. K. (2016 January). Core Issues

and Challenges of Affordable Housing in India. Indian
journal of applied research.
GholamrezaHeravi, T. N. (15 October 2016). Evaluation

of energy consumption during production and
construction of concrete and steel frames of residential
buildings. Energy and Buildings, Volume 130, , Pages
244-252.
Goodrum, P. M., Zhai, D., & Yasin, a. M. (April 2009).

Relationship between Changes in Material Technology
and Construction Productivity. Journal of Construction
Engineering and Management , Volume 135,issue4.
Sawheny Amit, R. A. (2014). Grand challenges for the

Indian construction industry,Built Environment Project
and Asset Management. Emerald insight , Vol. 4 Issue:
4 ,pp 317-334.
Reports:
India Habitat III,National report,(Ministry of
housing and urban povery alleviation)
127
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
A STUDY ON APPLICABILITY OF EXISTING EVAPORATION MODELS
WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO KAKODONGA WATERSHED IN
JORHAT, ASSAM
ICID2018_B_009
Upasana Kashyap1,Khairuz Zaman2,DrSudip Basack3

1,2,3. Kaziranga University, Jorhat, Assam, India
ABSTRACT
Potential evapotranspiration (PET) was defined by Langbien and Iseri (1960) as the evapotranspiration that will
occur if at no time there is a deficiency of water in the soil for use of vegetation. Thus, PE is maximum value of actual
evaporation when water supply is unlimited.The present study was taken for Kakodonga watershed,Jorhat, Assam
with the main objective of comparing three temperature based empirical methods for determining reference
evapotranspiration namely Thornthwaite, Blaney-Criddle and Ivanov method based on their accuracy of estimation.
The results obtained from the methods were compared with the evapotranspiration data measured using the class A
pan. The interrelationship between the class A pan data and the other reference evapotranspiration method is also
obtained in the study by statistical analysis of ten years of data (2007-2017). The result obtained show that the
average monthly ET estimated by Blaney-Criddle, Thornthwaite and Ivanov methods are 1.57, 3.05, 2.62
mm/month.The annual percentage variation of the Blaney-Criddle, Thornthwaite and Ivanov methods with class A
pan was found to be 5.2%, 10.15% and 7.3% respectively. Thus the results of the study suggest that the Blaney-
Criddle is the better method as compare to the Thornthwaite and Ivanov methods under climatic conditions of
Kakodonga watershed.
Keywords: Potential evapotranspiration, Kakodonga watershed, Class A Pan, Emperical Methods
1 INTRODUCTION temperature. The wind speed was measured at

the weather station using Cup Counter
To study the hydrologic balance for an area it is Anemometer.
required to determine the total water loss due to
evaporation and transpiration from all source of 1.2 Objective of the Study
the area which is referred to as potential
evapotranspiration (PET).Knowledge of the The objective of this study is to evaluate three
potential evapotranspiration is needed by different temperature based models to estimate
agriculturist and hydrologist to determine irrigation the potential evapotranspiration for the region
requirements for the area.Most of the methods for chosen and comparison of evaporation rate
determining PET are based on empirical estimates from the three equations to each other
formulae.Due to non-availability of a number of and to Class A-Pan evaporation measurements
meteorological variables the methods chosen for obtained from the meteorological station.
this study are three temperature based methods
vizBlaney-Criddle method, Thornthwaite method 1.3 Evapotranspiration Models
and Ivanov method.
The three evapotranspiration models used in this study
1.1 Study area and Collection of Datas are described below.
Kakodonga river basin is considered for this study 1.3.1 Blaney-Criddle Method
with an approximate study area of about 1,113sq.
Blaney and Criddle (1950) observed that the
km. It is geographically located between
amount of water consumptively used by crops
26˚15’10”N to 26˚44’48”N latitude and 93˚59’10”E
during their growing seasons was closely
to 94˚21’45”E longitude.
correlated with mean monthly temperatures and
The field datas for temperature, relative
daylight hours and the length of the growing
humidity, wind speed and bright sunshine hour
seasons. Using Blaney-Criddle approach, PET
data are collected fromMeteorological
can be expressed as follows,
Observatory of Assam Agriculture University,
𝐸𝑇 = 0.46 𝑃 (𝑇 + 17.8)where,
Jorhat for a period of 2007 to 2016.Temperature
ET = Evapotranspiration in mm/m.
and humidity were measured at the station using P = Percentage of day light in hours
the Stevenson Screen or thermometer screen
which is a standard shelter for meteorological 1.3.2 Thornthwaite Method
instruments, particularly wet and dry bulb
thermometers used to record humidity and air
128
ICID 2018
This formula is based mainly on temperature with

an adjustment being made for the number of
daylight hours. An estimate of the potential
evapotranspiration calculated on a monthly basis.
The Thornthwaite equation given by
10 𝑇𝑖 𝑎 𝑁 1
𝐸𝑇 = 16 × ( ) ( )( )
𝐼 12 30
𝑇𝑖 1.514
where I=∑12 (
𝑖=1 5 ) and
a=(492390 + 17920 𝐼 − 77.1 𝐼 2 + 0.675 𝐼 3 ) × 10ˉ⁶ Fig 2: Yearly average graph of Class APan
whereTi is the mean monthly temperature [°C], N Evaporation
is the mean monthly sunshine hour. The main
advantage of this method is that only the
temperature information is needed besides the
sunshine hours.
1.3.3 Ivanov Method
With regard to the relationship between

evaporation rate, temperature and relative
humidity, monthly evapotranspiration rate (mm) is
obtained as follow: Fig 3: Monthly average graph for Relative
𝐸𝑇 = 0.0018 (25 + 𝑇 2 )(100 − 𝑅) Humidity variation
where ET, R and T are monthly evapotranspiration
rate (mm), relative humidity and monthly
temperature average (oC) respectively.
1.4 Class A Pan Evaporation
The USWB Class A pan is commonly used for

measuring evaporation. The pan is circular with a
diameter of 1.21m and depth of 225mm which
gives it a volume of about 0.3m 3. The pan is put
on a 150mm high wooden frame due to air circular
around the pan. The water level is kept about
Fig 4: Monthly average graph for maximum and
50mm below the rim due to allowance of
minimum temperature variation
percolation and the need of water. The water level
is measured every day. As the sun hits the sides
of the pan, the temperature gets higher showing
higher evaporation rate than the actual
evaporation. To correct this value the evaporation
obtained from the pan is multiplied with a
coefficient called pan coefficient and its value
depends on the climate of the region.
Fig 5:Monthly average graph for wind speed

variation
1.5 Analysis of Datas
Fig 1: Mean Monthly average graph of Class A Since the present paper aimed to evaluate the
Pan Evaporation three methods, the measured evaporation was
compared with the rates estimated by each
method so as to determine the relationships
between the three methods.
The calculated mean evapotranspiration for the ten
years period is given below:
2 129
ICID 2018
Month Class- Blaney Thornth

A Pan Criddle waite Ivanov
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
January 1.09 0.52 1.20 1.17
February 1.64 0.79 1.81 1.76
March 2.37 1.14 2.62 2.54
April 2.74 1.32 3.03 2.94
Fig 8: Mean monthly percentage variation of the
May 3.31 1.59 3.66 3.55
three evaporation models with class A pan.
June 2.72 1.31 3.01 2.92
July 2.93 1.41 3.24 3.14 3 CONCLUSION
August 2.57 1.23 2.84 2.76
This study provides information on the
September 2.12 1.02 2.34 2.27 evapotranspiration (ET) estimates obtained from
October 1.75 0.84 1.93 1.88 indirect methods by using meteorological
variables for the climatic conditions of Jorhat. The
November 1.82 0.87 2.01 1.95 result of this study suggest that all the models
December 1.04 0.50 1.15 1.12 compared well with observed pan evaporation.The
results indicated that the Blaney-Criddle method
showed the closest relation with the pan
evaporation as compared to the other two. The
Ivanov method is second appropriate method after
the Blaney-Criddle method. The Thornthwaite
method did not show satisfactory result in most of
the cases.Therefore, Blaney-Criddle is the most
appropriate temperature based method to
estimate the potential evapotranspiration under
the climatic condition of Jorhat region.
Fig 6: Comparison of different potential 4 REFERENCES

evapotranspiration methods with the measured
evaporation in Class A Pan. Amatya, D.M., Skaggs, R.W. and Geogory,
J.D. (1995) Comparison of methods of
estimating REF-ET, Journal of Irrigation and
Drainage Engineering; 121(6): 427-435.
Allen, RG. (1996) “Assessing integrity of

Weather Data for Reference
Evapotranspiration Estimation”, J Irrig. and
Drain. Engg., ASCE, 122(2), 97-106.
Igbadum H, Mahoo h, Tarimo A, Salim B

(2006) Performance of Two Temperature-
Fig 7: Comparison of the annual estimated with Based Reference Evapotranspiration Models
Class A pan evapotranspiration in the Mkoji Sub-Catchment in Tanzania.
Agricultural engineering International: the
2 RESULTS CIGRE journal. Manuscript LW 05 008. Vol.
VIII. March 2006
The annual percentage variation of the Blaney-
Criddle, Thornthwaite and Ivanov methods with George B.A. and Raghuwanshi N.S.(2012)
class A pan was found to be 5.2%, 10.15% and Inter-comparison of reference
7.3% respectively showing Blaney-Criddle method evapotranspiration estimated using six
the most appropriate temperature based method methods with data from four climatological
to estimate the potential evapotranspiration under station in India, Journal of Indian Water
the climatic condition of the Kakodonga Resource Society,Vol32,No.3-4,pp15-21
watershed.
3 130
ICID 2018
Gotardo, Rodrigues, Gomes (2016),

“Comparison of methods for estimating
Reference ET: An approach to the
management of water resource within an
experimental basin in the Brazilian Cerrado,
Eng. Agríc. [online]. 2016, vol.36, n.6,
pp.1016-1026. ISSN 0100-6916.
4 131
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Theme C: Geotechnical Engineering
132
Theme C
Geotechnical Engineering
133
A STUDY ON STABILITY OF EARTHEN DAM WITH BENTONITE MIXED

SILTY SOIL
(ICID2018_C_001)
Pranamee Baruah1, Dr. Prasanna Kumar Khaund2
1.P.G. Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat-7, Assam
2.Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat-7, Assam
ABSTRACT
Earthen dams are non-rigid dams and are suitable for earthquake regions like North-East India. North-East India
Rivers like Siang, Brahmaputra, Barak etc. and their tributaries are passing through alluvial soil predominantly is silty
in nature and are not suitable for the construction of earthen dams due to poor cohesive properties of soil. Thereby, it
is very essential to construct an earthen dam with silty soil increasing its cohesive properties using different
admixtures. In this paper an experimental investigation has been carried out with mixing different percentages of
bentonite as an admixture to improve the geotechnical properties of a collected soil sample. For various soil-
bentonite mixes viz. 5% to 20%, the change in maximum dry density, optimum moisture content, plasticity index,
shear parameters, permeability etc. are evaluated using different laboratory tests. After evaluating geotechnical
properties, stability analysis of homogeneous earthen dam with different upstream and downstream slopes has been
carried out using software Plaxis-2D®. The effect of improved soil on factor of safety, displacement etc. are evaluated
for the same by using software Plaxis-2D®. From the analysis the desirable percentages of bentonite based on the
optimised value of factor of safety has been evaluated.
Keywords: Silty soil; Earthen dam; Bentonite; Plaxis-2D®
1 INTRODUCTION 2 METHODOLOGY
Earthen dams are one of the most ancient type of In this study, soil sample is collected a few
dams. They are mainly constructed for the kilometers away from the Brahmaputra dike. To
purpose of diverting or storing water. Earthen improve the plasticity and cohesive properties of
dams are non-rigid dams and are almost safe the soil, bentonite is selected as a suitable
against earthquake. They are economical as they admixture. Bentonite with different percentages is
can be built with available natural materials with mixed with soil and various engineering properties
minimum equipment. Now a days, earthen dams are investigated by laboratory tests. The various
are constructed with theoretical accuracy, with engineering properties of soil-bentonite mixed
properly controlled soil properties. Earthen dams samples are used in design of an earthen dam
can be easily constructed on earth foundations with different upstream and downstream
and can undergo failure due to improper design, conditions which is analyzed using Plaxis-2D®,
construction etc. viz. hydraulic failure, seepage 2016 software.
failure and structural failure. Recent development
in soil mechanics have greatly increased the
safety and life of earthen dams. If the locally 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
available soil in not suitable for construction of an
earthen dam then the soil must be improved to get 3.1 Effect on Atterberg’s limit
the desired soil properties. To improve the
cohesive properties of soil different admixtures For the collected soil sample and soil mixed with
can be used. Bentonite is a typical clay formed by different percentages of bentonite liquid limit was
the decomposition of volcanic ash. Soil-bentonite determined by static cone penetration method.
mixture decreases the hydraulic conductivity as With the addition of bentonite the liquid limit of the
well as it improves the cohesive properties of soil. natural soil sample was increased from 20.5% to
Due to lack of local industry, cost of geosynthetic 37%. This improvement suggested that more
materials is very high so for local construction water is required for bentonite treated soil as
conditions, use of bentonite-soil mixture will be an bentonite having higher liquid limit. Plastic limit
economical solution.In this paper, analysis has was determined by thread method and was found
been carried out for earthen dam with that the natural soil sample was non plastic in
homogeneous material. nature and with the addition of bentonite the soil
became plastic in nature. The increase in plasticity
of soil sample indicate the increase in clay fraction
134
Theme C
in natural soil because of bentonite content. original soil 3% bentonite

Hence, the property of collected natural soil 5% bentonite 7% bentonite
sample is improved and it shows clayey nature. 10% bentonite 15% bentonite
Figure 1 shows that the Liquid limit, Plastic limit 20% bentonite
and Plasticity Index increases with addition of
bentonite content. 1.8
1.75
40
1.7
Dry density ( g/cc)

35
Atterberg's Limit (%)
LL
30 PL
1.65
25 PI
20 1.6
15
10 1.55
5
1.5
0
0 10 20 30
1.45
Bentonite (%) 0 10 20 30
Figure 1. Variation of Atterberg’s limit Water content (%)
3.2 Effect on Compaction Characteristics Figure 2. Variation of OMC and MDD
The optimum moisture content (OMC) and 3.3 Effect on Shear Parameters
Maximum Dry Density (MDD) of the natural soil
sample and soil mixed with different percentages Shear parameters were evaluated using direct
of bentonite is obtained from Standard proctor shear test as per IS:20270 (Part 13)-1986. From
test. It was observed that with increase in results it was observed that presence of bentonite
percentages of bentonite OMC increased as increases the Cohesion (c), this is because the
compared to the OMC obtained for untreated property of bentonite gives the behavior of clay
natural soil because bentonite is finer than the minerals to the soil which fill the voids of natural
collected natural soil and MDD decreased. The soil and increase the cohesion and also because
decrease in MDD may attributed to decrease in of strong inter-particular attractive forces between
specific gravity and the increase in OMC to the the particles of bentonite, the mixture gradually
higher clay content requiring more water to develops cohesion with an increase in bentonite
hydrate the soil particles in the soil-bentonite mix. content.The Angle of internal friction (φ)
Figure 2 shows the variation of OMC and MDD decreased with addition of a smaller amount of
with the addition of different percentages of bentonite to the natural soil as the bentonite tries
bentonite. to fill the voids present in the soil particle and the
intra granular friction between soil particles
reduces. Figure 3 shows the variation of c and φ
with addition of different percentages of bentonite.
135
Theme C
differentpercentages of bentonite. Figure 5 shows

50
Variation of Cohesion (kN/m²) and Angle c φ
the graphical representation of variation of E with
45 different percentages of bentonite.
40
of internal friction (φ)
35 60
Elasticity, E (kg/cm 2)
Young's Modulus of
30 50
25 40
20 30
15 20
10 10
5 0
0 0 2 4 6 8
0% 10% 20% 30% Bentonite (%)
Bentonite (%) Figure 5. Variation of Young’s Modulus of

Elasticity
Figure 3. Variation of cohesion and angle of
internal friction 4 ANALYSIS WITH PLAXIS-2D, 2016®
3.4 Effect on Permeability For the study using Plaxis-2Dsoftware, a
representative earthen dam with three different
The coefficient of permeability of the natural soil upstream and downstream slopes is considered
sample and soil mixed with different percentages as shown in Table 1.
of bentonite was determined from the falling head
permeability test as per IS:2720 (Part 17)-1986. Table 1. Different case of slopes
From results as shown in Figure 4 it was observed Sl. No. Upstream Downstream
that though natural soil was highly permeable, slope slope
with the addition of bentonite the coefficient of Case 1 2:1 2.5:1
permeability (K) reduced significantly from
0.01867104 m/day to 0.00006517152 m/day. Case 2 2.5:1 3:1
Case 3 3:1 3:1

0.02
Coefficient of permeability (K)
0.018 For the analysis parameters of natural soil, soil

0.016 mixed with 5%, 7%, 10%, 15% and 20%
0.014 bentoniteare considered and earthen dams are
0.012 evaluated using software Plaxis-2D. The height of
the dam is considered as 30 meter with 30 meter
0.01
deep subsoil and crest width is taken as 5 meter
0.008 for all three cases.A plain strain model of 15noded
0.006 triangular element was used to generate the finite
0.004 element mesh. Figure 6 (a) (b) and (c) shows the
0.002 three different numerical models considering three
0 different upstream and downstream slopes.
0 10 20 30
Bentonite (%)
Figure4. Variation of Coefficient of Permeability.
3.5 Effect on Young’s Modulus of Elasticity
Young’s modulus of elasticity (E) was determined

from Tri-axial test. For the natural soil sample E
found to be as 49.68 kg/cm 2, and gradually
decreased with the addition of
136
Theme C
and various input parameters is given to Plaxis-2D

software. Poisson’s ratio (µ) is considered to be
0.3 for all samples. The hydraulic boundary
condition is very important in factor of safety
analysis and in this present analysis of earthen
dam the only bottom boundary is set to close i.e. it
does not allow water to flow across that boundary
and other three boundaries are open for water
movement.
FOS for three different slope conditions with
different percentages of bentonite improved soil is
Figure 6. (a) Numerical Modelling of earthen dam evaluated and it was observed that, for steeper
having U/S slope 2:1 and D/S slope 2.5:1 slopes with less percentages of bentonite
improved soil, factor of safety is less compared to
high percentage of bentonite improved soil. Also,
for less steeper slopes FOS is less with less
percentage of bentonite improved soil and factor
of safety is high for high percentage of bentonite
improved soil. However, it was observed that, in
comparisonof all the percentages of bentonite
improved soil, FOS is high for less steeper slopes
of earthen dams, Also, it was observed that FOS
for rapid drawdown condition is less compared to
slow drawdown, high reservoir and low level of
water condition. Table 2, table 3, table 4 shows
Figure 6. (b) Numerical modelling of earthen dam the detailed results of three different slopes with
having U/S slope 2.5:1 and D/S slope 3:1 different percentages of bentonite improved soil
and different water conditions.
Table 2 List of FOS for earthen dam with U/S

slope 2:1 and D/S slope 2.5:1
% of FOS at various water conditions
bentonite HR RD SD LL
Soil + 5% 1.26 1.15 1.24 1.27
Ben
Soil + 7% 1.31 1.13 1.30 1.32
Ben
Soil + 10% 1.40 1.29 1.38 1.41
Figure 6. (c) Numerical modelling of earthen dam Ben
having U/S slope 3:1 and D/S slope 3:1 Soil + 15% 1.54 1.30 1.49 1.54
Ben
The high reservoir level is 25 meter along with Soil + 20% 1.61 1.46 1.57 1.61
10 meter ground water. The stability of the dam Ben
has been checked for the following conditions:
i) High reservoirlevel (H R) of the dam i.e. water
level is at 25 meter. Table 3 List of FOS for earthen dam with U/S
ii) Rapid drawdown (R D) condition, when water slope 2.5:1 and D/S slope 3:1
level drops quickly from 25 meter to 5 meter in 5 % of FOS at various water conditions
days. bentonite HR RD SD LL
iii) Slow drawdown (S D) condition, when water Soil + 5% 1.41 1.27 1.40 1.42
level drops slowly from 25 meter to 5 meter in 50 Ben
days. Soil + 7% 1.46 1.29 1.46 1.47
iv) Low water level (L L) of dam i.e. water level is Ben
at 5 meter. Soil + 10% 1.58 1.32 1.57 1.59
Factor of safety for each of the conditions are Ben
being calculated by Plaxis-2D software. Different Soil + 15% 1.68 1.46 1.59 1.69
material properties are used for the earthen dam Ben
stability analysis that are taken from the laboratory Soil + 20% 1.75 1.59 1.65 1.76
test. For Each percentage of treated soil earthen Ben
dam, the Mohr-Coulomb material type is selected
137
Theme C
Figure 8.(a) to 8.(d) shows the total

Table 4 List of FOS for earthen dam with U/S displacement for Soil + 10% bentonite for Case 3
slope 3:1 and D/S slope 3:1 with four different water conditions.
% of FOS at various water conditions
bentonite HR RD SD LL
Soil + 5% 1.43 1.30 1.42 1.44
Ben
Soil + 7% 1.52 1.37 1.52 1.53
Ben
Soil + 10% 1.67 1.45 1.67 1.68
Ben (a)
Soil + 15% 1.80 1.54 1.80 1.81
Ben
Soil + 20% 1.91 1.77 1.90 1.91
Ben
Using software Plaxis-2D, total displacement

for each water condition is calculated. Figure 7.(a)
(b)
to 7.d) shows the total displacement for Soil +
10% bentonite for Case 2 with four different water
conditions.
(c)
(a)
(d)
Fig. 8 Total displacement in horizontal direction for
(b) case 3 after (a) high reservoir (b) rapid drawdown
(c) slow drawdown (d) low level of soil +10%
bentonite
5 CONCLUSION
The following conclusions can be listed from this

research study:
(c) 1. LL, PL, PI increases with increase in
percentages of bentonite in natural soil.
2. As the percentage of bentonite increases OMC
increasesand MDD decreases.
3. Cohesion increased and Angle of Internal
friction decreased with addition of bentonite
content to the natural soil.
(d) 4. Coefficient of Permeability of the natural soil
Figure 7. Total displacement in horizontal direction sample reduces significantly to 0.00006517152
for case 2 after (a) high reservoir (b) rapid m/day after addition of 20% bentonite.
drawdown (c) slow drawdown (d) low level of soil 5. For a given percentage of bentonite, FOS
+10% bentonite. reduces with increase in side slope. Anyway with
the increase in percentage of bentonite FOS for
side stability is more.
138
Theme C
6. It was observed that, in comparison of all the IS: 2720 (Part 8)-1983, Method of Test for Soil:
percentages of bentonite improved soil, FOS is Determination of water content-dry density
high for less steeper slopes of earthen dams. relation using heavy compaction, Bureau of
7. It was observed that FOS for rapid drawdown Indian Standard, New Delhi.
condition is less compared to slow drawdown, IS: 2720 (Part 12)-1981, Method of Test for
high reservoir. Soil:Determination of Shear strength
8. The total horizontal displacement, of the high parameter of soil from consolidated
reservoir level was the highest in comparison to undrainedtriaxial compression test with
other drawdown conditions. measurement of pore water pressure, Bureau
9. For each drawdown condition the total of Indian Standard, New Delhi.
horizontal displacement decreases with increase IS: 2720 (Part 17)-1966, Method of Test for Soils:
in percentage of bentonite i.e. it can be concluded Laboratory determination of permeability,
that, the homogeneous earthen dam is becoming Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
more stable with increase in percentage of IS: 7894-1975, Code of Practice for Stability
bentonite in case of horizontal displacement. Analysis of Earth Dams, Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi.
Jawad, Amir T. (2009). Improvement of Sandy
6 REFERENCE Soil Properties By Using Bentonite, Kufa
Journal of Engineering, Vol.1, No.1, PP 29-39.
Aryal Krishna Prasad (2006).Slope Stability Laxminarayana, A. and Naresh, M. (2017).
Evaluations by Limit Equilibrium and Finite Analysis of Embankments with Different Fill
Element Methods, Doctoral Thesis at NTNU Materials using Plaxis-2D, International Journal
2006:66, Norwegian University of Science and of Engineering Trends and Technology
Technology, Trondheim, Norway, ISBN 82- (IJETT), Volume 45 Number 6 , PP: 280-284,
471-7881-8 (electronic) ISBN 82-471-7882-6 ISSN: 2231-5381.
(printed). Maula, B.H. and Zhang, L. (2011). Assessment of
Athaniet. al (2015). Seepage and Stability Embankment Factor Safety Using
Analyses of Earth Dam Using Finite TwoCommercially Available Programs in Slope
ElementMethod, International Conference on Stability Analysis,The Twelfth East Asia-Pacific
Water Resources, Coastaland Ocean Conference on Structural Engineering and
Engineering (ICWRCOE 2015), PP: 876-883. Construction, Vol. 14, PP: 559-566.
Bakiet. al (2015). The Use of Plaxis to Design an Plaxis: Plaxis-2D, 2016 Reference manual.
Earthdam in Laqlouq, Notre Dame University, Raongjant, Werasak. and Jing, Meng. (2016).
LEBANON. Slope Stability and Deformation Analysis under
DaudKhalida, A. (2018). Cohesionless Soil Drawdown Conditions (Case Study: Rama 9
Properties Improvement Using Reservoir), JurnalTeknologi (Sciences &
Bentonite,ARPN Journal of Engineering and Engineering, UTM), Vol. 78 No. 5, PP: 123-
Applied Sciences, VOL. 5.NO. 1, JANUARY 128, eISSN 2180–3722.
2018, PP 271-275, ISSN 1819-6608. Siddappa, G. and Shanthakumar, M.C.
Fattah et. al (2016). Behaviour and characteristics (2014).Stability Analysis of Homogeneous
of compacted expansive unsaturated Earth Slopes, International Conference on
bentonite-sand mixture, Journal of Rock Geological and Civil Engineering, IPCBEE
Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, vol.62 IACSIT Press, Singapore DOI:
Vol.8, PP 629-639. 10.7763/IPCBEE. 2014, V62. 12.
Ghazi, F.A. (2015).Engineering Characteristics of Sobti, Jaskiran. and Sing, S.J. (2017). Strength
Compacted Sandbentonite Mixtures, Master of and Compaction Analysis of Sand-Bentonite-
Engineering Science (MEngSc) thesis, Edith Coal Ash Mixes, IOP Conf. Series: Materials
Cowan University. Science and Engineering ICMAEM-2017,
IS: 2720 (Part 5)-1985, Method of Test for Soil: doi:10.1088/1757-899X/225/1/012091.
Determination of Liquid Limit and Plastic Limit, Tanpureet. al (2012). Use of Graphical Technique
Bureau of Indian Standard, New Delhi. for Stability Analysis ofEmbankment, IOSR
IS: 2720 (Part 4)-1985, Method of Test for Soil: Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering
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Direct Shear test, Bureau of Indian Standard,
New Delhi.
139
SHEAR STRENGTH ANALYSIS OF SAND AND EGG SHELL MIXES

(ICID2018_C_002)
Natasha Kakati1, Bikash Das2
1, Former Post Graduate Student, Assam Enginnering College, Guwahati, Assam, India.
2, Former Post Graduate Student, Assam Enginnering College, Guwahati, Assam, India.
ABSTRACT
Sand and gravel are now the most extracted materials in the world, exceeding fossil fuels and biomass.
Sand is a key ingredient for concrete, roads and other constructions as well. Massive amounts of sand are mined for
land reclamation projects. Hence it has become necessary to find a partial replacement to sand. The egg shells are
waste material which is generated in a good amount all over the places. This study is about utilizing waste material in
proper manner. Most good quality egg shells from commercial layers contain approximately 2.2 grams of calcium in
the form of calcium carbonate. Hence we have tried to check the shear parameter in case of egg shell and fine
aggregates and their mixes. It was found that the shear strength of egg shell is less than shear strength of fine
aggregates. But when we have started mixing the egg shell powder to fine aggregates the shear strength gradually
increased and we have got an optimum mixer as 50:50. The entire tests were carried out by Direct Shear Test.
The shear strength were measured in terms of angle of internal friction. This work recommends that egg shell
can be used as partial replacement in fine aggregates where a lighter weight is required and a reduction of dead
load of structure is desired. And it is also eco-friendly in nature.
Keywords: shear strength; sand; egg shells; angle of internal friction
1 INTRODUCTION has become expensive and also a scarce

material. The reduction in the sources of natural
Egg shell is a kind of waste material which can be sand and the requirement for reduction in the cost
obtained in the form of fine particles. It is of concrete production has resulted in the
generated abundantly from households, chick increased need to identify substitute material to
hatcheries, bakeries restaurants etc. It is finally sand as fine aggregates. In such a situation if we
disposed as solid waste and ultimately which is can find any other partial or total replacement to
disposed in the landfills. Now as the generation of sand it will be of great help. . In this present work
wastes is increasing per annum which has landfill an attempt has been made to study the shear
disposal problems and environmental hazards. strength parameters of quarry dust and egg shell
Egg shell consist of several mutually growing powder mixes.
layers of CaCO3, the inner most layer- maxillary 3
layer grows on the outermost egg membrane and
creates the base on which palisade layer 3. A BRIEF HISTORY OF PREVIOUS WORKS
constitutes the thickest part of eggshell. The
eggshell primarily contents calcium, magnesium Very less amount of work or research has been
carbonate (lime) and protein. It is washed dried made on utilization of egg shells. Some are states
and powdered to fine grain. below.
Hence the strength parameters were MD. Nur Shafain Bin Hut, 2014 stated that
checked so as to suggest for replacement or eggshells are seldom used to stabilizing materials
partial replacements of fine aggregate. Direct in most part of world. However it could be a
shear test was conducted on sand and egg shell stabilization of the construction industry. It
powders. revealed that eggshells mixed with lateritic soil
can produced the low binding properties and
significant to improve strength of the soil which
2. MOTIVATION AND OBJECTIVE OF THE can use as sub grade where have a good
STUDY performance. Addition of the eggshell in
percentages to the soil sample caused to changes
As the infrastructural growth is at its peak in in plastic limit and liquid limit, which can
developing countries, large quantum of sand is purposely, affected the plasticity of the soil. It is
being utilized to cater the infrastructural concluded that eggshell powders can increase the
requirement. Fine aggregates plays a vital role in strength of the soil and it can be suitable as
the construction industry and on the other hand stabilizing materials
one of the essential material used in the concrete, Amarnath Yerramala, 2014 worked on the
combination concrete, he used eggshell as an
140
Theme C
additive in concrete production. He concluded that

compressive strength was higher than control
concrete for 5 % egg shell powder (ESP)
replacement at 7 and 28 days of curing ages. ESP
replacements greater than 10 % had lower
strength than control concrete. Addition of fly ash
improved compressive strength of ESP concrete.
4. MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
4.1 Materials
The sand sample used in this study was taken

from the Kulsi river. The sample had been air-
dried, pulverized and sieved through IS 4.75 Fig. 1 Angle of internal friction at shearing rate
sieve. The soil sample was identified as SP 0.25mm/min
soil as per the Indian Standard Soil
Classification System (ISSCS). The specific 5.2 Angle of internal friction at shearing rate
gravity was found to be 2.65. The ESP was 0.625mm/min
also sieved through IS 4.75 sieve.
At shearing rate 0.625mm/min, the angle of
4.2 Methodology internal friction for sand and ESP at different ratios
of S:E are taken. The ratios are 0:100, 30:70,
In order to study the shear strength of sand 50:50, 70:30 and 100:0.
and ESP, direct shear test were done at
various shearing rates in order to make an
attempt to relate shear stress at failure directly
to normal stress, thus directly defining the
Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope. Essentially, a
sample of soil is subject to a fixed normal
stress and a shear stress is induced along a
predetermined plane until shear failure of the
soil takes place. The samples were prepared
at different ratio of sand and ESP (S:E) like
100:0, 70:30, 50:50, 30:70 and 0:100.
5. TEST RESULTS AND INTERPRETATIONS
As mentioned above, the samples prepared at

different ratios has been subjected to direct
shear test and the shearing rates were taken
as 0.25mm/min, 0.625mm/min and Fig. 2 Angle of internal friction at shearing rate
1.25mm/min. The samples were tested in dry 0.625mm/min
state.
5.3 Angle of internal friction at shearing rate
5.1 Angle of internal friction at shearing rate 1.25mm/min
0.25mm/min
At shearing rate 1.25mm/min, the angle of
At shearing rate 0.25mm/min, the angle of internal friction for sand and ESPat different ratios
internal friction for sand and ESPat different ratios of S:E are taken. The ratios are 0:100, 30:70,
of S:E are taken. The ratios are 0:100, 30:70, 50:50, 70:30 and 100:0.
50:50, 70:30 and 100:0.
141
Theme C
B.tech Thesis Universiti Malaysia Pahang.

Malaysia.
Yerramala, 2014 “Properties of concrete with

eggshell powder as cement replacement.”
The Indian Concrete Journal, 94-10 .
Amu, O.O., A.B. Fajobi and B.O. Oke (2005)

“Effect of eggshell powder on the
stabilizing potential of lime on an
expansive clay soil” Res. J.
Agric. & Biol. Sci, 1: 80–84.
A. J. Olarewaju, M. O. Balogun and S. O. Akinlolu

(2011) “Suitability of Eggshell Stabilized
Lateritic Soil as Subgrade Material for
Fig. 3 Angle of internal friction at shearing rate Road Construction” EJGE, 16: 899-908
1.25mm/min
IS: 2720 (part XIII)-1986 (Reaffirmed 1997).
“India standard method of test of soils,
6. CONCLUSION
part XIII direct shear test.” Bureau of India
Shear strength has been a topic of utmost standards, New Delhi.
importance in the field of soil mechanics.
IS: 2720 (part 39)-1977. “Indian standard method
Angle of internal friction of a structure is
directly related to this property of soil. Hence of tests of soils: Direct shear test.” Bureau
understanding the phenomenon of shearing of Indian Standards, New Delhi
and its behaviour with respect shearing rate
become a matter of great concern for Satyanarayana, P.V.V., Raghu, P.; Kumar, R.A.,
engineers. From this experimental study, the and Pradeep, N. (2013) “Performance of
following conclusions can be made for the crusher dust in high plastic gravel soils as
quarry dust taken for laboratory investigations. road construction material.” IOSR Journal
of mechanical and civil engineering,
1. The shear strength of sand was found to vol.10, issue 3, 01-04
be more with respect to eggshell.
2. The optimum mix was found to be 50:50.
3. The shear strength of sand gradually
increases when eggshell powder was
added to it which was up to 50% and
addition of more egg shell to sand
gradually decreased the value.
4. As we increased the shearing rate the
angle of internal friction also increases.
5. According to the observed value egg shell
powder can be used as partial
replacement to sand.
6. The powdered eggshell was much finer
than sand.
7. As we increased the normal stress shear
stress of the samples are found to
increases.
7. REFERENCES
Hut, N., 2014. “The performance of eggshell

powder as an additive in concrete mix”,
142
PREDICTION OF CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO (CBR) FROM INDEX

PROPERTIES OF FINE GRAINED SOIL
(ICID2018_C_003)
1
Arunav Chakraborty and 2Anasuya Goswami
1
Civil Engineering Department, Tezpur University, Tezpur, Assam, India.
2
Civil Engineering Department, Sonitpur Polytechnic, Dhekiajuli, Assam, India.
ABSTRACT
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) is a very important parameter required for the design of the flexible pavements. It is
also referred as an indirect method to define the subgrade soil strength. The conventional method of testing soaked
CBR is highly expensive and time consuming. To overcome this situation and to have a preliminary assessment of
the stability of soils, prediction models for these engineering properties are highly preferable. CBR value of soil may
depend upon many factors like liquid limit (LL), plastic limit (PL), plasticity index (PI), optimum moisture content
(OMC), maximum dry density (MDD), type of soil, permeability of soil, etc. In this study, a prediction model has been
developed for correlating soaked CBR values with LL, PL, OMC and MDD of some of the soil samples collected
from different locations of Guwahati, Assam, India. Soaked CBR is considered as Assam is a highly flood prone
zone and some rural roads remain under water for two to three days. The coefficient of correlation of each of these
properties with soaked CBR are determined. Finally, equations are derived for CBR soaked using multiple linear
regression (MLR).
Keywords: California Bearing Ratio; Flexible Pavement; Multiple Linear Regression; Optimum Moisture Content;
Maximum Dry Density.
1 INTRODUCTION models to obtain the soaked CBR value from

easily determinable parameters are highly
Most of the road system in India are having preferable. CBR value of soil may depend upon
flexible pavements. There are different methods of many factors like liquid limit (LL), plastic limit (PL),
designing a flexible pavement. The California plasticity index (PI), optimum moisture content
Bearing Ratio (CBR) test is an important (OMC), maximum dry density (MDD), type of soil,
parameter required for the design of the flexible permeability of soil, etc. Therefore, an extensive
pavements. It is an empirically determined laboratory investigation has been carried out to
process required to access the subgrade strength study the variation pattern of soaked CBR values
of roads and pavements. The test can be with LL, PL, OMC and MDD.
performed in the laboratory according to IS-2720: A detailed literature review has been done prior
Part 16 (1987) on soil samples acquired from the to the development of the prediction models for
site. The CBR test on subgrade soil requires a engineering properties of fine grained soil using
representative sample from which a remoulded regression analysis. The prediction model
specimen is prepared and compacted at developed by Agarwal and Ghanekar (1970)was
predetermined OMC. It is then soaked for 4 days based on 48 case studies to predict the value of
under water and penetration test is conducted. CBR from LL, PL/PI. However, a strong
The soaked CBR value of a soil sample is relationship was failed to develop between the
obtained after a week. The determination of parameters instead, a much better correlation was
soaked CBR value is not only laborious and time found when they incorporated LL and OMC. Roy
consuming but also requires high cost et al. (2009) developed a correlation for CBR of
equipments. It is very difficult to obtain a proper cohesive soils on the basis of compaction
idea about the soaked CBR of subgrade materials characteristics. Patel and Desai (2010) proposed
over the total length of the road. So, it is not really a correlation between plasticity index, MDD and
possible to take a large number of samples. OMC for soaked CBR of alluvial soils. Datta and
Hence, due to limited resources and time, very Chattopadhyay (2011) found that the predicted
few laboratory tests on soaked CBR are values from correlation given by Patel and Desai
conductedwhile planning various construction agree with the tested values particularly for CI
projects. Therefore, the soil investigation data soils. But the predicted model failed to produce
obtained are quite insufficient in many cases. To any correlation for other types of soils.
overcome this situation and to have a preliminary Venkatasubramanian and Dhinakaran (2011)
assessment of the stability of soils, prediction proposed two prediction models for predicting the
143
Theme C
values of CBR using artificial neural network through 425 micron IS Sieve (fractions smaller
(ANN) and multiple linear regression (MLR) and than 425 micron) according to the guidelines given
based on the values of correlation coefficient, R2 in IS-2720: Part 5 (1985). The former is done by
and root mean square error (RMSE), they using the Casagrande apparatus while the latter is
concluded that the predicted results obtained by done by roll and thread method. The grain size
MLR are having higher degree of accuracy. distribution has been carried out by wet sieve
Yildirim and Gunaydin (2011) estimated the CBR analysis on oven dried samples as per IS-2720:
value from sieve analysis, Atterberg limits, OMC Part 4 (1985). The main objective is to determine
and MDD using ANN and MLR. Regression the relative percentages of constituent materials
analysis and artificial neural network estimation (sand and finer content). Finally, the samples are
indicated strong correlations (R2 = 0.80 – 0.95) classified and awarded the group symbol as per
between the various soil parameters. Varghese et the Indian Standard Plasticity Chart given in IS-
al. (2013) also used ANN and MLR for predicting 1498 (1970). The compaction parameters are
the CBR value of fine grained soil from LL, PL, determined by performing the IS light compaction
OMC and MDD and found that ANN gives better test as per the standard guidelines given in IS-
correlation compared to MLR. Ramasubbarao and 2720: Part 7 (1980). IS light compaction test is
Siva Sankar (2013) developed a regression model Indian equivalent of the Standard Proctor test
for predicting soaked CBR value for fine-grained having a compactive energy of 60450 kgf m/m 3
soils in terms of grain size analysis, LL, PL, MDD (Shukla, 2015). The CBR test is performed as per
and OMC. The statistical parameters indicate that the guidelines given in IS-2720: Part 16 (1987).
the correlation of soaked CBR value with MDD When the CBR test in soaked condition is
has shown better performance.Talukdar (2014) performed, the worst conditions in the field is tried
correlated soaked CBR value with MDD, OMC, to simulate, and to achieve this condition the soil
LL, PL and PI of fine grained soil and concluded specimen is kept submerged in water for about 4
that CBR value decreases with the increase in the days before testing. The CBR value is obtained on
PI and OMC but increases with the increase in the after the penetration test is successfully
MDD. Korde and Yadav (2015) used regression conducted.
analysis to correlate CBR value with LL, PL, and
PI. They found that the CBR value decreases with
increase in PI and LL. Nguyen and Mohajerani 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
(2015) studied the effect of moisture content (MC),
PI and MDD on the CBR values of fine-grained The various tests mentioned in the previous
soil. They concluded that the correlation of CBR section has been carried out as per the required
with MC, PI and MDD was found to be strong for guidelines.
the samples tested at OMC, wet side of OMC and
soaked conditions. Bassey et al. (2017) carried 3.1 Correlation of LL and PL with soaked CBR
out a study to establish a relation between CBR
and other geotechnical properties of soil with The correlation of LL and PL with soaked CBR
respect to location of study. Soil samples were can be studied by plotting LL and PL as
collected from three locations, Ibiono, Oron and independent variable and soaked CBR as
Onna in AkwaIbom state, Nigeria. The statistical dependent variable as shown in figure 1 and 2.
parameters indicate that the non-linear regression
analysis showed strong correlation between; CBR
and (PI, OMC) for Ibiono; CBR and (OMC, MDD) (a)
14
for Onna; CBR and (LL, PI, OMC) for Oron CBRS = 17.458e-0.021(LL)
12
specimen. R² = 0.7346
10
CBR (%)
8
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS 6
4
This study has been performed by collecting 45
soil samples from different locations of Guwahati, 2
Assam, India. The physical properties of these soil 0
samples are determined by conducting various 0 20 40 60 80
laboratory tests as per the standard Indian Codes. LL (%)
The laboratory tests include the grain size Figure 1 Variation of soaked CBR with LL
distribution, liquid limit and plastic limit, IS light
compaction test to determine OMC and MDD and
soaked CBR test.
The liquid limit and plastic limit tests are
carried out on oven dried soil samples passing
144
Theme C
(b)
14
3.2 Correlation of OMC and MDD with soaked
CBRS = 16.481e-0.037(PL) CBR
12 R² = 0.6297
10 In this case also, the soaked CBR values are
CBR (%)
8 treated as dependent variables while the OMC

6 and MDD values are taken as independent
variables. The graphs showing the relationship
4
between OMC, MDD and soaked CBR are plotted
2 in figure 5 and 6. It has been found that the
0 soaked CBR value decreases exponentially with
0 20 40 60 increase in OMC. The variation of soaked CBR
PL (%) with MDD is somewhat different. The soaked CBR
Figure 2 Variation of soaked CBR with PL value increases exponentially with the increase in
the value of MDD. The linear equations obtained
from the data points of the present study are:
From the figure, it has been found that soaked
CBR value varies exponentially with LL and PL.
CBRS = 67.46e-0.18(OMC) R² = 0.91
Soaked CBR value decreases exponentially with
increase in both LL and PL. The linear equations
obtained from the data points of the present study
CBRS = 0.0014e4.5269(MDD) R² = 0.60
are:
CBRS = 17.458e-0.021(LL) R² = 0.73 The relation of OMC with soaked CBR exhibits a
better correlation compared to MDD. It has been
found that the correlation coefficient, R in the
CBRS = 16.481e-0.037(PL) R² = 0.63 earlier case exhibits a higher value (R = 0.96)
than the latter one (R = 0.78) and hence exist a
The measured and the predicted values of soaked strong correlation between OMC and soaked CBR
CBR has been found to be in close agreement in value. The relation between the measured CBRS
case of LL (R = 0.88) compared to PL (R = 0.78) values and predicted CBRS values from OMC and
shown by figure 3 and 4. MDD are shown in figure 7 and 8 respectively.
(a) R² = 0.7683
(a)
14 14
12 12
Predicted CBR (%)
10 10
CBR (%)
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2 CBRS = 67.46e-0.18(OMC)
R² = 0.913
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15 20
Measured CBR (%) OMC (%)
Figure 3 Predicted CBRS from LL Figure 5 Variation of soaked CBR with OMC
(b) R² = 0.6044 (b)
14 14
12 12
Predicted CBR (%)
10 10
CBR (%)
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2 CBRS = 0.0014e4.5269(MDD)
R² = 0.6025
0 0
0 5 10 15 1.70 1.80 1.90 2.00
Measured CBR (%) MDD (g/cc)
Figure 4 Predicted CBRS from PL Figure 6 Variation of soaked CBR with MDD
145
Theme C
3.3 Multiple Linear Regression Model in terms 4 CONCLUSION

of LL, PL, OMC and MDD
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) is an important
Multiple linear regression analysis has been parameter which is required for the design of
carried out by considering the soaked CBR value flexible pavements. CBR value of soil may depend
as the dependent variable and the rest of the soil upon many factors like liquid limit (LL), plastic limit
properties as the independent variable. The (PL), plasticity index (PI), optimum moisture
regression analysis has been carried out using content (OMC), maximum dry density (MDD), type
Data Analysis tool bar of Microsoft Excel 2013. of soil, permeability of soil, etc. The determination
Soaked CBR value can be expressed as: of soaked CBR value is not only laborious and
time consuming but also requires high cost
equipments. To overcome this situation and to
CBRS = f(LL, PL, OMC and MDD)
have a preliminary assessment of the stability of
soils, prediction models for these engineering
R² = 0.924 properties are highly preferable. An extensive
(a)
12 experimental study has been carried out on 45
naturally occurring fine-grained soils to investigate
10
Predicted CBR (%)
the variation pattern of soaked CBR value against

8 the index properties of soil.
6
Table 1. Summary output of Multiple Regression
4 Model in terms of LL, PL, OMC and MDD.
2
SUMMARY OUTPUT
0
0 5 10 15 Regression Statistics
Measured CBR (%) Multiple R 0.973
Figure 7 Predicted CBRS from OMC R Square 0.946
Adjusted R Square 0.941

R² = 0.5996
(b) Standard Error 0.522
12
Observations 45
10
Predicted CBR (%)
Standard
Parameters Coefficients t Stat P-value
Error
8 Intercept 0.591 5.592 0.106 0.916
6 LL -0.041 0.014 -2.910 0.006
4 PL -0.059 0.020 -2.920 0.006
2 OMC -0.658 0.122 -5.382 0.000
0 MDD 9.733 2.484 3.918 0.000

0 5 10 15
Measured CBR (%)
15 Present Study
Linear (Present Study)
Figure 8 Predicted CBRS from MDD Linear (Agarwal & Ghanekar (1970))
Linear (Patel & Desai (2010))
Predicted CBR (%)
Linear (Yildirim & Gunaydin)

The summary output of the regression model has 10 Linear (Varghese et al. (2013))
Linear (Talukdar (2014))
been shown in Table 1.From the table, the
correlation coefficient (Multiple R) has been found
to be 0.973 which is very close to unity, hence
5
bearing a very strong relationship between the
various input parameters. Hence, the above
model may be proposed for estimating soaked
CBR value. The validity of the proposed model for 0
prediction of soaked CBR value was verified by 0 5 10 15
comparing the data of soil properties reported by Measured CBR (%)
few investigators. The proposed model has been Figure 9 Validation of the proposed predicted
compared with previous other models and has model
been shown in figure 9.
146
Theme C
Various statistical analysis have been done to AkwaIbom State. Resources and
determine the best fit model. The salient Environment, 7(4): 94-102.
observations of this study can be summarized as Datta T, Chattopadhyay BC (2011) Correlation
follows: between CBR and index properties of soil.
1. The soaked CBR value decreases Proceedings of Indian Geotechnical
exponentially with increase in LL and PL. Conference, Kochi
However, LL shows a better correlation (R =
0.86) with soaked CBR as against PL (R = IS-2720: Part 5 (1985). Indian standard methods
0.79). The measured and the predicted values of test for soils: determination of liquid
of soaked CBR has been found to be in close limit and plastic limit. Bureau of Indian
agreement in case of LL (R = 0.88) compared Standards, New Delhi
to PL (R = 0.78) with RMSE of 3.2 % and 5.4 IS-2720: Part 4 (1985). Indian standard methods
% respectively. of test for soils: grain size analysis.
2. The soaked CBR value also develops an Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi
exponential relationship with OMC and MDD.
The soaked CBR value decreases
IS-2720: Part 7 (1980). Indian standard methods
exponentially with increase in OMC. The
of test for soils: determination of water
variation of soaked CBR with MDD is
content—dry density relation using light
somewhat different. The soaked CBR value
compaction. Bureau of Indian Standards,
increases exponentially with the increase in
New Delhi
the value of MDD. OMC develops a stronger
correlation with soaked CBR (R = 0.96) IS – 2720: Part 16 (1987). Indian Standard
compared to MDD (R = 0.78). The measured Method of test for soils. Laboratory
and the predicted values of soaked CBR has Determination of CBR. Bureau of Indian
been found to be highly convincing in case of Standards, New Delhi.
OMC (R = 0.96) compared to MDD (R = 0.77). Korde M. and Yadav R. K. (2015). Predicting the
The RMSE values were found to be 1.2 % (in CBR value of different soils with the help
case of OMC) and 5.3 % (in case of MDD). of index properties. Int. J. Engg. Res. &
3. The predicted values of soaked CBR obtained Sci. & Tech., 4(3), pp. 142-145.
from OMC showed the best performance with
the measured values having the highest Nguyen B. T. and Mohajerani A. (2015).
correlation coefficient of 0.96 and least RMSE Prediction of California Bearing Ratio from
values of 1.2 % compared to other soil Physical Properties of Fine-Grained Soils.
properties, like LL, PL and MDD. International Journal of Civil,
4. The multiple linear regression model Environmental, Structural, Construction
developed in terms LL, PL, OMC and MDD and Architectural Engineering, 9(2), pp.
showed convincingly good prediction results 136-141.
having correlation coefficient of 0.97. Patel RS, Desai MD (2010) CBR Predicted by
5. The proposed empirical correlations can act index properties of soil for alluvial soils of
as a good prediction model for predicting the South Gujarat, Indian Geotechnical
value of soaked CBR which is an important Conference, Proc. IGC I: 79–82
parameter required for the design of flexible
pavements. Moreover, these empirical Ramasubbarao, G.V. and Siva Sankar, G. (2013).
correlations would be more appropriate for Predicting Soaked CBR Value of Fine
clayey soils of Assam (India) as more Grained Soils Using Index and
variation is noted depending on the place of Compaction Characteristics. Jordan
origin of soils. Journal of Civil Engineering, 7(3), pp. 354-
360.
5 REFERENCES Roy TK, Chattopadhyay BC, Roy SK (2009).
Prediction of CBR from compaction
Agarwal, K.B. and Ghanekar, K.D., (1970). characteristics of cohesive soil. Highway
Prediction of CBR from plasticity Res. J. 77–88
characteristics of soil. Proceedings of 2nd Shukla S. K. (2015). Core concepts of
south-east Asian conference on soil Geotechnical Engineering. ICE
engineering, Singapore, June 11-15,
Publishing, London.
pp.571-6.
Smith G. N. Probability and statistics in civil
Bassey O. B., Attah I. C., Ambrose E. E. and Etim engineering: an introduction, Collins,
R. K. (2017). Correlation between CBR London. Nichols Pub. Co. 1986.
Values and Index Properties of Soils: A
Case Study of Ibiono, Oron and Onna in
147
Theme C
Talukdar D. K. (2014). A Study of Correlation Venkatasubramanian. C. and Dhinakaran G.

between California Bearing Ratio (CBR) (2011). ANN model for predicting CBR
Values with Other Properties of Soil. from index properties of soils.
International Journal of Emerging International Journal of Civil and
Technology and Advanced Engineering. Structural Engineering, 2(2), pp. 605-611.
4(1), pp. 559-562. Yildirim B., Gunaydin O. (2011). Estimation of
Varghese V. K., Babu S. S., Bijukumar R., Cyrus California bearing ratio by using soft
S. and Abraham B. M. (2013). Artificial computing systems. Expert Systems with
Neural Networks: A Solution to the Applications 38:6381–6391.
Ambiguity in Prediction of Engineering
Properties of Fine-Grained Soils.
GeotechGeol Eng., 31:1187–1205.
148
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
FIELD CBR TEST STUDY ON TWO LAYERED FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
REINFORCED WITH COCONUT COIR MAT
ICID2018_C_004
Dr. Bibha Das Saikia1, Biplab Gogoi2, Krishna Gogoi3
1
Professor, Deptt.of Civil Engg., Royal Global University, Ghy-35, Assam, India.
2
Assistant Professor, Deptt. of Civil Engg., Royal Global University, Ghy-35, Assam, India.
3
Ex PG Student, Deptt. of Civil Engg., Assam Engineering College, Jalukbari, Ghy-13, Assam, India.
ABSTRACT
It is often required to stabilize and reinforce the structurally unsound soil to bear the traffic load. Different types of
materials are being increasingly employed in highway engineering to facilitate rapid construction and to ensure better
performance. In the present study a series of field CBR tests were performed on a two layered flexible pavement
system (field model) consisting of locally available soil and aggregate with different combination; reinforced by locally
available coconut coir mat as geo-textile material. These tests were conducted on the above materials with and
without coconut coir mat reinforcement to find the reinforcing effect imparted by coconut coir mat. The coconut coir
mat reinforcement was also kept at varying depth and the tests were conducted. The locally available sand which is
used for making the sub grade has uniformity co-efficient (Cu) = 1.93 curvature co-efficient (Cc) = 0.92 and specific
gravity (G) = 2.67. The size of the aggregate is 63mm and down, which is preferably used in WBM road construction.
The thickness of WBM over sub grade was varied from 10cm to 20cm in steps of 5cm and the coconut coir mat in
each case was placed at the interface with single and double layer. It was observed that the CBR values of the
above materials improved when coconut coir mat was placed in it. The maximum field CBR value was achieved
when coconut coir mat was placed with 20cm WBM over sub grade with double layer.
Keywords: Two layered flexible pavement; Geo-textile reinforcement; Coconut coir mat.
1 INTRODUCTION characteristics of two layered flexible pavement

system with and without reinforcing material at the
The idea of using geosynthetics or geotextiles in interface. The material used in the experimental
Geotechnical Engineering, as an alternative programme are- Sandy soil, for the purpose of
improving technique for roads and embankments preparing sub grade; Aggregate, which acts as
is a trending approach now a days. The technique WBM construction material & Coconut coir mat,
has been employed in highway construction as which acts as reinforcing material.
cost effective alternatives to conventional
solutions, principally in the area of earth retaining The soil used to perform as sub grade is
structures; for which demand of geosynthetics or collected from the bank of the river Brahmaputra
geotextiles materials for road construction is at Narengi, Guwahati. Various laboratory tests i.e.
increasing day to day. Further roads are to be Grain size distribution, specific gravity test,
constructed over soft sub grade at some places. Modified proctor test and CBR test are performed
Under those circumstances, either sub grade is to as per Indian standard code to determine the
be stabilized suitably or the sub base is to be properties of sub grade soil which are given in
replaced by the light weight materials. Various Table 1.
researchers investigate the effect of geotextiles in
soil subgrade for enhancing the geotechnical Table 1. Properties of sub grade soil
properties. Researchers like Binquet et al. (1975), Sl Property Test value
Varghese and Jose (1989), Kumar and No
Sathyamurthy (1993), Guha(1995) did some work 1 Uniformity coefficient, Cu 1.93
in this domain. Kumar et al. (2005) performed field 2 Curvature coefficient, Cc 0.92
CBR tests with or without geotextile reinforcement 3 Effective size, D10 0.15 mm
in different composition of soil and observed that 4 Specific gravity, G 2.67
introduction of geotextiles in soil improved CBR 5 Optimum moisture content 15.87%
values. 6 Maximum dry density 1.73 gm/cc
7 Laboratory CBR value ( Soaked) 11.72%
8 Laboratory CBR value ( unsoaked) 21.22%
2 TEST PROGRAMME AND TEST RESULTS
The following tests were conducted on
The experimental programme and test set up
aggregate to judge their suitability as the WBM
used in the study is to determine the field CBR
construction material- grain size distribution test,
149
Theme A
specific gravity test, Los Angeles abrasion test, 5cm and the coconut coir mat in each case was
aggregate impact test, flakiness index test and placed at the interface.
water absorption test, the results of which were
given in Table. 2. The size of the aggregate id The two layered flexible pavement sections are
63mm and down, which is preferably used in constructed at different bed conditions as given in
Water Bound Macadam (WBM) road construction. Table 4; above which field CBR tests are
conducted to determine the field CBR value (%).
Table 2. Properties of aggregate
Table 4. Various bed conditions for Field CBR
Sl No Property Test value
tests and its designation
1 Specific gravity, G 2.77 design Test bed condition
2 Abrasion value (%) 29.30 ation
3 Impact value (%) 20.22
A 80cm depth Brahmaputra sand as sub
4 Flakiness index value (%) 9.52
grade
5 Water absorption value (%) 0.88
B 10cm WBM over sub grade without
The reinforcing material used in the test coconut coir
program is coconut coir mat (woven) which is
easily available in market. Different types of C 10 cm WBM over sub grade with single
coconut coir geo textiles are available in the layer coconut coir
market. The coconut coir mat used in the present
study is of type C (from the literature survey by D 10 cm WBM over sub grade with double
Rao et. al. (1988)). The properties of coir layer coconut coir
geotextiles for different types are given in Table 3
and an image of type C coconut coir mat is given E 15cm WBM over sub grade without
in Fig.1. coconut coir
F 15cm WBM over sub grade with single

layer coconut coir
G 15cm WBM over sub grade with double

layer coconut coir
H 20cm WBM over sub grade without

coconut coir
I 20cm WBM over sub grade with single
layer coconut coir
J 20cm WBM over sub grade with double

layer coconut coir
Figure 1. View of type C coconut coir mat A test pit of size 3.60m x 1.50m x 0.80 m depth
was excavated and filled by Brahmaputra sand in
Table 3. Properties of coir geotextile (Rao et al. layers (15 cm thick) and compacted by ramming
(1988)) (Fig.2). Compaction was done to have a dry
Coir geo- Mass per Tensile Tensile density in the range of 1.66 gm/cc to 1.8gm/cc.
textile unit area strength strain at Next WBM layers were laid using the locally
(gsm) (kN/m) failure (%) available coarse aggregates, which falls in the
Type B 610 11.45 25.42 category of grading-II. Screening materials type-A
Type C 1335 31.50 42.00 (given in the “Specification for road and bridge
Type D 750 2.76 31.67 works- ministry of road transport and highway”)
were used to fill up pores of the aggregates The
WBM was constructed as per the guidelines given
To keep the uniformity in different tests, the
in the above code of practice (Fig.3 & Fig.4). The
sub grade was kept at its optimum moisture
entire field CBR test set up is shown in Fig. 5. The
content 15.87% and within a field density range of
field CBR tests on the test bed were conducted on
1.93 gm/cc to 2.09 gm/cc. In order to study the
different conditions of testing in accordance with
reinforcement and separation function of coconut
the procedure laid down in IS-2720 (part XVI).
coir mat, thickness of WBM layers over the sub
Typical results of load penetration curves, for test
grade was varied from 10cm to 20cm in steps of
bed conditions A, D, H & J are shown in Fig.6 to
150
Theme A
Fig.9. Table.5 shows the entire field CBR test

results.
Figure 5. Field CBR test set up
Figure 2. Test pit 250

200
Load (kg)
150
100
50
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Penetration (mm)
Figure 6. Load vs. penetration curve for test bed
condition A
Figure 3. Test bed ready for experiment
600
500
400
Load (kg)
300
200
100
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Penetration (mm)
condition D
500
Figure 4. Test bed prepared with coconut coir mat
400
Load (kg)
300
200
100
0
4 0 6 2 8 10
Penetration (mm)
condition H
151
Theme A
1000 shows the percentage change in field CBR value

after the use of coconut coir mat keeping the
800 thickness of WBM layer constant; which shows
that double layer coconut coir mat is more
Load (kg)
600
effective than single layer coconut coir mat, which
400 was introduced in between WBM and soil sub
grade layer. It can be interpreted from the test
200 results that amongst all the test bed conditions,
the test bed conditions J (20cm WBM over sub
0 grade with double layer coconut coir) gives the
0 4 2 6 8 10 best results with the field CBR value of 32.12%
Penetration (mm) and the percentage change in Field CBR value
Figure 9. Load vs. penetration curve for test bed with double layer coconut coir is 141.87 %. It is
condition H observed from the Table 6 that in the case of 15
cm thickness WBM layer, the value of percentage
Table 5. CBR values for different test bed change in Field CBR value with double layer
conditions coconut coir is less than the percentage change in
Test bed CBR Value CBR Value Adopted Field CBR value with single layer coconut coir.
condition (%) (%) CBR Value This may be due to some error during the test,
at 2.5 mm at 5 mm (%) because all the tests are done manually and the
A 8.58 7.83 8.58 compaction may not be proper.
B 11.28 13.04 13.04 Table 6. Percentage change in field CBR values

C 9.85 14.84 14.84 with coconut coir mat
D 18.07 19.95 19.95 WBM % change in Field % change in
layer CBR value with Field CBR value
E 9.23 12.12 12.12 thickness single layer with double layer
F 14.82 16.64 16.64 coconut coir coconut coir
G 14.60 13.63 14.60 10 cm 13.80 52.99
15 cm 37.29 20.46
H 11.75 13.28 13.28 20 cm 42.17 141.87
I 16.46 18.88 18.88
J 28.80 32.12 32.12
4 CONCLUSIONS
3 DISCUSSION OF FIELD CBR TEST The field CBR test result indicates that the
RESULTS presence of coconut coir mat in between
Brahmaputra soil sub grade and WBM layer
The field CBR value for penetrations at 2.5mm constructed by locally available aggregate
and 5.0 mm for different sections conducted with enhance the field CBR values and the maximum
and without coconut coir mat with 10 cm, 15 cm field CBR Value of 32.12% was achieved when
and 20 cm WBM thickness indicate that coconut coir mat is placed with 20 cm WBM over
introduction of coconut coir mat in between the sub grade with double layer. Thus according to
soil sub grade and WBM layer enhance the field this study on the field CBR at different test bed
CBR value. The Brahmaputra soil sub grade has conditions, for maximum benefit in the
an average field CBR value 8.58 %, but by construction flexible pavement a double layered
providing coconut coir mat in different condition in coconut coir mat should be placed below 20 cm
between Brahmaputra soil sub grade and WBM WBM layer. However, this study can be further
layer constructed by locally available aggregate extend towards different test bed conditions
we get the field CBR value maximum upto considering other Geotechnical parameters also.
32.12%. Field CBR value depends on type of soil,
amount of compaction, position of coconut coir
mat, thickness of coconut coir mat and WBM 5. REFERENCES
thickness. The test bed having 20 cm WBM over
sub grade with double layer coconut coir mat Banquet J., Lee and Kenneth L. 1997. Bearing
gives the high CBR value and it indicates that capacity on reinforced earth slabs, Journal of
maximum benefit of coconut coir mat is achieved Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, vol 101, No.
when the coconut coir mat was placed below 20 GT12, Proc. Paper 11792.
cm WBM thickness with double layer. Table 6 Bureau of Indian Standards, 1987. Methods of test
152
Theme A
for soils: Laboratory Determination of CBR, IS

2720-16, New Delhi, India.
Guha, A. 1990. Characteristic physical properties

of coir fibre and their compatibility with Jute,
M.Tech thesis submitted to IIT, Delhi.
Kumar Pradip, A.V. and Sathyamurty, R. 1993.
Study on strength characteristics of soil
reinforved by using plythene Fabric, Indian
Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 23, No. 3, July
1993.
Kumar, P., Mehndiratta H.C. and Rokade, S.
2005. Use of reinforced fly ash in Highway
embankments, Highway Research Bulletin, No.
73. Oct, 2005.
Rao, G.V., Kate J.M., and Tyegi, S. K. 1988.
Evaluation of soil reinforcement friction, Indian
Geotechnical Journal, Vol.18, No.2, April,
1988.
Varghese, P.J.B. and Jose T.B 1989. Soil
reinforcement using coconut coir fibres and
coir geotextiles, Proc. First Karela.
153
BEHAVIOUR OF GEOTEXTILE REINFORCED STONE COLUMNS

(ICID2018_C_005)
MANITA DAS1, A.K.DEY2
1,2,National Institute of Technology Silchar, Silchar, Assam, India
ABSTRACT
Stone columns are being used to improve the bearing capacity and reduce the settlement of a weak or soft soil. The
improvement can be enhanced by encapsulating the columns with tensile resistant materials. The improvement
depends on the confinement offered by the surrounding soil, the reinforcing material, and the granular column
material. The benefit of using the stone columns in weak soil has been proved to be an efficient method to improve
the load-carrying capacity of the soil. The bearing capacity of a stone column mainly depends on circumferential
confinement provided by the surrounding soil. Circumferential confinement is normally achieved by using a casing. In
this study, the confinement is tried to achieve through the placement of horizontal layers of geo-textiles placed at
different depths. Laboratory model tests were performed on stone columns of diameter 5 cm and length 50 cm, i.e.
ten times the diameter. Since lateral bulging occurs up to a depth of 1.5 to 2 times of the diameter of a stone column,
hence, horizontal layers of geo-textiles were provided at different depths up to 15 cm from the
top. Tests were also performed on un-reinforced stone columns for comparison study. The numerical study is also
conducted here. The test setup consists of a test tank with dimensions 1 m  1 m and height 1 m. The test bed
consists of saturated clay consolidated under its own weight. The moisture content of the clay layer at the time of
tests was observed to be 44% with the undrained shear strength of 20 kPa. This water content was tried to keep
constant for all the tests. The inner side walls of the test box were coated with grease coated plastic sheet to reduce
the friction between the clay and tank wall. The clay bed thickness was kept as 0.9 m for all the tests. In addition,
tests were also performed on groups of stone columns, reinforced and unreinforced, arranged in a triangular pattern,
spaced at three times the diameter. Results show that the bearing capacity of a reinforced stone column is higher
than that of a normal stone column. Moreover, bulging of a reinforced stone column is less than that of a normal
stone column.
Keywords: Stone column; bulging; geosynthetic; reinforcing element
1 INTRODUCTION characteristics due to stone column installation

studied in 2007 (Guetif et al., 2007). This method
The increasing infrastructure growth in urban and was proposed for evaluating the improvement of
metropolitan areas has resulted in a drastic rise in the Young modulus of soft clay in which a vibro
land prices and lack of suitable sites for compacted stone column was installed. Stone
development. As a result, construction is now column was studied in 2011 (Pivarc 2011) to
carried out on marshy land or barren land with determine the soil improvement factor. Many
poor load carrying capacity and high researchers (Khabbazian et al., 2011, Wu and
compressibility. Many site specific ground Hong 2009), Gniel and Bouazza (2009), Gniel
improvement techniques are now being adopted and Bouazza 2010, Zhang et al. 2012, Ghazavi
to improve this type of poor soil and improvement and Afshar 2013 , Lo et al. 2010, Pulko et al.
by stone columns is one of the widely used 2013, Imam et al. 2012) worked on geosynthetic
techniques. They also can be used in loose sand encased stone columns. Among all the papers,
deposits to increase the density. They are three studies (Khabbazian et al., 2011, Lo et al.
capable of dissipating excess pore water 2010, Pulko et al. 2013, Imam et al. 2012) are
pressure in the in-situ soil and thereby reducing analytical based. In all these papers, a series of
the void ratio in the zone of influence. Whereas numerical studies were performed on the
the first use of stone columns was in Germany in contribution of geosynthetic encasement in
1950, the first use in India was in early 1970s. enhancing the performance of stone columns in
Performance of a stone column foundation was very soft clay deposits. The papers (Wu and
studied in 1985 (Mitchel 1985). Vibro-replacement Hong 2009), Gniel and Bouazza (2009), Gniel
method was used for installation pf stone columns and Bouazza 2010, Zhang et al. 2012, Ghazavi
to support a large wastewater treatment plant. and Afshar 2013) studies are based on
Numerical analysis of stone column supported experimental work. From all the studies it can be
foundations was studied by Pande and Scheiger seen that the ultimate load carried by soft soil
(1986). In this paper, settlement and failure load increases by using OSCs. The ultimate load and
of rafts resting on stone column reinforced soft stiffness of the treated soil can be further increase
clays are analyzed. Improvement of soft clay by the use of vertical reinforcing material. When
154
Theme C
the length and strength of reinforcing encasement

increase, the ultimate capacity and stiffness of Although many researchers have studied the
stone columns increase. bearing capacity and expected settlement of the
treated ground, very few have discussed on the
The major disadvantage of a stone column is its reduction of bulging or settlement of the treated
bulging tendency under a compressive load due to
soil. Use of horizontal layers of geotextiles as a
non-rigid structural form. It is observed that the
measure to reduce the the bulging of the stone
maximum reduction in expected settlement due to
installation of stone columns is around 50%. Thus, columns is a new proposition.
stone columns are not normally provided below
ordinary buildings. In case, bulging of stone
columns can be reduced, the overall settlement
can also be reduced horizontal layers of geo-
textiles were provided at different depths up to 15
cm from the top. Tests were also performed on
un-reinforced stone columns for comparison
study. To improve the performance of soft clay
foundations using stone columns and geocell-
sand mattress one study (Dash and Bora 2013)
was performed experimentally in 2013. A series of
experiments were carried out to develop an
understanding of the performance improvement of
soft clay foundation beds using stone column-
geocell sand mattress as reinforcement. In this
study from the experimental results it can be
obtained that the composite reinforcement i.e.
geocell mattress over stone column is very
effective one to increase the bearing capacity and
reduce the settlement.
2 PROGRAMME OF THE PRESENT WORK
In this study, one clay bed test, two single column

test and two group column tests are performed. Figure 1 Experimental set up
The diameter of the stone column is taken as
50mm and height of the stone column is taken as
500 mm taking L/D=10, where L is the length and 3 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
D = diameter of the column. This is because a
minimum L/D = 4 is required for control of bulging
3.1 Properties of Materials
failure mode. In group column test triangular
pattern is considered. The centre to centre Properties of clay, stone and geotextile are
spacing between the columns is taken as 3 times obtained in the laboratory and shown in Tables
of the column diameter i.e. 150mm. According to 1-3.
previous researchers [10] bulging failure occurs
upto a depth of 1.5D to 2D from the top of the Table 1 Properties of clay-
column. Hence, only the top portion of the stone Specific gravity 2.43
column needs more lateral confinement in order to Bulk unit weight 1.72 gm/cc
reduce the bulging, hence, horizontal layers of Liquid limit 63.5%
geo-textiles were provided up to a depth of 15 cm.
Plastic limit 35.07%
The depths of placement of geo-textiles were kept
as 0.0cm, 1.5 cm, 3.0 cm, 5.0 cm 10 cm and 15 Unified system CH
cm from the base of the footing. classification
In all cases stone columns are placed at the
centre of the clay bed and load test is performed Table 2 Properties of stone
and bearing capacity and settlement values are Stone size 2-6 mm
found out and the test results are compared c 0
.During the tests water content of the clay bed is
Angle of internal friction 37.270
kept constant.
155
Theme C
inner face walls of the test box are coated by a

Table 3 Properties of geotextile- thin layer of grease to reduce the friction between
Parameter Quantity the clay and tank wall for each layer. The clay
Size 20cm*4cm was placed in the tank with measured weight to
Tensile strength 20 KN/m reach a certain bulk unit weight of 1.72gm/cc. Fig
1 shows a typical test set up.
4 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
A test setup is designed for the current research

work. This setup consists of a large test box
with plan dimensions of 1m1m1m for
preparation of clay bed, water content is taken
as 40% corresponding to 21.58 kpa. The clay
bed thickness of 900 mm is used to counteract
the effect of stone column with bottom of the
tank. Figure 3 Plan of group stone columns
6. CONSTRUCTION OF REINFORCED AND

UNREINFORCED STONE COLUMN
In the current test, stone columns diameter is of

50 mm constructed by the replacement method.
The column is constructed at center of large test
box. The plan dimension of tank is selected such
that results of test will not be affected by
boundaries of the tank. An auger of diameter 50
mm is pushed through the clay bed upto required
height and then pulled out slowly. To construct the
stone column, the free drop height was 100 mm
with 15 blows. High quality of granular material
was selected so that breakage of the stone column
material could be neglected and new stone column
material used in each new test, not the material
used for the previous tests. Figs 2 and 3 show
construction of single stone column and group of
Figure 2 Plan of single stone column stone columns respectively.
5. PREPARATION OF CLAY BED 7. TEST PROCEDURE
Clay bed was prepared in a large test box with The test procedure involves application of the load
and determination of load-displacement behavior
plan dimension of 1m1m. The clay bed
of the clay treated with stone columns. For each
thickness is taken as 900 mm. The clay bed test, steel plate was used as footing. For the
is prepared in layers each of which is 50 mm single column tests, the diameter of the plate is
thick. To prepare the clay bed at a moisture taken as 10 cm and thickness is 10 mm and for
content of 40% which will give a soft the group column test, diameter is 40 cm and
consistency to the soil with expected undrained thickness is 1.5 cm. For each test, one hydraulic
shear strength 15 to 20 kPa, initially natural jack of capacity 1 tonne is used for giving the load.
One proving ring of capacity 500 kg and two dial
water content of the clay was determined and
gauges on the both sides of the proving ring are
the amount of additional water was added to the used for the experimental set up as shown in
clay to achieve 40% water content in a large Fig.1. The settlement value is obtained by taking
plastic box. The surface of the box was sealed the average of two dial gauge values and the load
with a nylon sheet for five days to achieve uniform vs settlement graph is drawn.
water content within the clayey soil mass. The
156
Theme C
8.RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 9. CONCLUSIONS
8.1 Deformation and Failure Mode In this investigation, laboratory tests have been
performed on single and group stone columns
After completion of tests, the deformed shape of with diameter of 50 mm. Reinforced stone column
the columns was observed. In the single column test results are compared with those obtained
test, it is observed that the bulging failure mode from tests on unreinforced stone columns. The
governed. The bulging failure occurred at a depth experimental results also are compared with the
of 1.5D to 2D from the stone column head in numerical results. Based on results from
single stone column test. experiments on single and group of stone
columns, the following concluding remarks are
8.2 Load-Settlement Behavior extracted:
a. Iron casing is more effective for increase in
To improve the bearing capacity, various methods load carrying capacity of a stone column
viz. use of cement slurry and iron casing are tried than injection of cement slurry. Horizontal
in this project. From the load settlement graph, it layers of Geotextile reinforcement is equally
can be seen that the iron casing is more effective effective with iron casing.
than the cement slurry. The load settlement b. The ultimate load carried by soft soil
behaviour of single column with cement slurry increases by 2.5 times with the use of stone
and iron skirting as reinforcement is shown in Fig 4. columns. The ultimate load and stiffness of
the stone column can be further increased by
3 times with the use og geotextiles placed in 5
layers at depths 0.0D, 0.3D, 0.6D, 1.0D, 2.0D
and 3.0D from the top.
c. From the group of stone column tests, it is
observed that the ultimate capacity of soft
soil is increased by 9 times with the use of
stone columns and 27 times with the use of
geotextile reinforced stone column.
d. From the single stone column results, it is
observed that settlement of stone column is
decreased by 1/7 times with the use of
geotextile reinforcement.
Figure 4 Load vs settlement graph for single e. From the group stone column results, it is
stone column with cement slurry and casing as observed that settlement of stone column is
reinforcement. decreased by 1/2 times with the use of
But iron casing is not so beneficial from the geotextile reinforcement.
economic point of view, so a new method by f. From the single stone column test results, it is
using geosynthetic material as reinforcement in observed that the lateral bulging decreases
layers is adopted whose bearing capacity is equal in reinforced stone column by 1/2 times
with the iron skirting and also cost effective. The compared with ordinary stone columns due
load settlement behavior of single stone columns to additional lateral confinement provided by
by using geosynthetic as reinforcement are geosynthetic material.
shown in Figure 5.
g. From the group stone column test results, it is
observed that the lateral bulging decreases
in reinforced stone column by 3/4th times
compared with ordinary stone columns due
to additional lateral confinement provided by
geosynthetic material.
10. REFERENCES
Dash S and Bora M (2013), Improved

performance of soft clay foundations using
stone columns and geocell-sand mattress,
Geotextiles and Geo membranes, 41, 26-35.
Figure 5 Load vs settlement graph for single Ghazavi M and Afshar J. (2013) Bearing
stone column with and without geosynthetic and capacity of geosynthetic encasedstone
for clay bed.
157
Theme C
columns, Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 38

26 - 36.
Gniel J and Bouazza A. (2009) Improvement of
soft soils using geogrid encased stone
columns, Geotextiles and Geomembranes 27,
167–175.
Gniel J and Bouazza A. (2010), Construction of

geogrid encased stone columns: A new
proposal based on laboratory testing
Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 28, 108–
118.
Guetif Z., Bouassida M., Debats J.M.(2007)
Improved soft clay characteristics due to
stone column installation, Computers and
Geotechnics, 34, 104–111.
Imam R, Keykhosropur L, Soroush A. (2012), 3D

numerical analyses of geosynthetic encased
stone columns, Geotextiles and Geo
membranes, 35, 61-68.
Khabbazian M., Kaliakin V., Meehan C.(2011),

Performance of quasilinear elastic constitutive
models in simulation of geosynthetic encased
columns, Computers and Geotechnics, 38,
998–1007.
Lo S., Zhang R., Mak J.(2010), Geosynthetic-
encased stone columns in soft clay: A
numerical study, Geotextiles and
Geomembranes , 28, 292–302.
Mitchel, J. (1985), Performance of a stone column

foundation ASCE.
Pande and Scheiger (1986), Numerical analysis of
stone column supported foundation
Computers and Geotechnics, 2, 347-372.
Pivarc J.(2011), Stone columns –determination of
the soil improvement factor, Vol. XIX, No. 3,
17 – 21.
Pulko B., Majes B., Logar J. (2013),
Geosynthetic-encased stone columns:
Analytical calculation model, Geotextiles and
Geomembranes, 29, 29-39.
Wu C and Hong Y.(2009), Laboratory tests on
geosynthetic-encapsulated sand columns
Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 27, 107–
120.
Zhang Y, Chan D, Wang Y. (2012),
Consolidation of composite foundation
improved by geosynthetic-encased stone
Columns, Geotextiles and Geomembranes,
32 10 -17.
158
A STUDY ON BEHAVIOR OF MICROPILE GROUPS IN SOFT CLAYEY

SOIL
(ICID2018_C_006)
Nirmali Borthakur1, Ashim Kanti Dey2
1,2,National Institute of Technology Silchar, Silchar, Assam, India
ABSTRACT
Nowadays, the micropile technology is gaining its popularity due to their ability to perform in some special type of
foundation problems like the construction of low rise, lightweight structures over a very soft deep-seated clayey soil
deposit as the construction of conventional long piles become costly for this type of soil. Moreover, micropiles can be
used as in-situ soil reinforcement for stabilization of soft clayey type of soil. The group behavior of cast in-situ gravity
grouted micropile groups constructed in highly plastic clayey soil deposit has been investigated in the present study.
The paper discusses the experimental observations on the group behavior of micropiles under static axial vertical
compressive loading conditions. The micropiles were constructed in the clayey soil bed of very soft consistency in a
test pit of size 2.0m x 4.0m and depth of 3.0m. Load-settlement behaviors of micropile groups were studied. The
variables involved in this study were length, number and spacing of micropiles in a group. The group efficiency factor,
load improvement factor, settlement ratio and area replacement ratio are also determined. It is observed that the load
carrying capacity of micropile groups increases with the increase in length, number, and spacing of micropiles.
Keywords: Micropile group;Clayey soil;Experimental investigation; Load-settlement behaviors
1 INTRODUCTION 2 ARRANGEMENTS FOR EXPERIMENT
Micropiles are small diameter, highly reinforced 2.1 Test Pit and Clay Bed Preparation
members cast on to the soil with cement grout.
Type I micropiles are used to carry direct loads The original soil at the National Institute of
and type II micropiles to stabilize an area. Technology, Silchar campus consists of c-φ
Micropiles may be gravity grouted, pressure reddish soil with good cohesion value of about 12
grouted or a combination of two. They have kPa and friction angle of 32°. The aim of the
advantages such as easy installation process, can experimental series was to study the load-
transmit heavy loads, suitable for different soil settlement behavior of micropile groups in the very
conditions, high penetration capacity and can soft clayey soil deposit. So, small-scale model
work under limited headroom access, less tests were proposed to carry out in a test pit of
settlement, minimum vibration during installation size 2m × 4m × 3m, constructed near to the Civil
process etc (FHWA, 2005). Different researchers Engineering Department of NIT, Silchar campus,
such as Han et al. (2006),Choi et al. (2010), Rose to induce the field conditions and minimize the
et al. (2010), Elaziz and Naggar (2014) Borthakur effects of a test tank in the laboratory study.
and Dey (2018) etc investigated the behavior of The locally available clayey soil was collected
different micropile groups experimentally. from the paddy fields of nearby villages and
The present study attempts to investigate the broken up to fine particles passing through the
vertical axial load carrying capacity and settlement 425μ sieve and mixed thoroughly with sufficient
behavior of model micropile groups cast in-situ on quantity of water to achieve a soft consistency.
a very soft clayey bed in a test pit. A series of The test pit was filled with this soft clayey soil in
experiments were performed varying the thin layers and compacted uniformly with a
geometric parameters such as length, number, suitable rammer. The soil was kept covered in the
and spacing between the micropiles in a group. pit after filling it completely and allowed to set for
On the basis of the results, a detailed analysis 2–3 days in order to achieve a uniform
was performed and efficiency, load improvement consistency. The water content of the compacted
factor, settlement ratio and area replacement ratio clayey soil was monitored carefully to maintain in
of micropile groups were determined. the range of 41% – 46% to achieve a very soft
consistency of clay soil in the test pit. The physical
properties of the clayey soil were determined as
per Indian Standards code of practice as results
are shown in Table 1.
159
Theme C
Table1. Properties of clayey soil

Properties values
Specific gravity 2.62
Maximum dry density 15.17 kN/m3
Optimum moisture content 21.8 %
Liquid limit 53.40 %
Plastic limit 24.51 %
Sand (fine) 4.14 %
Silt 37.06 %
Clay 58.80 %
Soil classification CH
Compression index 0.377
2.2 Micropile (MP) Groups Construction

Figure 1b. Construction of micropile cap
50mm diameter (d) micropile groups were
constructed with different numbers of micropiles in 2.3 Test Set-Up and Procedure
a group (n) as 1MP group, 4MP group and 9MP
group with two different lengths (l) of 24d and 32d. The sides of the test pit were raised with sand
4MP and 9MP groups were arranged at three bags to accommodate the load truss and testing
different spacing (s) of 3d, 4.5d, and 6d. So, the accessories. Hydraulic jack was used to apply
proposed total number of tests were fourteen (14). vertical loads and applied loads were measured
Boreholes were made with hand auger at the by a load cell. Two dial gauges and two linear
specific locations of the test pit to the desired variable displacement transducers (LVDT) were
depth. 43-grade neat cement slurry with water– placed at opposite ends of the micropile cap to
cement ratio of 0.45 were used to construct the measure the settlement. Load cell and LVDTs
cast-in-situ model micropiles and 8mm diameter were connected to a data acquisition system. To
Fe – 415 TMT bars were used as single distribute the load equally over the micropile group
reinforcement. 2 – 3 MP groups were constructed a steel plate was placed over the micropile cap.
in the test pit in one set of experiment maintaining Load tests were conducted as per micropile
a clear spacing between two nearby MP groups design and construction reference manual and I.S.
more than 2 times the width of the bigger group. code for pile load test, part 4 (1985). Figure 2
Caps of the MP groups were constructed after shows a photograph of the arrangement of the
setting of micropiles with 6mm diameter bars load test on micropile. Water contents were
placing in both the directions and bound with determined and field vane shear tests were
binding wires. Cement concrete in the proportion performed at the end of each set of experiment to
of 1:1.5:3 was used to construct the micropile make a relationship between water content and
caps of thickness 70–75mm. Construction phases the undrained shear strength of the soil as shown
of a 9MP group are shown in Figures 1a and 1b. in Figure 3. It was observed that the compacted
soil had water contents within the specified range
and the relationship was found to be linear. So,
the variation of group capacity of micropile with
soil strength was not considered in the study.
Figure 1a. Boreholes for construction of micropiles
Figure 2. Arrangement for the micropile load test
160
Theme C
0.25
It was observed that the initial straight line
portion of the load-settlement graph represents a
Undrained shear strength,
0.2 very slow rate of increase of settlement with load

0.15
up to a particular point that varies nonlinearly at a
faster rate. The settlement increases again
cu (kPa)
0.1 linearly at a very rapid rate with load resulting in a

failure. The failure load or ultimate load (Qu) for
0.05
micropile groups were determined by drawing a
0 double tangent at the initial and final straight line
40 42 44 46 48 portion of the load-settlement plot. A factor of
Water content, w (%) safety 2 suggested by micropile design and
construction reference manual was used to
Figure 3. Water content-undrained shear strength calculate the safe allowable or design load and
relationship for clayey soil the settlement under the design load was found to
be less than 2mm in all the cases.
3 TEST RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION 3.2 Effect of Length on Micropile group
OF RESULTS Capacity
3.1 Load-Settlement Curves The Group capacity of the micropile depends on
the length of micropile. Figure 5 shows the change
Graphs were drawn for micropile load test by of ultimate load (Qu) over the l/d ratios of 24 and
plotting load in the x-axis and settlement in the y- 32 of different micropile groups (n = 1MP, 4MP
axis. Two sets of load-settlement graphs were and 9MP) and spacing (s/d = 3, 4.5 and 6).
plotted for two different lengths of the micropile
groups (i.e. 24d and 32d) for the different number
of micropiles in a group and spacing between the
micropiles as shown in Figures 4a and 4b. 30
n=1
Ultimate load, Qu (kN)
25
Load, Q (kN) n=4, s/d=3
1MP 20
n=4, s/d=4.5
0 20 40
0 4MP, s=3d 15 n=4, s/d=6
10 10 n=9, s/d=3
9MP, s=3d
Settlement, se (mm)
20 5 n=9, s/d=4.5
30 4MP,
s=4.5d n=9, s/d=6
0
40 9MP, 20 25 30 35
50 s=4.5d
Length/Diameter ratio of micropile groups, l/d
4MP, s=6d
60
70 9MP, s=6d
Figure 5. Ultimate load versus l/d ratio graphs for
80
different micropile groups
Figure 4(a). Load-settlement plot for micropile
groups of lengths equal to 24 times of diameter It is observed that group capacities of micropile
increase with the length of micropile due to the
Load, Q (kN)
increased surface area of grout to ground bond
1MP (αbond) zone. The variation of the ultimate load at
0 20 40 60
0 32d length over 24d lengths are 1.48 times for
4MP, s=3d
1MP group, 1.41–1.51 times for 4MP groups and
10
9MP, s=3d 1.47–1.57 times for 9MP groups.
Settlement, se (mm)
20
30 4MP, s=4.5d 3.3 Effect of Number of Micropile on Load
40 Carrying Capacity
9MP, s=4.5d
50
Figure 6 shows the relationship between the
60 4MP, s=6d ultimate load (Qu) and the number of micropiles in
70 a group (n) for different l/d ratios (24 and 32) and
9MP, s=6d
80 s/d ratios (3, 4.5 and 6).
Figure 4(b). Load-settlement plot for micropile
groups of lengths equal to 32 times of diameter
161
Theme C
spacing is 1.08–1.21 times and 6d spacing is

30 l/d=24, s/d=3 1.27–1.37 times over 3d spacing for this study.
25 l/d=24, s/d=4.5
3.5 Group Efficiency Factor (η)
20 l/d=24, s/d=6
15 l/d=32, s/d=3
Group efficiency factors (η) are defined as,
10 l/d=32, s/d=4.5 Qug
5
ɳ = nQ
l/d=32, s/d=6 up
0
0 5 10 Where, Qug = the group capacity of a micropile
Number of micropiles in a group, n group, n = number of micropiles present in a
group and Qup = capacity of the single pile. It is
Figure 6. Ultimate load-number of micropiles in a used to evaluate the capacity and response of
group plot micropile groups under vertical loading. Group
efficiency factors were calculated for this study for
It is observed for both the lengths that the different micropile groups and plotted against the
group capacity of micropile increases linearly with numbers of micropiles in a group as shown in
an increase in the number of micropile in a group Figure 8.
for a particular spacing. As the number of
micropiles in a group increases, the surface area 1.2
l/d=24, s/d=3
for interaction of cement grout with the clayey soil 1.1
Efficiency factor, η
l/d=24, s/d=4.5
increases, due to which capacity of a micropile
1 l/d=24, s/d=6
group increases. The group capacity ratio for
different micropile groups was determined in 0.9 l/d=32, s/d=3
terms of the 1MP group. The range observed to 0.8 l/d=32, s/d=4.5
be is (3.33–4.57) times for 4MP group and (6.67– 0.7 l/d=32, s/d=6
9.03) times for 9MP group.
0.6
2 7 12
3.4 Effect of Spacing of Micropile on Load Number of micropiles in a group, n
Carrying Capacity
Figure 8. Efficiency factor versus the number of
Ultimate load (Qu) against different s/d ratios (3, micropiles in a group
4.5 and 6) for two l/d ratios (24 and 32) and two
micropile groups (4MP and 9MP) are shown in It is observed from the experiments that the
Figure 7. group efficiency is more for 4MP groups than the
9MP groups. If the number of micropiles in a
30 l/d=24, n=4
group increases, the stress zone of one micropiles
coincides with another micropile, so the number of
25 overlapping of stress zone inside a group
l/d=32, n=4 increases, due to which group capacity

20
decreases.
15 l/d=24, n=9
3.6 Load Improvement Factor (I.F.)
10
l/d=32, n=9 The improvement of the group capacity is
5
represented by a non-dimensional parameter
0 called the improvement factor (I.F.), defined as the
2 4 6 8 ratio of the load carrying capacity of micropile
Spacing/Diameter ratio of micropile groups, s/d group to the load carrying capacity of the soil
without micropile group for a specified amount of
settlement (25 mm settlement). An improvement
Figure 7. The plot between ultimate load and s/d
factor (I.F.) of MP groups were determined
ratio of a groups
compared with the plate load test data. The
variation of improvement factor (I.F.) with the
The spacing between the micropiles in a group
number of MP (n) are shown in following Figure 9.
affects the load carrying capacity. The group
capacity decreases as the spacing between the
micropiles in a group decrease due to the
overlapping of the stress zone inside a group. The
range of increase of group capacity of 4.5d
162
Theme C
12 15
Improvement factor,
l/d=24, s/d=3 y = 52.408x + 2.5937
Improvement factor, IF 10 10
l/d=24, s/d=4.5
8
5
I.F.
6 l/d=24, s/d=6
0
4 l/d=32, s/d=3 0 0.05 0.1 0.15
2 l/d=32, s/d=4.5 Area ratio, Ar
0
l/d=32, s/d=6 Figure 11. Improvement factor vs. area ratio plot
0 5 10
Number of micropiles in a group, n
0.04
Settlement ratio,
Figure 9. Improvement factor plot against the 0.03 y = 0.131e-37.4x
R² = 0.649
number of micropiles in a group 0.02
S.R.
0.01
It is observed in most of the cases that the four 0
micropile groups (4MP) show the maximum 0 0.05 0.1 0.15
improvement. Area ratio, Ar
3.7 Settlement Ratio (S.R.) Figure 12. Settlement ratio vs. area ratio plot
The Reduction in footing settlement due to the 4 CONCLUSION

micropile reinforcement on soft clayey soil is
represented by a non-dimentional parameter The experimental analysis was carried out on
called settlement ratio. It is defined as the ratio of model micropile groups cast on highly plastic, soft
the settlement of micropiled foundation under the clayey soil with undrained shear strength (cu) in
load which causes a 25 mm settlement of the test the range of 18–20 kPa. Based on the present
plate to the settlement of the test plate (i.e. 25 study following conclusions are drawn.
mm). For this test series improvement factor 1. Settlement of a micropile group under the
versus settlement ratio graph is shown in Figure design load is very low, less than 2mm in all the
10. cases.
2. The group capacity of micropile increases with
12
the increase in the length of micropile.
3. The group capacity of micropile increases with
Improvement factor, I.F.
10 y = 2.2747x-0.215 the increase in the number of micropiles in the

8 R² = 0.8198
group. The increase is more or less linear.
6 4. The capacity of a micropile group is lesser at 3d
4 spacing compared to the 4.5d and 6d spacing.
2 5. It is also noted from experimental observation
that for all spacings and lengths, 4MP groups
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 exhibit the higher efficiency factor compared to the
Settlement ratio, S.R.
9MP group.
6. The optimum number of micropiles in a group is
found to be 4 when the improvement factor is
Figure 10. Improvement factor vs. settlement ratio
concerned
plot
7. The relationship between improvement factor
(I.F.) against settlement ratio (S.R.) and
3.8 Area Replacement Ratio (Ar.)
settlement ratio (S.R.), against area replacement
Area replacement ratio or area ratio (Ar.) is ratio (Ar.) can be represented by nonlinear
considered to be the most important parameter equations.
affecting the behavior of rigid footing resting on 8. The correlation between the improvement factor
micropiles. It is defined as the ratio of the cross (I.F.) and area ratio (Ar.) can be established by a
sectional area of the micropile to the area of the linear relationship.
footing. Figures 11 and Figures 12 shows the
5 REFERENCES
relationships between the area ratio vs.
improvement factor and settlement ratio (S.R.) vs. Borthakur, N. and Dey, A. K. 2018. Experimental
area replacement ratio (Ar.) respectively for
micropile foundation. investigation on load carrying capacity of
micropiles in soft clay, Arabian Journal for
163
Theme C
Science and Engineering, 43(4):1969-1981

Choi, C. and Cho, S.D. 2010. Field verification
study for micropile load capacity. Proceedings
of X International Workshop of Micropile,
Washington.
Elaziz, A.Y.A. and El Naggar, M.H. 2014. Group
behaviour of hollowbar micropiles in cohesive
soils. Can. Geotech. J., 51: 1139–1150
Han, J. and Ye, S.L. 2006. A field study on the
behavior of micropiles in clay under
compression or tension, Can. Geotech. J.,
43(1): 19–29
IS 2911 (Part 4). 1985. Indian Standard Code of
Practice for Design and Construction of Pile
Foundations, Part (4), Load Test on Piles, 1–18
Micropile Design and Construction Reference Manual.
05-039. 2005. Fed. Highway Administration National
Highway Institute, US Department of Transportation,
McLean
Rose,A.V. and Taylor, R.N. 2010. Modeling the axial
capacity of micropiles at close spacing. Proceedings
of X International Workshop of Micropile,
Washington.
164
A STUDY ON DESIGN OF SUPPORT SYSTEM OF TUNNEL USING

PHASE2 PROGRAM
(ICID2018_C_007)
Arindom Dutta1, Mrinal Kumar Dutta2
1
P.G. Student, Civil engineering Department, Jorhat Engineering collage, Jorhat-7, Assam
2
Associate Professor, Civil engineering Department, Jorhat Engineering collage, Jorhat-7, Assam
ABSTRACT
In the present day world because of the increasing world population, urbanization and industrialization, the
construction of underground tunnel structures are preferred as they limit interferences with existing surface uses of
the land and water bodies. Although underground tunnels are a common flexible construction alternative, they are
high hazard risk structures. Using actual project information, the factors influencing stability, structural resistance as
well as methods to select the required support were explored in this study. Selection of rock mass strength
parameters for the Suggestion of appropriate support systems were carried out for the Head Race Tunnel (HRT) at
Bichom of Kameng Hydro Electric project in Arunachal Pradesh. The Tunnel at Bichom is 6.7m diameter modified
HRT of 14.5Km long. The tunnel takes off from the Bichom Reservoir provided immediately upstream of the Tenga
Dam and crosses the Tenga river by level crossing. The rock mass has beendivided into classes according to the
RMR, Q, NATM and GSI classification systems along the tunnel and support systems were determined empirically.
Thereafter, geomechanical parameters (i.e. modulus of deformation Em , Hoek-Brown material constants m and s
etc.) were selected based on these classification systems in order to investigate deformations and stress
concentrations around the tunnel. The finite element analysis was carried out using Phase2 program to verify and
check the validity of empirically determined support systems.
1 INTRODUCTION The geomechanical classification or the

Rock Mass Rating (RMR) system was developed
The main purpose of a tunnel design is to by Bieniawski in 1973. Significant changes have
use the rock itself as the principal structural been made over the years with revisions in
material with little disturbance during the 1974, 1976, 1979 and 1989. The RMR
excavation and to provide as little artificial support classification has found wide applications in
system as possible so that it enhances maximum various types of engineering projects such as
use of the natural support system. The aim of this tunnels, foundations and mines but not in slopes.
present work is to analyze the geological Most of the applications have been in the field of
parameters of the rock mass, to obtain rock mass tunneling.
strength parameters and finally suggesting tunnel Barton et al. (1974) at the Norvegian
support measures in the HRT tunnel at Bichom Geotechnical Institute (NGI) proposed the Rock
and to perform the numerical analysis using Mass Quality (Q) System of rock mass
Phase2 program. For this purpose, determination classification and the most recent modifications
of geological and geotechnical conditions existing were made by Ünal (2002). It is a quantitative
in the tunnel area and optimum simulation of classification system, and an engineering system
these circumstances for estimation of appropriate enabling the design of tunnel supports.
support systems were carried out. Rock mass Hoek (1994), Hoek et al (1995), and Hoek
classification systems and numerical analysis and Brown (1997) proposed a new rock mass
methods should be used together to provide classification system called “Geological Strength
safety, economy, performance and conformity Index, GSI” as replacement for Bieniawski’s RMR
during construction and operation of an to eliminate the limitations arising from the use of
underground opening. RMR classification scheme. This empirical
For a preliminary tunnel design, at least two criterion has been re-evaluated and expanded
classification systems should be applied over the years due to the limitations both in
(Bieniawski, 1989). In this study the most Bieniawki’s RMR classification and the equations
commonly used and applicable classification used by the criterion for very poor-quality rock
systems; Rock Mass Rating (RMR), Rock Mass masses The GSI System seems to be more
Quality (Q), Geological Strength Index (GSI) and practical than the other classification Systems.
New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM) were Hoek (2006) published a brief history of the
used. development of the Hoek-Brown failure criterion
165
Theme C
and summary of equations which were used for Table 1. Geological analysis data
estimation of rock mass strength parameters. Rock mass GC1 GC2 GC3 GC4
The New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM) properties
was developed by Rabcevicz, Müller and Pacher RQD
between 1957 and 1965 in Austria. NATM 27 26 22 23
features a qualitative ground classification system UCS (σc) (MPa) 25-50 5-25 50- 5-25
that must be considered within the overall context 100
of the NATM (Bieniawski, 1989). In essence, Spacing of 0.05- 0.05- 0.02- 0.05-
NATM is an approach or philosophy integrating Discontinuities 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2
the principles of the behaviour of rock masses Aperture (mm) 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2
under load and monitoring the performance of
underground excavations during construction. Roughness Rough Roug Roug Rough
Kovari (2004) published a critical analysis of the irregula h h irregul
principles of the complete NATM “edifice of r irregu irregu ar
thoughts”. lar lar
Riaz. A. and Jamil, S.M. (2016) made a study Infilling Clay Clay Clay Clay
on tunnel support design by comparison of filling filling filling filling
empirical and finite element analysis of the Weathering Fresh Fresh Fresh Slightly
Nahakki tunnel in Mohmand Agency, Pakistan weathe
using Phase2 (version 7.017). red
Groundwater Dry Dry Dry Dry
Condition
2 STUDY AREA
Discontinuity Very Very Very Very
Orientation unfavou unfav unfav unfavo
The Kameng Hydro – Electric Project is run
of the river scheme, situated in West Kameng rable ourab ourab urable
district of Arunachal Pradesh. The project area is le le
located between 90˚37ʹE and 92˚41ʹE longitudes Joint set 3 joint 3 joint 3 joint 3 joint
and 27˚10ʹN and 27˚18ʹN latitudes. All the sites number set set set set
i.e. Bichom dam site, Tenga dam site and Kimi
Power House site are approachable via Balipara, Table 2. RMR, Q and GSI values along HRT
which is 24Km from Tezpur, on the National
Highway no. 52. Geological Lithology RMR Q GSI
In Kameng hydro-electric project, Bichom Class
Dam Complex requires the use of tunnel for (Chainage
channelling the water collected in the reservoir of distance)
upstream of the Dam to the powerhouse located GC1 Porphyroblastic 30 0.3 25
at Kimi. It has been designed as a modified horse (3117.00 m) Gneiss
shoe shaped tunnel of 6 .7m finished diameter for
a total length of 14.5km. GC2(3380.00 Mica schist & 28 0.29 23
m) Quartzite
alteration
3 ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION GC3(3537.00 Foliated 28 0.24 23
m) Quartzite
A major problem in designing GC4(3713.00 Flaggy Quartzite 23 0.26 18
underground openings is estimating the strength m) & Micaschist
parameters of in-situ rock mass. The rock mass alteration with
along the tunnel was divided into four geological sericite band
classes (GC-1 to GC-4) according to the
predominant geological strata. The various
geological data for all the four geological classes 4 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
are listed in Table 1. RMR (Bieniawski), Q system The objective of numerical analysis is to
(Barton et al.), GSI (Hoek et al., Sonmez and check and verify the validity of empirically
Ulusay) and NATM (Rabcevicz et al.) rock mass determined support systems for an underground
classification systems were used for the tunnel opening. For this aim, the finite element software
support system and their values are tabulated in package Phase2 (V6.028, V7 and V8.014
Table 2. The systems classify the rock mass along Rocscience Inc.) was used. Phase2 offers a wide
the tunnel as very poor category. range of support modelling options. Liner
elements can be applied in the modelling of
shotcrete, concrete, steel set, wire mesh
166
Theme C
systems etc. Material models for rock and soil

include Mohr-Coulomb, Generalized Hoek-
Brown and Cam-Clay. In this study, Roclab (ver.
1.031) was used to determine the rock mass
properties and to provide input data for Phase2.
Numerical analysis has been performed
only for the worst geological portion. Actual
dimensions of the tunnel opening were drawn in
Autodesk AutoCAD and then imported into
Phase2 as excavation. Finite element mesh was
built around the opening with extension factor as
per requirement. (Fig. 1).
The Hoek–Brown failure criterion was
selected for FEM analysis. Internal pressure
equal to in-situ stresses were applied (Fig. 2). Figure 2. Internal pressure distribution at stage 1
Internal pressure factor 1 at Stage 1 means the
magnitude of internal pressure will be the same
as the field stress, while factor 0 means no load
will be applied at that stage (Rocscience Inc.
2006). Other values of factor will be decreased
gradually between stage 2 to stage 9.
Phase2 computation engine will evaluate
total displacement at each stage and maximum
displacement will be at stage 10, as the internal
pressure is zero. In this study, the maximum
displacement was found as about 0.057 m at
stage 10. Using the plot (Fig 3) created by
Vlachopoulos and Diederichs equations
(Kersten), it can be easily estimate the amount of
closure prior to support installation if the plastic
radius and displacement far from the tunnel face Figure 3. Longitudinal displacement profile as a
are known. function of the extent of plastic zone around a
tunnel (Vlachopoulos and Diederichs,2009)
Figure 4. Displacement in various stages
To estimate the amount of closure prior to

support installation, distance from the tunnel
Figure 1. Excavated tunnel section modeled in finite face is taken as 1m. The radius of plastic zone
element mesh along with the supports applied Rpz is 5m, the tunnel radius Rt is 3.35m and
maximum displacement umax = 0.057m. The
distance from tunnel face/tunnel radius (Dft/Rt)
= 1/3.35 = 0.29. The plastic zone radius/tunnel
radius (Rpz/Rt) = 5/3.35 = 1.49. Fig. 3, depicts the
167
Theme C
maximum closure of 0.42. here closure equals

Cp = (0.42) × (0.057) = 0.023m prior to support
installation. This shows the tunnel displaces
0.023m before the supports are installed.
To determine the internal pressure that yields
0.023m displacement and Fig. 4 shows the plot
of displacement vs. stage excavation generated
by the program. From this plot, at stage 6, the
wall displacement is equal to 0.023m, therefore
support will be installed at stage 6.
First set of support in the form of rockbolts
(4 meters in length each with 1.5 meter spacing
having load capacity of 0.378MN and diameter of
28mm) were added normal to the boundary
which reduces displacement to 0.052m from Figure 6. Maximum and minimum axial force on
rock bolts
0.057m. To check the capacity of rock bolt, the
maximum axial force on bolt was 0.378MN (Fig.
6), which is is equal to the capacity of rock bolt, i.e., 5 RESULT AND DISCUSSION
0.378MN.
Second category in support element is The main objective of the present study
shotcrete. Phase2 takes this as liner with 20cm is to make an assessment of engineering
thickness and with peak compressive strength of geological characteristics of rock masses and to
35MPa and Young’s modulus of 30000MPa, achieve the appropriate support systems and
which reduces the displacement to 0.041m and stabilization techniques for the tunnel at Bichom
the number of yielded elements is also reduced HE project. The finite element analysis had
carried out using Phase2 program. Under the
from 764 to 511.
preveiling geological condition on the site the
Third category in support element is I total amount of displacement was found about
Beam. Phase2 takes this as liner. Using the I 0.057m.
Beam of dimension I 100 × 200, the displacement
Various support systems have been
is further reduced from 0.041m to 0.032m and the
used in the analysis to reduce the displacement
number of yielded elements is also reduced from
which results effecive in conjunction (Table 3,
511 to 161.
Fig. 5).
The Final category in support element is
wire mesh. Five categories of wire mesh can be
provided in Phase2 with diameters ranging from Table 3. Number of yielded finite elements,
4mm to 12mm. In the present study, 8mm yielded bolts and total displacements
diameter wire mesh was used. With the addition of Support No. of No. of Total
this liner the displacement is further reduced from type yielded yielded Displace
0.032m to 0.025m and the number of yielded elements bolts ment (m)
elements further reduced to 109.
Without 867 - 0.0573106
Support
Rock Bolt 764 15 0.052541
Shotcrete 511 11 0.041525
I Beam 161 5 0.0324342
Wiremesh 109 2 0.0251978
From the results it can be seen that

the pattern bolting alone did not have
much effect, but the application of liners,
in conjunction with the pattern bolting
succeeded in reducing failure around the
tunnel. The combination of bolts and liners
Figure 5. Total displacement contours and has reduced the maximum displacement
vectors for rockbolt and liners respectively to about half of the unsupported value.
Maximum total displacements originated in the
168
Theme C
last stage of the model is about 2.5mm which is Applications, Proc. 4th International Congress
found acceptable. It can be concluded that the Rock Mechanics, ISRM, Montreaux,
suggested empirical support systems are found A.A.Balkema, Rotterdam, Vol.2, pp. 51- 58.
satisfactory. Excavation and support systems
may change at any time during construction of Bieniawski, Z.T., 1989. Engineering Rock Mass
the tunnel according to rock mass classifications Classifications, Wiley, Newyork, 251pages.
accomplished after each advance and
monitoring measurements. Hoek, E. 1994. Strength of rock and rock masses,
ISRM News Journal, 2(2), pp.4-16.
6 CONCLUSION Hoek, E., 1999. Putting Numbers to Geology – An

Engineer’s Viewport, Quarterly Journal of
Engineering Geology, Vol. 32, pp.1-19.
This study considers the geomechanical
properties of the rock strata and the rock masses Kersten Lecture: Hoek E., Carranza-Torres C.,
are classified based on the RMR, Q, NATM and Diederichs M.S., CorkumB., Integration of
GSI classification systems. The rock along the geotechnical and structure design in
tunnel are categorised into four geological tunneling. Proceedings University of
classes based on the prevailing geological Minnesota 56th Annual Geotechnical
properties. Empirical support systems are
Engineering Confer- ence, Minneapolis2008.
suggested based on these classifications. FEM
software package, Phase2 is used to determine
Kovari, K., 1994. Erroneous Concepts behind the
the induced stresses, deformations with proposal
New Austrian Tunneling Method, Tunnel,
for support elements. The finite element analysis
Vol.1.
carried out using Phase2 program help to verify
and check the validity of empirically determined
Kovari, K. 2004. History of Rock Bolts and the
support systems
Spread Concrete Lining Method; Aachen
International Mining Symposium, Aachen,
pp.18-66.
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Rabcewicz, L. 1964. The New Austrian Tunneling
Barton, N., Lien, R. And Lunde, J., 1974. Method, Part I. Water Power, pp.453-457
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Design of Tunnel Support, Rock Mechanics, Riaz, A and Jamil, S.M., 2016,tunnel support
Vol.6, No.4,pp.189-236. design by comparisonof empirical and finite
element analysisof the nahakki tunnel in
Bieniawski, Z.T., 1973. Engineering mohmand agency, Pakistan; Studia
Classificationon Jointed Rock Masses. Trans. Geotechnica et Mechanica, Vol. 38, No. 1,
South African Inst. Civil Engineering, Vol.15, 2016.
pp. 335- 344. Sönmez, H., Gökçeoğlu, C. and Ulusay, R., 2003.
An Application of Fuzzy Sets to the
Bieniawski, Z.T., 1974. Geomechanics Geological Strength Index (GSI) System
Classification of Rock Masses and its Used in Rock Engineering, Engineering
Application in Tunneling Proc. 3rd Congress of Application of Artificial Intelligence, Vol. 16,
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Denver, Vol. 2, pp.27-32.
Ünal, E., 2002, Rock Mass Classification Studies
Bieniawski, Z.T., 1976. Rock Mass Classifications at Kışladağ Gold- Project Site. Project No:
in Rock engineering, Proceedings Symposium METU AGUDOS 02-03-05-1-00-07, 39 p.,
on Exploration for rock Engineering, (ed. Z.T. (unpublished).
Bieniawski), A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp.97-
106. Vlachopoulos, N. and Diederichs, M.S. (2009) Improved
longitudinal displacement profiles for convergence
Bieniawski, Z.T., 1978. Determining Rock Mass confinement analysis of deep tunnels, Rock
Deformability Experience from Case Histories, Mechanics and Rock Engineering, Vol. 42(2), pp.
International Journal of Rock Mechanics and 131-146.
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Bieniawski, Z.T., 1979. The Geomechanics

Classification in Rock Engineering
169
IMPROVEMENT OF BRAHMAPUTRA BED SILT FOR EMBANKMENT

CONSTRUCTION
(ICID2018_C_008)
Jessia Meher1, Bhattacharjee Arup2
1,PG Student, 2,Associate Professor. Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India
ABSTRACT
The utilisation of the immense dredged Brahmaputra bed silt will provide for an important option to be used as a
constructional alternative for various constructional projects as proposed by the Government of Assam. The present
study is intended to determine the suitability of this Brahmaputra bed silt to be used as a constructional material for
embankment. However, this bed silt is found to be highly permeable and unstable soil material which needs to be
stabilized using admixtures for its use as a constructional material for embankment. Therefore, 10%, 15%, 20% of
bentonite is mixed with the silty soil and different laboratory tests are conducted such as Compaction, Direct shear,
Permeability, CBR and Swell index test. Again, to further stabilise this bed silt in terms of its swelling and stability
requirement, each of the bentonite mixed samples is further treated with 2% cement. From all the test results,
10%bentonite+2%cement mixed with the Brahmaputra bed silt is recommended as the economic composition to be
used for embankment construction.
Keywords: Brahmaputra bed silt; Bentonite; Cement; Permeability ; Swelling
1 INTRODUCTION stability of the admixed soil, making it suitable for

embankment construction.
The river Brahmaputra, the largest river in Assam The objective of the research work is to study
is prone to heavy siltation activities from time to the feasibility of the Brahmaputra bed material
time. This has raised the river bed levels (silty soil) to be used as a constructional material
considerably causing heavy floods and erosion for embankment. However the poor geotechnical
every year. Huge amount of losses in terms of property of this soil leads to the use of stabilizing
cultivation, livestock and lives has occurred due to agents to impart its desired strength and stability
these devastating floods (Bora,M. 2014). Keeping required for construction of an embankment.
this in view, the Government of Assam has Therefore, bentonite and cement is selected as
proposed to dredge out the river bed silt of the admixture for improving the geotechnical
Brahmaputra with the intention of increasing the properties of the soil.
water retention capacity of the river. This initiative
will help in solving the problem of flooding and
erosion to a great extent. They have also 2 MATERIALS
proposed to utilize this dredged bed silt for use as
an alternative constructional material such as for The materials used in the study were
land filling engineering, embankment construction Brahmaputra bed silt, bentonite and cement.
etc. But, this bed silt is found to be highly The Brahmaputra bed silt is collected from the
permeable and unstable to be used for river bed from Nimati ghat location of Jorhat
embankment construction. This high hydraulic district. The bed silt was classified as SM (Silty
conductivity will affect the stability of the sand) as per Indian Standard Classification
embankment by forming raincuts and breaches System. To determine its geotechnical properties,
during the monsoon season, causing its falilure. different laboratory were conducted such as the
Hence the use of suitable admixture is found to be Standard Proctor test, Sieve analysis, Atterberg
necessary in improving its engineering properties. limits, CBR(Unsoaked) test, Direct shear test,
The use of adequate amount of bentonite with the Permeability test, Swelling Index test as per their
bed silt is effective in reducing the hydraulic Indian Standard Codes. The evaluated
conductivity of the soil. Moreover, bentonite, engineering properties of this collected silt is
owing to its high swelling property increases the shown in table 1.
swell index of the soil, which is beyond the Bentonite is an absorbant clay material whose
permissible value of 50% for embankment major constituent is montmorillonite. It has high
construction(NRRDA, 2007). Hence, cement is swelling-shrinkage potential. Bentonite has high
also used as an additive with the bentonite added potential of water retention because of their small
samples to further increase the strength and the grain size with large surface contact area.
Basically two types of bentonite are available –
170
Theme C
swelling type (sodium bentonite) and non swelling Table 2: Detailed Test Programmes
type (calcium bentonite). The bentonite used here
is sodium bentonite which is obtained from the TESTS MIX
local market. Saturated sodium bentonite absorbs
water up to 5 times its own mass to form a gel up Compaction test Soil + 10% B
to 15 times its own volume. The swelling property CBR Soil + 15% B
of bentonite make it useful as a sealant because it Direct shear Soil + 20% B
provide a self sealing, low permeability barrier. Falling head permeability
Cement is a fine powder material that has Free Swelling Index
excellent binding capacity. It mainly consists of Compaction test Soil + 10%B +
silica content like C2S and C3S .Ordinary Portland CBR 2% C
Cement (OPC) is one of the most successfully Direct shear Soil + 15%B +
used soil stabilization. The soil cement becomes a Falling head permeability 2% C
hard and durable structural material as the cement Free Swelling Index Soil + 20% B +
hydrates and develops strength. Because of the 2% C
hardening of cement, shear strength and bearing
capacity will be increased. In the present work 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
cement used is Ordinary Portland cement which is
collected from local market. The results obtained from different laboratory
experiments are discussed below.
Table 1: Geotechnical properties of the bed silt
Soil properties Values 4.1 Effect on Compaction characteristics
Liquid Limit (%) 27% A series of Proctor compaction test were
Plastic Limit NP conducted to obtain the optimum moisture content
Plasticity index NP OMC and Maximum dry density MDD of the
Classification of Soil SM admixture added samples as per IS 2720 (Part 8):
Optimum Moisture Content 16% 1983. The soil was first mixed with 10%, 15%, and
20% of bentonite and further addition of 2%
Maximum Dry Unit Weight, g/cc 1.57 cement is done with the 10%-20% bentonite
Cohesion, kPa 2 added samples. The optimum moisture content,
Angle of Internal Friction 22° OMC of the original soil was 16% which increases
Coefficient of Permeability, cm/s 3.49 × 10- after addition of bentonite and bentonite+cement
4 and is shown in figure 1. It is observed that after
Free Swelling Index, % 0 addition of 10% bentonite with the original soil,
CBR, % 3.41 OMC increases to 17.1% which after further
addition of 2% cement increases to 17.8%.
Similarly, addition of 15% bentonite with the
3 METHODOLOGY original soil increases its OMC to 17.8% as
compared with the original soil which after further
In the present study, the experiments were carried addition of 2% cement increases to 18.3%. Again,
in two sets of mixtures. Firstly,the bed silt was addition of 20% bentonite+2% cement with the
mixed with different percentages of bentonite as original soil increases the OMC to 19% as
10%, 15% and 20%. In the second group of compared with 20%bentonite mixed sample
mixtures, 2% cement was added with 10%, 15% whose OMC was 18.5%. This increase in OMC is
and 20% of the bentonite added samples for attributed to the fine nature of bentonite and
further study of stabilization process. After this cement. Due to this fineness surface contact area
different laboratory tests were carried out on the increased and hence more water is required to
admixed samples such as Proctor Compaction achieve MDD.
test, Direct shear, CBR, Falling head permeability,
Free swelling Index tests. The detailed test
programmes is presented in table 2. B and C
denotes Bentonite and Cement
171
Theme C
4.2 Effect on Shear Parameters

%B
Optimum moisture content, % 19.50% %B+2%C Direct shear test is performed for determining the
shear parameters admixed samples as per IS:
19.00% 2720 (Part 13) –1986. The samples are prepared
at their respective OMC and MDD for determining
18.50% its shear parameters, cohesion and angle of
internal friction. The cohesion of the original soil is
found to be 2kPa which increases after addition of
18.00%
admixtures. Fig 3 shows the variation of cohesion
for different bentonite and bentonite + 2%cement
17.50% mixed sample. The cohesion values shows as
increasing trend for bentonite + cement as
17.00% compared with the original soil and bentonite
0% 10% 20% 30% added samples without cement. The different
%,Admixture cohesion and angle of internal friction values for
different percentages of bentonite and
bentonite+cement is shown in table 3.
Fig:1 Variation of OMC with admixture content Fig 4 shows the variation of angle of internal
friction for different bentonite and bentonite +
The MDD of the original soil was found to be cement mixes. The angle of internal friction shows
1.57g/cc which increases to 1.64g/cc after a decreasing trend as compared to the original
addition of 10% bentonite with the original soil. soil and the bentonite mixed soils without cement.
Further addition of 2% cement to 10% bentonite
mixed samples increases its MDD to 1.695g/cc. 4.3 Effect on Permeability characteristics
Similarly, MDD of 15%bentonite mixed sample is
found to increase to 1.71g/cc as compared with Falling head permeability test is conducted to
the original soil which after further addition of 2% determine the hydraulic conductivity of different
cement increases its MDD to 1.722g/cc. Again, percentages of bentonite and bentonite+2%
MDD of 20% bentonite mixed samples is found to cement mixed samples as per IS: 2720 (Part 17) –
be 1.68g/cc which attains a value 1.71g/cc after 1986. The samples are compacted at their
further addition of 2% cement to this sample. respective OMC and MDD before carrying out the
Thus, the MDD of the cement added bentonite test. The coefficient of permeability of the natural
samples increased appreciably as compared with Brahmaputra bed silt was found to be 3.49 × 10-4
the bentonite samples without cement and the cm/s which indicates that soil is highly permeable
trend is shown in figure 2. This increase is caused which, however, decreased appreciably after
due to the fine particles of cement and bentonite mixing bentonite and bentonite+cement with the
which fill in the macro voids of silty sand, original soil as shown in figure 5. Table 4
increasing the MDD. presents the permeability values at different
admixture content. It is observed that permeability
of the cement added bentonite samples
decreases appreciably as compared with the
%B bentonite samples without cement
%B+2%C
1.73 Table 3: Variation of Shear parameters with
admixture content
Maximum Dry density, g/cc
1.72
1.71
1.7 % Admixture c,Kpa Φ
1.69
1.68 10%B 13 20̊
1.67 10%B+2%C 19 19̊
1.66
1.65 15%B 22.5 19.5̊
1.64
1.63 15%B+2%C 26 18̊
0% 10% 20% 30% 20%B 24 18̊
%, Bentonite 20%B+2%C 30 16.5̊
Fig 2: MDD values at different percentages of

admixture
172
Theme C
%B
4.00E-04
Coefficient of Permeability k, cm/s

%B+2%C
3.50E-04
35
3.00E-04
30
2.50E-04
25
2.00E-04
Cohesion, kPa
20 1.50E-04
15 1.00E-04
10 5.00E-05
5 0.00E+00
0
0% 10% 20% 30%
%, Bentonite %, Admixture
Fig 5: Variation of permeability with admixture

Fig 3: Variation of Cohesion with admixture content
%B 4.4 Effect on Free Swelling Index
%B+2%C Free swell Index is the increase in volume of a soil

25
without any external constraint when subjected to
Angle of Internal friction
20 submergence in water. Firstly, the free swell index

of the bed silt mixed with 10%, 15% and 20% of
bentonite was found to be 8.33%, 30% and 54%
15
which decreased appreciably after the addition of
2% cement with the bentonite mixed samples as
10 shown in figure 6. The free swelling index
decreased to 6%, 15% and 22% after addition of
5 2%cement with 10%, 15% and 20% bentonite
added samples. The permissible value of swell
0 index is 50% for Embankment
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% construction(NRRDA,2007). The increase in
%, Bentonite swelling of the bentonite mixed soil is because of
the montmorillonite content of bentonite which is
Fig 4: Variation of angle of Internal friction with an expansive clay mineral. Addition of cement to
different admixture content. the mixtures leads to strong bonding between the
soil particles thus preventing swelling.
Table 4: Coefficient of Permeability values
4.5 Effect on California Bearing Ratio
% Coefficient of
California bearing ratio test (Unsoaked) is carried
Admixture permeability, cm/s
out both on untreated and admixed soil samples
10% B 4.2×10-6 and was compacted at their respective OMC and
MDD before carrying out the penetration test as
10%B+2%C 1.46×10-6 per IS:2720(Part 16)-1987. The CBR is calculated
for penetrations of 2.5mm and 5mm. Considering
15%B 2.03×10-7 the CBR value corresponding to 5mm penetration,
15%B+2%C 1.5×10-7 the CBR value of virgin soil was found to be
3.41% which increases to 4.56%, 4.7% and 4.81%
20%B 1.44×10-7 for 10%bentonite, 15%bentonite and
20%bentonite which further increased to 4.8%,
20%B+2%C 1.24×10-7 4.85% and 4.9% after addition of 2% cement with
the 10%-20% bentonite mixed samples. Fig 7
shows the variation of CBR values with the
admixture content. The reason for increment of
173
Theme C
CBR in the cement mixed bentonite samples is length of the embankment. The analysis is
because of the gradual formation of cementitious presented in figure 8. From the data calculated,
compounds by the chemical reaction between 10%bentonite+2%cement is found to be the
cement and the soil particles. most economical mix to be used as admixture
with Brahmaputra bed silt.
%B
%B+2%C
60.00% 6 CONCLUSION
50.00%
Free swelling index, %
40.00% The suitability of the Brahmaputra bed silt mixed

with different percentages of bentonite and
30.00% bentonite+cement mix is studied here. The
20.00% following results are drawn after conducting all the
laboratory experiments
10.00% a) OMC increases with increase in bentonite
0.00% and bentonite+cement content. Again, the
MDD of the bentonite mixed soil
0% 10% 20% 30%
increased with bentonite addition upto
%, Bentonite 15% after which it decreased. Moreover,
Fig 6: Variation of free swell index the MDD of the bentonite+cement mixes
was found to increase as compared with
%B the bentonite mixed samples without
%B+2%C cement.
4.95% b) Cohesion increases and angle of internal
4.90% friction decreases with increasing
bentonte and bentonite+cement content.
4.85% c) The coefficient of permeability decreased
4.80% appreciably after mixing bentonite with the
CBR, %
4.75% bed silt which further decreased after

4.70% addition of 2% with the bentonite treated
samples.
4.65%
d) The free swelling index increased with
4.60% increasing bentonite. The addition of 2%
4.55% cement with the bentonite mixed samples
4.50% prevented excess swelling and the value
0% 10% 20% 30% is found to attain the permissible value of
50%(NRRDA,2007)
%, Bentonite e) The CBR(unsoaked) increased after being
treated with different percentages of
Fig 7: Variation of CBR with admixture content. bentonite and bentonite+cement.
Hence, it was found that

5 COST ANALYSIS 10%bentonite+2%cement not only satisfies all
the stability and swelling requirements for
The cost analysis for the construction of embankment construction but also is
embankment using different percentages of economic. Therefore
bentonite and bentonite+2%cement is discussed 10%bentonite+2%cement is considered to be
here. The embankment is considered as 2.66 m the optimum amount for embankment
high; 15m wide at bottom and 5.5m wide at top construction.
(Deka K, 2017). The embankment consist of
different material such as natural Brahmaputra
bed material and Brahmaputra bed material
treated with 10% bentonite, 15% bentonite,
10%bentonite+2%cement,15%bentonite+2%ceme
nt and 20%bentonite+2%cement by weight. The
basic rate of silt is considered as per APWD SOR
(Building) 2013-2014; basic rate of cement is
considered as per APWD SOR (Road) 2016-2017
and for bentonite market price is considered in the
analysis. The cost analysis is performed per meter
174
Theme C
S S+10%B
S+15%B S+10%B+2%C
S+15%B+2%C S+20%B+2%C
120000
100000
Cost(Rs.)
80000
60000
40000
20000
0
%, ADMIXTURE
Fig 8: Cost Analysis for the materials 
.
7 REFERENCES
Bora, M. (2014). Brahmaputra Silt as Stabilizer of

Expansive Clay. Conference Paper,
DOI:10.13140/2.1.3342.0168.
Deka, K. (2017). Improvement of Brahmaputra silt
for Embankment construction
IS: 2720 (Part 5) - 1985, Method of Test for Soil:
Determination of Liquid Limit and Plastic Limit,
Bureau of Indian Standard, New Delhi
Determination of water content-dry density
relation using heavy compaction, Bureau of
Indian Standard, New Delhi
Direct Shear test, Bureau of Indian Standard,
New Delhi
IS: 2720 (Part 17) - 1986, Method of Test for
Soils: Laboratory determination of permeability,
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
IS: 2720 (Part 40) - 1977, Method of Test for
Soils: Determination of Free Swelling Index,
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
IS: 2720 (Part 16)-1987, Method of Test for Soils:
Laboratory Determination of CBR, Bureau of
Indian Standards, New Delhi
NRRDA (2007), Quality Assurance Handbook for
Rural Roads, Vol II, Ministry of Rural
Development, Govt. of India.
175
A MODELLING APPROACH FOR COHESION & FRICTION ANGLE

ATTRIBUTE ON OVERBURDEN DUMP SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS
(ICID2018_C_010)
Joba Goswami1, Biswajit Paul1, Mrinaljyoti Adhyapok2
1
Department of Environmental Science and Engineering
2
Department of Applied Geology
Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad-826004, India
ABSTRACT
In opencast mine, the slope stability of overburden dump plays an important role throughout the mining process.
During mining operations, huge amount of waste materials are excavated and dumped at top side of the mine in
steep angle known as overburden dump slope. Various factors such as slope angle and height, cohesion, friction
angle, material properties, shearing forces play an integral part in the stability of these overburden slopes. Hence
proper study of these properties and their influence on the stability of overburden slopes is necessary in view of
safety and economical design purposes.
Here in this paper an attempt is made to find out the factor of safety (FOS) of the selected slope using two
modelling based software slide 6.0 and Flac/slope(version 8.0) to find out the factor of safety using various data
obtained from field condition. Also attempt is made to find the factor of safety of the slope with variations in the value
of cohesion and friction angle.
Keywords: Slope stability, factor of safety (FOS), Limit equilibrium method (LEM), Finite equilibrium method (FEM).
1 INTRODUCTION 2 DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA
The Overburden dump slope stability is one of the Study area is located in the eastern part of Jharia
tough job in opencast mines. To ensure the Coalfield (JCF) in Dhanbad district of Jharkhand
stability of such dump slopes, it is necessary to between latitudes 230, 39’ N & 230, 48’ N and
study such slopes. Hazard due to slope failure longitudes 860, 11’ E & 860, 27’, E. Jharia coalfield
and to find out solution for these hazard become a is one of the most important coalfield in India.
major topic of interest in various fields of science
and technology.At finite normal stresses, soils and
rocks normally display both cohesive and frictional
behaviour. The shear strength of a soil is thus the
sum of the cohesive and frictional contributions.
The overstress of a slope or the reduction in the
shear strength of its soil may cause a slope to
displace. Limit Equilibrium Method is a generally
adopted approach to evaluating the factor of
safety, based on slice discretization of the soil
mass, assuming various geometrical forms for slip
surface. This process is largely implemented into
the engineering practice. Finite Element method
(FEM) is a numerical method using various
constitutive models, enabling to calculate the
Figure 1: selected slope for stability analysis
progressive failure and safety using “phi-c
reduction” or “shear stress reduction” techniques.
Here in this paper effort has been made to find the 3 STABILITY ANALYSIS OF
factor of safety with increase in the value of OVERBURDEN DUMP SLOPES
cohesion and friction angle and also their
influence towards slope stability. For the study of stability analysis of OB dump
slope of the investigated mines both LEM and
FEM analysis have been used. The LEM analysis
is carried out with Bishop simplified, Morgenstern-
176
Theme C
Price, Janbu simplified, Janbu corrected and SL Factor of Safety

Spencer methods using SLIDE 6.0 developed by NO. LEM Method
Rocscience Inc. The FEM study was performed in 1 Bishop simplified 0.764
FLAC/SLOPE 8.0 developed by ITASCA. 2 Morgenstern-Price 0.760
Parametric study was performed to find 3 Janbu simplified 0.751
out various geomechanical parameters such as
4 Janbu corrected 0.770
cohesion, friction angle, dump slope angle and
height of the dump which has large influence on 5 Spencer method 0.760
the stability of the OB dump. In LEM, soil
dilatancyis not considered as input parameter
whereas in FEM analysis soil dilatancy has 5 SIMULATION AND NUMERICAL
greater influence. ANALYSIS OF THE DUMP
The dump slope is analyzed with the help of LEM

4 GEOMECHANICAL STRENGTH as well as FEM. Stability analysis of the OB dump
PARAMETERS OF THE DUMP MATERIAL slope using LEM reveals that the slope is unstable
as determined factor of safety using all the five
Samples collected from three different portion of methods (Bishop simplified, Morgenstern-Price,
the dump slope were analyzed in the laboratory to Janbu simplified, Janbu corrected, Spencer
find out various geomechanical properties. methods) falls below one (1).Stability analysis of
To identify the type of soil sieve analysis the OB dump slope using FEM reveals that the
was performed and it revealed that soil sample slope is unstable as determined factor of safety
from sample1 consist of 42.56 % of coarse sand, falls below one (1). The determined factor of
34.80 % of medium sand and 22.53 % of fine safety using FEM is found to be 0.81
sand, while sample2 consist of 48.24 % of coarse
sand, 27.52 % of medium sand and 24.12 % of Table 1: Values of FOS obtained from LEM
fine sand and sample3 consist of 46.33 % of
coarse sand, 30.85 % of medium sand and 22.81 From the Finite Element modeling it has been
% of fine sand. From the above data it is cleared observed that strain rate is maximum at mid
that all the three sample consisting of sandy soil. portion of the critical slope. Therefore it proves
Based on the Unified Soil Classification system that maximum stress is concentrated at mid
the sand is classified as well graded when portion of the OB dump slope.
Coefficient of uniformity (Cu) is greater than 6 and
Co efficient of curvature (Cc) is in between 1 to 3. Both LEM and FEM analysis conclude
But it has been observed that though the value of that the OB dump slope is unstable. The minimum
Cu is greater than 6, the value of Cc from 0.35 to factor of safety obtained by LEM is 0.751 whereas
0.46 of the samples of studied OB dump slope. factor of safety obtained from FEM 0.81. Hence
Hence it is concluded that the OB dump soil various methods were undertaken to stabilize the
sample is sandy and poorly graded i.e. SP. slope and stability is verified by using both the
Shear behavior of the collected dump method.
material were analyzed as shearing properties
plays an important role in the stability of the dump
slope. Direct shear test was performed for the
three samples of one overburden dump slope and
for each sample graph has been plotted between
normal stress and shear stress are plotted. The
graphs give a detail about the cohesion for each
sample as well as the angle of internal friction.
The angle of internal frictionwas determined from
the intercept of the plot. It has been observed that
the soil samples in each test were cohesion less.
For the purpose of modelling lowest value of φ is
considered, as value of shear stress decreases
Fig 2: simulation with LEM showing critical zone
with the decrease in the value of angle of internal
with factor of safety 0.751
friction, φ. i.e φ = 28.36 is considered for
modelling. At φ = 28.360 the studied slope will
have that value of shear stress at which it fails.
177
Theme C
Table 2: Effect of friction angle on FOS Table 3: Effect of cohession on FOS
Friction LEM FEM cohesion LEM FEM

Angle
B.S J.S J.C M.P S.M
B.S J.S J.C M.P S.M
0 0.724 0.722 0.723 0.722 0.722 0.826
29 .784 .771 .790 .780 .780 .846
30 .815 .802 .822 .812 .812 .881 5 1.205 1.146 1.201 1.2 1.2 1.291
31 .847 .834 .855 .844 .844 .916 10 1.511 1.441 1.514 1.506 1.508 1.564
32 .879 .867 .888 .877 .876 .955
15 1.784 1.703 1.796 1.779 1.784 1.779
33 .913 .900 .922 .910 .910 .994
34 .947 .934 .957 .944 .945 1.09 20 1.981 1.856 1.967 1.974 1.976 1.947
35 .984 .969 .992 .981 .980 1.08 25 2.143 2.007 2.126 2.137 2.138 2.100
36 1.01 1.00 1.02 1.01 1.01 1.11
37 1.05 1.04 1.06 1.05 1.05 1.15 30 2.299 2.158 2.285 2.294 2.294 2.240
38 1.09 1.07 1.10 1.09 1.09 1.19 35 2.450 2.308 2.442 2.445 2.445 2.377
39 1.13 1.11 1.14 1.13 1.12 1.23
40 2.599 2.455 2.596 2.595 2.594 2.510
40 1.17 1.15 1.18 1.17 1.17 1.28
Hence validity of the slope is checked by

increasing the friction angle.It has also been
observed that as the cohesion of OB material
increases, Factor of safety value of soil
increases.From the table 2, it can be easily
observed that as the cohesion of the OB dump
soil increases from 0 Kpa from 40 Kpa, FOS of the
dump is increased from 0.723 to 2.596. SRF
increases from 0.826 to 2.510 in LEM. FOS
values from LEM are comparatively higher in
comparison with SRM.
Fig 3: simulation with FEM showing critical zone 7. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
with critical SRF 0.81
From the above study, it has been observed
that the studied over burden dump slope is
under critical condition as FOS is found to be
6 STABILITY ANALYSIS OF THE DUMP 0.760 in LEM and 0.81 in FEM. Slope is
SLOPE considered as unstable when FOS falls below
one. From analysis it is cleared that studied
From the analysis of LEM and FEM it has been slope consisting of sandy soil. The percentage
observed that the slope fails under shear. To of coarse sand is maximum in the slope,
study the stability of the slope optimization in the sample is sandy and poorly graded i.e. SP,
determined cohesion and angle of internal friction cohesionless and minimum friction angle is
has been done and these optimized values were 28.360 under which the slope fails in shear.
used in the simulation to check the stability of the Stability analysis in LEM shows that FOS
slope. The modified values show significant obtained by Jambu simplified method is
improvements in the values of factor of safety as minimum i.e. 0.751 and Jambu corrected is
well as critical SRF. It has been observed that with maximum i.e. 0.70, whereas in FEM analysis
the increase in the friction angle, factor of safety FOS is found 0.81. The optimum slope angle
increases. When overburden soil slope undergoes of the studied dump was 360. From the
compaction, the friction angle increases. This is modelling the probable mode of failure is
due to soil particles come closer to each other. found to be circular failure. It has been also
observed that with the increase in the friction
angle, factor of safety increases. When the
178
Theme C
friction angle is increased to 410 of the existing with piles against landslide in
dump the FOS increase by 55% in case of nonhomogeneous and anisotropic
LEM analysis (0.780 to 1.211).In case of FEM soils. Canadian Geotech. J. 45(8).
it is increased by 56.73 % (0.846 to 1.326)
Sahar Ismail, FadiHageChehade and
and with the increase in the cohesion, factor
of safety increases. When cohesion of the OB Riad Al Wardany, 2014. Slope
dump soil increases from 0 Kpa from 40 Kpa, Stability Analysis Under Seismic
FOS of the dump is increased from 0.723 to Loading.
2.596. SRF increases from 0.826 to 2.510 in Shogaki T and Kumagai N 2008 A slope
FEM. stability analysis considering
undrained strength anisotropy of
Hence by increasing soil shear strength
natural clay deposits. Soils
with an increase in cohesion and angle of
internal friction attributes, dump slope can be Foundations.
stabilized as cohesion and internal friction has Singh T. N and Naidu S, 2000. Influence
direct relation with the soil shear of Strain Rate and Cyclic
strength.Various mechanical and traditional Compression on Physico-
methods can be used for increasing the shear Mechanical Behaviour of Rock,
strength hence the cohesion and friction angle Ind. J. of Engg. & Mat. Sci., India.
of the soil. As traditional methods are cheaper
Su S and Liao H 1999 Effect of strength
compared to mechanical methods, they are
more preferable in case of stabilization of the anisotropy on undrained slope
dump slope. Compaction can be used as a stability in clay. Geotechnique 49.
technique to stabilize the slopes as due to
compaction the soil molecules come closer to
each other increasing the cohesion. Various
chemical agents, nano materials can be used
as an additive to increase soil shear strength
parameters, i.e. cohesion coefficient (C) and
internal friction angle (φ).
8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the

management of BCCL, Dhanbad, India, for
their help and support during this work. The
data and views presented here are those of
the authors and are not of any organization or
institution.
9 REFERENCES
Kaninthola A.,Verma D., Gupta S.S.,

Singh T.N., 2011. A Coal Mine
Dump Stability Analysis - A Case
Study. Geomaterials.
Lo K 1965 Stability of slopes in anistropic
soils. J. Soil Mech. Foundations
Div 91.
Lo K 1965 Stability of slopes in anistropic
soils. J. Soil Mech. Foundations
Div 91 Lo K 1965 Stability of
slopes in anistropic soils. J. Soil
Mech. Foundations Div 91.
Nian T, Chen G, Luan M, Yang Q and
Zheng D 2008 Limit analysis of
the stability of slopes reinforced
179
PERFORMANCE STUDY OF DIFFERENT INDIGENOUS FIBRES IN

IMPROVING BEARING CAPACITIES OF SOIL
(ICID2018_C_011)
Shamsuz Zaman1, Bikash Kumar Sah2, Dr. Nayanmoni Chetia3

1
P.G Student, Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam
2
Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department, Bhagalpur College of Engineering, Bihar
3
Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department, Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam
ABSTRACT
In this study an attempt has been made to improve the geotechnical properties of low bearing soil by using waste
materials like plastic, betel nut fibres, jute, rice husk etc. with soil at different proportions. Foundation is inevitable
part of any structure and the soil must be capable of carrying the loads from structure through the foundation placed
upon it without a shear failure and with the resulting settlements within tolerance limits. At first, compaction test,
Unconfined compressive strength Tests, California bearing ratio Tests, Atterberg limits test are conducted to know
the geotechnical properties of the natural soil and it is repeated for different samples prepared under various
improvement schemes. The soil sample taken for the investigation was collected from GIMT, (26.68154°N,
92.7531°E) Tezpur. After testing it was observed that soil mass replaced by 1.25% fibre mixture consisting of equal
proportions of jute and betel nut provides maximum improvement factor of 2.011 in terms of safe bearing capacity.
Maximum Improvement factor is 1.639 when replaced by Rice-husk alone at 5% replacement. Similarly, maximum
improvement factor was 1.51 when replaced by betel nut alone at 0.75% replacement. Different improvement factors
corresponding to other trials have been also presented herewith.
Keywords:Unconfined Compressive Strength, California Bearing Ratio, Improvement Factors
1. INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE sand of different densities and moisture content.

REVIEWS Unconfined Compressive Strength Tests were
conducted at different mix compositions. On the
basis of the experiments performed, they found at
For any land-based structure, the foundation is
1.5% mixed gives maximum improvement in
very important and has to be strong to support the
strength characteristics of the fine sand so that it
entire structure. In order for the foundation to be
becomes usable as construction of
strong, the soil around it plays a very critical role.
embankment.Patil KK et al (2017) investigated on
The soil must be capable of carrying the loads
soil stabilization they used plastic strips of
from any engineered structure placed upon it
different length in varying percentage of 0.5%,
without a shear failure and with the resulting
1%, 1.5%, 2.0% and 2.5% and checked the
settlements being tolerable for that structure.
physical properties of soil, such as increasing
Soil stabilization is a process which improves the
shear strength, bearing capacity etc. which can be
physical properties of soil, such as increasing
done by use of controlled compaction or addition
shear strength, bearing capacity etc. which can be
done by use of controlled compaction or addition of suitable admixtures like cement, lime and waste
materials like fly ash, phosphor gypsum etc.
of suitable admixtures .In this study soil
Plastic strips obtained from waste plastic (i.e
stabilization has been done with the help of
randomly distributed polypropylene fibres obtained Plastic bottle, Plastic bag ) were mixed randomly
with the soil. A series of California Bearing Ratio
from waste materials. The improvement in the
(CBR) tests were carried out on randomly
shear strength parameters has been stressed
reinforced soil. From the experimental observation
upon and comparative studies have been carried
they found at 2% mixed gives the optimum
out using different methods of shear resistance
strength to the soil.Venkatesh Babu DL et al
measurement.Sharma Y et al (2017)In their
(2017) study on improvement of weak sub grade in
explore they focus on the improvement of
terms of compaction and strength characteristics
engineering properties of soil by using jute fibre of
they mixed rice husk with soil (Alluvial and Clay)
20mm lengths as admixture at varying percentage
of 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, and 2% were mixed with fine at varying percentage of 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%,
180
Theme C
40%, 50% and 80%. Unconfined Compressive

Strength Tests and California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
tests were carried for the mixes. From their results
they found at 10% mixed shown the maximum
strength, soil stabilization compare with of the
natural soil.K. Padu et al (2014) In their
experimental investigation on shear strength
parameters and stiffness modulus they randomly
mixed soil with Areca nut Fibre in different size
with varying percentage of 0.25 %, 0.5 %, 0.75 Fig.3: Rice husk
and 1 % . In this study a series of triaxial
compression tests under different confining Rice husk:Rice huskis one of the most widely
pressures were conducted on locally available available agricultural wastes in Assam. Assam
(Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh, India) soil without produces nearly 51 lakh Metric ton rice (as per
and with Arecanut Fibre. Form their experimental report in 2010 - 11).On average 20% of the rice
observation they found at 1% mixed of Areca nut paddy is husk, giving an annual total production of
Fibre with soil gives maximum improvement. 10.2 lakh metric tons. In majority of rice producing
countries much of the husk produced from
processing of rice is either burnt or dumped as
2. MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY waste. Also, handling and transportation of rice
husk is problematic due to its lowe density and
2.1 Materials also cause damage to land and surrounding area
where it is dumped. Therefore, instead of dumping
it as waste we use it as reinforcement for
increasing the bearing capacity of the soil. Rice
husk contains 75-90 % organic matter such as
cellulose, lignin etc. and rest mineral components
such as silica, alkalis and trace elements.
Fig.1: Soil sample
Clay: The soil sample is collected from the

proposed construction site of GIMT, Tezpur. The
soil sample is clay type. Various tests are
performed in the laboratory to determine the
properties of the soil sample. Fig.4: Betel nut fibre
Betel nut fibre: Betel nut is abundantly found in

northeast. Only the nut is used for different
purpose and the cover is dumped as waste
material. Though now the fibres of betel nut cover
use as bio fertilizer and bio-remediator inoculums,
yet it is not widely used so a lots of betel nut
cover gets wasted. The husk fibre of betel nut
cover contain organic matter like cellulose, lignite
etc. due to which its combination with soil as
Fig.2: Jute fibre reinforcement will increase the bearing capacity of
the soil. Therefore we use it as a reinforcement to
Jute fibre: Jutefibres are composed of cellulose, increase the bearing capacity of the soil in our
hemi- cellulose and high lignin. It is harder than project.
cotton or other natural fibres because of presence
of lignin in its structure. In eastern part of India
jute is widely cultivated and its price is also
affordable. Assam is the third highest producer of
jute in India. Hence we use it as our reinforcement
material for increasing the bearing capacity of the
soil
181
Theme C
2.2 Methodology
The materials use in the project work soil sample

was collected from GIMT, Tezpur (Land proposed
for construction) compound. Locally available Rich
husk are collected. Others admixtures are Jute
fibre, Betel nut fibre, Plastic are collected from
nearby market. The code that has been used for
physical properties of soil, admixtures are IS:
Fig.5: Plastic 2720-1980, IS: 2720 -1985, IS: 2720 (Part -
7)1980, IS 2720 (Part - 10) 199, IS: 2720(Part 16)-
Plastic:According to a September 2017 report by 1973, IS-2720(Part - 29): 1975
the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), which
extrapolated data from 60 major cities, the country 2.3 Physical properties of Soil and Admixtures
generates around 25,940 tonnes of plastic waste
a day. About 94 per cent of this comprises The Average specific gravity of soil and
thermoplastic, such as PET (polyethylene admixtures are given in Table 1
terephthalate) and PVC (polyvinyl chloride), which Table -1: Specific Gravity of soil and Admixtures
is recyclable. The remaining belongs to thermoset sample Average specific gravity, G
and other categories of plastics, such as sheet Soil 2.675
molding compound (SMC) fibre reinforced plastic RHA 0.81
(FRP) and multi-layer thermocol, which are non-
Jute 1.11
recyclable.
Betel nut 0.92
Jute + Betel nut 0.935
Burmister (1949) classificationof soil are given in
the Table 2
Table –2: Soil classification related to plasticit
Soil description Plasticity index
Non-plastic 0
Slightly plastic 0-5
Low-plastic 5 - 10
Fig.6: Bitumen coating of Betel nut Fibre
Medium plastic 10 - 20
Highly plastic 20-40
very high plasticity > 40
The various physical properties of soil are given in
the Table 3
Table – 3:Physical properties of soil
Soil property
Liquid Limit,WL 39.5 %
Plastic Limit,WP 28.75 %
Plasticity Index, IP 10.95 %
Fig.7: Bitumen coating of Jute Fibre
Natural water content, WN 21.21
Relative consistency,
W −W
IC = LI N 1.67
P
Liquidity index,
W −W −0.68
IL = NI P
P
Consistency of soils Hard
Type of soil Medium plastic
Bulk density, Dry Density and Moisture content of
soil obtain from core cutter and Proctor test are
Fig.8: Bitumen coating of Rice Husk given in the Table 4
Bitumen:Bitumen was used as a protective
coating to the fibres. As bitumen is water
repellent, it protects the fibres from decaying due
to water. It adds strength to the properties of the
fibres and makes it long lasting.
182
Theme C
Table- 4: Core cutter and proctor test The comparisons on unconfined compressive Strength
Bulk density Dry density Moisture of different admixtures in various proportions with 0%
Test admixture are given in the fig. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7
in g/cc in g/cc content in %
Core 0.4
Cutter 1.697 1.4 21.21
Stress in kg/mm2
test 0.3
Proctor WR
1.968 1.963 24.75 0.2
test
In the fig. 9 Optimum Moisture Content and P 2.5%
0.1
Maximum Dry Density are shown
0
1.98 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Dry Density in gm/cc
1.96 Strain
1.94 Fig.10: Plastic used as a admixture
Moisture
1.92 contend
1.9 vs Dry 0.6
1.88 density
Stress in kg/mm2
1.86 WR
0.4
0 20 40
RH 2.5%
Moisture Content in % 0.2 RH 5%
Fig. 9: Proctor Test
0 RH 7.5%
0 0.1 0.2 0.3
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Strain
Fig.11: Rice Husk used as admixture
The Safe bearing capacity of soil in various proportion
with different amounts admixtures are tested for 0.6
WR
Stress in kg/mm2
Unconfined Compressive strength are given in the

Table 5, 6, 7 and 8. 0.4 BF 0.5%
Table - 5: Plastic used as Admixture
% of Safe bearing Improvement BF 0.75%
0.2
Reinforcement capacity in KN/m2 Factor BF 1%
Used 0
0 33.240 1.000 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
2.5 29.188 0.878 Strain
Table - 6: Rice husk as Admixture Fig.12: Betel nut fibre used as admixture
% of Safe bearing Improvement
Reinforcement capacity in KN/m2 Factor
0.8 WR
Used
Stress in kg/mm2
0 33.240 1.000 0.6

0.5% BF +
2.5% 40.084 1.206 0.4 0.5% JF
5% 54.494 1.639
0.2 0.75% BF
7.5% 45.387 1.365 + 0.75% JF
Table - 7: Betel nut used as Admixture 0
1% BF +
% of Safe bearing Improvement 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
1% JF
Reinforcement capacity in KN/m2 Factor Strain
1.25% BF
Used Fig.13: Betel nut fibre and Jute fibre are used + 1.25% JF
0 33.240 1.000 as Admixture
0.5% 38.003 1.143 Table – 9: MaximumImprovement Factor among
0.75% 50.193 1.510 all Reinforcements
1.0% 43.768 1.317 % of Safe
Table - 8: Betel nut + jute used as Admixture Type of Reinforce bearing Improvem
% of Safe bearing Improvement sample ment capacity ent Factor
Reinforcement capacity in KN/m2 Factor Used (KN/m2 )
Used Without
0 37.754 1.136 0 33.24 1
Reinforcement
0.5% 50.947 1.533
0.75% 55.033 1.656 Rice husk 5% 54.494 1.639
1.0% 63.806 1.920 Betel nut 0.75% 50.193 1.510
1.25% 66.830 2.011
Betel nut +
1.50% 37.754 1.136 1.25% 66.83 2.011
Jute
Plastic 2.50% 29.188 0.878
183
Theme C
Thus, it is observed that the value of

ʻImprovement Factorʼ for the reinforced soil Fig.16: BF 1.25% + JF 1.25% Fig.17: BF 0.75%
sample is quite higher than that for the
unreinforced soil sample except the use of plastic 4. CONCLUSION
as reinforcement. From above below it is seen
that the use of ʻBetel nut + Juteʼ as a This project presents a solution to increase the
reinforcement mixed at the ratio of 1: 1 by weight bearing capacity of shallow foundation and reduce
in 1.25% for the particular sample collected from settlement. Lots of different materials have been
G.I.M.T, comparatively gives the higher value. successfully used for increasing the bearing
capacity of soil, but in this study, we use the
0.8 WR
locally available natural waste products which are
0.7
Stress in kg/mm2
0.6
friendly with soil.
0.5 BF 0.5% • The SBC of the soil shown improvement by
0.4
0.3 2.011 times when reinforced with 1.25%
0.2 BF 1.25% +
JF 1.25%
betel nut fibre + 1.25% jute fibre.
0.1
0 P 2.5% • The SBC increased by 1.639 times when
0 0.2 0.4 reinforced with 5% rice husk.
Strain RH 5% • The SBC increased by 1.510 times when
Fig.14: Comparision in improvement of different reinforced with 0.75% Betel nut fibre.
admixtures
• The SBC decreased by 0.878 times when
The California bearing ratio test is performed using reinforced with 2.5% plastic piece
the admixture proportion which gives maximum • When 1.25% betel nut fibre + 1.25% jute
improvement in UCS test for the soil sample and fibre used as admixture CBR value is
with 0% admixture are given in the Table improve by 1.61 times.
Table -10: CBR test Various research works are being conducted
C.B.R. Value, % Improvement all around the globe to further improve the
Sample
2.5 mm 5.0 mm Factor
engineering properties of the soil. This study
WR 1.39 1.51 is an effort of the same and the results found
BF 1.25% 1.61
2.37 2.43 triggers the possibilities of measures which
+ JF 1.25%
can be taken to ensure an eco-friendly
The fig shows the improvement in due to the use environment bringing engineering technology
of Admixture to limelight.
100.000
80.000 5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Load in Kg
WR
60.000
I would like to express my special thanks of
40.000
BF 1.25% + gratitude to Bikash Kumar Sah,Assistant
20.000 JF 1.25% Professor, Civil Engineering Department,
0.000
Bhagalpur College of Engineering, Biharhis
0 5 10 15 excellent guidance and encouragement and
Penetration in mm support during the course of my work that I came
Fig.15: CBR test with the admixture of maximum to know about so many new things. I am very
improvement thankful to Dr. Nayanmoni Chetia, Assistant
Professor, Civil Engineering Department, Jorhat
Some Failure Specimen in UCS test Engineering College, Jorhat for her support.
Finally, thanks again to those who have given
their undivided support will not be forgotten.
REFERENCE
K. Padu et al (2014) “Strength and Stiffness

Response of Itanagar Soil Reinforced with
Areca nut Fibre” International Journal of
Innovative Research in Science,
Engineering and Technology ISSN: 2319-
8753 Vol. 3, Issue 10, Page 16659
Patil KK et al (2017) “Soil Stabilization by
using Plastic Waste” 4th International
184
Theme C
Conference on Emeringing Trends in

Engineering, Technology, Science and
Management (ICETETSM – 17), ISBN:
978-963-86171-54-2 Page 349
Sharma Y et al (2017)“Improvement of Soil
Properties by Using Jute Fibre as Soil
Stabilizer”American Journal of
Engineering Research (AJER)e-ISSN:
2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936 Volume-6,
Issue-10, pp-123-129 Page 123
Venkatesh Babu DL et al (2017) “Soil
Stabilization using Rice husk” 6th
International Conference on Emeringing
Trends in Engineering, Technology,
Science and Management (ICETETSM –
17), ISBN: 978-93-86171-70-2 Page 300
Notations
Betel Nut Fibre BF
Jute fibre JF
Plastic piece P
Rice Husk RH
Unconfined Compressive Strength UCS
California Bearing Ratio CBR
Optimum Moisture Content OMC
Maximum Dry Density MDD
Safe Bearing Capacity SBC
185
NUMERICAL MODELING OF EARTHEN DAM: VALIDATION

WITH FIELD DATA
(ICID2018_C_012)
Priyanka Talukdar1, Arindam Dey2
1,2. Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati – 781039, Assam, India
ABSTRACT
Proper design, construction, and monitoring of actual behaviour of earthen dams during their construction and
operation depends on its stability and the factor of safety under several possible destabilizing conditions. Monitoring
the generation of pore water pressure in earthen dams during different operations (end of construction, reservoir
filling, steady state condition and reservoir drawdown) gives information on the behaviour of the structure and its
interaction with the foundation. Field or laboratory prototype monitoring results can be used in validating the finite
element models developed to perform the numerical analysis. The accuracy of the finite element models which are
used to simulate the real field scenarios becomes acceptable when the data obtained from these models agrees
reasonably well with the monitored data. The main objective of the paper is to validate a numerical model of earthen
dam, developed in GeoStudio, and to explore the accuracy of numerically simulated water pressure magnitudes by
comparing the same with the monitored data. To meet this objective, a finite element analysis of the Glen Shira Dam,
Scotland was performed considering a drawdown condition, and the results from the numerical results were
compared with the field measurements. The monitored data and the data obtained from the model agrees reasonably
well, thus indicating further usage of the model to simulate other destabilizing scenarios.
Keywords: Earthen dams, Drawdown, Finite Element Analysis, Monitored Data
1 INTRODUCTION carefully when creating a finite element model for

a geotechnical project. The model, no matter how
The evolution of Finite Element Method (FEM) complex, will always be a simplified representation
from a research tool into a daily engineering tool of the actual soil behaviour that forms one of the
has resulted in its immense application for the main limitations in the numerical modeling
analysis of geotechnical engineering problems. Its process. Hence, some or the other features of soil
ability to tackle complex real field situations behaviour will not be captured by the
hasplaced it next to conventional design methods. model.Therefore, validation of the numerical
However, with many advantages provided by the models with the actual field scenario becomes
usage of FEM, like every other method,it also essential.
suffers from some limitations. These limitations Validation confirms the accuracy with which
can lead to unrealistic results and many a times the model captures the reality. The correctness
these limitations go unrecognized by the users. and acceptability of the numerical model, once
Inspite of the development of easy-to-use finite established with proper validation, makes it more
element programs, creating a good model that can reliable to be used in different design process. In
capture all the uncertainties and complexities this paper, a numerical model simulating the
associated with the real field problem is not an drawdown condition in the reservoir of an earthen
easy task. Predicting accurate and realistic design dam was validated with real field condition.
quantities (i.e. pore pressures, structural forces, Drawdown becomes a critical factor to assess
bearing capacity, safety factor, displacements, the stability of slopes that are initially submerged,
stresses, drainage capacity, pumping capacity, either partially or wholly. During drawdown, there
etc.) is difficult. These limitations are more likely to is removal of reservoir water that results in an
get pronounced in geotechnical applications as unloading effect, leading to the reduction of the
the highly non-linear and heterogeneous stabilizing external hydrostatic pressure, which
behaviour of the soil material makes it difficult for leads to the modification of the internal pore water
the numerical models to capture its character pressure as well. The dissipation of pore water
accurately. pressure is very much dependent on the rate of
The choice of the constitutive model (stress- drawdown. If the drawdown rate is high (rapid
strain relationship) plays a vital role as these drawdown), a noticeable delay occurs in the
constitutive models which are developed in a dissipation of pore water pressures within the
continuum, are used to model soil behavior in slope, and the remaining excess pore water
finite element method (FEM). On the other pressures may induce a slope failure on the side
hand,the corresponding set of model parameters of the reservoir. There are studies which have
used in modeling should also be considered reported the effects of water drawdown on the
186
Theme C
slope stability and dams from different

perspectives based on laboratory tests (Yan et al., Paton and Semple (1961) gives a detailed
2010; Wang et al., 2012), numerical analyses description of the dam and its materials.
(Viratjandr and Michalowski, 2006), and limit Thecross-section of the Glen Shira Dam is shown
analyses (Gao et al., 2014). Solution of the in Figure 1. The embankment has a crest width of
uncoupled-flow problem to evaluate the effect of 3 m and it has a free board of 1 m. The foundation
hydraulic properties have been studied in previous height and width are chosen to be 10 m and 108
researches (Song et al., 2015). There are m, respectively. The upstream and downstream
investigations which are carried out to calculate slope inclinations have been shown in Figure 1.
transient seepage induced by the influence of
drawdown on slope stability using a flow program, 2.1 Material properties
whereas, a coupled program has been used for
deformation and stability analysis (Berilgen, In numerical modeling, the correct assignment of
2007). Coupled flow-deformation analysis the material models with proper input parameters
examples (Brinkgreve et al., 2015), and examples plays an important role. In this validation study,
of real field case studies are available in literature Seep/w and Sigma/w modules of Geostudio have
(Zhang et al., 2010; Li et al., 2010). Sherard et al. been used. In Seep/w analysis, the embankment
(1963) and Lawrence von Thun (1985)have has been modeled using ‘saturated/ unsaturated’
studied different drawdown induced failure cases material model, while the foundation has been
which indicates the importance of water pressure modeled using ‘saturated only’ material model. In
measurements during the drawdown condition. Sigma/w, the ‘elastic-plastic material’ model has
Therefore, in slope stability analysis the estimation been used to perform the analysis. The
of pore water pressure induced due todrawdown embankment materials having modeled using
becomes very important. ‘saturated/ unsaturated’ material model requires
Thus, the main objective of the paper is to the assignment of the hydraulic conductivity
validate a numerical model which is used to function and the volumetric water content function
simulate reservoir drawdown condition in an for the analysis. These functions for the different
earthen dam, developed in GeoStudio, and to embankment materials have been shown in
ascertain the accuracy of numerically simulated Figure 2(a) and Figure 2(b).
water pressure magnitudes by comparing it with
the field monitored data. To meet this objective, a
finite element analysis of a drawdown conditionof
the Glen Shira Dam, Scotland was performed, and
the results from the numerical analyses were
compared with the field measurements. This
validation helps in determining the correctness of
the numerical models developed in Geostudio
which can further be used to predict different
entities.
2 MODEL FOR THE STUDY
The model used in the present study is the Glen Figure 2(a). Hydraulic conductivity function
Shira Dam which has an embankment height of
16 mand has a thin reinforced concrete wall at the
center. Compacted well-graded non-plastic
moraines mainly forms the embankment.The
compacted moraines on the upstream slope is
covered by a rockfill shell to increase the stability
of the upstream shoulder.
Figure 2(b). Volumetric water content function

Figure 1. Model for the present study
187
Theme C
Stress/PWP analysis’ in Sigma/w, in which the

The various soil properties used in the pore water pressure generated in the steady state
modeling have been obtained from literature analysis and stresses generated in the in-situ
(Alonso and Pinyol 2016;Paton and Semple 1961; analysis were used to define the initial conditions
USBR 2014; Seep/w 2012; Sigma/w 2012), for the transient state. The rate of reservoir
coupled with proper engineering judgment. The drawdown is a function of total head with time, as
different material properties; cohesion (c), angle of shown in Figure 3; and the same has been
internal friction(ø), unit weight of the materials (γ), assigned as a boundary condition along the
modulus of elasticity (Emodulus) and permeability upstream side of the dam.Results obtained from
(k)used in the analysis have been listed in Table the analyses have been compared with the
1. existing field and numerical data to check if the
Table 1: Material properties used in simulation numerical model developed in Geostudio is
accurate or not. A detailed analysis of the results
c ø γ Emodulus k obtained from the simulations along with the
(kPa) (º) (kN/m3) (kPa) (m/day) discussions is provided in the subsequentsection.
Morainic 8.64
15 25 18 5000
fill 10-3
Graded
0 25 16 10000 8640
filter
Concrete 8.64
12 20 18 25000
core wall 10-13
Rockfill 0 30 16 15000 86.4
8.64
Foundation 12 18 20 30
10-11
Figure 3. Reservoir drawdown condition
2.2 Analyses methodology
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The main objective of this work was to ascertain
the accuracy of the numerically simulated water The variation of total head with time that has been
pressures generated during a reservoir drawdown obtained from the numerical simulations
condition in the Glen Shira dam. The results performed in Geostudio have been compared with
obtained from Geostudio werevalidated with field- the measured values obtained from the five
monitored data,as well as compared tothe results different piezometer readings as shown from
obtained with the aid of another finite element Figure 4 to Figure 8. The results from the finite
program termed Code_Bright. The data used for element program, Code_Bright,has also been
comparison were obtained from Alonso and plotted in the figures to get a better understanding
Pinyol, 2016. The field data was monitored at five of the nature of the variation of total head with
different points as shown in Figure 1 with the help respect to time during reservoir drawdown
of the piezometers (Alonso and Pinyol, 2016). condition. The drawdown history of the reservoir
Barcelona basic model (BBM),was adopted as a level has also been indicated in the figures.
suitable constitutive model in Code_Bright finite
element program,which can simulate the effect of
the elastoplastic behavior of soils during saturated
and unsaturated conditions (Alonso and Pinyol
2016).
The present numerical study has been
conducted with the aid of Seep/w and Sigma/w
modules of Geostudio. The modeling of the Glen
Shira dam construction was conducted in simple
steps. In Geostudio, at first, the dam model was
simulated for initial ‘steady state seepage
analysis’, in Seep/w, to establish the existing pore
water pressures and total head conditions. The Figure 4. Measured and calculated water
initial stress conditions were generated using the pressures in Piezometer 1
‘in-situ analysis’ of Sigma/w. The drawdown of the
reservoir has been simulatedusing the ‘Coupled
188
Theme C
obtained from the numerical model simulated

using ‘coupled flow/deformation analysis’in
Geostudio agrees reasonably well with the
measured values from the field as well as with the
calculated values obtained from
Code_Bright(simulated using a coupled flow-
elastic deformation analysis for
saturated/unsaturated conditions). The pattern of
recorded water pressures is well captured by the
numerical model. Consideration of certain field
heterogeneity in permeability and/or soil stiffness
Figure 5. Measured and calculated water is probably required for a better agreement
pressures in Piezometer 2 between the measurements and calculations.
An attempt has been made to plot the total
head contours obtained from Geostudio and to
compare the same with the computed results from
Code_Bright (Alonso and Pinyol, 2016) and with
the interpolated values potted by Paton and
Semple (1961). The distribution of total head
contours inside the shell for a drawdown from 14
m to 5.2 m have been shown from Figure 9 (a) to
Figure 9 (c).
Figure 6. Measured and calculated water

pressures in Piezometer 3
(a)

(b)

(c)
The figures give a detailed comparison
between the simulated valuesof waterpressures Figure 9. Distribution of total head inside the shell
along with the corresponding measured values of for a drawdown from 14 m to 5.2 m (a) computed
the water pressures from the five piezometers. It results from Code_Bright; (b) interpolated values
has been observed that water pressures values
189
Theme C
plotted by Paton and Semple, 1961 (c) computed seepage analysis, 308 User’s Guide,
results from Geostudio Calgary, Alta., Canada.
The total head contour values and distribution GEO-SLOPE International Ltd. 2012. Computer
obtained from Geostudio gives very similar nature program SIGMA/W-for finite element
when compared with the computed and deformation analysis, 308 User’s Guide,
interpolated values. Calgary, Alta., Canada.
Lawrence Von Thun, J., 1985. San Luis dam

4 CONCLUSIONS upstream slide. In: Proceedings of the
11th International Conference on Soil
A well-documented case history (Shira Dam) Mechanics and Foundation
wasanalyzed using Geostudio to provide insight Engineering,San Francisco, Vol. 5. CRC
into the accuracy of the numerical model in Press, pp. 2593-2598
simulating drawdown problem. Soil (a compacted
moraine) with intermediate permeability between Li, D.Y., Yin, K.L. and Leo, C. 2010. Analysis of
impervious clays and free draining granular Baishuihe landslide influenced by the
materials has been used as the dam material for effects of reservoir water and rainfall.
this study. It should be added that materials with Environmental Earth Sciences, 60(4):
this intermediate permeability are very common in 677-687.
dam engineering. The fully coupled
flow/deformation analysis has been used to Paton, J. and Semple, N.G.1961. Investigation of
simulate this problem. The results from the the stability of an earth dam subjected to
analysis have been compared with the calculated rapid drawdown including details of pore
values obtained from Code_Brightand with the pressure recorded during a controlled
measured values from the field.The comparison drawdown test. In: Pore Pressure and
shows a reasonably good agreement of the water Suction in Soils. Butterworths, London,
pressure values obtained from Geostudio along 85-90.
with the field-measured values and calculated
values from the finite element program. Thus, it Sherard, J.L., Woodward, R.J., Gizienski, S.F. and
indicated that the numerical model simulated in Clevenger, W.A. 1963. Earth and Earth-
Geostudio is capable of capturing the drawdown rock Dams. John Wiley and Sons, New
scenario accurately to a significant extent and it York.
can further be used to simulate other destabilizing
scenarios. Song, K., Yan, E., Zhang, G., Lu, S. and Yi, Q.
2015.Effect of hydraulic properties of soil
and fluctuation velocity of reservoir water
5 REFERENCES on landslide stability. Environmental Earth
Sciences, 74(6): 5319-5329.
Alonso, E.E. and Pinyol, N.M. 2016. Numerical
analysis of rapid drawdown: Applications United States Bureau of Reclamation,
in real cases. Water Science and 2014.Design Standards No. 13
Engineering, 9(3): 175-183. Embankment Dams Chapter 8: Seepage
Analysis and Control.
Berilgen, M.M. 2007. Investigation of stability of
slopes under drawdown Viratjandr, C. and Michalowski, R.L. 2006. Limit
conditions.Computer and Geotechnics, analysis of submerged slopes subjected
34(2): 81-91. to water drawdown. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, 43(8): 802-814.
Brinkgreve, R.B.J., Kumarswamy, S. and Swolfs,
W.M. 2015. Plaxis 2015, Reference Wang, J.J., Zhang, H.P., Zhang, L. and Liang, Y.,
Manual. Plaxis BV, Delft. 2012. Experimental study on
heterogeneous slope responses to
Gao, Y., Zhu, D., Zhang, F., Lei, G.H. and Qin, drawdown. Engineering Geology, 147-
H.2014. Stability analysis of 148, 52-56.
threedimensional slopes under water
drawdown conditions. Canadian Yan, Z.L., Wang, J.J., Chai, H.J., 2010. Influence
Geotechnical Journal 51(11): 1355-1364. of water level fluctuation on phreatic line
in silty soil model slope.Engineering
GEO-SLOPE International Ltd. 2012. Computer Geology,113 (14): 90-98.
program SEEP/W-for finite element
190
Theme C
Zhang, T., Yan, E., Cheng, J. and Zheng, Y. 2010.

Mechanism of reservoir water in the
deformation of Hefeng landslide. Journal
of Earth Science, 21 (6): 870-875.
191
EFFECT OF LIME ON THE PERMEABILITY OF BLACK COTTON SOIL

TREATED WITH MINE TAILINGS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF
EARTHEN DAMS
(ICID2018_C_016)
KrishnaiahA.J1Ramesh H.N2K V ManojKrishna
1
Professor& Head, Department of Civil engineering, MCE, Hassan-573202, E mail-ajkmce@gmail.com
2
Principal, University VisweswarayaCollege of Engineering, Bangaluru University, Bangaluru. 3Assistant
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Govt. SKSJIT, K.R Circle, Bangaluru
ABSTRACT
All earthen dams will have problem for leaking to some extent and seepage becomes a problem if it endangers the
embankment–either by encouraging erosion in the downstream area or by causing water logging of the dam which
affects stability. Mine tailings is generated in mining industries during the extraction of minerals. Mine tailings is
relatively low hydraulic conductivity (k). The value of k must be known with certain degree to analyze consolidation
and seepage conditions in tailings impoundments and other hydraulic barriers. In this paper an attempt has been
made to determine the co-efficient of permeability from laboratory one dimensional consolidation tests on black
cotton soil and mine tailings treated with lime. After describing some basic properties of black cotton soil and mine
tailings including grain size analysis, Atterberg limits, compaction and consolidation characteristics for evaluating the
coefficient of permeability. The test results indicate that the permeability of black cotton soil treated with mine tailings
in presence of 3% lime reduces the permeability by 82% compare to black cotton soil alone. Hence, lime stabilization
is beneficial to Black cotton soil (BCS) with the addition of mine tailings (MT) and it will reduce the permeability in
earth dams, embankments etc.
Keywords: Mine tailings, Lime, Flocculation, Permeability,Stabilization
1. INTRODUCTION permeability as one of the key parameters to

study seepage or the steady state flow of water.
Water flow through the earthen dam is one of the The dam, the buildup of excess pore pressures
basic problems for geotechnical engineers. All within the embankment and seepage can be a
earth dams will leak to some extent and seepage problem, especially for a reservoir having high, or
only becomes a problem if it endangers the rapidly fluctuating water levels for long periods; or
embankment–either by encouraging erosion in the for a dam having impervious foundations. If
downstream area or by causing water logging of seepage is excessive this can lead to instability
the dam and thus affecting its stability. This paper and eventual failure of all or part of the
presents simple expressions to know the downstream face. Mine tailings can be used as
permeability/seepage flow rate through a back fill material, fill material for underground
homogeneous embankment and precautions to be voids, construction material for improving the
taken for control of seepage to the earth dams or properties of the soil (Pebble project 2005). In
embankments. Any type of dams although were view of the above, in the present investigation an
built by drilling materials or rarely impermeable attempt is made to utilize the mine tailings with
artificial materials will experience the seepage. All black cotton soil in presence of lime for
earth and rock-fill dams are subject to seepage construction of embankment and to study the
through the embankment, foundation, and hydraulic conductivity of black cotton soil treated
abutments. Seepage control is necessary to with mine tailings in presence of lime.
prevent excessive uplift pressures, sloughing of
the downstream slope, piping through the
embankment and foundation. Water flow within an
aquifer, land slope, and earth dam is of interest of
2. MATERIALS AND METHOD
engineers to develop accurate designs and 2.1 Black cotton soil
optimal constructions. To study water flow inside
soil mass the coefficient of permeability k should In the present investigation the black cotton
be known. In soils, k is the measurement of water soil was obtained from Davanagere, Karnataka
ability to flow through them. In other words the state, India. This is a residual soil and was
velocity of water flow inside soils such as gravel, collected from an open excavation, at a depth of
sand, silt, clay, or a mix of them. This activity is two meter below the natural ground surface. The
prepared to introduce the concept of soil black cotton soil was air dried, pulverized and
192
Theme C
passed through 425micron BIS sieve was used for Table 2. Chemical properties of B C soil
the present investigation.
Chemical Percentage
composition
2.2 Mine tailings Silicon dioxide 52.85
Alumina 12.24
Mine tailings was collected from an open dump Iron oxide 8.04
from Kolar Gold Fields (KGF), Kolar, Karnataka, Titanium dioxide 0.24
India. After removing the vegetations from the
Calcium oxide 6.01
mine tailings, it was air dried, pulverized and
passed through 425 micron BIS sieve before used Magnesium oxide 2.94
in the present investigation. Potassium oxide 0.48
Loss on ignition 16.18
2.3 Lime Sodium oxide 0.26
Lime used in the present investigation
was obtained from Fisher Scientific Chemicals
private limited, Mumbai, India. Table 3..Chemical properties of Mine tailings
Chemical Percentage
The physical properties of Black cotton
composition
soil and Mine tailings are presented in Table 1.
PH 8.44
The suitability of the materials collected are
determined by analyzing the particle size SiO2 40.5
distribution, Atterberg limits, specific gravity. The Al2O4 0.5
chemical analysis of black cotton soil and mine P2O5 0.09
tailings were carried out by adopting the standard K2O4 16.1
procedures as per the text book of Soil Chemical Cu 2.55ppm
Analysis by P.R.Hesse (1972), and are presented Pb 0.04
in Table 2 and 3 respectively. As <0.01
CN- Nil
Table 1. Physical properties of Black cotton soil SO3 0.05
and Mine tailings SO4 0.5
CaO 14.96
Properties Values MgO 6.97
BCS MT
Colour Black Pale gray
Specific Gravity 2.70 2.78 2.4 Methodology adopted:
Liquid limit (%) 82.0 34
Plastic limit (%) 47.2 Non plastic The grain size analysis test was
Plasticity Index (%) 34.8 Non plastic conducted as per BIS: 2720 (Part IV)-1975, Liquid
limit test was conducted by cone penetration
Shrinkage limit (%) 8.4 24.6 method as per BIS: 2720 (Part-V)-1985. The liquid
Fine sand fraction (%) 10.0 17 limit tests were carried out to secure a minimum
Silt fraction (%) 21.2 70.4 five points for plotting the flow curve. Plastic limit
Clay fraction (%) 68.8 12.6 test was conducted as per BIS: 2720 (Part-VI)-
Maximum dry 14.3 15.7 1985. The plastic limit reported as an average of
density (kN/m3) two determinations. Shrinkage limit test was
Optimum moisture 29.9 21.54 conducted as per BIS: 2720 (Part-VI)-1972. The
content (%) shrinkage limit reported as an average of three
determinations. Compaction tests were conducted
using mini compaction test apparatus as per the
procedures of Sridharan and Sivapullaiah (2005).
Consolidation tests were conducted as per BIS:
2720 (Part-XV)-1986. The tests were carried out
immediately after compacting the soil mixture in to
the consolidation ring. Black cotton soil with 30%
MT and Black cotton soil plus 30% MT with 3%
lime were found to be optimum based on
unconfined compressive strength (Ramesh et al
2013)
193
Theme C
. 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS with optimum mine tailings the shrinkage limit
further increased to 24.3% as shown in Table 4.
3.1 Grain size distribution: This is aincreasing trend of shrinkage limit is
indication for the its suitability of soil which will be
The soil fraction passing through 4.75 mm BIS
used as construction material.
sieve was separated for the Atterberg tests. In a
similar manner, a soil and mine tailings samples
fraction finer than sieve size of 0.075 mm was 3.5 Compaction Properties:
also separated through wet sieve analysis and The purpose of the compaction is to remould the
grain size distribution of these soil samples used lumps of the soil in to a homogeneous mass, such
in this study are given in Table 4 and Fig.1. that to remove the interclod voids. The maximum
dry unit weight and optimum moisture content of
3.2 Liquid limit: black cotton soil alone is 14.3 kN/m3 is 29.9%
respectively. Addition of 3% lime to optimum mine
Soils with high liquid limit are generally preferred tailings treated black cotton soil, the maximum dry
for construction material for embankments, earth density is about 13 kN/m3 and optimum moisture
dams etc, because of their low permeability. But 23.0%. Generally addition of the additives
high liquid limit indicates high settlement and low marginally reduces the maximum dry density and
strength. Addition of lime or cement has become without significant increase in the optimum
necessary to improve its behaviour. Addition of moisture content. This is attributed to the soil
3% lime to optimum mine tailings treated black particles which become flocculated and get
cotton soil liquid limit reduced from 82% to 34.4%. cemented on addition of stabilizers and resist
Generally, addition of lime reduces the liquid limit compactive effort so that it can have low
of soils with additives due to replacement of permeability, lesser compressibility and good
exchangeable cations of clay by calcium ions (Bell strength (Sivapullaiah et al 2003).
1988). On the other hand, it is known that the
liquid limit of black cotton soil is not affected either 3.6 Consolidation Properties:
immediate effect or with curing (Sivapullaiah et al
2000). This is because of the exchangeable cation Consolidation tests were conducted by using fixed
of soil already flocculated with the particles ring oedometer to measure the permeability at the
(Sivapullaiah et al 2003). end of each load increment. At each pressure
increment, pressure void ratio relationship curve
3.3 Plasticity Index: (e-log p) curves were drawn (Fig.2) and initial and
final void ratios are calculated. From the
Plasticity index is one of the important criteria for experimental results the coefficient of
selecting the soil for construction material. Soils consolidation (Cv) and coefficient of volume
with low plasticity and permeability are ideal for compressibility (m v) were evaluated. The
construction of embankments and earth dams coefficient of permeability was measured with the
(Sivapullaiah et al 2003). However, very high help of coefficient of consolidation and coefficient
plasticity index poses problems during of volume compressibility as shown in Table 5.
construction because the soil forms hard lumps
when they are dry and difficult to compact the soil 3.7 Permeability:
during construction. The hard lumps, if not
properly compacted to form zones of higher Permeability is the measure of the rate at which a
permeability. As seen from the Table 4, the fluid passes through soil media. The permeability
plasticity index of the Black cotton soil is 34.8%. values were obtained from consolidation test
Addition of 3% lime to black cotton soil treated results using the following expression in equation
with optimum mine tailings the plasticity index is (1)
about 13% and which is the permissible range of 𝐾 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑚𝑣 𝛾𝑤 --------------------(1)
construction material for earthen dams and
embankments. where𝐶𝑣 = coefficient of consolidation, 𝑚𝑣 =
coefficient of volume change and 𝛾𝑤 = unit weight
of water . The permeability of black cotton soil
3.4 Shrinkage Limit: alone for 200 kPa is 2.582x10-5 cm/sec, addition
The soil as construction material should have of 3% lime to black cotton soil treated with
lower shrinkage limit, otherwise cracks will appear optimum mine tailings permeability decreased to
and it will not meet with the requirement. Addition 4.454x10-6 cm/sec. It indicate that permeability
of 30% mine tailings to black cotton soil the reduced by 82% compare to black cotton soil
shrinkage limit increase from 8.4% to 8.87%, alone as shown in Table 5 and Fig.3. The
addition of 3% lime to black cotton soil treated permeability of black cotton soil treated with mine
194
Theme C
tailings in presence of lime depends on the grain

size, degree of compaction and pozzolanic
activity. The increase in consolidation pressure
decreases the void ratio and addition of lime
decrease the permeability. This has been
attributed to formation of gelatinous compounds,
which block the pores or voids of the soil mass
(Brandl, 1981). The pozzolanic reaction product
like calcium silicate hydrate to form cementatious
compound and soil-mine tailings mixes in
presence of lime able to densely packed during
compaction resulting in comparatively low
permeable and minimize the seepage of water
through earthen dams and embankments.
Fig. 2 Pressure void ratio curve for BCS treated
Table 4: Index properties and compaction with MT in presence of lime
characteristics of Black cotton soil treated with Table 5: Permeability of Black cotton soil treated
optimum percentages of mine tailings and lime. with optimum mine tailings in presence of lime
BCS
BCS +30% Permeability (k in m/sec )
BCS MT +30% MT+3% Mixture
Pressure range from (200-800 kPa)
Mixture Alone Alone MT lime
Liquid 200 400 800
limit (%) 82 34.4 38.63 34.2 BCS 2.528x10-5 2.343x10-5 1.828x10-5
Plastic Non Alone
limit (%) 47.13 plastic 25.81 21.1 BCS+30% 4.367x10-5 3.107x10-5 2.651x10-5
Plasticity Non MT
index (%) 34.8 plastic 12.82 13.1 BCS+ 2.921x10-5 1.506x10-5 4.454x10-6
Shrinkage 30%
limit (%) 8.4 24.6 8.87 24.3 MT+3%
MDD Lime
(kN/m3) 14.3 15.7 14.44 13
OMC (%) 29.9 21.54 20.2 23
Fig. 3 Variation of permeability of Black cotton soil

treated with optimum percentages of mine
tailings and lime.
Figure 1: Grain size Distribution curve of Black CONCLUSIONS

cotton soil and mine tailings
The following conclusions are drawn from the
investigation of black cotton soil treated with mine
tiling in presence of lime.
1. Addition of lime reducesliquid limit of
black cotton soil and mine tailings mixture
due to replacement of exchangeable
cations of clay by calcium ions.
2. Plasticity index of black cotton soil and
mine tailings mixture reduces by addition
of lime due to flocculation of particles.
195
Theme C
3. Addition of lime, shrinkage limit of black of stabilized Indian red earth, Geotechnical and
cotton soil and mine tailings mixtur Geological Engineering, 21, 399-413.
increases.
Sivapullaiah P.V, Sridharan A and Raju K.V.B
4. Lime marginally alters the compaction
(2005), Role of amount and type of clay in the
properties of the soil mine tailing mixture.
lime stabilization of soils, Ground
5. The hydraulic conductivity of the black
improvement, 4(1), 37-45
cotton soil treated with mine tailings
decreases on addition of lime due to Sridhan A and Sivapullaiah P.V (2005), Mini
formation gelatinous compounds by compaction test apparatus for fine grained
pozzolanic reactions which block the soils, Geotechnical Testing Journal, 28 (3), 1-
voids of the soil media. 20
REFERENCES
Bell. F.G., (1988), Stabilization and treatment of

clay soils with lime, Ground Engineering, 21,
10-29.
BIS: 2720 (Part V) (1975)-Indian Standard
Methods of tests for soils: Determination of
Grain size analysis.
Liquid limit.
Plastic limit.
Shrinkage limit.
Consolidation properties.
Brandl H (1981), Alteration of soil parameters by
Stabilization with Lime, Procedings X
International Conference on Soil Mechanics
and Foundation Engineering, Stockholm, 4,
587-594.
Hesse P.R (1972) “A Text Book of Soil Chemical
Analysis” Published by Chemical Pub.
Co.,University of Michign.
Pebble Project, (2005), Tailings and Tailings
Managements, Northern Dynasty Mines Inc.,
1-4.
.Ramesh H.N, Krishnaiah A.J and ShilpaShet S,
(2013), Strength Behaviour of Black cotton soil
and Mine tailings Mixture Treated with
Lime,Procedings of National Conference on
Recent Advances in Civil Engineering (RACE-
2013), K.L.E College of Engineering, Belgum,
India.
Sivapullaiah P.V, Lakshmikantha H and
MadhuKiran K (2003), Geotechnical properties
196
A REVIEW ON GROUND IMPROVEMENT USING STONE COLUMN

(ICID2018_C_017)
ParthaPratim Baruah1, Dr.Arup Bhattacharjee2
1
M.E student, Department of Civil Engineering, Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam,India
2
Associate.Prof., Department of Civil Engineering, Jorhat Engineering College,Jorhat,Assam,India
ABSTRACT
The ground improvement techniques are used in order to increase the bearing capacity of soft soil and to mitigate the
problem of liquefaction. Out of many techniques adopted for ground improvement one mostly used are stone
columns. Stone column utilizes techniques of vibro replacement and vibro displacement. In recent times evolution of
various techniques like geosynthetic encased stone columns and floating stone columns have taken place. In this
paper a comparative study of various types of stone column and design procedure of stone column based on
Priebe’s method have been done. The study is based on various journals published across the globe.
Keywords: Bearing capacity, Ground improvement technique, Stone columns .
1 INTRODUCTION and Vibro – Displacement (Dry, Top and Bottom

Feed Method). Stone columns can also be
Soft saturated clay layers are often encountered installed using steel casing and drop hammer as
at shallow depths below foundations. Depending in the Franki Method
on the structural load and the depth of the The stone column construction can be
layers, usually large consolidation settlement carried out either by two methods i.e.
may occur. Although pile foundation may be displacement method or replacement method.In
adopted in some situations, they often become dry method or displacement method soil is
too expensive for low to medium-rise buildings. displaced laterally by a vibratory probe, this
In such cases, the properties of the soil within method is suitable for firm in-situ soil with low
the zone of influence have to be improved in ground water level.
order to make them suitable to support the given
load. Soil improvement techniques are normally
preferred for economic considerations. This soil
improvement technique has been successfully
used to increase bearing capacity and reduce
the settlement.
1.1 Stone column
Stone column ground improvement involves Fig 1:Vibro- Displacement( dry top feed)
adding vertical columns of stone into the ground method process(Source Taube 2001)
to a depth of at least 4m below the ground
surface. A layer of compacted gravel can then
be put over the top of the columns, ready for the
construction of new house foundations. The
stone column method is quick to construct and
can be done at any time of the year.To ensure
publication quality and uniformity, the following
guidelines are intended to assist authors in
preparing their papers for the Conference.
Fig 2 :Vibro- Displacement ( dry bottom feed )

2 STONE COLUMNS INSTALLATION method process(Source Taube 2001)
METHODS
Installation of stone column is done by using

either top or bottom feed systems, with or
without jetted water. Most widely used methods
are Vibro-Replacement (Wet, Top Feed Method)
197
Theme C
proposed loading conditions for unimproved

ground.
2) To meet the design requirements, the
reduction in settlement is determined. This
reduction factor is the settlement ratio or
improvement factor which is expressed as the
ratio of the amount of settlement of the
unimproved soils to the amount of settlement of
the improved soils.
Fig 3: Vibro- replacement method ( wet top feed 3) Determine whether the stone columns can
method)(Source Taube 2001) provide the required reduction of settlement.
Vibro-displacement method is used for Typically the settlement can be reduced by a
compacting layers of cohesive soil. The process factor between 2 and 3.
involves the penetration of the vibrator into 4) Area replacement ratio (stone column area
partially saturated soils resulting in shear failure divided by the tributary area of the stone
of the soil, which then gets displaced forming a column) is determined to provide the required
cylindrically compacted zone. reduction of settlement.
Vibro replacement is a ground improvement 5) The stone column diameter, spacing and
technique that constructs dense aggregate length are determined. Diameter and spacing is
columns (stone columns) by means of a down determined from contractor experience whereas
hole vibrator, to reinforce all soils and densify the column length from the settlement
granular soils. calculations.
6) Load carrying capacity is assessed for the
stone columns. It is based on the contractor
3 DESIGN OF STONE COLUMNS experience that the stone column diameter is
predicted, which is a critical part of the design
First step in assessing the applicability of vibro- process. Stone column spacing can be simply
stone column for a particular site is to evaluate calculated with a known required area
the performance of the unimproved ground. It is replacement ratio and a prediction of the stone
necessary to determine whether the stone column diameter.
columns will achieve the desired results in terms
of settlement reduction, improve bearing 3.2 Priebe’s method of stone columns design
capacity, densificationetc.
The design of stone columns by Priebe’s
method, mainly involves the following steps
1) Determination of basic improvement

factor.
2) Determination of the improvement
factors by considering, column
compressibility and overburden
pressure.
3) Finding the compatibility controls.
4) Determination of the shear values of
improved ground.
3.2.1 Determination of basic improvement

factor
Assumptions
 The column is based on a rigid layer
Fig 4: Unitcell (Barksdale, R.D.-Bachus,R.C  The column material is uncompressible
1983)  The bulk density of column and soil is
neglected
3.1 Preliminary design of stone columns can
be carried out as follows 3.3 Critical length of column
1) Using conventional settlement calculations, The bulging of stone columns was more
the settlement shall be estimated for the prominent in the upper portion of the column as
198
Theme C
suggested by Hughes and Withers (1974), 2007b) as illustrated in Fig. 6. However, column
Greenwood (1970), Charles and Watts (1983), shorter than the critical length are likely to fail in
and Balaam and Booker (1981). The depth of general shear if it is end bearing on a rigid base
bulging was observed to be approximately four and in punching if it is a floating column. While
times the diameter of the column (Hughes and the tendency for bulging is predominant, it
Withers 1974; McKelvey et al. 2004; IS: 15284- occurs in conjunction with the pile action
2003; Black et al. 2007b). Bae et al. (2002) (Madhav et al. 1994). Particular attention should
found that the depth of bulging zone of stone be paid to the presence of very weak organic
column was affected by column diameter rather clay layers of limited thickness where local
than depth ratio and strength of soil. The bulging failure may take place (Barksdale and
degree of bulging largely depends on the Bachus 1983, IS:15284-2003). Failure modes of
strength of the in situ clay (Sivakumaretal. stone column groups are different from those of
2007). In several of the above studies the an isolated stone column, where the columns
authors also suggested the critical length of the can interact and restrain the expansion of the
column that defined the overall column failure neighboring columns. Wood et al. (2000) found
mechanism. The critical column length is the from their model investigations on large groups
shortest column which can carry the ultimate of columns that most of the bulging, shearing
load regardless of settlement (Hughes et al. and lateral deflection occurred within a ‘conical’
1975). Hughes and Withers (1974) found from region directly beneath the foundation. The
their model study that the load carrying capacity depth of this failure wedge increased as the
of the column increases up to L/D = 4.1, beyond area replacement ratio increased. In stone
which there is no increase in column capacity. column groups, the central column deforms or
Mitra and Cahttopadhyay (1999) suggested a bulges uniformly, whereas the edge column
minimum L/D ratio of 4.5, which is required to bulges away from the neighbouring columns
develop the full limiting axial stress on the stone (McKelvey et al. 2004). From the observations
column. McKelvey et al. (2004), Black et al. of columns subjected to loading from circular
(2007a) reported from their experimental study and strip footings, Sivakumar et al. (2007),
that L/D ratio of minimum 6 is required to found that punching is more prevalent in short
develop the full limiting axial stress on the columns whilst bending failure is predominant in
column. Samadhiya et al. (2008) found from perimeter columns located beyond the centre of
their model study that the critical length to be 4– the footing and bulging was more generally
5 D i.e. beyond this length of stone column, no common in long columns. Different techniques
significant increase in its capacity has b were used by various researches for examining
observed. Najjar et al. (2010), from their the deformation and failure mode of stone
experimental investigation, support the column treated ground. X-ray technique has
hypothesis of a critical column length been used successfully to monitor the
corresponding to about six column diameters. deformation of an isolated granular column and
Columns longer than critical length did not show surrounding clay (Hughes and Withers 1974).
further increase in load-carrying capacity, Rao and Reddy (1996) studied the deformation
however, longer columns may be needed to pattern of stone column by scooping out soil
control the settlements. Accordingly, rational slowly around the stone column after the load
decisions can be taken to tailor design of stone test was completed. Wood et al. (2000)
column installations to achieve maximum
performance at optimum cost.
3.4 Failure Mechanism
Failure mechanism of stone columns was

studied by Babu (2008). He carried out his study
as suggested in IS code. He found the failure
mechanism as shown below.Current state-of-
the-art reveals different modes of failures for a
single stone column contained in a weak subsoil
deposit, such as bulging (Hughes and Withers
1974); general shear failure (Madhav and Vitkar
1978), and sliding (Aboshi et al. 1979). For
columns having length greater than its critical
length and irrespective whether it is end bearing
or floating, it fails by bulging (Barksdale and
Bachus 1983, IS:15284-2003, Black et al.
199
Theme C
structural challenges based on its ground

properties
Fig 5: Failure Mechanism of Single Stone

Column in non homogeneous Soft layer ( Babu
2008)
Fig 6: OIL Tank Farm, Paradeep ( Source IOCL
Paradeep)
4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
OF USING STONE COLUMN
Background: Owner of the refinery is IOCL,
structure consists of 15 nos of tanks with
Stone column technique of ground improvement
60,000KL capacity of 79m dia & 13.5m ht.8
has both advantages and disadvantages few
Soil Conditions: Reclaimed soil in top 3m
advantages and disadvantages are described
followed by 3m clay, it is underlain by loose to
below.
medium dense fine sands to a depth of 10m and
dense soil layer at 10m below GL.
4.1 Advantages
Geotechnical Problem: Bearing capacity
required is 16T/m2. Tolerable settlement of
Stone columns are suitable for certain structure
200mm.
due to the following reasons
Solution: Vibro stone Column of diameter
1). It can reduce the total and differential
800mm with triangular grid spacing of 2m c/c up
settlements.
to a depth of 10m are constructed in order to
2).It reduces the liquefaction potential of
improve the bearing capacity. Around foot print
cohesion less soil.
area of tank two extra column rows are
3) It increases the stiffness.
constructed.
4) It improves the drainage conditions and
Execution details: Total length of stone columns
environmental control.
is 160,000 linear meters, at peak 4 rigs were
5) It improves the load capacity of the soil to
used, installation period is 8 months.
make it possible to use shallow foundation on
Performance and testing: Routine group column
the soil.
load tests were performed, Hydro tests were
performed and monitored settlements were
4.2 Disadvantages
below 100mm.
There is a chance for increase in settlement of
6 CONCLUSION
the bed when used in sensitive clays due to the
absence of lateral restraints. Because of the
Stone columns have a definite role in the area of
clogging of clay particles around the stone
ground improvement. Stone columns are best
column there is a chance to reduce radial
suited for sites consisting of very soft and soft
drainage. To overcome such situation, stone
compressible silts and clays, and also for loose
columns can be encased with geo-grids/ geo-
silty sands. Stone columns in cohesive soils are
composites
normally constructed by vibro-replacement
method either by wet process or dry process or
.
less frequently by ramming. In environmentally
5 CASE STUDY
sensitive areas, stone columns are frequently
constructed by the dry process rather than the
Case history of oil tank farm, paradeep An oil
wet process (which discharges large quantities
tank farm in paradeep was dedicated in service
of silty water) Where ground conditions are
of the nation by pm shri narendra modi on
suitable, stone column solutions have been
february 7, 2016. it is the most- modern refinery
shown to be more cost effective and can offer
of the country with a complexity factor of 12.2
considerable contract programme savings over
based on nelson index. but during its
other ground improvement methods, such as
construction engineers had to face few
200
Theme C
preloading and vertical drain. By replacing a IS : 15284: 2003.

portion of the soft soils with a compacted
granular backfill, a composite material is formed Madhav MR, Vitkar PP (1978) Strip footing on
which is both stiffer and stronger than the weak clay stabilized with a granular trench or
unimproved native soil. Stone columns act as pile. Can Geotech J 15(4):605–609.
drains and significantly decrease the time for Madhav MR, Alamgir M, Miura N (1994)
primary consolidation to occur. Because of rapid Improving granular column capacity by
consolidation settlement secondary settlement geogrid reinforcement. In: Proceedings, 5th
becomes a more important consideration when International Conference On Geotextiles,
stone columns are used. Stone columns reduce Geomembrains, and Related Products,
the build-up in pore pressure in granular layers Singapore, pp 351–356
during an earthquake, and hence decrease
liquefaction potential. Priebe, H. J. (1995). The design of vibro
replacement. Ground Eng., 28(12), 31-37.
Rao SN, Reddy KM (1996) Load transfer in
REFERENCE: stone column in soft marine clay. In:
Proceedings, Indian geotechnical
Aboshi, H., Ichimoto, E., Harada, K., & Emoki, conference, Madras, India, pp 403–406
M. (1979). The composer - A method to
improve the characteristics of soft clays by Sivakumar V, Glynn D, Black JA, McNeill (2008)
inclusion of large diameter sand columns. A laboratory model study of the performance
Proc., Int. Conf. on Soil Reinforcement., of vibrated stone columns in soft clay. In:
E.N.P.C., 1, Paris, 211-216. Proceedings, 14 th European conference on
Black, J. A., Sivakumar, V., Madhav, M. R., & soil mechanics and geotechnical
Hamill, G. A. (2007). Reinforced stone engineering, Madrid.
columns in weak deposits: Laboratory model Wood DM, Hu W, Nash DFT (2000) Group
study. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 133(9), effects in stone column foundations: model
1154-1161. tests. Geótechnique 50(6): 689–698.
Hughes JMO, Withers NJ (1974) Reinforcing of
soft cohesive soils with stone columns.
.
Ground Eng 7(3):42–49
201
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
COMPACTION AND STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS OF BENTONITE-
SAND-ROCK QUARRY DUST MIXES
(ICID2018_C_021)
Hemanga Das1, Tinku Kalita2, Malaya Chetia3
1,2,3 Civil Engineering Department, Assam Engineering College, Guwahati, Assam, India
ABSTRACT
The compacted layers of bentonite and sand mixes have been used in many geotechnical and geoenvironmental
applications. The use of sand is not only limited to geotechnical and geoenvironmental applications but also in
construction industries and hence, it is becoming a valuable and scarce material nowadays. So, efforts have been
made by the researchers to find suitable substitutes for sand. The rock quarry dust is a promising geomaterial that
can replace sand partially or fully in many civil engineering applications. The objective of this paper is to determine
the compaction properties and unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of bentonite-sand-rock quarry dust mixes.
The study evaluates the optimum bentonite-sand, bentonite-rock quarry dust and bentonite-sand-rock quarry dust
mixes. It has been found that the sand can be replaced partially or fully by the rock quarry dust in bentonite-sand
mixes to improve the maximum dry density and UCS of the mixes.
Keywords: Bentonite; Sand, Rock quarry dust; Optimum mix, Evaluation
1 INTRODUCTION proportion, the UCS of the clay increases.

However, after reaching the optimum strength, the
Rock quarry activity produces a large amount of strength decreases. Vallejo and Mawby (2000)
rock quarry dust which is unfit for commercial use reported that the shear strength is governed by
and discarded as waste. The past studies done by the granular phase when the sand content is
various researchers show that the rock quarry greater than 75% and the cohesive phase when
dust can be used as construction and building the clay content is greater than 40%.
material. Also sand is a scarce resource There is a criterion available in the literature for
nowadays, so replacing sand by the rock quarry assessing the suitability of material for liner
dust will not only make the environment safe but construction based on the UCS and a UCS of
also make the project economical. This paper greater than 200 kPa is desirable for liner material
presents a study for replacing sand fully or to account for the load placed above (Younus and
partially by rock quarry dust to be used with Sreedeep, 2012). The present study also
bentonite. examines whether the bentonite-sand-rock quarry
The compaction and unconfined compressive dust mixes are suitable for liner material in landfill
strength (UCS) tests have been conducted to based on the UCS values obtained.
evaluate the compaction and UCS characteristics
of different bentonite-sand-rock quarry dust mixes.
This work has been done to determine the 2 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS
optimum bentonite-sand-rock quarry dust mix
based on the highest maximum dry density (MDD) The bentonite (B) used in this study is
and UCS values of the mixes. commercially available. The sand (S) used was
The UCS of bentonite-sand mixes has been collected from the river “Kulshi” of Assam. The
studied by many researchers. It must be rock quarry dust (Q) was collected from the rock
mentioned that there are limited studies available quarry site at “Patharkuchi” village situated in the
in the literature related to the compaction and state of Meghalaya. Various tests like the liquid
UCS behavior of bentonite-rock quarry dust and limit test, plastic limit test and gradation test were
bentonite-sand-rock quarry dust mixes. The conducted as per the respective Indian standard
behavior of compacted clay-sand mixes depends (IS) code guidelines. Mineralogical characteristics
on the amount of the constituents, compaction of the sand and rock quarry dust were determined
characteristics and test conditions. Shafiee et al. using an electron microscope (25x). The X-ray
(2008) reported that the undrained shear strength diffraction test was done for bentonite and it was
of soil mixes increases with the increase in the found to be sodium bentonite.
sand content. Nagaraj (2016) tested the UCS of The Figures 1 and 2 present the petrographic
different type of clays (montmorillonite and images of S and Q respectively. Both S and Q
kaolinite) mixed with varying sand proportions. have more than 80% of quartz content. The
The researcher found that with increase in sand particles of Q are angular while those of S are
202
Theme C
rounded in shape. The physical characteristics of

S and Q are shown in the Table 1, whereas for B Table 3. Designations of mixes used in the study
are shown in the Table 2. The different Q content
designations of the B-S-Q mixes used in this study Bentonite
Proportions in S:Q
are shown in the Table 3. content Designation
(B:S:Q) mix
(%)
(%)
2.1 Compaction Test
10:90:0 0 B10-Q0
The light compaction tests for all the B-S-Q mixes 10:63:27 30 B10-Q30
were done by the standard Proctor test as per the 10 10:45:45 50 B10-Q50
IS: 2720 (Part 7)-1985 guidelines. 10:27:63 70 B10-Q70
10:0:90 100 B10-Q100
20:80:0 0 B20-Q0
20:56:24 30 B20-Q30
20 20:40:40 50 B20-Q50
20:24:56 70 B20-Q70
20:0:80 100 B20-Q100
30:70:0 0 B30-Q0
30:49:21 30 B30-Q30
30 30:35:35 50 B30-Q50
Figure 1. Petrographic image of sand (25x) 30:21:49 70 B30-Q70
30:0:70 100 B30-Q100
40:60:0 0 B40-Q0
40:42:18 30 B40-Q30
40 40:30:30 50 B40-Q50
40:18:42 70 B40-Q70
40:0:60 100 B40-Q100
100 100:0:0 0 B100-Q0
2.2 UCS Test

Figure 2. Petrographic image of rock quarry dust
(25x) The UCS tests for all the B-Q mixes were
conducted according to IS (1991) guidelines. The
Table 1. Physical characteristics of sand and rock tests were conducted on remoulded samples. The
quarry dust mass of the UCS sample was calculated based on
Characteristics S Q the maximum dry density (MDD) obtained from
D10 (mm) 0.22 0.095 the standard Proctor test and statically compacted
D30 (mm) 0.38 0.23 inside a cylindrical mould to prepare the sample
D60 (mm) 0.64 0.85 for testing. The compressive load was applied on
the sample until it fails.
Coefficient of uniformity, Cu 2.91 8.95
Coefficient of curvature, Cc 1.02 0.655
Classification as per IS 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
SP SP
(1970)
3.1 Compaction Test Results
Table 2. Physical characteristics of bentonite
Characteristics Bentonite The data obtained from the standard Proctor
Liquid limit (%) 207 tests were used to plot the dry density-moisture
Plastic limit (%) 56 content relationships of different B-Q mixes.
These plots are shown in the Figures 3 to 6 and
Plasticity index (%) 151
the MDD and optimum moisture content (OMC)
Classification as per IS (1970) CH
values obtained from the figures are presented in
the Table 4.
203
Theme C
Figure 3. Standard compaction test results of B-Q Figure 6. Standard compaction test result of B-Q
mixes for B = 10% mixes for B = 40%
The standard Proctor test results indicate that

for any given bentonite content, the B-S-Q and B-
Q mixes exhibit higher MDD values than B-S
mixes. This is due to the fact that in mixes with
higher dry densities void volume is relatively small
as the available bentonite fills the voids more
easily resulting in a relatively higher dry density as
compared to mixes with low dry densities.
Table 4. MDD and OMC values of all the mixes

used
Bentonite
MDD OMC
content Mix
(g/cm3) (%)
Figure 4. Standard compaction test result of B-Q (%)
mixes for B = 20% B10-Q0 1.85 14.5
B10-Q30 1.99 12.0
10 B10-Q50 1.97 14.8
B10-Q70 2.02 12.3
B10-Q100 2.01 13.2
B20-Q0 1.85 15.5
B20-Q30 2.01 14.1
20 B20-Q50 2.02 14.3
B20-Q70 2.03 14.5
B20-Q100 2.03 13.7
B30-Q0 1.80 15.1
B30-Q30 2.03 13.0
30 B30-Q50 1.96 15.5
B30-Q70 1.98 13.5
B30-Q100 2.02 12.5
Figure 5. Standard compaction test result of B-Q B40-Q0 1.74 16.5
mixes for B = 30% B40-Q30 1.82 16.2
40 B40-Q50 1.87 17.1
B40-Q70 1.89 14.5
B40-Q100 1.84 17.92
100 B100-Q0 1.35 31.5
The Figure 7 shows the variation of the MDD

with bentonite content of B-S-Q mixes. It
highlights that the MDD values of the B-Q and B-
204
Theme C
S-Q mixes are always greater than the B-S mixes

(i.e. B-Q0 mixes). It also indicates that with
increasing the bentonite content the MDD
increases till the optimum bentonite content is
reached and beyond this there is a decrease in
the MDD. The highest MDD has been found for
the mixes B20-Q70, B20-Q100 and B30-Q30
which is much higher than the highest MDD value
of the B-Q0 (i.e. B-S) mixes. This indicates that
the rock quarry dust can replace sand partially or
fully in the B-S mix to improve its MDD values.
Figure 9. Compressive stress-strain plots of B-Q

mixes for B = 20%
Figure 7. Variation of MDD with bentonite content

of B-Q mixes
3.2 UCS Test Results
The compressive stress versus axial strain plots of

different B-Q mixes for B = 10%, 20%, 30% and
40% are shown in the Figures 8, 9, 10 and 11
respectively.
Figure10. Compressive stress-strain plots of B-Q
mixes for B = 30%

mixes for B = 10%
mixes for B = 40%
The peak of the graphs represents the UCS of

the mix along y-axis and failure axial strain along
x-axis. The Table 5 shows the UCS test results of
the different B-Q mixes. The Figure 12 represents
205
Theme C
the variation of the UCS with bentonite content for

different B-Q mixes.
Table 5. UCS test results for different mixes

Bentonite Failure
UCS
content Mix axial strain
(kPa)
(%) (%)
B10-Q0 9.89 1.0
B10-Q30 28.12 1.5
10 B10-Q50 22.38 2.0
B10-Q70 44.76 2.0
B10-Q100 40.01 1.5
B20-Q0 67.14 2.0
B20-Q30 84.96 4.0 Figure 12. Variation of UCS with bentonite content
20 B20-Q50 134.86 4.5 of B-Q mixes
B20-Q70 71.63 3.5
B20-Q100 98.66 2.5
B30-Q0 157.20 2.5 4 CONCLUSIONS
B30-Q30 250.51 4.5
The study investigates the compaction and UCS
30 B30-Q50 109.11 3.0
properties of twenty numbers of B-Q mixes to
B30-Q70 121.08 3.5 evaluate the optimum B-Q mix based on the
B30-Q100 229.63 2.5 highest MDD and UCS values of the mixes. The
B40-Q0 124.61 3.0 following conclusions can be drawn from this
B40-Q30 64.02 2.5 study.
40 B40-Q50 88.61 3.0
B40-Q70 97.42 2.5 1. Based on the MDD values obtained, the B20-
B40-Q100 95.12 2.0 Q70, B20-Q100 and B30-Q30 mixes can be
considered as the optimum mixes as they yielded
the highest MDD value of 2.03 gm/cm3 and the
It is observed from the Figure12 that the optimum bentonite content is in the range of 20 to
optimum UCS values for the B-Q mixes were 30%.
obtained for B = 30% and Q = 0%, 30%, 70% and
100% of S:Q mixes (i.e. mixes B30-Q0, B30-Q30, 2. Based on the UCS values obtained, the B30-
B30-Q70 and B30-Q100). For Q = 50% of S:Q Q30 mix can be considered as the optimum mix
mix, the maximum UCS of B-Q mix was obtained as it yielded the highest UCS value of 250.51 kPa
for B = 20% (i.e. mix B20-Q50). This is due to the and the optimum bentonite content is 30%.
fact that more the content of bentonite, the voids
of the S:Q composite reduces. The highest UCS 3. Based on the both MDD and UCS values, the
value was obtained for the mix B30-Q30. The B30-Q30 mix can be considered as the optimum
optimum UCS of B-Q100 mixes was observed in mix which contains B = 30%, S = 49% and Q =
case of B30-Q100 mix which is also higher than 21% and indicates that the rock quarry dust can
the optimum UCS of B-Q0 (i.e. B-S) mix. substitute sand partially in the B-S mix.
Therefore, it can be said that the rock quarry dust
can substitute sand partially or fully in B-S mix to 4. The optimum mix B30-Q30 yields an optimum
achieve higher UCS than the optimum UCS of B-S UCS value much higher than the UCS values of
mixes. Based on the maximum values of the MDD all the B-S mixes. The optimum UCS value is also
and UCS, the mix B30-Q30 can be considered as much greater than 200 kPa which is desirable for
the optimum B-Q mix which contains B = 30%, S landfill liner material. The B20-Q100 mix also
= 49% and Q = 21%. yields an UCS value > 200 kPa. But, the B30-Q30
mix is preferred over the B20-Q100 mix due to its
more ductile behaviour during failure. Therefore,
the B30-Q30 mix appears to be more suitable for
landfill liner material.
206
Theme C
5 REFERENCES
Cho, W.J., Lee, J.O. and Kang, C.H. 2002. A

compilation and evaluation of thermal and
mechanical properties of bentonite-based
buffer materials for a high level waste
repository, Journal of Korean Nuclear Society,
13(1):90-103.
IS: 1498-1970. Indian standard classification and
identification of soils for general engineering
purposes, Bureau of Indian Standards, New
Delhi.
IS: 2720 (Part 4)-1973. Grain size analysis, Indian
standard methods of tests for soils, Bureau of
Indian Standards, New Delhi.
IS: 2720 (Part 5)-1985. Determination of liquid and
plastic limit, Indian standard methods of tests
for soils, Bureau of Indian Standards, New
Delhi.
IS: 2720 (Part 7)-1980. Determination of water
content-dry density relation using light
compaction, Indian standard methods of tests
for soils, Bureau of Indian Standards, New
Delhi.
IS: 2720 (Part 10)-1991. Determination of
unconfined compressive strength, Indian
standard methods of tests for soils, Bureau of
IS: 2720 (Part 40)-1977. Determination of free
swell index of soils, Indian standard methods of
tests for soils, Bureau of Indian Standards,
New Delhi.
Nagaraj, H.B. 2016. Influence of gradation and
proportion of sand on stress-strain behavior of
clay-sand mixtures, International Journal of
Geoengineering, 7(1):19.
Shafiee, A., Tavakoli, H.R. and Jafari, M.K. 2008.
Undrained behavior of compacted sand-clay
mixtures under monotonic loading paths,
Journal of Applied Sciences, 8(18):3108-3118.
Vallejo, L.E. and Mawby, R. 2000. Porosity
influence on the shear strength of granular
material-clay mixture, Engineering Geology,
58(2):125-136.
Younus, M.M. and Sreedeep, S. 2012. Evaluation
of bentonite-fly ash mix for its application in
landfill liners, Journal of Testing and
Evaluation, 40(3): 357-362.
207
COMPARISON OF 1D EQUIVALENT LINEAR AND NONLINEAR

GROUND RESPONSE ANALYSIS FOR DIFFERENT SOIL PROFILES
(ICID2018_C_022)
Amar F. Siddique1, Binu Sharma2
1,2. Department of Civil Engineering, Assam Engineering College, Guwahati, Assam, India
ABSTRACT
One dimensional equivalent-linear (EQL) and nonlinear (NL) Ground response analysis (GRA) has been done for two
typical sites namely, Panbazar and Azara in Guwahati city of India for studying the effects of local soil conditions on
strong ground motion. Two different input motions of 1986 North-East India earthquake (0.02g) and 1988 Indo-Burma
earthquake (0.05g) recorded at Nongstoin station situated at Shillong, India is used for the purpose. GRA for
Panbazar area is also carried out using the scaled strong motion pertaining to PGA 0.18g and 0.36g, scaled from the
ground motion recorded during 1988 Indo-Burma earthquake at the Nongstoin station. From the comparison of EQL
and NL analyses it was observed that stiffer soil layers resulted in a similar peak ground acceleration (PGA) from
both the analyses. The curve of maximum shear strain follows a similar trend with the value remaining almost same
for a particular site from both the analyses. However NL analysis showed lesser value of maximum shear stress ratio
as compared to EQL analysis. The spectral accelerations at various sites of Panbazar had been compared with the
spectral acceleration of rocky or hard soil sites (IS: 1893-2002) for the two scaled strong motions.
Keywords: Ground response analysis; Peak ground acceleration; Spectral acceleration; Liquefaction
1 INTRODUCTION
Guwahati is the largest city of Assam and one of

the most developed cities of the North-Eastern
region of India. It is situated on the south side of
Brahmaputra river and is known as the city of
Eastern light. Guwahati is also one of the fastest
growing cities in India. It is a major riverine port Figure 1. Map showing study area (source:
city and provides a link to various other north- Google map)
eastern states. Two major important sites of
Guwahati namely Panbazar and Azara are
selected to study the response of the soil deposit 2 SOIL CHARACTERISATION
to the motion of the bedrock immediately beneath
it due to seismic waves. The map showing the The soil in the bore hole of Azara area consists of
location of the two sites is shown in Figure 1. The soft clay upto 6.5m depth followed by fine sand of
study has been done for one borehole of Azara medium density upto 12m and thereafter upto
area and three bore holes of Panbazar area using 30m depth it is dense sand. The soil strata in the
both the equivalent linear (EQL) and non linear three bore holes in the Panbazar area are of
(NL) method of ground response analysis, similar nature. It consists of soft silty clay deposits
corresponding to two different earthquake upto around 14m depth followed by dense sand
motions. The PGA profile, maximum shear strain upto 30m.
and shear stress ratio profiles are studied. Again
the PGA profile and response spectra are
obtained for Panbazar site by using scaled up 3 METHODOLOGY
1988 Indo-Burma earthquake to 0.18g and 0.36g
input motion. Three boreholes BH47, BH49 and In this study both 1D equivalent-linear (EQL) and
BH58 are considered for this study. nonlinear (NL) methods are used to perform
ground response analysis. The input motion that is
required for the purpose is obtained from the
seismograph station. The acceleration-time history
of 1986 northeast India (NE IND) earthquake
having bedrock PGA 0.02g and 1988 Indo-Burma
(IND BRM) earthquake having bedrock PGA
0.05g are considered. Both the motions are
recorded at Nongstoin station situated at Shillong,
208
Theme C
India which is a rocky site (site class A; density= Panbazar area

25 kN/m3 and shear wave velocity= 1500 m/s).
The input data consisting of SPT-N value, Scaled bedrock 0.18g 0.36g
density and depth of water table are collected PGA
from a soil database of 200 boreholes of Guwahati Amplification 5.88-6.54 7.04-9.78
city. The shear wave velocity (Vs) at each 1.5m Factor
interval is calculated from the correlation with
SPT-N value (N) using the Eq. 1 given by Sharma PGA (g)
and Rahman (2016). 0 0.1 0.2
0
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑁 0.3876
[1] 5
As the damping and modulus reduction curves are
Depth (m)
10
absent for the site, the curves of Seed and Idriss 15 AZR_NE IND_EQL
(1970) for sands and Vucetic and Dobry (1991) for AZR_NE IND_NL
clay are used (Hashash et al. 2016) for EQL 20
AZR_IND BRM_EQL
method. Similarly the curve proposed by Seed 25
AZR_IND BRM_NL
and Idriss (mean limit) for sandy soil and Vucetic 30
and Dobry (1991) for clay are considered for NL Figure 2. Comparison of PGA profile at Azara
method and they are subsequently fitted using area
MRDF procedure. The stress-strain model
developed by Kondner and Zelasko (1963) is used PGA (g)
for performing NL ground response analysis 0 0.05 0.1 0.15
incorporating Masing criteria.
0
5 BH47_NE IND_EQL
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 10 BH47_NE IND_NL
Depth (m)
15 BH47_IND BRM_EQL
One dimensional ground response analysis (GRA) BH47_IND BRM_NL
has been done for Azara and Panbazar sites 20
using EQL and NL methods. The results in terms 25
of PGA with depths, shear strain profile, maximum
30
shear stress profile and response spectra are
Figure 3. Comparison of PGA profile of BH47 at
obtained. It is observed that the stiffer soil layers
usually the lower layers result in similar PGA by Panbazar area
both the methods. However a slightly lesser value
of surface PGA is observed using NL analysis as PGA (g)
compared to EQL analysis, the magnitudes of 0 0.050.15 0.1
which are displayed in the form of amplification 0
factor in Table 1. The amplification factor is 5
defined as the ratio of surface PGA to the input
Depth (m)
10
PGA. Figure 2 to Figure 5 show the PGA profiles BH49_NE IND_EQL
at Azara and Panbazar sites. Higher amplification 15
BH49_NE IND_NL
of input PGA is obtained using IND BRM 20
earthquake than NE IND earthquake due to higher BH49_IND BRM_EQL
25
bedrock PGA of former resulting in higher energy BH49_IND BRM_NL
content. Since the bedrock PGA of both the 30
earthquake motions are very low, significant Figure 4. Comparison of PGA profile of BH49 at
differences are not observed in the EQL and NL Panbazar area
methods even in the softer clay deposits.
.
Table 1. Amplification Factor (Surface /input PGA)
Azara and Panbazar area
Site NE IND(0.02g) IND BRM(0.05g)
NL EQL NL EQL
Azara 1.65 1.95 1.78 2.12
Panbazar 2.15- 2.4- 2.28- 2.46-
2.3 2.7 2.44 2.72
209
Theme C
PGA (m) Figure 7. Comparison of shear stress ratio profile

0 0.05 0.1 0.15 at Azara area
0
5 PGA (g)
BH58_NE IND_EQL 0 0.25 0.5 0.75
Depth (m)
10
BH58_NE IND_NL 0
15
BH58_IND BRM_EQL 5 BH47_IND
20 BRM_0.18g_EQL
BH58_IND BRM_NL
25 10 BH47_IND
Depth (m)
15 BRM_0.18g_NL
30
BH47_IND
Figure 5. Comparison of PGA profile of BH58 at 20 BRM_0.36g_EQL
Panbazar area
25 BH47_IND
Figure 6 shows the shear strain profile at BRM_0.36g_NL
30
Azara area. On comparison of EQL and NL Figure 8. Comparison of PGA profile of BH47 at
methods, the strain profile follows a similar trend Panbazar area
along the depth of borehole from both methods.
However on comparison of both the methods, the PGA (g)
site is experiencing maximum shear strain value
0 0.2 0.4 0.6
by NL methods. A completely opposite picture is
seen from the maximum shear stress ratio profile 0
shown in Figure 7 where the value of shear stress BH49_IND
5
ratio is obtained higher by EQL methods than NL BRM_0.18g_EQL
10
Depth (m)
methods. On comparing both the motions, NE IND BH49_IND

motion shows a lesser value of shear stress ratio 15 BRM_0.18g_NL
due to lesser energy content and lesser bedrock BH49_IND
PGA value of motion. 20
BRM_0.36g_EQL
25 BH49_IND
Maximum shear strain (%) BRM_0.36g_NL
30
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 Figure 9 Comparison of PGA profile of BH 49 at
0 Panbazar area
5
PGA (g)
10
Depth (m)
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

15 0
20 AZR_NE IND_EQL 5 BH58_IND
AZR_NE IND_NL
25 10 BRM_0.18g_EQL
Depth (m)
AZR_IND BRM_EQL BH58_IND

30 AZR_IND BRM_NL 15 BRM_0.18g_NL
20 BH58_IND
Figure 6. Comparison of shear strain profile at BRM_0.36g_EQL
Azara area 25 BH58_IND
30 BRM_0.36g_NL
Maximum shear stress ratio Figure 10 Comparison of PGA profile of BH 58at
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 Panbazar area
0
The PGA profile and response spectra are
5
further obtained for Panbazar sites by using
10 scaled up 1988 Indo-Burma earthquake input
Depth (m)
15 motion to 0.18g and 0.36g. The PGA profiles for

the scaled up input motion are shown in Figure 8
20 AZR_NE IND_EQL to Figure 10. The amplification factor for the
AZR_NE IND_NL scaled up motions are shown in Table 1. The
25
AZR_IND BRM_EQL stiffer soil layers below 15m are not showing much
30 AZR_IND BRM_NL difference in the EQL and NL methods when the
motion is scaled up to 0.18g. However when the
motion is scaled up to 0.36g, difference can be
210
Theme C
observed in the EQL and NL methods in the stiffer

layers. On comparison of two scaled motions, the 5 CONCLUSION
values of PGA are found to be higher for 0.36g
motion than 0.18g motion. This is mainly because One dimensional ground response analysis (GRA)
a greater energy is associated with the former has been done for Azara and Panbazar sites for
motion than the later while maintaining constant studying the effects of local soil conditions on
duration for both the motion. strong ground motion. The stiffer soil layers
usually the lower layers result in similar PGA by
Response spectrum is one of the important both the methods. However some difference is
parameter in designing the structure of a building seen in the stiffer layers when the motion is scaled
subjected to earthquake loading. The response up to 0.36g. A slightly lesser value of surface PGA
spectra in terms of spectral acceleration (SA) for is observed using NL analysis as compared to
5% damping at Panbazar area are presented in EQL analysis. The maximum strain profile by both
Figures 11 and 12 considering the non linear (NL) the methods follows a similar trend along the
analysis. The SA are obtained against 1988 IND depth of boreholes. The value of shear stress ratio
BRM motion scaled to two motions of 0.18g and obtained is higher by EQL methods than NL
0.36g bedrock PGA. It is found that the SA values methods. The SA values for the three boreholes of
for the three boreholes (B.H.47, B.H.49 and Panbazar area are below the SA of IS1893-2002,
B.H.58) of Panbazar area are below the SA of IS Rock or Hard soil for the 0.18g motion. However
1893-2002, Rock or Hard soil for the 0.18g the same is higher for a borehole (B.H.58) than
motion. However the same is higher for a the SA of IS1893-2002, Rock or Hard soil for the
borehole (B.H.58) than the SA of IS1893-2002, 0.36g motion.
Rock or Hard soil for the 0.36g motion. It is
observed that the values of PSA are higher for
0.36g motion than 0.18g motion. This is due to the 6 REFERENCES
fact that the distribution of energy is higher within
the cut-off frequency range and also higher Hashash, Y. M. A., Musgrove, M. I., Harmon, J.
amplitude of motion. A., Groholski, D. R., Phillips, C. A. and Park, D.
2016. DEEPSOIL version 6.1, User Manual
Response spectra-0.18g 137 p.
3 Response spectra
(IS1893-2002,Rock IS 1893–2002. Indian standard criteria for
Spectral acceleration (g)
or Hard soil) earthquake resistant design of structures, part

2 layer1_BH47 1, general provisions and buildings. 5th edn.
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, p 15.
1 layer1_BH49 Kondner, R.L. and Zelasko, J.S. 1963. A
hyperbolic stress-strain formulation of sands,
0 Proc. of the 2nd Pan American Conf. on Soil
layer1_BH58 Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Sao
1 0.01
Paulo, Brasil, pp. 289-324.
Period (sec)
Figure 11. Spectral acceleration using 0.18g at Seed, H. B. and Idriss, I. M. 1970. Soil moduli and
Panbazar area damping factors for dynamic response
analyses, Technical report EERRC-70-10,
Response spectra-0.36g University of California, Berkeley.
4 Response spectra
Spectral acceleration(g)
(IS1893-2002,Rock Sharma, B. and Rahman, S. K. 2016. Use of GIS

3 or Hard soil) based maps for preliminary assessment of
layer1_BH47 subsoil of Guwahati city,Journal of Geoscience
2 and Environment Protection, pp. 106-116.
1 layer1_BH49
Vucetic, M. and Dobry, R. 1991. The effect of soil
plasticity on cyclic response, ASCE
0 layer1_BH58 Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 117, No. 1, pp. 89-
0.01 1 107.
Period (sec)
Figure 12. Spectral acceleration using 0.36g at
Panbazar area
211
IMPROVEMENT OF COHESIONLESS SOIL USING BENTONITE FOR

EARTHEN DAM OR EMBANKMENTS
(ICID2018_C_023)
Dr P.K Khaund1, Anindita Bhuyan2, Bhaskar J Pegu3, Doli Choudhury4, Jumei C Konyak5, Rajdeep
Kalita6, Sumanna Kakoti7
1,2,3,4,5,6,7. Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India
ABSTRACT
In North Eastern region of India most of the soil are silty in nature. Construction of earthen dam using purely silty or
sandy soil is not competent due to poor cohesive property of the soil. In this paper, soil sample has been collected
from NimatiGhat, south bank of Brahmaputra river, Jorhat which is silty sand in nature and cohesionless. Thereby
improvement of the soil has been made adding bentonite at different percentages.Bentonite which is an
aluminumphyllosilicate clay consisting mostly of montmorillonite is used as an admixture with soil.Improvement of
various geotechnical properties of the soil such as plasticity index, MDD, OMC, shear parameters, CBR valuesetc.
have been observed with the addition of bentonite with different percentagesranging from 5- 25%.The research
outcomes show that with the addition of bentonite improves the cohesive property of the locally available sandy soil
up to the desired level which can be widely used for the construction of earthen embankment or dam.
Keywords:Admixture, Bentonite, Cohesion,MDD, OMC.
1 INTRODUCTION 2 METHODOLOGY
Soil is one of the most important engineering The soil sample was collected locally from
materials. The geotechnical properties of a soil NimatiGhat, south bank of Brahmaputra river,
such as its grain-size distribution, plasticity index, Jorhat.Bentonite used was the one locally
MDD,OMC, CBR values and shear strength etc. available in the market.Various laboratory
can be assessed by proper laboratory testing. experiments were conducted for the originally
Whole north eastern region is very rich in water collected soil and also with the addition of different
resource potential rigid dam are vulnerable. percentages (5%, 10%, 15%, 20%and 25%) of
Thereby for the construction of earthen dam and bentonite inorder to improve the cohesive
embankment improvement of silty soil is essential properties of the soil, as desiredtostrengthen the
so that local silty soil is used for earthen dam. stability of the earthen dam and become suitable
Thus admixtures are necessary to improve the for embankment works.
geotechnical properties of soil.Use of bentonite
can be very effective in increasing plasticity of a
soil. Thus, in this work an attempt is made to 3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULT
make use of this product to improve different
properties of soil so that it become suitable for 3.1 Determination of Grain size distribution
embankment works. Bentonite is a highly
expansive soil.Bentonite is an absorbent clay As per IS 2720(PART 4)-1985 grain size
consisting mostly of montmorillonite mineral. The distribution of the collected soil sample is
different types of bentonite are each named after performed. Sieve analysis is conducted for
the respective dominant element, such as gradation of the collected soil sample. From the
potassium(K), sodium(Na),calcium(Ca), and obtained results, it has been found that more than
aluminum(Al). The type of bentonite we used for 50% of the soil retained in 75μ sieve and
the project is locally available in the market. In this therebysoil can be classified as SM (silty
work, the soil used was a locally available sandy sand).Figure 1 is the gradation curve (percentage
soil.Sandy soil when dry being porous and loose passing vs sieve size) of collected natural soil
in nature contains lots of pores in it and is not sample.
stable without any boundary. Bentonite on the
other hand fills these pores and it offers stability to
the sandy soil.
212
Theme C
3.3 Determination ofOptimum moisture content

(OMC) and Maximum Dry Density (MDD)
Standard Proctor test has been performed

toobtainthe optimum moisture content and
maximum dry density of the original soil sample
and by adding 5-25% of bentonite and the results
obtained are shown graphically in figure 3 (i.e.
variation of dry density vs water content curve)
From figure 4, itis clear that OMC increases
with increase in bentonite content since bentonite
is finer than collected SM soil, therefore more
water is required for well lubrication of the soil.
Figure 1: Particle size distribution curve Also, it is found that the MDD value decreases
with the addition of bentonite. This implies that,
when bentonite is added, clay particle of bentonite
3.2 Determination of liquid limit and plastic limit starts to separate the sand particles from each
other which progressively reduces the dry density
From thecone penetrometer test, the liquid limit of the mix.
(wl) of the locally available soil sample is found to
be approximately 30% and is also verified using
Casagrande’s apparatus. In plastic limit test, the
original soil is found to be non-plastic. Finally, soil
is classified as silty-sand (SM). With the addition
of various percentages (5-25%) of bentonite to the
original soil, liquid limit and plastic limits were
determined.
Figure 2 represents the trend of increasing the
liquid limit and plastic limit with increase in
bentonite content.From the figure 2 plasticity index
cannot be found up to addition of 10%bentonite,
thereby non-plastic in nature, while further
addition ofbentonite the soil starts to exhibit
plasticity index and from 15-25% the soil
exhibit MI characteristics. Figure 3: Water content vs Dry density curve for
Further it is observed that on addition of 5-25% different percentages of bentonite.
of bentonite the liquid limit increases. This
improvement suggest that more water is required
for bentonite treated natural soil.
Figure 4: Variation optimum moisture content

fordifferent percentages of bentonite.
Figure 2: Variation of Liquid limit and Plastic limit 3.4 Determination of Shear Parameters
with different percentages of bentonite.
The sample collected is SM in nature
thereby,shear parametersare determined using
direct shear test.The shear test has been carried
out for the original soil and also with the addition
of bentonitein different percentages. From the test
213
Theme C
results the variation of shear stress versus normal

stresses with the addition of different percentages
of bentoniteare plotted as shown in figure 5.
Figure 7: Loading dial readings (kg) vspenetration

(mm) for different percentages of bentonite.
The variation of CBR values for different

percentages of bentonite is shown in figure 8 and
it has been observed that on addition of bentonite,
Figure 5: Shear stress vs Normal stress (load)
the rate of increase of CBR values up to 0-15% is
curvefor different percentages of bentonite.
very low and beyond 15% the CBR value
decreases and reduction in CBR value is very
From figure 5, cohesion(c) and angle of
rapid after addition of 20% bentonite.
internal friction () are determined for the soil
sample with the addition of different percentages
of bentonite. The variation of ‘c’ and ‘’ with the
addition of different percentages of bentonite are
graphically represented in figure 6. The trend of
the curve reflects that thecohesion of the original
sample of the soil is very low andon addition of
bentoniteupto 5% there isagradual increase in
cohesion. From 5-20% the rate of increase of c is
quite high and beyond 20% rate of increase of
cohesion is found to be gradual.
Whereasthe ɸ valuefalls gradually with Figure 8: Variation of CBR value for different
increase in the percentagesof bentonite up to 20% percentages of bentonite.
and beyond whichrapid reduction takes place.
This observation implies that the cohesive 4. CONCLUSION
property of soil increases with the increase in the
percentages of bentonite. The reported investigation has shown various
characteristics behavior of sand-bentonite mixture.
Based on various experiments performed,
following conclusions can be drawn.
For lesser percentage of bentonite (<10%)
added to the soil sample, the mixture exhibit
almost same characteristics behavior as the
original soil sample (i.e. silty-sand).
The original soil sample up to 10% addition of
bentonite is found to be non-plastic in nature.
Further increase in bentonite percentage the soil
sample became plastic. The increase in plasticity
of soil sample with the addition of bentonite
indicates the increase in clay content in natural
Figure 6: Variation of cohesion (c) and angle of
soil. Similarly, on increasing the percentage of
internal friction () with different percentages of bentonite, the liquid limit of the sand-bentonite
bentonite. mixture increases gradually.
From Standard Proctor test, it has been found
3.5 California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test that on addition of percentages of bentonite, the
OMC gradually increases due to the presence of
The CBR test has been performed forthe
finer particles of bentonite. Therefore, more water
untreated soil sample along with addition of 5%,
is required for hydration of the soil. The MDD of
10% and 15% of bentoniteand the
the soil sampledecreases with the addition of
resultsaregraphically representedin the figure 7.
214
Theme C
bentonite. This decrease in MDD is due to the

result of decrease in specific gravity. IS: 2720 (Part 4)-1985
From Direct shear test, it can be concluded
that with the increase of percentage of bentonite,ɸ IS: 2720 (Part 7)-1980
-valuedecreases and cohesion ‘c’ increases. The
increase in cohesion ‘c’ value is very clear as IS: 1498-1970
addition of bentonite to the original soil sample
exhibits the behaviour of clay minerals which are IS: 2720 (PART 13)-1986
filled into the voids of sandy soil and thus
increases the cohesion of the soil. IS: 2720 (Part 16)-1987
From CBR test, it can be concludedthat
beyond 20%, the CBR value rapidly decreases
which implies that the strength of the soil
decreases with increase in the percentage of
bentonite.
Therefore,based on the experimental results
we can concluded that addition of 15% bentonite
to the soil sample would be ideal for construction
of earthen dam or embankments at NimatiGhat
region in southernbank of Brahmaputra river,
Jorhat.
5 REFERENCES
Khalida A. Daud Department of Architectural

Engineering, Al-Nahrain University,
Baghdad, Iraq
Mudo Puming1, Dr. Monowar Hussain2, Geli

Basar3, Mobya Nikang4,
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil
Engineering, NERIST, Nirjuli, Arunachal
Pradesh, India1
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil
Engineering,NIT, Silchar,Assam,India2
UG Student, Department of Civil Engineering,
NERIST, Nirjuli, Arunachal Pradesh,
India3
UG Student, Department of Civil Engineering,
NERIST, Nirjuli, Arunachal Pradesh,
India4
Moitra, Debashis. 2016. Geotechnical

Engineering, Universities Press,
Hyderabad, India.
Ranjan Gopal, Rao ASR. 2008. Basic and Applied

Soil Mechanics, New Age International
Publishers, New Delhi, India.
S. A. Naeini1, R. Ziaie_Moayed2
Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department
Imam Khomeini International University,
Qazvin, Iran1
Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department
Imam Khomeini International University,
Qazvin, Iran2
IS: 2720 (Part 5)-1985
215
IMPROVEMENT OF COHESIVE SOIL USING COIR FIBRE

(ICID2018_C_024)
Dr P.K Khaund1, Richita Sarmah2, Nilakshi Das3, Avishek Goswami4,Pritam Bhattacharyya5, Chandan
Jyoti Dutta6, Aditi Lahkar7
1,2,3,4,5,6,7. Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India
ABSTRACT
Different investigators used different techniques to improve different properties of cohesive soil. Addition of coir fibre
is one of the technique to improve the engineering properties of cohesive soil. Different laboratory tests were carried
out to check the variations of different geotechnical properties such as plasticity index, maximum dry density,
optimum moisture content, Cohesion and angle of internal friction etc. In this paper, with the addition of different
percentage of coir fibre ranging from 0.2% to 1.0%, variation of the engineering properties mentioned above has
been observed. As the coir fibre act as a soil reinforced device and is available easily in nature and thus can be used
at economic cost.
Keywords: Coir Fibre, Stabilisation, optimum moisture content, shear parameters.
1. INTRODUCTION different percentages (0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%

and 1.0%) by weight to determine different
Various researchers namely Devdatt S. et al. engineering properties of the soil and compare the
(2015), Subramani T. et al. (2016), Upadhyay P. results. The tests conducted are Static cone
et al. (2017) experimentally studied soil penetration test, Casagrande’s liquid limit test,
stabilization using natural fibre coir. It has been Plastic limit test, Standard proctor test and Direct
established that addition of coir fibre in soil shear test.
improves the overall performance of soil. Soil
sample used in this experimental study is
collected from the bank of Kakodonga River, 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
separating the district of Jorhat and Golaghat,
Assam. The latitude 26˚40’0.5”N and longtitude 3.1 Determination of Liquid Limit And Plastic Limit
94˚3’52”E are the geo co-ordinates of Kakodonga
river. Liquid limit of original soil is determined as per IS
Kakodonga soil has significant problems of 2720(Part2), 1973[2] using Casagrande’s
pavement failure and undulation of surface course apparatus and also verified using static cone
of NH37. Thus coir fibre can be used as an penetrometer and is found to be 43%. Plastic limit
admixture to ensure sound soil stability to sustain of the soil sample is also determined as 20.5%
the traffic load.
Coir fibre is used because of its advantages such and thereby plasticity index of the soil sample is
as it is available abundantly in nature as it is a 22.5%. Hence the original soil is classified as CI
product obtained from the husk of coconut, type soil.
biodegradable, cheap and structurally it has
enough elasticity to twist or curl without breaking. 3.2 Determination of OMC and MDD
These properties of coir fibre can be used as a
remedy to the above mentioned problems of Optimum moisture content (OMC) and Maximum
Kakodonga soil. Dry Density (MDD) are determined using
Standard Proctor test as per IS 2720(VII): 1980[3]
for the original soil sample as well as with the
2. METHODOLOGY addition of coir fibre in different percentages (
0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8% and 1.0% ). The
In this research work, effort has been made to objective of this test is to determine the optimum
improve the engineering properties of the soil moisture content of a soil, under a given
using coir fibre. Soil sample was collected from compactive effort, at which its dry density is
the bank of Kakodonga River located in Jorhat – maximum.
Golaghat border, which is clayey in nature with
intermediate compressibility (CI). Different
laboratory tests were conducted on the original
soil sample and also with the addition coir fibre in
216
Theme C
Figure.2. Graphical Representation of MDD and

OMC with Different Percentages of Coir Fibre.
3.3 Determination of Shear Parameters (C and ɸ )
The cohesion(c) and angle of internal Friction (ɸ)

are determined using Direct Shear Test as per IS
2720(XIII):1986[4]. The principle of this test is to
apply a constant stress and a gradually increasing
tangential stress on a soil sample till it undergoes
a shear failure.
Values of Cohesion(C) and angle of internal

friction (ɸ) are determined from Figure.3. The
Figure.1. Comparison of OMC and MDD values value of C is high in case of original soil whereas
with the variation of percentage of coir fibre. value of ɸ is low. On adding coir fibre at different
percentages ( 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1.0% ) the
The above figure. 1 shows the variation of OMC value of C goes on decreasing and values of ɸ
and MDD values of original soil and also with the increases continuously. It is because more coir
addition of coir fibre in different percentages fibre in the soil results in decrease in cohesion
(0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, and 1.0%) by weight. between the soil particles. Whereas the friction
The MDD value increases and OMC value force increases as homogeneity of the soil is
decreases upto 0.6% addition of coir fibre. Further reduced due to addition of coir
on increase of percentages (0.8% and 1%) of coir
fibre, the values of MDD decreases while OMC
increases.
From the Figure.1 it is evident that the maximum
compaction occurs at 0.6% addition of the coir
fibre which is indicated by a high MDD value. This
increase is due to the filling of the intermolecular
voids by coir fibre which acts as a natural
reinforcing agent.
But with the increase of coir fibre from 0.8% to
1.0%, the MDD value decreases while OMC
increases and this is due to the separation of soil
layers and formation of more voids which are filled
by water.
Graphical representation of MDD and OMC values
of original soil with addition of different
percentages of coir fibre is shown in Figure.2.
Figure.3. Comparison of various percentage of

coir fibre with original soil sample.
.
Graphical representation of cohesion (C) and
angle of internal friction (ɸ) values of original soil
with addition of different percentages of coir fibre
is shown in Figure.4.
217
Theme C
of variation of soil properties due to different

percentages of coir fibre can be obtained.
5. REFERENCES
Devdatt S., Rajan Shikha Saxena A.K., Jha

A.K.(2015); “Soil Stabilization Using
Coconut Coir Fibre” International Journal
for Research in applied Science &
Engineering Technology(IJRASET), Vol. 3
Issue IX, Sept. 2015
IS 2720(Part 2), 1973 Methods of Test for Soils,

Determination of Water Content.
Fig.4. Graphical Representation of C and ɸ With IS 2720(VII): 1980 Methods of Test for Soils,
Percentage of Coir Fibre. Determination of water content, dry
density relation using light compaction.
3.4 Comparison of Variation of Soil Parameters
With Different Percentages of Coir Fibre. IS 2720(XIII):1986 Methods of Test for Soils,
direct shear test.
The results from the compaction test and shear
tests are tabulated in Table:1 from which it is clear Moitra Debashis, 2016, Geotechnical Engineering,
that rise in MDD with the addition of coir fibre 1st ed., University Press (India) Private
takes place only upto 0.6% while the increasing Limited, Hyderabad, Telangana, India.
trend of ɸ continues upto 1.0%( maximum %
addition of fibre considered in this paper ) Upadhyay P., Singh Y.(2017); “Soil Stabilization
using Natural Fiber Coir” International
Table 1: Comparison of various soil parameters Research Journal of Engineering and
with the addition of coir fibre. Technology(IRJET), Vol. 4 Issue 12, Dec.
% of OMC MDD Unit Angle of 2017
coir (%) (gm/cc) cohesion internal
fibre (C) friction, Subramani T., Udayakumar D.,(2016);
added (KN/m2 ) ɸ “Experimental Study On Stabilization of
Clay Soil Using Coir Fibre” International
0 23.00 1.57 48.61 12.30
Journal of Application or Innovation in
0.2 21.55 1.58 33.34 13.970 Engineering & Management(IJAIEM), Vol.
0.4 20.70 1.62 21.88 16.530 5,Issue 5, May 2016
0.6 20.00 1.71 13.61 16.700
0.8 20.61 1.58 11.28 17.590
1.0 20.84 1.42 5.63 20.230
4. CONCLUSION
From the various experimental results, it can be

concluded that with addition of different
percentages of coir fibre in the soil, the MDD
value yields maximum at 0.6% of coir fibre and
OMC decreases accordingly. Further with the
increase of coir fibre from 0.8% to 1%, MDD value
decreases while OMC increases.
Again with the addition of different percentages of
coir fibre the value of C decreases while the value
of ɸ increases.
These test results may not be valid for some other
soil sample of CI type. Hence, there is a wide
scope of research considering different soil
samples from different places so that an overview
218
STATIC ANALYSIS OF TIERED REINFORCED SOIL RETAINING WALL

(ICID2018_C_025)
Seema Kumari1, Sudipta Saikia2,DrArupBhattacharjee3
1, 2.M.E student, Jorhat Engineering College,Jorhat-7,Assam

3. Associate Professor, Jorhat Engineering College,Jorhat-7,Assam
ABSTRACT
Reinforced retaining wall with geogrid is a newly developed effective method to deal with high and steep soil slope under
complicated geological engineering conditions. This paper focuses on the results of finite element modeling of full scale
geosynthetic reinforced soil retaining wall constructed at Public Works Research Institute in Japan. Studies are made on analyzing
the response in terms of wall displacement, lateral pressure of backfill soil, variations in offset distance, tier height etc. Five models
of zero offset, 1.2m offset, 1.8m offset, 2.4m offset and 3m offset are developed as per FHWA (2010) to study the different effects
of tiered wall. Comparison of numerical and measured experimental results indicated that the finite element model was able to give
satisfactory agreement between the measured and predicted results.
Keywords:Reinforced soil retaining wall,Geogrid,Geosynthetic,Finite element model.

PLAXIS 2D
I. INTRODUCTION
Reinforced soil wall is a retaining structure that has Plaxis is powerful and user-friendly finite element
become popular in the last decades due to cost package intended for two dimensional analysis of
effectiveness compared to conventional gravity retaining deformation and stability in geotechnical engineering
walls and because they performed well during .PLAXIS was chosen for the numerical investigation in
earthquakes. There are different types of retaining walls this study because of the following reasons:
(e.g. gravity, cantilever and tieback walls). Reinforced
soil retaining wall consists of a facing with a reinforced
 Various material models available to enable
soil zone behind it. The reinforcements consist of stimulation of different geotechnical problems
geogrids which is a regular network of tensile elements
with apertures of sufficient size to interlock with  The automatic meshing procedure creates a finite
surrounding fill material. element mesh almost immediately.
 Its ability to simulate the soil behavior in both
static and dynamic conditions.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
Ling et al (1994) studied on “Stimulating performance of

GRS-RW by finite element procedure” using a modified
version of finite element. This study outlines the finite
Fig1: Application of GRS wall (www.fibromat.com) element procedure for stimulating the performance of
geosynthetic reinforced soil retaining wall.
Ling et al. (2000) used the finite element program M-

CANDE to reproduce results of a fully instrumented full
scale model test on a GRS retaining wall during
construction at the Public Works Research Institute
(referred to as PWRI Wall).
-
Fig2: Reinforced soil wall configurations (source:
www.allanblock.com)
219
Theme C
Fig3: Finite element mesh of PWRI Wall (After Ling et Fig6: Finite Element Model (Shinde and Mandal, 2007)
al.2000)
Yoo and Kim(2008) studied on “Performance of a
Leshchinsky and Han (2004) presented a study on two tier geosynthetic reinforced segmental retaining wall
“Geosynthetic Reinforced Multitiered Walls” using the under a surcharge load” using the finite element code
finite difference program FLAC. The numerical model ABAQUS. This study presents the results of a full scale
study shows that increase in offset distance reduces the load test and a 3D finite element analysis on a two tier
required reinforcement strength. An increase in the geosynthetic reinforced segmental retaining wall
number of tiers results in a significant increase of subjected to a surcharge load.
required strength of reinforcement.
Fig7: Schematic view of finite element model (after Yoo

and Kim 2008)
Fig4: Geometry of FE model (after Leshchinsky and Han
2004)
III. VALIDATION ANALYSIS
Shinde and Mandal (2007) studied on “Behavior of
Reinforced soil retaining wall with limited fill zone” using
finite element program PLAXIS to understand the In this finite element program, a two dimensional plane
deformation behavior of reinforced soil retaining wall with strain model is used. The finite element model used in
limited fill zones under vertical surcharge loading. the current research was validated for static condition
through a comparison analysis with actual test data (ling
et al. 2000). In this paper it was shown that the model
agreed well with the outcomes of the actual test data.
FULL SCALE MODEL: BACKGROUND

A 6m high model of geosynthetic reinforced soil retaining
wall constructed at the Public Works Research Institute
(PWRI), Ministry of Construction, in Japan (Ling et
al.2000). The PWRI Wall consisted of six primary and
five secondary geogrid layers, 3.5m and 1m long
respectively. A silty sand (mean particle
diameter,D50=0.42mm, unit weight=16kN/m3) are used
as backfill. The backfill is divided into several horizontal
Fig5: strain distribution (Shinde and Mandal, 2007) layers so that elements were confined into discrete
horizontal layers that were later used to stimulate stages
of construction in the analyses with plaxis. Fine mesh
was used to divide the system into discrete segments for
220
Theme C
study. The response of the wall at the different stage of specified. Assigning material properties to the
the construction is observed. appropriate soil clusters and structural element.
3. Generating the mesh by selecting “medium”
element distribution option in the global
coarseness setting.
4. To run he calculation program by selecting the
calculation type as plastic calculation. Before the
program runs, nodes are selected at specified
points on the model surface for generating curve
at the end of the analyses.
Fig8: Experimental setup instrumentation of PWRI wall

(after Ling et al. 2000)
NUMERICAL MODELING IN PLAXIS

To carry out a finite element analysis using PLAXIS 2D
program, a two dimensional geometry model has been
created in the x-y plane and material parameters are
specified. The analysis is conducted under plane strain
conditions and 15 node triangular elements are selected.
The concrete foundation is modeled as linear elastic
material model. The facing panels are modeled by using
“plate” elements. A footing is also provided at the base
of the facing wall by using plate element. Geogrids are
modeled using “geogrid” elements. For the present
analysis, a typical value of R inter=0.8 is used for the Fig 9: Finite Element Modeling of PWRI Wall in
interaction between soil reinforcement and soil facing PLAXIS 2D
panel respectively.
TABLE I. Material parameters of the FE model

Properties Backfill Foundation Facing Geogrid
Wall
Material Mohr - Linear elastic Linear Linear
model Coulomb elastic elastic
Elastic 10E3 2E6
Modulus
(kPa)
Cohesion 1
(kPa)
Angle of 38
friction(◦)
Mass Density 16.30 24
(kN/m3)
Poisson’s 0.33 0.17 0.17
Fig10: Deformation contour of PWRI Wall in PLAXIS 2D
ratio
EA (kN/m) 700E+03 826.45
EI (kNm2/m) 7146 IV.COMPARISON OF RESULTS
4.1. Horizontal displacement of facing

MODELING STEPS
The maximum horizontal displacement is found to be
The key steps involved in generating a finite element 29.7mm near the mid height of the wall which is similar
model and analysis can be briefed as follows: to the measured value (approximately 30mm) as
discussed by Ling et. al (2000).
1. Creating model geometry by setting the model
type as plain strain model.
2. Creating material data set for foundation soil,
backfill soil, facing panels and geogrids as
required. The elastic parameters i.e. elastic
modulus, poisons ratio, mass density are to be
221
Theme C
1.8m offset 2.4m offset

Fig 11: Predicted and measured horizontal displacement
for 6m high backfill of PWRI Wall
4.2. Lateral stress of backfill
For a 6m high backfill the predicted and measured
values of lateral stresses at the top of the wall are
0.187kPa and 0.10kPa respectively. The predicted and
measured values of lateral stress at the top of the wall
show lesser deviation while at the bottom of the wall it
shows large deviation.
3m offset
Fig12: Contours showing horizontal displacement of two

tier walls for (a) zero offset (b) 1.2m offset (c) 1.8m offset
(d) 2.4m offset (e) 3 m offset
Fig 12: Predicted and measured lateral stresses of

backfill at the wall face
4.3 Horizontal displacement of facing(Two tiered walls)

Fig13: Wall deformation for different tier offset in two
Comparison of horizontal displacement of facing wall tiered walls.
for different tier offset is made. The displacement is very
small at the bottom of the wall and higher at the top of 4.4 Lateral soil pressure at the face of the wall(Two
the wall for all five types of wall. The maximum tiered walls)
displacement is found to be 38.34mm, 35.8mm,
29.23mm, 29.33mm and 27.28mm at midheight for wall The maximum lateral stresses are found to be
with 0 offset, 1.2m offset, 1.8m offset, 2.4m offset and 123.24kPa, 91.2kPa, 86kPa, 82.8kPa and 78.8kPa for 0
3m offset respectively. offset, 1.2m offset, 1.8m offset, 2.4m offset and 3m
respectively near the bottom of wall. After that in tiered
walls, the stress decreases almost linearly with the
height except at the junction of two tier i.e at the
midheight of the wall where the stresses are little higher.
The lateral stress at the midheight is found 8.47kPa,
51.6kPa, 47.9kPa, 39kPa and 34.9kPa for 0 offset, 1.2m
offset, 1.8m offset, 2.4m offset and 3m offset of the wall
respectively.
Zero offset 1.2m offset
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Theme C
parameters. The results obtained from finite element

analyses may be used to guide the development of more
accurate design procedures. Five models of zero offset,
1.2 m offset, 1.8 m offset, 2.4 m offset and 3 m offset are
developed to study the different effects of tiered wall.
The walls are studied for horizontal displacement of
facing, lateral soil pressure at the face of the wall,
number of tiers effect. It is found that for all the walls the
maximum deformation is found near the mid height of
Fig14: Lateral soil pressure on the face of the wall for the wall, at the junction of two tiers and the deformation
different tier offset. decreases with the increasing tier offset. With increasing
number of tiers, the lateral displacement decreases
4.5 Effect of number of tiered walls which indicated that there is a mutual interaction
between the two tiers. The maximum lateral soil
As the number of tier increases the lateral displacement pressure on the facing wall is near the base of the wall
of wall reduces. An increase of number of tiers increases and decreases with the increasing height. In tiered walls
the total height of the tiered wall system. GRS walls can this lateral stress decreases almost linearly with the
be constructed for any number of tiers, each having a height except at the junction of two tier, i.e. at the mid-
different height. Different from the baseline case, a two- height of the wall where the stress is little higher.
tier wall is investigated and each tier is 3 m high with an
offset distance of 3 m.
VI. REFERENCES
Bathurst, R.J and Hatami, K (2006). Parametric

analysis of reinforced soil walls with
different height and reinforcement
stiffness.Geosynthetics, ISBN
9059660447.
Bergado, D.T. and Teerawattanasuk,C (2007).
2D and 3D numerical simulations of
reinforced embankments on soft ground.
Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 26
Fig18: Comparison of vertical and two-tier walls. (2008)39-55, pp 39-55
FHWA (2001). Mechanically Stabilized Earth
The maximum displacement shown by vertical wall is Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes
nearly 40 mm and two-tier wall configure wall shows Design and Construction Guidelines.
maximum displacement of 25 mm. It is found from the Guler, E, Hamderi, M.M (2007). Numerical
analysis that the multi-tiered configuration could Analysis of reinforced soil retaining wall
considerably reduce the residual lateral facing structures with cohesive and granular
displacement. The decrease in lateral facing backfills.Geosynthetics International,
displacement values in both the upper and lower ties, 2007
demonstrating that the two tiers mutually affect each Ling, H.I and Leshchinsky, D (2003). Finite
other. element parameter studies of the
behaviour of segmental block reinforced
V.CONCLUSION soil retaining
walls.GeosyntheticsInternational,Vol.10,
The finite element method has been used to No.3,pp.77-94.
analyze different types of geotechnical structures, such Ling,H.I,Cardany,C.P,Sun,L-X and
as embankments, deep foundation slopes and retaining Hashimoto,H.(2000).Finite Element
walls. The application of the finite element method to Study of Geosynthetic-Reinforced Soil
reinforced soil structures is relatively recent. In this Retaining Wall with Concrete-Block
paper the vertical wall was numerically developed using Facing.Geosynthetics International, Vol
the finite element program PLAXIS 2D and validated 7,No.3,pp.163-188.
with the identical physical model tests reported in the Shinde,A.L and Mandal,J.N.(2007).Behaviour of
literature. The model was sensitive to different material Reinforced Soil Retaining Wall with
properties like backfill friction, cohesion, stiffness of Limited Fill Zone.Geotech Geol
reinforcement material and soil reinforcement interface Eng,(2007) 25:657-672,pp.657-672.
223
ROAD EMBANKMENT CONSTRUCTION WITH BRAHMAPUTRA SILT

(ICID2018_C_026)
Kashmiri Deka1, Arup Bhattacharjee2
Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India
ABSTRACT
Brahmaputra silt is considered as easily available waste material. If these materials can be used in high material
consumption structures like embankment, then it helps to mitigate the flood problem of the river due to siltation as
well as the use of cost effective materials. But due to lack of strength and highly permeable characteristics of silty
soil, it cannot be used in construction of embankment. So the engineering properties of silty soil have to be improved
to use it as material for embankment construction. The use of bentonite is very effective in reducing the hydraulic
conductivity of the soil. For this purpose, 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% bentonite are mixed with the Brahmaputra silt and
various laboratory tests are conducted. With the increase in bentonite content hydraulic conductivity of the samples
are significantly reduced.
Keywords: Brahmaputra silt; Bentonite; Permeability; Shear parameters.
1 INTRODUCTION
2.1 Brahmaputra Silt
Siltation is a major concern for the river
Brahmaputra due to which the river bed level has The soil sample is collected from the river
risen from time to time. This causes both the Brahmaputra at Nimatighat of Jorhat city, Assam.
banks of river to spill over causing a large According to Indian Standard Soil Classification
damage. Again Brahmaputra silt is considered as System, the sample is found silty in nature.
easily available waste material. If these materials Various laboratory experiments are conducted to
can be used in high material consumption evaluate the geotechnical properties of
structures like embankment, then it helps to Brahmaputra silt. Table 1 shows the various
mitigate the flood problem of the river due to geotechnical properties of natural Brahmaputra
siltation as well as the use of cost effective silt.
materials. But due to lack of strength and highly
permeable characteristics of silty soil, it cannot be
used in construction of embankment. So the Table 1. Geotechnical properties of Brahmaputra
engineering properties of silty soil have to be silt
improved to use it as material for embankment Properties Values
construction. Since the Brahmaputra silt is highly
Liquid Limit (%) 30.45
permeable, so to reduce the permeability of silt Plastic Limit NP
the use of Bentonite admixture is very effective. Plasticity index NP
Classification of Soil SM
1.1 Objective
Optimum Moisture Content (%) 15
Maximum Dry Unit Weight, 16.2
The objective of this research work is to study the
kN/m3
suitability of the use of Brahmaputra silt for road 1
Cohesion, kPa
embankment construction. However, due to the 23°
Angle of Internal Friction
poor engineering properties Brahmaputra silt 1.23 × 10-6
Coefficient of Permeability, m/s
cannot be used as construction material for road
embankment and therefore bentonite admixture is
used to improve the properties of soil. For this 2.2 Bentonite
purpose an attempt has to be made to evaluate
the economic soil bentonite mix to meet the basic Bentonite is a clay material whose 80%
requirement of the road embankment. constituent is montmorillonite. Due to small grain
size with large surface contact area Bentonite has
high potential of water retention. The swelling
2 MATERIALS property of bentonite makes it useful as a sealant
as it provides a self sealing, permeability barrier.
The materials used in the investigation work are For this research work bentonite is collected from
Brahmaputra Silt and bentonite. local market which is in powder form.
224
Theme C
3 METHODOLOGY
In this work various percentages of bentonite such

as 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% are mixed with
Brahmaputra silt and various laboratory tests such
as Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, Standard Proctor
test, Falling Head Permeability, Free Swelling
Index and One dimensional consolidation test are
conducted for both untreated and treated soil
sample
Figure 2. Variation of OMC with bentonite content.
The results of the various laboratory tests are

discussed below.
4.1 Atterbergˈs limit
Liquid limits of soil sample mixed with 5%, 10%,

15%, and 20% bentonite content are determined
by static cone penetration method. The liquid
limits increase with increase in bentonite
percentage. shows in Figure 1.
The natural Brahmaputra silt is non plastic.
When soil mixed with bentonite upto 10% it
remains non plastic, but after that it become
plastic. Figure 3. Variation of MDD with bentonite content.
Figure 1. shows the variation of liquid limit
plastic limit and plasticity index with different 4.3 Permeability
percentage of bentonite.
Falling head permeability test is conducted on
natural as well as treated sample at OMC and
MDD. It is found that the coefficient of permeability
of untreated soil is very high, 1.23×10-6 m/s.
Figure 4. shows that the Coefficient of
permeability significantly decreased with
increasing bentonite content.
Figure 1. Variation of Liquid limit, Plastic limit and

Plasticity index with bentonite.
4.2 Proctor Test
The standard proctor test is conducted on

bentonite mix soil sample according to IS 2720
(Part 8) – 1983 [2]. Figure 2 shows Maximum dry
density (MDD) initially increases upto 10%
bentonite and after 10% it shows decreasing
trend. Figure 3 shows the increasing trend of Figure 4. Variation of Coefficient of permeability
optimum moisture content (OMC) with bentonite with different bentonite content
content.
225
Theme C
4.4 ONE DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION Figure 7. shows increasing trend of

compression index with increasing bentonite
According to IS: 2720 (Part 15) - 1986 One content. The settlement is directly related to the
dimensional consolidation test is conducted to compression index which implies that the increase
evaluate the various consolidation properties of of consolidation settlement is low for 5% - 10%
Brahmaputra silt mixed with different percentages bentonite added sample as compared to 10% -
of bentonite content. All the samples are prepared 20% bentonite added sample.
at OMC of respective soil+bentonite samples. The
tests were conducted for different consolidation
pressure such as 100 kPa, 200 kPa and 400 kPa.
Square root of time fitting method was used to
determined the Coefficient of consolidation. The
coefficient of consolidation decreased with
increasing bentonite content as shown in Fig. 7.
This indicates that the time needed for bentonite
treated soil to reach a given degree of
consolidation increases with increase in bentonite
content in the mix.
The coefficient of volume change for each
sample was calculated by Change in thickness
method. Figure 8. Shows the Coefficient of
volume change increased with increasing amount Figure 7. Variation of compression index with
of bentonite. Settlement of soil is a function of bentonite.
coefficient of volume change thereby its variation
affects the settlement criteria of soil sample. 4.5 Direct shear test
Direct Shear test was conducted as per IS: 20270

(Part 13) – 1986 to evaluate the shear
parameters. The samples were prepared at OMC
and MDD of respective soil+bentonte mixtures.
Figure 8. shows the increasing trend of cohesion
of the soil+bentonite mix sample with increasing
bentonite content. Due to the presence of strong
inter-particular attractive forces between the
particles of bentonite, the mixture gradually
develops cohesion with an increase in bentonite
content.
Figure 5. Variation of coefficient of

consoidation with pressure at different bentonite
content.
Figure 8. Variation of cohesion with bentonite.
Figure 9 shows the decreasing trend of angle of

internal friction with increase in bentonite content.
This is due to presence of finer bentonite particles
Figure 6. Variation of coefficient of vlume between soil particles which reduces the intra-
change with pressure at different bentonite granular friction between silty sand particles.
content.
226
Theme C
6. REFERENCES
Crooks, A.R. (2013) Application of shrinkage and

swelling factors on State Highway
Construction, Auburn University.
IS: 2720 (Part 40) – 1970, Method of test for soil:

Determination of free swelling index, Bureau of
NRRAD (2007), Quality Assurance Handbook for

Rural Roads, Vol II, Ministry of Rural
Development, Govt. of India
Figure 9. Variation of angle of internal friction with

bentonite.
4.6 Free swelling index
Free swelling index was conducted according to

IS: 2720 (Part 40) - 1970. Figure 10 shows that
free swell index increased with increasing
bentonite content in the mix. This is attributed due
to very high swelling potential of bentonite when
comes in contact with water. Since the permissible
value of free swell index considered for
embankment construction is 50% (Crooks, R.A.,
2013 and NRRADA, 2007), so 10% bentonite in
the mix is allowed for embankment construction.
Figure 10 Variation of free swelling index with

bentonite content.
5. CONCLUSION
With the addition of 5 – 20% bentonite content

with Brahmaputra silt permeability is greatly
reduced. Since the permissible value of free swell
index is 50% considered for design of a road
embankment, hence allowable amount of
bentonite is 10%.
227
INFLUENCE OF CORE COMPOSITION ON STABILITY OF EARTHEN

EMBANKMENT UNDER RAPID DRAWDOWN CONDITION
(ICID2018_C_027)
Rupali Sarmah1, Anshul Kumar2,Arpit Chaudhary3,Sourav Bhardwaj3, Pankaj Thakur4
1. Assam Engineering College, Guwahati, Assam, India

2,3,4. National Institute of Technology Hamirpur, Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh, India
ABSTRACT
The present study is an attempt to observe the effect of variation in core composition, on slope stability of earthen
embankments under rapid drawdown condition using SLOPE/W module of GEOSTUDIO.A zoned diaphragm type
earthen embankment with an impervious core is selected for this study. A cross section of the embankment similar to
Swan river embankment in Una district, Himachal Pradesh is selected. A 2-D model of 3 meter high embankment
with the base width 11 meter is created. The core is assumed to be a mixture of clay and gravel, with percentage of
gravel varying from 0% to 50%.The influence of variation in gravel percentage on parameters such as interslice
shear force, interslice normal force and factor of safety are observed for both upstream and downstream of the slope.
It is observed that with increase in the percentage of gravel, the factor of safety of upstream slope decreases for both
HFL and LFL. Upstream section is found to more vulnerable during the rapid drawdown condition.
Keywords: Embankment, Stability analysis, SLOPE/W, Rapid drawdown.
1 INTRODUCTION drawdown condition using SLOPE/W module of

GEOSTUDIO.
Embankments or earthfill/rockfill dams are the
common examples of man-made earth slope.
Earth slope is an unsupported, inclined surface of 2 MODELLING AND MATERIAL BEHAVIOUR
a soil mass. Slope failure may occur in
embankments due to rapid drawdown condition Stability analysis of the embankment with the
after construction of the dam [4]. Rapid drawdown, varying percentage of gravel is conducted, for
a hypothetical condition which assumes that the high flood level (HFL) and low flood level (LFL) in
external water level goes down rapidly and upstream and downstream. Morgenstern-Price
suddenly without allowing sufficient time for method is adopted for the slope stability analysis
drainage of pore water from the saturated soil. of the embankment. Entry-exit method is used for
This may result in change in the stress state of the specifying the critical slip surfaces in upstream
soil mass which finally leads to failure of the slope. and downstream sections.
Moreover, this failure may get influenced by the
core composition of the embankment section.
An embankment dam may be homogenous or
zoned depending upon the constructing material.
A zoned embankment is comprised of a central
impervious core concealed by a much more
porous outer zone. The composite clay, which is a
mixture of aggregate floating in highly plastic clay
matrix, can be used as the core material[8]. Holtz
and Ellis, 1961 [1] conducted the experimental
investigation on the effect of gravel content on the
shear strength of clayey soils. The authors stated
that, the variation in shear strength will vary be
dependent upon the clay matrix and the gravel
type. Beyond 50% gravel content, the effect of Figure 1. Embankment cross section during Low
gravel was apparent because of large particle Flood Level
interference. This change in shear properties of
soil may affect the stability of the embankment 2.1 Geometric Properties
dam slope.
The present study is an attempt to observe the A zoned diaphragm type earthen embankment
effect of variation in core composition, on slope with an impervious core is selected for this study.
stability of earthen embankments under rapid A cross section of the embankment similar to
Swan river embankment in Una district, Himachal
228
Theme C
Pradesh is selected. A 2-D model of 3 meter high

embankment with the base width 11 meter is 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
created by joining co-ordinates in SLOPE/W. The
thickness of impervious core is considered up to 7
m. The side slopes of pervious shell are
considered to be 2.5:1 for and 1.5:1 for upstream
side and downstream side respectively. A granular
sub grade course 25 cm thick is considered at the
crown of the embankment. Also, a slope
protection in the form of stone pitching of 0.50 m
height and 0.15 m thickness is provided on the
downstream side. The overall embankment is laid
over the impervious bedrock like sandstone. HFL
and LFL are assumed as 1.6 m and 0.5 m above
the river bed respectively. Figure 1 shows the
simplified cross section during Low Flood Level
used for the analysis.
Figure 2. CriticalSlip surface for 50% gravel
2.2 Material Properties content during LFL
The geotechnical properties of the different The influence of variation in gravel percentage on
components of the dam are given in Table 1 and parameters such as interslice shear force,
Table 2. interslice normal force and factor of safety are
observed for both upstream and downstream of
Table 1. Properties of different components of the the slope.Figure 2 shows thecritical slip surface
dam with factor of safety for 50% gravel content during
Unit low flood level (LFL).
Friction
Compo- weight, Cohesion,
Material 3 angle,
nent γ(kN/ c (kN/m ) 3.1 Effect on Interslice Shear Force
3 φ
m)
Saturated Upstream 22.77 0 30
sand shell
HFL
Maximum Interslice Shear Force (kN)
Dry sand Downstre 17.65 0 30 1.2

am sand LFL
Cement Subgrade 23 10.335 37 1 0.97
course
0.8
Table 2. Properties considered for the dam core 0.6 0.64
Gravel Unit weight, Cohesion, Friction 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.5
Content γ(kN/m3) c (kN/m3) angle, φ 0.33
0 16.17 59.923 24 0.2
20 17.72 48.23 26 0
50 19.28 31 32
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Gravel Content (%)
(a) upstream
229
Theme C
Maximum Interslice Shear Force (kN) HFL HFL
Maximum Interslice Normal Force (kN)

2.5
2 LFL
2 LFL
1.6 4 3.8
1.5 3.5
3.3
3
1 2.5
2
0.5 0.24 0.24 0.18 1.5
0 0.135 1
0.35 0.35 0.27
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0.5
0 0.2
Gravel Content (%) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
(b) downstream Gravel Content (%)
Figure 3. Effect of gravel content on interslice

(b) Downstream
shear force
Figure 4. Effect of gravel content on interslice
Figures 3(a) and 3(b) represent the variation in
normal force
maximum interslice shear force with change in
percentage of gravel content, in the clay-gravel
Figure 4(a) and 4(b) represent the variation in
mixture, during HFL and LFL for upstream and
maximum interslice normal force with change in
downstream respectively. It is observed that with
percentage of gravel content in the clay-gravel
increase in gravel content, the maximum interslice
mixture, during HFL and LFL, for upstream and
shear force is decreasing at a higher rate during
downstream respectively. It is observed that with
rapid drawdown (LFL) condition when compared
increase in gravel content, the maximum interslice
to HFL condition for both upstream and
normal force is decreasing drastically during rapid
downstream sides. Moreover, from this study, it
drawdown (LFL) condition when compared to HFL
can also be inferred that the change in gravel
condition for the downstream sides. Moreover,
content does not have significant effect on
from this study, it is also observed that the change
themaximum interslice shear force during HFL
in gravel content does not have significant effect
condition.
on the maximum interslice normal force during
HFL condition for upstream and downstream both
3.2 Effect on Interslice Normal Force
and during LFL condition for downstream.
3.3 Effect on Factor of Safety
HFL Figure 5 represents the variation in factor of safety

Maximum Interslice Normal Force (kN)
LFL with variation in percentage of gravel content in

the clay-gravel mixture during HFL and LFL for
8 upstream and downstream sides. It is observed
6.81 6.35
7 6.02 that with increase in the percentage of gravel, the
6 factor of safety of upstream slope decreases for
5 both HFL and LFL. For downstream slope, with
4 increase in the gravel percentage, there is
negligible change in factor of safety during HFL
3 2.49 whereas the same decreases linearly during LFL
2 1.61 1.61 with variation in gravel content. While comparing
1 the factor of safety for upstream and downstream,
0 the upstream section is found to more vulnerable
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 during the rapid drawdown condition with factor of
safety less than 1.2 for all variations in gravel
Gravel Content (%) content. It is also observed that for the same
gravel content, the downstream slope stability is
increasing during rapid drawdown. However, the
(a) Upstream factor of safety of downstream during rapid
230
Theme C
drawdown is found to be decreasing with increase with increase in percentage gravel

in percentage gravel content. The downstream content.
slope is found to be unstable during rapid
drawdown condition for 50% gravel content.
5 REFERENCES
HFL upstream
LFL upstream Holtz, W.G. and Ellis W. 1961. Triaxial
shear characteristics of clayey
HFL downstream gravel soils, 5th International
LFL downstream Conference on Soil Mechanics and
2 Foundation Engineering, Paris,
1.8 1.72 1.716 1.71 1:143-149.
1.6 Jafari, M.K., and Shafiee, A. 2004.
1.632 1.5
1.4 Mechanical behavior of compacted
Factor of Safety
composite clays, Canadian

1.2 1.065 1.065 1.065
1.054 Geotechnical Journal, 41(6):1152-
1 1167.
0.8 0.935 0.909
0.885 Joyee, M. J.2010. Geotechnical Evaluation
0.6 Report: Embankment and
0.4 Foundation Stability and
0.2 Settlement, Housatonic river and
0 Naugatuk river flood protection
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 projects, section I, Ansonia and
Gravel Content (%) Derby, Connecticut. PS&S
Integrating design and engineering,
Warren, New Zealand.
Figure 5.Effect of gravel content on factor of Khanna, R., Datta, M. and Ramanna, G. V.
safety 2005. Influence of core thickness
on stability of upstream slope of
earth and rockfill dams under rapid-
4 CONCLUSIONS draw-down, Proceedings of 50th
Indian Geotechnical Conference,
The effect of variation in core composition on Pune, Maharastra, India.
slope stability of earthen embankmentin Swan Maddukuri, N. N., Ravali, N. V. N. and
River, Himachal Pradesh, India under rapid Vasudeo, A. D. 2015.Design of
drawdown condition was observed in this embankments and bank protection
study.After the study, following conclusions are works for hilly rivers. Journal of Civil
obtained- Engineering and Environmental
 The maximum interslice shear force is Technology, 2(9): 58-62.
decreasing at a higher rate during rapid Sarkar, K., Sazid, M., Khandelwal, M. and
drawdown (LFL) condition with increase in Singh, T. N. 2009. Stability analysis
gravel content. of soil slope in luhri area, Himachal
 The change in gravel content does not Pradesh. Mining Engineers,
have significant effect on the maximum Journal, 10(6): 21-27.
interslice normal force during HFL
condition for upstream and downstream Sarmah, R., Kumar, A., Chaudhary, A.,
both and during HFL condition for Bhardwaj, S. and Thakur, P. 2018.
downstream. Application of Composite Clay as
 The upstream of the embankment was Core Material in Earthfill
found as unstable under rapid drawdown Embankment Dams, International
condition. Therefore, the core material is Journal of Civil Engineering and
not found to be suitable under rapid Technology, 9(8): 790-797.
drawdown condition. Tafti, S. R., Shafiee, A. and Rajabi, M. M.
 It is also observed that the downstream 2008. The influence of clay core
stability is increasing during rapid composition on the permanent
drawdown for the same gravel content. displacement of embankment
 The factor of safety of downstream during dams, Proceedings of the 14th
rapid drawdown is found to be decreasing World Conference on Earthquake
Engineering, Beijing, China.
231
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Theme D: Structural and Construction Engineering
232
Theme D
Structural and Construction Engineering
233
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
STUDY OF DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF CONCRETE GRAVITY DAM ALONG
WITH VARIATION IN BASE WIDTH OF DAM AND PRESENCE OF TAIL
WATER
ICID2018_D_002
Manish Hazarika1, P.K.Khaund2
1
P.G Student, Civil engineering Department, Jorhat Engineering collage, Jorhat-7, Assam, E-mail:
manishhazarika34@gmail.com
2
Professor, Civil engineering Department, Jorhat Engineering collage, Jorhat-7, Assam
ABSTRACT
This is a study on seismic response of a dam-reservoir-foundation system and evaluating the stresses in the dam
and foundation body corresponds to the change in base width and presence of tail water and analyzing the safety of
the system. The dam is modeled as per the dimensional specifications of Mettur dam. Dam-reservoir-foundation
interaction has been investigated utilizing seismic analysis of a 3D dam-reservoir-foundation coupled system using
ANSYS® WORKBENCH. The reservoir water is considered acoustic and compressible. The modeling of reservoir
has been carried out by fluid acoustic element and proper consideration of fluid boundary conditions. The effect of
increase of base width of dam along with tail water presence on the dynamic response of the system is evaluated, by
performing pseudo static analysis as per guidelines of IS: 1893-1984 (part-1), response spectrum as per IS: 1893-
2002 (part-1) and dynamic time history analysis. The stress at toe and heel section of the dam is also checked
against safety criteria of the dam concrete strength.
Keywords: dam-reservoir-foundation, fluid acoustic element, tail water presence.
1 INTRODUCTION length of reservoir and H represents water level in

reservoir. Zienkiewicz et al. (1988) In this study
A concrete gravity dam is a hydraulic structure of one of the initial soil modeling technique, that is
great importance which resists all external forces massless foundation model and its accuracy had
by its weight and therefore its analysis under the been discussed. Massless foundation model has
effect of earthquake force is highly significant. The been proposed in the late seventies and has been
purpose of dynamic analysis is not to determine used extensively for seismic analysis of concrete
dam stability in a conventional sense, but rather to dams since then. The model assumes that the
determine what damage will be caused during the idealized foundation rock model is mass less. This
earthquake, and then to determine if the dam can results firstly, in a reduction in the number of
continue to resist the applied static loads in a dynamic DOF of the system. Secondly, the
damaged condition with possible loading changes absence of mass makes the foundation rock
due to increased uplift or silt liquefaction. When a function as a spring, in other words only the
large structural system composed of many small flexibility of the foundation rock is taken into
components, subjected to transient loads, these account. As seismic response analysis of soil
structures interact with each other such that a layer is an important part in seismic safety
continuous transfer of energy is established evaluation for key project sites (Lou Menglin et
between them. For a dam-water-foundation al. 2004), thus the practical site is assumed to be
system, the earthquake response is significantly semi-infinite space, and the soil site is intercepted
influenced by the interaction of the dam with the to limited range in the analysis with finite element
impounded water and with the underlying method. Some studies have proved that, if the
foundation region, thus increasing the range of finite model reaches to a certain extent
requirements for the analysis procedure to be large enough, the boundary effect of incident
used, and complicating a routine finite element waves and scattered waves can be ignored, and it
analysis of a concrete cross-section. can still obtain good approximate results (Lou
Menglin et al.2003).
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
3 METHODOLOGY
Lofti and Zeng (2016) In this study Wavenumber
approach is followed which is based on semi- The present study includes a model having three
infinite two dimensional fluid elements (hyper- different systems as dam, reservoir water and
element) for seismic analysis of dam-reservoir rock foundation. The system is modeled in
system. In this case very low value of L/H ratio is accordance with the dimensional specifications of
used for far field of reservoir where L represents Mettur dam constructed over the Kaveri river in
234
Theme A
Salem district of Tamil Nadu. In the present study the far end boundaries of foundation are
four dam models are used with four different base restrained. It is done to reduce the modeling of
width specifications taken from the study of “Effect soil section to a limited extent and to avoid the
of Static Seismic Loading and Uplift Parameters radiation of seismic waves at the far end
on the Stability of a Concrete Gravity Dam” by boundaries of the foundation.
Khaund and Talukdar (2017). The base widths
that are considered in this analysis are the highest
value of base widths corresponding to the stability Table 1. Dimensional parameters of reservoir and
criteria of overturning, sliding and shear friction foundation
factor and also corresponding to the highest value Model Reservoir Extension of Soil Depth
of seismic coefficient. The water reservoir is No Width, Wr D/S , We of Soil,
modeled with a maximum water level of 50m and M M D, M
the width of reservoir is taken according to the 1 125 54 54
truncated boundary condition of fluid structure
2 125 54 54
interaction. The originally the reservoir is
constructed up to a length of 1700 m, but in this 3 125 54 84
analysis the dam- reservoir-foundation system is 4 125 54 90
500 m long due to limited node capacity of the
software. The tail water condition is considered in
model-2 and model-4 where water level is
considered to be 10 m with a length of 500m.
3.1 Boundary Conditions for FSI and SSI
Some studies have proved that, if the range of

finite model reaches to a certain extent large
enough, the boundary effect of incident waves and
scattered waves can be ignored, and it can still
obtain good approximate results (Menglinet
al.2003). According to the study in “Transient
analysis of dam-reservoir system by
Wavenumber-TD approach” by Lotfi and Zenz Figure 1. Model of dam reservoir foundation
(2016), for good accuracy in results it is suitable to system
construct the far end boundary of reservoir at a
minimum of twice the water height. By following
the approach, the far end boundary of the
reservoir is constructed at a distance equals to
twice the height of the reservoir water level to
behave as truncated boundary to satisfy the fluid
structure interaction effect. The rock foundation is
modeled considering the Soil Structure Interaction
(SSI) boundary conditions. As mentioned in the
study “Nonlinear analysis of pine flat dam
including base sliding and separation” by Viladkar
and Al-Assady 0(2012), by extending the soil
foundation to a minimum of 1.5 times the base
width of the dam, the amplification of excitation Figure 2. 3D view of a FEM model
input due to radiation from far end boundaries can
be nullify. In this study the SSI boundary 3.2 Material Properties
conditions are applied by following this approach.
The depth of the foundation is 1.5times the base The reservoir section is assigned with common
width of the dam. The soil is extended in properties of water such as bulk modulus, mass
downstream direction equal to the height of dam. density and sound speed of sound in water. Here
The reservoir end of foundation section is kept at density (ρ) and bulk modulus (K) of water are
distance twice the height of water level. According provided as 1000 kg/m3 and 2250MPa
to the study “Iterative analysis of concrete gravity respectively. The speed of sound in water is taken
dam-nonlinear foundation interaction” by Burman as 1440 m/sec. the mass density, Young’s
et al. (2010), the vertical faces of the foundation modulus of elasticity and the Poisson’s ratio of the
along x-axis are restrained. By applying vertical concrete are 2500 Kg/m3, 29580 MPa and 0.2
roller (displacement in x and z direction is zero) respectively. The foundation soil is considered to
235
Theme A
be hard rock with density, Young’s modulus and

Poisson’s ratio as 3300 Kg/m3, 62054 MPa and
0.3.
3.3 Method of Analysis
3.3.1 Pseudo Static Method
This analysis is performed with the help of Static Figure 3. , Response spectra for rock and soil sites for
Structural tool. The hydrodynamic pressure is 5% damping from IS-1893-2002 (part-1)
applied at the upstream face of the dam. The
hydrodynamic pressure is calculated as per the
procedure describe in of IS: 1893-1984 (part-1). 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Assuming the water to be incompressible, the
hydrodynamic pressure at a depth y below the 4.1 Results
reservoir surface is given by
Pseudo static analysis of the dam-reservoir-
pe= Cs×αh×γw×y [1] foundation system is conducted at the Static
Structural tool of ANSYS® Workbench. The
Cs = coefficient which varies with shapes and hydrodynamic pressure applied at the upstream
angle of upstream face of the dam. face of dam is calculated as per the guidance of
y= Depth below water reservoir IS: 1893(Part 1)-1984. The stress profile
γw = Unit weight of Water. generated from this process for the different
αh = Horizontal earthquake acceleration models are shown below.
The value of Cs can be approximately
found for vertical or constant slope of upstream
face of dam as given by
Cs=(Cm/2)×[{(y/H)×(2-(y/H)}+{√(y/H)×(2-(y/H)}] [2]
Where H is the water level of reservoir and Cm

is the maximum value of pressure coefficient for a
constant slope.
Figure 4, Stress profile of model-1 from pseudo
3.3.2 Time History Analysis
static analysis
In ANSYS® Workbench time history analysis can be
performed through Transient Structural tool. El-
Centro earthquake (1940) acceleration data is
utilized for this analysis. The North-South
component of El-Centro recorded at the Terminal
Substation building is used. The El-Centro
acceleration data have been scaled down to 0.1g in
this present analysis
3.3.3 Response Spectrum Analysis static analysis
Response spectrum analysis is performed through
Response Spectrum tool in ANSYS® Workbench. In this
study the response spectrum analysis is carried out as
per IS: 1893(Part1)-2002. The acceleration v/s time
period data is obtained from the design spectrum
provided in IS-1893 for different soil type with 5%
damping.

static analysis
236
Theme A
Figure 11, Stress profile of model-4 from

Response Spectrum Analysis.
static analysis
The time history analysis for scaled down (0.3g
Response spectrum analysis is performed through PGA) El-Centro earthquake acceleration data is
Response Spectrum tool in ANSYS® Workbench. done with Transient structural tool and the stress
Details of the stress profile of the three models for every time step is represented in a graph.
obtained from this analysis are shown below. From the progress graph, the time period for
maximum stress is found and then the stress
profile obtained for that time period is studied.
Figure 8, Stress profile of model-1 from Response

Spectrum Analysis
Figure 12, Maximum stress profile of model-1 for

0.3g PGA from Time History Analysis
Figure 9, Stress profile of model-2 from Response

Spectrum Analysis.

Figure 10, Stress profile of model-3 from

Response Spectrum Analysis.

237
Theme A
5 CONCLUSION
In this present analysis brief overview of the FEM

software ANSYS® Workbench is included. The
software is used for modeling and different
analysis of the dam using appropriate elements
and material properties with appropriate boundary
conditions. The stresses developed in the dam
Figure 15, Maximum stress profile of model-4 for which are obtained from different analysis
0.3g PGA from Time History Analysis procedure are found to be under permissible limit.
It is observed that, with increase in base width of
dam under tail water absent condition, the stress
4.2 Safety Evaluation at toe increases while, stress decreases with
increase in base width of dam for tail water
In this analysis the resultant of forces acting on present condition. The stresses at heel show
the dam are towards the toe part of them and the same increase pattern in stress with increase in
toe and heel part of the dam are analyzed for base width, irrespective of the tail water condition.
compression and tensile strength criteria So it can be conclude that the presence of tail
respectively. According to IS: 6512-1984, the water helps in reducing the stress parameters in
allowable compressive stress in the dam concrete its adjacent portion for a specific geometry and
shall not exceed, 7N/mm2 and permissible tensile shape of dam, making reduction in the overturning
stress of concrete is taken to be 1 to 4 percent of and sliding risk.
compressive strength. In this analysis the
permissible tensile stress is taken as 2% of
compressive strength of concrete considering full 6 REFERENCES
reservoir condition and earthquake excitation.
Arabshahi, H., and Lotfi, V., 2008, Earthquake response
of concrete gravity dams including dam–foundation-
3 interface nonlinearities, Engineering Structures 30,
Stress at Toe, MPa
2.5 PSA 3065–3073.

Bilici,Y., Bayraktar, A.,Soyluk, K.,2009, Dynamic
2 RSA response of dam– reservoir– foundation systems to
1.5 spatially varying earthquake ground motions, Soil
THA
Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 29, 444–
1 458.
0.5 Burman, A., Maity, D., Sreedeep, S., 2010, Iterative
analysis of concrete gravity dam-nonlinear
0 foundation interaction, International Journal of
model-1 model-2 model-3 model-4 Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 4,
85-99.
Model No IS: 1893(Part 1)-2002, Criteria for earthquake
Figure 16. Stress at toe of dam obtained from resistance and construction of buildings, Bureau of
pseudo static, response spectrum analysis and Indian standards, New Delhi.
time history method for different model IS: 1893(Part 1)-1984, Criteria for earthquake
resistance and construction of buildings, Bureau of
Indian standards, New Delhi.
4 IS: 6512-1984, Criteria for design of solid gravity dam,
Stress at Heel, MPa
PSA Bureau of Indian standards, New Delhi.

3 RSA Khaund, K.P, and Talukdar, S., 2017, Effect of Static
THA Seismic Loading and Uplift Parameters on the
2 Stability of a Concrete Gravity Dam, Fifth Intl. Conf.
Advances in Civil, Structural and Mechanical
1 Engineering (CSM), 978-132.Kramer, S.I., 1996,
Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, Prentice
Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 07458..
0
Viladkar, N.M, and Al-Assady, S.M.K.A,2012, Nonlinear
model-1 model-2 model-3 model-4 analysis of Pine Flat Dam including base sliding and
Model No separation, 15th World Conference of Earthquake
Engineering, LISBOA
Figure 16. Stress at heel of dam obtained from Rulin, Z., and Mengling, L., 2011, Substructure analysis
pseudo static, response spectrum analysis and method for dynamic response of large-scale soil site,
time history method for different model Procedia Engineering 14, 417–1424
238
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
TIME HISTORY ANALYSIS INCLUDING SOIL-FLUID- STRUCTURE
INTERACTION IN CONCRETE GRAVITY DAM
ICID2018_D_003
Parasor, A.1, Dutta, A.K.2
1
Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Jorhat Engineering College, Garmur, Jorhat, Assam 785007,
India.
2
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Jorhat Engineering College, Garmur, Jorhat,
Assam 785007, India.
ABSTRACT
This paper presents Soil-fluid-structure interaction of the Koyna dam, Maharashtra through time history
analysis against two different earthquake. Three numerical models have been considered to explore the
soil fluid structure interaction issue: 3D dam with base fixed, 3D dam with reservoir with base fixed and
3D dam with reservoir and foundation. The Finite element model of the Dam, Foundation and Reservoir
is done using ANSYS® with different elements and boundary conditions. A comparative study is carried
out for the three models. It is found that the 3D dam with foundation and reservoir has the maximum
stress value than the other two systems.
Keywords: : Soil-fluid-structure interaction, Time history analysis, Numerical models.
1 INTRODUCTION
Viladkar et al. (2012) studied the possibility of
Concrete gravity dam is a solid structure designed sliding and separation at the base of Dam and
to hold back water primarily utilizing the weight of study its effect on dynamic response of dam
the material to resist all structural force. A dam is foundation system. The study involved non linear
in direct contact with soil and water. When it is earthquake response of the tallest non overflow
subjected to an earthquake, the dam interacts with monolith of pine flat dam to Taft ground motion
the soil and water such that a continuous transfer scaled to 0.5g. The interaction with both
of energy is established between them. The foundation and the reservoir has been considered.
effects of dynamic behavior of dam are It has been found that both sliding and separation
determined by the mechanical properties of all the modes of the interface dominate the deformations
elements of the system, the interaction as well as the principal stresses in the dam body.
mechanism and the type of dynamic loading. This Sliding and rocking displacements have been
soil-fluid–structure interaction problem in general found to be quite considerable at the heel.
is often too complex to solve analytically and so
they have to be analyzed by means of numerical Sarkar et al (2007) studied the response of a
simulation. dam subjected to dynamic loading is a combined
This study focuses on the soil-fluid-structure effect of the interaction among dam, reservoir and
interaction effect on concrete gravity dam due to foundation systems. The profile of the Koyna dam
ground motion. has been adopted for the study of this
. investigation. Nonlinear concrete properties have
been taken into account through concrete
damaged plasticity model to simulate the damage
2 LITERATURE REVIEW induced in the dam body under a real-time
earthquake motion. The study indicates that
tensile damage of the dam structure occurred
Lotfi et al. (2016) did a comparative study on
during the earthquake motion. Parametric studies,
Wave number TD approach and Somerfield while varying the height of the reservoir and the
boundary condition for different normalized Foundation modulus values have been conducted
reservoir length. The study involved a special
to show the influence of reservoir and foundation
purpose finite element modeling of Pine flat freedom at each node.
against S69E component of Taft earthquake. The
two type of reservoir bottom considered of full
reflective as well as absorptive are adopted.
239
Theme A
3 METHODOLOGY
In this work the soil, water and concrete gravity 3.1 Description of modeling
dam are modeled using ANSYS Workbench®
software. Three different numerical models have Design modeler is used for building the geometry.
been considered to explore the soil fluid structure Material and geometric properties are assigned.
interaction issue: 3D dam with base fixed(S) Appropriate mesh is generated. Depending upon
system, 3D dam with reservoir with base fixed(FS) the meshing method, sizing different solid
system and 3D dam with reservoir and elements are assigned by default. Boundary
foundation(SFS) system. The geometry of a condition is assigned. Contact pair between
typical non-overflow monolith of the Koyna dam- different types of solid material is program
reservoir-foundation is illustrated in Figure 1, controlled. SOLID187 is used in modeling the
which is taken from Wang G et al (2016). This concrete dam and the soil mass,. While modeling
monolith is 103 m high and 70 m wide at its base. this dam TARGE170 is taken as target element
The size of the reservoir is 206×96.5 m. The dam and CONTA174 is considered as contact element.
is assumed to rest on a 379×103 m foundation These interfaces are able to perform fluid
structure and soil structure interaction. The fluid
element is capable able to exchange pressure
and deformation properties with solid concrete
dam and the foundation. As visualization of fluid-
structure interaction is effective with sloshing
effect of water during free mode vibration water
inside the tank is modeled with FLUID220element.
3.2 Boundary condition
The three system i.e 3D dam with base fixed (S)

system, 3D dam with reservoir with base fixed
(FS) system and 3D dam with reservoir and
Figure. 1. Layout of Koyna Dam with reservoir foundation (SFS) system are modelled with
and foundation, Maharashtra, India. different boundary conditions. Some studies have
Different types of materials are used in modeling proved that, if the range of finite model reaches to
of dam, soil foundation and water. Different a certain extent large enough, the boundary effect
engineering properties like density, Young’s of incident waves and scattered waves can be
modulus and Poisson’s ratio of these materials ignored, and it can still obtain good approximate
are listed in Table1 M40 concrete grade is results. In S system and FS system the bottom of
considered for modeling the concrete structure. In the dam is fixed. In FS and SFS for good accuracy
this table the following element properties are in results it is suitable to construct the far end
taken from Wang G et al (2016). boundary of reservoir at a minimum of twice the
water height. By following the approach, the far
Table 1. Material properties for the Koyna dam- end boundary of the reservoir is constructed at a
reservoir-foundation system distance equals to twice the height of the reservoir
water level to behave as truncated boundary to
Property DAM FOUNDATION WATER satisfy the fluid structure interaction as per
Density 2643 3300 1000 Vahid L.et al (2016). In SFS system the far end of
(Kg/m3) the foundation is modelled at a distance of 1.5
31027 62054 - times the base width of the dam to behave as
Young’s
truncated boundary to satisfy the soil structure
Modulus
(N/m2) interaction effect as per Viladkar N M et al (2012)
the soil is restrained in horizontal direction with
Poisson’s 0.2 0.33 - base fixed
ratio
Bulk Modulus - - 2250 3.3 Time History analysis
(N/m2) Time history analysis is computed for two
Sonic - - 1440 representitive earthquakes. These are El-Centro
Velocity (m/s) (18th May, 1940) earthquake, Kobe (17th
january,1995) earthquake, These ground motions
are considered on the basis of their Maximum
240
Theme A
peak ground acceleration. Ground acceleration 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

data for north-south component of El-Centro is
obtained from The results obtained from modal analysis three
http://www.vibrationdata.com/elcentro.htm. Kobe system are compared in terms of modal
earthquake database is selected from Pacific frequencies as shown in table 2.
Earthquake Engineering Research Next
Generation Attenuation (PEER-NGA) strong Table 2. Comparison between the frequencies the
motion database records available online at three systems
http://peer.berkeley.edu/nga. Table 2 shows the
ground motion records.
Table 2. Gound motion characteristics SYSTEM Frequency (Hz)
Different Station Magnitude Time PGA

ground steps (g) First Second Third Fourth
motions (sec) mode mode mode mode
El-Centro Imperial Mw=6.9 0.02 0.31 3D Dam 3.157 3.181 3.267 3.413
(1940) valley 9 3D Dam 3.080 3.103 3.187 3.331
Kobe Takaka, Mw = 7.2 0.02 0.8 with water
(1995) Japan 3D Dam 2.846 2.870 2.962 3.122
with soil
foundation
The input acceleration-time plot of El-centro and water
earthquake, Kobe earthquake are shown in
(Figure 2),and (Figure 3).
Time history analysis is performed through
“TRANSIENT STRUCTRE” tool in ANSYS
Workbench® considering two representative
earthquakes. The maximum principal stresses in
concrete due to time history analysis are
computed. The details of the stress profile of the
three models obtained from this analysis are
shown below in Fig4 through Fig 6.
Figure 2. Accelerogram plot of El-Centro(1940)

earthquake
Figure 4. Stress contour of 3D dam against El

Centro earthquake
Figure 3. Accelerogram plot of Kobe (1995)

earthquake
241
Theme A
analysis the permissible tensile stress is taken as

Figure 5 Stress contour of Fluid -Structure (FS) 2% of compressive strength of concrete
System against El Centro earthquake considering full reservoir condition and earthquake
excitation. The comparison of maximum and
minimum stress is shown in the Figure 7
Figure 6 Stress contour of Soil -Fluid -Structure

(SFS) System against El Centro earthquake
Comparison between the maximum stresses in

the concrete structures against Time History
analysis is shown in shown in Table 3 Figure 7 Maximum Stress of dam obtained from,
Time history analysis for different system against
Table 3.Comparison between the maximum different earthquake
stresses in the concrete structures against
El Centro and Ksobe earthquake.
5 CONCLUSION
System Stress against Stress against The stresses developed in the dam are found to
El Centro Kobe be under permissible limit. It can be observed that
earthquake earthquake the presence of soil increases the stress values in
(N/mm2) (N/mm2) dam as SFS system has the highest maximum
stress value among all the systems.
3D Dam 1.29 3.07
structure with
base fixed 6 REFERENCE
Fluid - Arabshahi H, Lotfi V. (2008) Earthquake response

1.26 2.83 of concrete gravity dams including dam–
Structure
(FS) System foundation interface nonlinearities, Engineering
Structures.
Soil- Fluid - 1.78 6.93
Structure
Burman A, Maity D, Sreedeep S.(2010) Iterative
system (SFS)
analysis of concrete gravity dam-nonlinear
foundation interaction , International Journal of
Engineering, Science and Technology .
In this analysis the resultant of forces acting on
the dam are compression and tensile strength Chopra A K, Dynamics of Structures: Theory and
criteria respectively. According to IS: 6512-1984, Applications to Earthquake Engineering, Prentice
the allowable compressive stress in the dam Hall; Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 17, 635,
concrete shall not exceed, 7N/mm2 and 1996.
permissible tensile stress of concrete is taken to
be 1 to 4 percent of compressive strength. In this
242
Theme A
IS 456:2000, Plain and reinforced concrete

code of practice, Bureau of Indian standards,
New Delhi
Sarkar R, Paul D K and Stempniewsk L. (2007)

Influence of reservoir and foundation on the
nonlinear dynamic response of concrete gravity
dams, ISET Journal of Earthquake Technology.
Sherong Z, Gadhui W.(2013) Effect of near fault

and far fault ground motion on non linear dynamic
response and damage of concrete gravity dam,
Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering
Viladkar N M , Assady A. K .M.S. Al (2012)

Non linear analysis of Pine Flat Dam including
base sliding and separation, 15thWorld
Conference on Earthquake Engineering,
.
Wang G, Wang Y, Lu W, Yu M , Wang
C.(2017)Deterministic 3D seismic damage
analysis of Guandi concrete gravity dam: A case
study, Engineering Structures
243
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
STUDY ON FLUID-STRUCTURE INTERACTION IN ELEVATED WATER
TANK
ICID2018_D_004
Sutanuka Nath1 and Atanu Kumar Dutta2
1
P.G Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Email- sutanuka888@gmail.com
2
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam-
785007, India
ABSTRACT
This paper presents the effect of fluid-structure interaction (FSI) on the response of elevated water tank with fixed
base condition in ANSYS workbench®. The interaction between elevated water tank and water inside the tank is
checked during free movement of the structure .Two water tanks of the same capacity and the same dynamic
characteristics, one with frame-staging and the other with shaft-staging are chosen to check the influence of FSI due
to three representative earthquakes. Sloshing effect is visible for both the staging systems during modal analysis. A
comparison is done between frame-staged and shaft-staged water tanks in terms of stresses and modal frequencies.
It is found that stress on shaft staging is more compare to frame staging system.
Keywords: Fluid-Structure Interaction, Elevated water tank, ANSYS workbench®, Sloshing.
1 INTRODUCTION hence the structure fails when there is sloshing

inside the tank.
Liquid storage tanks are likely to be damaged by
strong ground motions which may cause some
unfavorable situations. During earthquake
excitations liquid inside the tank undergoes
sloshing effect which gives hydrodynamic
pressure to the wall of vessel (container). This
problem of fluid flow which causes deformation of
movable structure is understood as fluid-structure
interaction problem.
Fluid sloshing is a phenomenon of fluid-
structure interaction. In liquid storage tanks fluid
Figure 1. Elevated tanks and the single lumped-
sloshing gives maximum impact in case of failure
mass model after Dogangün and Livaoglu(2004)
mechanism of tank. To check this sloshing effect
or slosh-dynamics, computational fluid structure
simulation is carried out. There are many cases of G.W Housner in 1963 analyzed the behavior of
elevated tank structures getting collapsed due to Fluid-structure interaction as a double spring
sloshing effect during an earthquake. In seismic mass model for fixed base elevated tanks. Where
design of tank these effects should be minimized the fluid inside the tank divided into two parts,
upper region of water is considered as convective
to make the structure safe.
mass and lower region is considered as impulsive
This paper presents the effect of fluid-structure
mass. Sloshing of water takes place in convective
interaction due to three different earthquakes on
two types of water tank considering fixed base mass of water and impulsive mass moves along
condition. with the tank.
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
Different studies and approaches have been done

to study this fluid structure interaction problem. In
most of the cases the base of foundation tank is
considered to be fixed (Dutta et al, 2000). The
concept of fluid-structure interaction as a spring
mass model is first introduced in the 1950s. Single
spring mass model takes the completely filled tank
as a lumped mass and the vertical shaft is
considered as cantilever beam as shown in
(Fig.1). Vertical sloshing of water is neglected and Figure 2. Two-mass model for the elevated tanks
after Housner (1963)
244
ICID 2018
Another model was proposed by FEMA guidelines. Components of Intz type tank Dimensions
Convective mass of water considered as lumped Top Dome 120 mm thick
mass which is connected to the walls of tank by
Top Ring Beam 300 mm×300 mm
springs of stiffness Kc and impulsive mass is
Cylindrical Wall 200 mm thick
rigidly connected to the walls. Additional higher-
mode convective masses may also be included Bottom Ring Beam 300mm×300mm
for the ground-supported tanks, as shown in Circular Ring Beam 1200mm×600mm
(Fig.3). But for most accurate analysis higher Bottom Dome 300 mm thick
modes of masses are neglected as higher
Conical Dome 600 mm thick
modes of sloshing has negligibleinfluence on the Braces 500mm×500mm
forces exerted by the container wall. Radius of cylindrical Section 6000mm
The shaft model is designed with trial and error in

ANSYS workbench® so that the capacity of tank is
same and at the same time it maintains the same
dynamic characteristics of the frame-staged
system. The shaft staged water tank is also
considered with same diameter of frame-staged
elevated water tank and thickness of shaft is 150
mm. Height of staging is also same with the d
frame staging system. Two types of materials are
used in modelling of tank and water. Different
engineering properties like density, Young’s
modulus and Poisson’s ratio of these materials
are listed in Table 2. M20 concrete grade is
Figure 3. Spring-mass analogy for ground considered for modelling the concrete structure. In
supported cylindrical tank after Dogangün and this table the following element properties are
Livaoglu(2004) taken from L. Kalani Sarokolayi et al. (2008)
In the above literature fluid is modelled as Table 2. Material properties
spring-mass model to check FSI, which is quite
Materials Specific Modulusof Poisson
difficult in case of three dimensional modelling. Elasticity ratio
used mass
Visualization of fluid-structure interaction is
Kg/m ) (N/m2)
3
checked by modelling the water using different
finite fluid elements. Concrete 2400 2.23×1010 0.27
Water 1000 Bulk modulus
3 METHODOLOGY = 2.2 × 109
.
The fixed base elevated water tank is modelled using 3.1 Description of modeling
ANSYS Workbench®. The water inside the tank and
the frame staged elevated water tank are modelled Design modeller is used for building the geometry.
with proper finite elements. The model of frame Material and geometric properties are assigned.
staged elevated water tank is adopted from Appropriate mesh is generated. Depending upon
Krishna Raju N. (2015).The capacity of elevated the meshing method, sizing different solid
water tank is 1 million liters supported on 16 meter elements are assigned by default. Boundary
long frame staging system with 8 columns and the condition is assigned. Contact pair between
Diameter of cylindrical section of tank is 12 meter. different types of solid material is program
M20 concrete grade is considered for modelling controlled. SOLID187 is used in modeling the
the concrete structure. The dimensions of various concrete elevated water tank, staging, using
components are given in Table1. The water tank coarse mesh. It is a tetrahedral structural solid
is checked under both gravity loading and seismic element, which is used for three dimensional
loading considering three representative modeling of solid structures. While modeling this
earthquakes. Time history analysis is performed elevated water tank TARGE170 is taken as target
through “TRANSIENT STRUCTURE” tool and element and CONTA174 is considered as contact
gravity load analysis is performed by “STATIC element. These surface to surface contact
STRUCTURE” tool in ANSYS Workbench®. elements allow modeling of fluid pressure
Table 1. Sizes of various components of Intz type penetration loads. These interfaces are cable to
tank after Krishna Raju (2015) perform fluid structure and soil structure
interaction.The fluid element is capable able to
245
ICID 2018
exchange pressure and deformation properties http://www.vibrationdata.com/elcentro.htm. Kobe

with solid concrete elevated tank structure. As and Kocaeli earthquake database are selected
visualization of fluid-structure interaction is from Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research
effective with sloshing effect of water during free Next Generation Attenuation (PEER-NGA) strong
mode vibration water inside the tank is modeled motion database records available online at
with FLUID80 element. http://peer.berkeley.edu/nga. Table 3 shows the
3D frame-staged elevated water tank is shown in ground motion records.
below (Fig.4) modelled using ANSYS Workbench®
in tank full condition. Table 3. Gound motion characteristics
Different Station Mag Time Total PGA
ground -nitude steps time (g)
motions (sec) Period
(sec)
El- Imperial Mw=6.9 0.02 31.14 0.31
Centro valley 9
(1940)
Kobe Takaraz Mw= 7.2 0.02 40 0.8
(1995) uka,
Japan
Kocaeli Sakaria Mw= 7.6 0.01 20 0.62
(1999) station 8
Turkey
The input acceleration-time plot of El-centro

Figure 4. Frame-staged elevated water tank earthquake, Kobe earthquake are shown in
considering fixed base (Figure 6), (Figure 7), (Figure 8)
3D shaft-staged elevated water tank is shown in
below (Fig.5) modeled using ANSYS Workbench®
in tank full condition.
Figure 6.Accelerogram plot of El-Centro(1940)

earthquake
Figure 5. Shaft-staged elevated water tank

considering fixed base
3.2 Time History data

Time history analysis is computed for three
representitive earthquakes. These are El-Centro
(18th May, 1940), Kobe (17th january,1995) and Figure 7. Accelerogram plot of Kobe (1995)
Kocaeli (18th May, 1999) earthquake. earthquake
These ground motions are considered on the
basis of their Maximum peak ground acceleration.
Ground acceleration data for north-south
component of El-Centro is obtained from
246
ICID 2018
Kobe 33.90 44.9

earthquake
(1995)
Kocaeli 2.90 8.54
earthquake
(1999)
Considering maximum limit of stress in M20 grade

Figure 8. Accelerogram plot of Kocaeli (1999) of concrete under compression as fck/ 1.5 =13.33
earthquake N/mm2 it is observed that maximum equivalent
stress value on both the concrete structures
(staging) exceeds permissible limit for all the
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION earthquakes.
The results obtained from modal analysis of both (i) Stresses are more in shaft staging
the frame-staged and shaft-staged systems are system compared to frame staging
compared in terms of modal frequencies as shown system
in table 4. Mode shapes are similar for both the (ii) Against El-Centro and Kobe earthquake
systems stress values on the frame and shaft
staging exceeds maximum limit of
Table 4. Comparison between the frequencies of compression in concrete, i.e
frame staged and shaft staged water tanks 13.33N/mm2
Mode Frequency of Frequency of shaft (iii) Agianst Kocaeli earthquake stress values
Shapes Frame staging staging elevated on concrete are within permissible limit.
Elevated water water tank (Hz)
tank(Hz) It has been observed that the structure is not safe
Mode 1.6545 1.6533 for seismic activity as per time history analysis
shape 1 considered for three representative earthquakes.
Mode 1.6731 1.661 It is clear that structural configuration as per
Shape 2 Krishna Raju (2015) was arrived at using static
Mode 1.9767 4.6513 analysis only and hence cannot be used for
Shape 3 earthquake prone region.
Mode 8.656 9.8099
Shape 4
Mode 8.686 9.8406 4 CONCLUSION
Shape 5
Mode 14.223 12.104 The paper concludes that both frame staging and
Shape 6 shaft staging systems are not safe for seismicity
as per time history analysis with two
Time history analysis is performed through representative earthquakes. It is clear that
“TRANSIENT STRUCTRE” tool in ANSYS structural configuration as per Krishna Raju (2015)
Workbench® considering three representative was arrived at using static analysis only and
earthquakes. The acceleration is applied in hence cannot be used for earthquake prone
horizontal X direction to the whole geometry. The region. The maximum equivalent stress on
maximum equivalent stresses in concrete due to concrete structure due to El-Centro (1940)
time history analysis are computed. earthquake for both the staging systems are more
comparing to Kobe (1995) and Kocaeli (1999)
Comparison between the maximum equivalent
stresses in both the concrete structuresdue to El- earthquakes. Both the structures are safe under
Centro (1940), Kobe (1995) and kocaeli (1999) Kocaeli (1999) earthquake.
earthquakes are shown in table 5
Table 5.Comparison between the equivalent 5 REFERENCES

compressive stresses on both the staging systems
ANSYS Theory Manuel, 1994. Edited by Peter
Name Equivalent Equivalent
Kohnke, Twelfth Edition. SAS IP, Inc, pp.1266.
Of the stress in frame stress in
earthquake staging (N/mm2) shaft staging
Ahmad S., Al-Hussaini, T. M. & Fishman, K. L.
(N/mm2)
1996. Investigation of active isolation of
El-Centro 62.0 80.0
Machine Foundations by Open Trench, Journal
earthquake
of Geotechnical Engineering, 117(4), 616—
(1940)
636.
247
ICID 2018
Dutta, S.C., Jain, S.K. & Murthy, C.V.R., 2000.

Assessing the seismic torsional vulnerability of
elevated tanks with RC frame-type staging,
Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering,
vol.19, P.P. 183-197.
Krishna Raju N., 2015. Advanced Reinforced

Concrete Design (IS: 456-2000) (English) 3rd
Edition, CBS Publisher.
Kalani Sarokolayi, L., Navayineya, B.,

Hosainalibegi M., &Vaseghi Amiri. J., 2008.
Dynamic analysis of water tanks with
interaction between fluid and structure,The 14
th World Conference on Earthquake
Engineering.
Kumar D. & Patel B. 2016. Response of overhead

water tank staging considering Fluid-Structure-
Soil Interaction, International Journal of
Advanced Engineering and Research
Development, Vol. 3, Issue 4.
Livaoğlu, R. & Doğangün, A. 2005. Seismic

evaluation of fluid-elevated tank-foundation/soil
systems in frequency domain, Structural
Engineering and Mechanics 21: 1, 101-119.
Livaoğlu, R. & Doğangün, A. 2006, Simplified

Seismic Analysis Procedures for Elevated Tanks
Considering Fluid-Structure-Soil Interaction,
Journal of Fluids and Structures, 22:3, 421-439
248
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
SEISMIC BEHAVIOR OF AN ELEVATED INTZE TYPE TANK FOR
DIFFERENT STAGING CONFIGURATION
ICID2018_D_006
Mriganka Borkotoky1, Dr. Nayanmoni Chetia2
1, 2. Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India
ABSTRACT
The paper entitled “Seismic behavior of an elevated intze type tank for different staging configuration” involves
a 1000m3 capacity RC elevated intze type tank supported on frame staging of 22m height. The water inside the tank
is modeled as mechanical spring mass analogue as per IITK-GSDMA (2007) based on the concept of George W.
Housner (1963). Under dynamic loading, the water inside the tank exerts hydrodynamic pressure on the tank wall
and base which is divided into two parts convective and impulsive hydrodynamic pressure and hence the fluid
masses inside the tank are divided as convective and impulsive mass. Hence two mass idealization of the tank is
considered for finite element modeling of the tank in SAP2000. Parametric study is done for three types of bracing
systems and a fluid viscous damper installed bracing system. Bracing patterns such as conventional bracing, radial
bracing, diagonal bracing and a fluid viscous damper installed bracing. Three different fluid level conditions such as
tank empty, tank half and full tank conditions has been examined. Seismic responses of the tank are expressed in
terms of tank roof displacement and base shear under different earthquake records for all the bracing systems.
Keywords: Spring mass model; Bracings; Convective mass; Impulsive mass; Fluid viscous damper
1 INTRODUCTION show that the structure responses are exceedingly

influenced by different column proportionality.
Elevated water tanks are important structures Patel et al. (2012): Seismic behavior of RC
which provide important city services in many elevated water tank under different staging
places all around the world. However due to their pattern and earthquake characteristics; studied
tall and slender geometry of staging and the behaviour of supporting system which is more
unfavorable structural configuration with the major effective under different earthquake time history
portion of the mass concentrated at the top, they records in SAP2000. Two different supporting
are vulnerable to horizontal earthquake forces. systems such as radial bracing and cross bracing
Hence the elevated water storage tanks are are compared with basic supporting system for
amongst the most seismically vulnerable lifelines. various fluid level conditions. Modeling is done as
Their serviceability performance during and after per IITK-GSDMA guidelines and Westergaard’s
strong earthquakes is of crucial concern. The added mass approach. Tank response includes
failure of these structures may cause some base shear, overturning moment have been
hazards for the citizens such as resulting shortage observed and results compared.
of water or difficulty in putting out fires during an Hamzeh Shakib et al. (2011): Effect of
earthquake. Moreover elevated water tanks are earthquake characteristics on seismic
mostly situated in urban areas such as city performance of RC elevated water tanks
centers hence their partial or global failure can considering fluid level within the vessels;
cause heavy damage to the surrounding buildings studied response of a RC elevated water tank of
and structures leading to serious consequences 900 cubic meters capacity under three earthquake
for the safety of the inhabitants. Therefore the records and analyzed in time history by using
dynamic behavior of such structures needs to be mechanical and finite element modeling
investigated so that efforts can be made in techniques. The liquid masses inside the tank
improving the design provisions of such structures modeled as lumped masses known as sloshing
to withstand any earthquake in future. mass, impulsive mass and rigid mass. FEM
software ANSYS is used for modeling the tank.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW Tank response to earthquakes includes base
shear, overturning moment, tank displacement are
Patel et al. (2012): Sloshing response of obtained and compared and contrasted. Results
elevated water tank over alternate column show that the system responses are highly
proportionality; investigated the seismic behavior influenced by the structural parameters and the
of an elevated water tank under alternate column earthquake characteristics, such as frequency
proportionality under different earthquake records. content.
It aims at checking the adequacy of water tank for Sorace et al. (2015):Analysis and seismic
seismic excitations. The response includes retrofit study of a heritage-listed RC elevated
sloshing displacement under four different water tower; experimented a heritage listed RC
earthquake records and compared. The results water tower of Italy built in early 1930s, which is a
representative of a wide stock of heritage listed
249
Theme A
elevated water tanks with frame staging on which
retrofitting is done. The assessment analysis of
the structure was developed with a detailed finite
element model, which includes spring mass
assembly to produce the fluid structure interaction.
Then time history analysis was performed under
seismic action scaled at the maximum considered
earthquake (MCE) level. Based on these data, a
passive energy dissipation based retrofit
hypothesis is proposed consisting of installation of
a dissipative bracing system incorporating
pressurized fluid viscous spring-dampers. The
seismic response of the tank to the time history
data before and after retrofitting was compared
and discussed.
.
3. METHODOLOGY
Fig.1. Spring mass model of elevated water tank
Generally a two mass model idealization is (from IITK-GSDMA: 2007)
considered for studying the dynamic behavior of
elevated water tanks. A mechanical spring mass
Table 1. Structural members of the tank
analogue is used to characterize the basic
dynamics for two mass model of elevated tanks, Top Dome, thickness 100 mm
which is based on the concept of George W. Top Ring Beam; width 200 mm Х 400 mm
Housner (1963). Housner proposed certain and depth
guidelines and provided analytical expressions for
studying the seismic behavior of such structures Cylindrical wall; 300 mm
which are followed by the seismic design codes of thickness
most of the countries including the Indian code Bottom ring beam; width 600 mm Х 1200
IITK-GSDMA (2007): Guidelines for seismic and depth mm
design of liquid storage tanks. IITK-GSDMA Conical Dome; thickness 600 mm
(2007) and draft code IS: 1893 (Part-II) provide
certain guidelines and analytical expressions to Bottom Dome; thickness 300 mm
evaluate the seismic parameters of elevated tanks
Bottom Circular Girder; 600 mm Х 1200
to be considered in their design.
width and depth mm
Under dynamic loading, the moving water
inside the tank exerts hydrodynamic pressure on Columns; diameter 650 mm
the tank wall and base, which can be divided into Beams; width and depth 500 mm Х 500 mm
convective hydrodynamic pressure and impulsive
hydrodynamic pressure, hence the mass of water Bracings, width and 500 mm Х 500 mm
inside the tank divided into two masses convective depth
mass and impulsive mass. The free surface water Fluid viscous damper Damping force:
mass undergoes sloshing motion and exerts 2000 KNm/sec;
convective hydrodynamic pressure and the bottom Stiffness : 3333.3
portion of the water moves rigidly along with the N/mm
tank and exerts impulsive hydrodynamic pressure.
Hence two mass model idealization is adopted for The structural properties of the fluid viscous
such structures. Finite element modeling software damper are taken from a catalogue of a
SAP2000 is used to model the tank. The leading manufacturer of seismic energy
parameters of the spring mass model are dissipative devices namely ITT Infrastructures.
calculated from IITK-GSDMA (2007). Shell
elements are used to modeling the top dome, The FEM models of the tank in SAP2000 for
bottom dome and conical dome while frame different staging configurations are shown in
elements are used for modeling beams, columns fig.2.
and braces. Linear elastic link elements are used
to connect the convective mass to the tank walls
and rigid link elements to connect the rigid
impulsive mass to the tank walls. Fluid viscous
damper is modeled with linear link element.
250
Theme A
The seismic responses of the tank to the

aforementioned time history records are
expressed in terms of tank roof displacement
and base shear force.
5. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS
40
Imperial
35 Valley
Earthquake
30 Loma
25 Prieta
Earthquake
20 Landers
Conventional Braced Radial Braced Earthquake
15
10 Whittier
Narrows
5
Earthquake
0
Conventional Radial braced Diagonal FVD
braced braced
Empty tank roof displacement (cm)
35
Imperial
30 Valley
Earthquake
25 Loma Prieta
Fluid viscous damper Diagonal Braced Earthquake
Braced 20
Landers
Fig.2. FEM models of elevated water tank for 15 Earthquake
different staging configuration 10
Whittier
Narrows
5 Earthquake
4. TIME HISTORY ANALYSIS
0
The time history functions of four earthquake braced braced
acceleration records namely Imperial Valley
(1979), Loma Prieta (1989), Landers (1992) and
Whittier Narrows (1987) at Elcentro, Hollister, Half Tank roof displacement (cm)
Yermo-fire station and Altadena stations
respectively were applied to the tank. The peak Imperial
40
ground acceleration of the aforementioned Valley
Earthquake
earthquake records are provided in table 2. 35
30 Loma Prieta
Earthquake
Table 2. Peak Ground Acceleration of the 25
earthquake records 20 Landers
Earthquake Station PGA 15
Earthquake
10
Imperial valley Elcentro 0.312 g Whittier
(1979) 5 Narrows
Earthquake
Loma preita (1989) Hollister 0.368 g 0
braced braced
Landers (1992) Yermo -fire 0.34 g
station
Full Tank roof displacement (cm)
Whittier narrows Altadena 0.26 g
Fig.3. Plot of tank roof displacement for different
(1987)
bracing systems to different time history records
for three fluid level conditions
251
Theme A
Table 3. Seismic responses of the tank to different time history records
Roof Displacement (cm) Base Shear (KN)
Tank Staging Conventional Radial Diagonal FVD Conventional Radial Diagonal FVD
type braced braced braced braced braced braced braced Braced
Fill
Earthquake
records
Imperial 18.65 14.97 13.6 18 1851 2106 5123 1515
Valley
Loma Prieta 32.31 33.41 22 24.7 3173 3641 6266 2438
Empty
Landers 14.63 13.64 7.05 10.45 1321 1305 1809 1022
Whittier 8.01 8.06 5.17 7.2 770 715 1225 477

Narrows
Imperial 18 14.53 10.9 17.61 1817 2058 4372 1499
Valley
Loma Prieta 31.75 31.50 21.75 23.80 3163 3350 6963 2381
Half
Landers 13.10 14.21 7.38 10.08 1164 1419 2014 965
Whittier 7.66 7.76 4.91 6.94 731 692 1280 456

Narrows
Imperial 18.70 19.40 14.58 18.20 1865 2209 5331 1545
Valley
Loma Prieta 32.70 33.70 22.31 24.70 3242 3724 6824 2461
Full
Landers 13.90 13.13 7.45 10.47 1215 1214 2071 999
Whittier 7.96 7.97 5.06 7.21 756 745 1347 476
Narrows
7000 8000
Imperial Imperial
Valley 7000 Valley
6000
Earthquake Earthquake
6000
5000 Loma Prieta Loma Prieta
Earthquake 5000 Earthquake
4000
Landers 4000 Landers
3000 Earthquake Earthquake
3000
2000 2000
Whittier Whittier
Narrows Narrows
1000 1000
Earthquake Earthquake
0 0
Conventional Radial braced Diagonal FVD Conventional Radial braced Diagonal FVD
braced braced braced braced
Empty tank Base Shear (KN) Half tank Base Shear (KN)
8000
Imperial
7000 Valley
Earthquake
6000
Loma Prieta
5000 Earthquake
4000
Landers
3000 Earthquake
2000
Whittier
1000 Narrows
0 Earthquake
braced braced
Full tank Base Shear (KN)

Fig.4. Plot of Base Shear (KN) for different bracing systems to different time history records for three
fluid level conditions
252
Theme A
6. CONCLUSION Patel, N, Chirag, Vaghela, N. Shashi and Patel, S,

H.2012. Sloshing response of elevated water
From the above observations, it can be seen that tank over alternative column proportionality,
with the installation of added bracings such as International Journal of Advanced Engineering
radial and diagonal bracing in the conventional Technology, E-ISSN 0976-3945.
braced staging results in decreasing response of
the tank roof displacement. Both radial braced and Patel, S, H, and Jabar, M, Ayazhussain.2012.
diagonal braced staging systems along with the Seismic behavior of RC elevated water tank
fluid viscous damper braced staging displayed under different staging pattern and earthquake
lesser values of roof displacement compared to characteristics, International Journal of
the conventional bracing system, with diagonal Advanced Engineering Research and Studies,
bracing system having the least response. E-ISSN2249-8974.
However when it comes to the response of the
tank to seismic base shear for the different time Sorace, S., Terenzi, G., Mori, C.2015. Analysis
history records, the above case is quite the and seismic retrofit of a heritage-listed RC
opposite, i.e., both the radial braced and diagonal elevated water tower; Sustainable
braced system showed large values of base shear Development, Vol.I, 557.
compared to conventional bracing due to added
mass and stiffness to the whole structure. On the
contrary the fluid viscous damper installed bracing
system displayed the least response compared to
all the bracing systems for all the earthquake
records. The overall seismic performance of the
fluid viscous damper system to both the seismic
parameters is satisfactory. Hence through this
research work it can be concluded that fluid
viscous dampers may be a feasible solution for
elevated water tanks in highly seismic zones.
7. REFERENCES
Housner, W, G.1963. The dynamic behavior of

water tanks, Bulletin of the Seismological
Society of America. Vol. 53, No. 2, pp. 381-
387.
IITK- GSDMA (2007): Guidelines for seismic

design of liquid storage tanks.
IS 1893(Part –II): 2006.
ITT Infrastructure Products.

Livaoglu, R and Dogangun, A.2006. Simplified
seismic analysis procedures for elevated tanks
considering fluid-structure-soil interaction;
Journals of Fluids and Structures.
Omidinasab, F and Shakib, H.2011. Effect of
earthquake characteristics on seismic
performance of RC elevated water tanks
considering fluid level within the vessels, Arab
J Sci Eng (2011) 36:227-243.
Omidinasab, F and Shakib, H.2012. Seismic

response evaluation of RC elevated water tank
with Fluid-Structure Interaction and earthquake
ensemble, KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering,
16(3):366-376.
253
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
NUMERICAL STUDY OF AXIALLY LOADED SHORT STEEL TUBE
COLUMNS
ICID2018_D_008
Palash Dey1, Rohit Kumar Gupta2
1,2. Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Silchar, Assam – 788010, India
ABSTRACT
The present study outlines the use of finite element analysis as a numerical method to study the structural behaviour
of short steel tube columns under axial loads. Three different cross-sectional steel tube columns were studied. The
outcome of the study shows that the strain-hardening characteristic is long after the steel tube reaches yield in case
of circular tube. Moreover the post-yield behaviour of rectangular and square tubes is strain-softening.
Keywords: Axially loaded; steel tube; finite element; yield behaviour
1 INTRODUCTION rectangular and square cross-section. Modelling

space is 3D. The areas of the cross-sections of
The steel tubes are widely employed in different configurations and applied external axial
engineering as structural elements, because of loading conditions have been considered to be
their low cost, high strength and stiffness, same in the whole analysis. The steel tubes were
excellent load carrying and energy absorption fixed at one end and other end pinned. The
capacity. schematic of the finite element mesh for different
The experimental and theoretical predictions cross-sectional configuration of columns are
for axial crushing of thin-walled steel tubes with depicted in Fig. 1 to Fig. 3.
square and circular cross-sections have been
published in referencesAbramowiczand Jones
(1984), Abramowicz and Jones (1984), and Jones
and Abramowicz(1985). In addition, several
researchers have given their efforts to further
improve the theoretical models for the axial
crushing of circular tubes, such as Huang and Lu
(2003) and Grzebieta (1990). Zhang et al. (2009)
demonstrated the energy absorption of aluminum-
alloy square tubes with buckling initiators
subjected to axial impact loadings. Pavlovčičet al.
(2010) carried out the tests on slender thin walled
box columns, vulnerable to changeability of both
types: to global Euler buckling as well as to local
buckling of steel plates. The behaviour of concrete
filled steel tubular columns due to axial loading
condition can be found in references Tamet al.
(2014), Jayaganesh(2015), and Zhu (2016). Most Figure 1.Model of circular column.
of the previous works widely studied the behaviour
of axially loaded steel tube columns of doubly
symmetrical cross-section such as circular and
square. However, the behaviour of axially loaded
steel tube columns with singly-symmetrical cross-
section, i.e., rectangular cross-sectional
configuration studied prior to the work presented
in this article is scanty.
2 FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING
In the present study, the models of the steel tubes

have been prepared using finite element method
(FEM). The FE analysis was carried out using
ABAQUS software package. Three different cross-
sectional configuration of columns needs to be
Figure 2.Model of square column.
studied in this section. These are circular,
254
ICID 2018
Figure 3.Model of Rectangular column. (a)
In this study, three different configurations of steel

tubes (C – Circular, S – Square, R – Rectangular)
are considered. These tubes are impacted by a
rigid wall having an initial velocity of 15.6 m/sec in
axial direction. The physical properties of different
configurations of steel tubes are listed in Table 1,
which are presented below. The breadth, width
(or) diameter, height, density and Poisson’s ratio
are represented by b, d, h, ρ and μ.
Table 1. Properties of the different configurations

of steel tube columns (b)
Sl. Col. b d h ρ μ
No. Con1 in in in Kg/m3
mm mm mm
1 C - 110.58 450 7850 0.26
2 S 98 98.00 450 7850 0.26
3 R 78 123.13 450 7850 0.26
1
Col. Con. - Column Configuration
The thickness of all steel tubes has been

chosen 2mm. Shell element was used to prepare
the FE model with mesh size equal to 5. The
crushing configuration of hollow circular, square
and rectangular cross-sectional steel tube short
columns under axial loadings and their buckling
have been shown in the Fig. 4(a-c).
(c)
Figure 4.Crushing configuration of different cross-
sectional steel tube columns.
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The output results showed that the hollow steel REFERENCES

columns failed due to local buckling at the ends. It
has been observed that the local buckling at the Abramowicz, W. and Jones, N. 1984.Dynamic
ends is more in case of rectangular column axial crushing of circular tubes, International
compared to square and circular columns. Journal of Impact Engineering, 2, 263-281.
After the analysis, a plot between force and Abramowicz, W. and Jones, N. 1984.Dynamic
displacement curve for short steel tube columns axial crushing of square tubes, International
for different configurations has been presented in Journal of Impact Engineering, 2, 179-208.
the Fig. 5. It has been observed from the figure Jones, N. and Abramowicz, W. 1985. Static and
that, in case of circular tube the strain-hardening dynamic axial crushing of circular and square
characteristics long after the steel tube reached tubes. Metal Forming and Impact Mechanics
yield. On the other hand, the post-yield behaviour (Edited by S. R. Reid), pp. 225-247. Pergamon
of rectangular and square tubes is strain- Press Oxford.
softening. Huang, X. and Lu, G. 2003.Axisymmetric
progressive crushing of circular tubes.
International Journal of Crashworthiness, 8(1):
87-95.
Grzebieta,R.H. 1990. An alternative method for
determining the behaviour of round stocky
tubes subjected to an axial crush load. Thin-
Walled Structures, (1-4), 61-89.
Zhang, X.W. Su, H. and Yu, T.X.2009.Energy
absorption of an axially crushed square tube
with a buckling initiator, International Journal of
Impact Engineering, 36(3): 402-417.
Pavlovčič, L. Froschmeier, B.Kuhlmann, U. and
Beg, D. 2010. Slender thin-walled box columns
subjected to compression and bending,
Journal of Civil Engineering and Management,
16 (2): 179-188.
Figure 5. Force-displacement curve for steel tube Tam, V.W.Y. Wang, Z.B. and Tao, Z.
columns. 2014.Behaviour of recycled aggregate
concrete filled stainless steel stub columns,
Materials and Structures, 47, 293–310.
The numerical results of studied columns have Jayaganesh, S.Murugadoss,J.R. Prabhu, G.G and
been indicated that the circular tubes could Jegan, J. 2015.Effects of concentrical partial
deform in a progressive crushing mode and serve (local) compression on the structural behavior
as excellent energy absorbers, compare to other of concrete filled steel tubular column,
two cross-sectional configurations. Advances in Materials Science and
Engineering, 1-9.
Zhu, L. Ma, L.Bai, Y. Li, S. Song, Q. Wei, Y.
4 CONCLUSION Zhang, L. Zhang, Z. and Sha, X. 2016. Large
diameter concrete filled high strength steel
In this work, three different cross-sectional, i.e., tubular stub columns under compression, Thin-
circular, square and rectangular steel tube walled Structures, 108, 12-19.
columns were studied to understand the
behaviour of those columns subjected to axial
loading condition. The results indicated that the
strain-hardening characteristic was long after the
steel tube reached yield in case of circular tube,
which indicated the tube deformed in a
progressive crushing mode and served as
excellent energy absorbers. The post-yield
behaviour of rectangular and square tubes was
strain-softening.
256
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
LIMITING SHEAR STRENGTH EXPRESSION FOR RC CORBELS
ICID2018_D_009
Leon Raj J1, Katari Durga Bhavani2, M L Sai Ranga Rao3, and Sanjay Deori4
1
Scientist, Applied Civil Engineering Group, CSIR-North East Institute of Science and Technology, Jorhat,
Assam, India
2
PG student, Structural Engineering in Civil Engineering Department, KoneruLakshmaiah Education
Foundation, Guntur, India
3
Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department, KoneruLakshmaiah Education Foundation, Guntur,
India
4
Principal Scientist, Applied Civil Engineering Group, CSIR-North East Institute of Science and
Technology, Jorhat, Assam, India
ABSTRACT
In this paper, a simple analytical expression is proposed to limit the maximum shear strength of
reinforced concrete corbels. Thegeneric form of the expression is adopted fromAmerican code.
Experimental database of 217 samples is collected from the literature to find coefficients of the
expression. The proposed model accounted for compressive strength of concrete, reinforcement ratio,
shear span-to-depth ratio, breadth and effective depth. The results indicate that the proposed model is
one of the best expressions to limit the shear strength of reinforced concrete corbels. The shear strength
predicted with mean of strength ratio (experimental/predicted shear strength) of 1.28 using this proposed
expression is relatively safe and accurate when compared with the other existing limiting shear strength
expressions.
Keywords: Corbels, shear strength, shear span-to-depth ratio, size-effect
1 INTRODUCTION procedure shall be adopted for regions with

Reinforced concrete (RC) corbel is a structural discontinuity in the structural member, such as
member, Corbel is a short-hunched cantilever areas, zone of load application (or) areas with a
used to support the reinforced concrete precast sudden change in the geometrical dimensions
beams.Usually,shear span-to-depth ratio (a/d) of such as brackets and portal frames. Corbels are
corbel is lesser than or equal to one. It makes the designed mainly to provide for the vertical reaction
corbel behave in a two-dimensional manner. Vu at the end of the supported beam, and
Corbels are primarily designed to resist vertical sometimes they must also resist a horizontal force
loads and horizontal forces owing to restrained Nuctransmitted from the reinforced beam due to
shrinkage, thermal deformation, and creep of the restrained shrinkage, creep, or temperature
supported. Corbels cast monolithically with the change.In general,strut-and-tie model of a
column element (or) wall element. structure is an effective tool for the analysis and
design of concrete members especially for D-
regions.
Figure 1: RC Corbel
Figure 2:Reinforcement detailing of RC corbel
Corbels are commonly termed as a discontinuity
region(D-region), where “plane section remains A strut-and-tie (STM) model visualizes a truss-like
plane” assumption is not valid. Different design system in the structure and transmits forces from
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loading points to the supports. Strut reinforcement ratio, shear span-to-depth ratio and
resistscompressive force applied on the member. size effect was incorporated. The proposed model
They are primarily made of concrete or a is safe, economic and consistent.
combination of concrete and compression
reinforcement. Tiesare tensile members in the 3 EXPERIMENTAL DATA
strut-and-tie model. They are made out of a The important parameters which are controlling
combination of reinforcement and concrete. the shear strength of corbels, based on previous
However, the members like deep beams, corbels, research workare given below:
beam-column joints and shear walls are designed a= shear span, i.e. distance from column face to
with STM, limiting shear strength expression is resultantofvertical load, mm
needed for the following reasons:first, to limit the b=width of corbel, mm.
cracks under service loads and second, to limit d = effective depth of corbelmeasured at column
the concrete contribution. Further, existing limiting face, mm
expressions do not explicitly consider the effect of fc’=Compressive strength of concrete, MPa
tension reinforcement ratio, shear span-to-depth 𝜌 = reinforcement ratio at column face,
ratio and size effect. Therefore, in this paper, an 𝐴𝑣 + 𝐴𝑠
𝜌=
empirical expression is developed by considering 𝑏𝑑
the influencing phenomena and factors. 𝑣𝑢= nominal shear stress atultimate strength, kN
𝑉𝑢
𝑣𝑢 =
2 RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE 𝑏𝑑
This paper reported a simple analytical expression 𝑉𝑢 = vertical load at ultimatestrength, i.e. shear at
proposed for limiting the shear strength of RC ultimate strength, kN
corbels.The proposed expression is developed ∅= capacity reduction factor
using the existing limiting equations of ACI318-14 𝐴𝑠 = area of tension reinforcement,mm 2
codes. Experimental database of 217 samples is 𝐴𝑣 = total area of horizontalclosed stirrups,mm2
collected from the literature to validate the limiting
expressions. Besides, the effect of tension
Figure 3: Experimental/Predicted Shear Strength(VuTEST/VuPRE)vs.shear span-to-depth ratio (a/d)
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ICID 2018
Figure 4: Experimental/Predicted Shear Strength vs.compressive strength of concrete
Figure 5 : Experimental/Predicted Shear Strength vs.effective depth
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The experiment data includes corbels results 𝑎 𝐵

]) , where A and B are the empirical constants.
taken from the tests carried out by Kriz et al. 𝑑
Next, to consider the size effect, (𝑉𝑛 / (𝑏𝑑𝑓’𝑐 )is
(1965),Fattuhi(1990) Yong et al (1994),Hwang et
al (2000) and Wael (2015). plotted with depth, and the best-fit curve is
identified as d(-0.25). Similarly, other coefficients
4 EXISTING EXPRESSIONS such as a1 and a2 are obtained by trial and error
4.1 ACI 318-1995 method. By substituting all the constants in
As per ACI 318-95, Eq. (1) is the limit on shear equation following equation is developed.
strength of shear critical members. 1 1 3
𝑓𝑐, 2 𝜌 2 b𝑑4
(𝐴𝐶𝐼 318−95) 𝑉𝑛𝑃𝑅𝑂 = 1 ………..(5)
𝑉𝑛 = 0.70√𝑓 ′ 𝑐 𝑏𝑑 [SI Units] …..(1) 𝑎
(log10 [1.0+ ])2
𝑑
𝑎
where ( ) <1.0
4.2 ACI 318-2008 𝑑
The expressions for the maximum shear strength
as per ACI 318 codes released before 1999 are 6 EFFECTS OFINFLUENCING PARAMETERS
re-examined with the test data. The support
crushing is considered as the limiting criteria. ACI 6.1 EFFECT OF SHEAR SPAN-TO-
318-08 restricts that shear force should not DEPTHRATIO
exceed the Eq. (2). As per the provisions of ACI 318-08 and ACI 318-
14, the shear span-to-depth ratio decreases
(𝐴𝐶𝐼 318−08)
𝑉𝑛 = 0.83√𝑓′𝑐 𝑏𝑑 [SI Units]….. (2) whenthere is an increase in the shear strength
ofcorbel.In the case of proposed model, the effect
𝑎
4.3 ACI 318-2011 and 2014 of 𝑑 ratio has been considered with a consistent
𝑎
ACI 318-11 and ACI 318-14 proposed the same term. The term ‘𝑑 ’ ratio is expressed in logarithmic
Eq.(3)for maximum design shear strength of shear form in order to minimize the errors.
critical members. To make the actual equation
conservative, the reduction factor is multiplied with 6.2 EFFECT OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
the previous code design equation. ON CORBEL
The Maximum design shear strength depends on The compressive strength of corbel as per the
the compressive strength of concrete and the proposed equation is greater when compared with
cross-sectional area of corbels. To arrest the ACI 318-95,08 and ACI 318-11,14 Codes. The low
cracking within service loads and to safeguard the strength concrete corbels scatter more when
corbels against diagonal compression failure, the compared to the data on medium strength
limit is imposed. concrete corbels. Irrespective of compressive
strength of concrete, the proposed model predicts
(𝐴𝐶𝐼 318−11,14)
𝑉𝑛 = ∅ 0.83 √𝑓𝑐 ′ 𝑏𝑑 ...... (3) the capacity uniformly.
where ϕ = 0.75
6.3 EFFECT OF DEPTH ON CORBEL
5 MODIFIED MAXIMUM SHEAR STRENGTH The depth of corbel varies in between 200mm and
600mm. Size effect is accounted for in the
To maintain simplicity in the proposed equation for proposed expression by adopting suitable power
maximum shear strength, the generic form of ACI term for ‘d’. Consequently, prediction of the
318-14 equation is retained. In addition, toaccount proposed model varies uniformly with depth of
for the influence of shear span-to-depthratio and corbel.
percentage tension reinforcement, the generic
equation is formulated as below. 7 COMPARISON OF PROPOSED MODEL
WITH EXISTING MODELS
𝑓𝑐, 𝑎1 𝜌 𝑎2𝑏𝑑𝑎3 The proposed equation is relatively safe when
𝑉𝑛𝑃𝑅𝑂 = 𝑎 …………… (4) compared to ACI318-95, For the ACI 318-95, ACI
( )𝑎4
𝑑
318-08 and ACI 318-11,14, standard
In order to find out the coefficients, namely, a1, deviationvalues are 0.42,0.35 and 0.47,
a2, a3, and a4, (𝑉𝑛 / (𝑏𝑑𝑓’𝑐 )are plotted with (a/d) respectively, the proposed equation standard
ratio, fc’, b and d. From the literature,the best-fit deviation is 0.43, which is merely equal to ACI
𝑎 −1.0
codes, whereas the mean of strength ratio is 1.28,
curve of (𝑉𝑛 / (𝑏𝑑𝑓’𝑐 )vs. (a/d) is( ) , and the while mean of ACI codes are between 0.8 and
𝑑
trend is exponentially decaying. First, it is 1.1. The coefficient of variation of proposed model
challenging to account for the shear span-to-depth is 34 %, which can be reduced further by
𝑎 𝑎4 modifying the coefficients.
ratio in the proposed equation. Thus, (𝑑 ) is
replaced by a more consistent term(log10[𝐴 +
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Figure 6Experimental (VuTEST)vs. predicted shear strength(VnPRE)
[5] Campione, G., 2009. Performance of steel

8 CONCLUSION fibrous reinforced concrete corbels subjected
to vertical and horizontal loads. Journal of
The proposed equation is more conservative than structural engineering, 135(5), pp.519-529.
that of the existing models suggested by ACI [6] Concrete Institute, Farmington Hill, Michigan.
codes. Also, the effect of tension reinforcement Fattuhi, N.I., 1990. Column-load effect on
ratio, shear span-to-depth ratio and size-effect reinforced concrete corbels. Journal of
were incorporated. The mean and coefficient of Structural Engineering, 116(1), pp.188-197.
variation of strength ratio of proposed model are [7] Fattuhi, N.I., 1990. Strength of SFRC corbels
1.28 and0.34, respectively.From the comparison it subjected to vertical load. Journal of Structural
has beenconcluded that the proposed model is Engineering, 116(3), pp.701-718.
safe, economical and consistent. [8] Fattuhi, N.I., 1994. Strength of FRC corbels in
flexure. Journal of Structural
REFERENCES Engineering, 120(2), pp.360-377.
[9] Hwang, S.J., Lu, W.Y. and Lee, H.J., 2000.
[1] ACI Committee 318-11, (2011), “Building Shear strength prediction for reinforced
Code Requirements for Structural Concrete, concrete corbels. Structural Journal, 97(4),
“American pp.543-552.
[2] ACI committee 318-14, (2014), “Building Code [10] IS 456:2000, “Indian Standard Plain and
Requirements for Structural Concrete”, Reinforced Concrete Code of Practice,”
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hill, Fourth Revision, Bureau of Indian Standards,
Michigan. [11] Khosravikia, F., Kim, H.S., Yi, Y., Wilson, H.,
[3] ACI committee 318-95, (1995), Building code Yousefpour, H., Hrynyk, T. and Bayrak, O.,
requirement of reinforced concrete, American 2018. Experimental and Numerical
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hill, Michigan. Assessment of Corbels Designed Based on
[4] ACI committee 318-08, (2008), “Building Code Strut-and-Tie Provisions. Journal of Structural
Requirements for Structural Concrete”, Engineering, 144(9), p.04018138.
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hill,
Michigan.
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[12] Kriz, L.B. and Raths, C.H., 1965. Connections

in Precast Concrete Structures: Strength of
Corbels.
[13] Kurtoglu, A.E., Gulsan, M.E., Abdi, H.A.,
Kamil, M.A. and Cevik, A., 2017. Fiber
reinforced concrete corbels: Modeling shear
strength via symbolic
regression. COMPUTERS AND
CONCRETE, 20(1), pp.65-75. New Delhi,
2000.
[14] Sayed ShoebIliyas, D.A. and Kakade, D.N.,
the Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Corbels
with Steel Fibers and Shear Strength
Prediction.
[15] Yong, Y.K. and Balaguru, P., 1994. Behavior
of reinforced high-strength-concrete
corbels. Journal of Structural
Engineering, 120(4), pp.1182-1201.
262
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDINGS: AN OVERVIEW
ICID2018_D_011
Dipak Basumatari1, Dr Sanjay Deori2, Khirod Buragohain3, Nibir Pran Borah4, Rajib Das5
1
Senior Scientist, CSIR-North East Institute of Science & Technology, Jorhat, Assam, India
2
Principal Scientist, CSIR-North East Institute of Science & Technology, Jorhat, Assam, India
3
Scientist, CSIR-North East Institute of Science & Technology, Jorhat, Assam, India
4
Technical Officer, CSIR-North East Institute of Science & Technology, Jorhat, Assam, India
5
Technical Officer, CSIR-North East Institute of Science & Technology, Jorhat, Assam, India
ABSTRACT
The building and construction sector account for more power use than any other sectors like transport and industry
which is more than 40 percent globally. We spend more than 90% of our time in buildings either at office or at home
in a day.
With increasing urbanization, the number and size of buildings in urban areas is increasing, and thus resulting in an
increased demand for electricity and other forms of energy commonly used in buildings. At present 95 percent of total
world energy is made by resources like fossil fuels, coal, oil and natural gas. Although the renewable sources of
electricity such as hydro, geothermal or wind provide electricity at much lower cost, their capital outlay is large, they
are complex and take much longer time to be implemented. The building sector encompasses a diverse set of end
use activities which have different energy use implications. Space heating, space cooling and lighting which together
account for a majority of building energy use in industrialized countries, depend not only on the energy efficiency of
the buildings in which they operate. Building designs and materials have a significant effect on the energy consumed
for a select set of end users. This paper aims at introducing the concept and benefits of energy efficiency in buildings
and to present the different opportunities and measures for reducing energy use in buildings without sacrificing
comfort levels.
Keywords: Energy efficiency, fossil fuels, renewable source
1. Introduction
Energy consumption in buildings is higher in be compared. The benchmarks are derived by

industrialized countries. The necessity of energy analyzing data on different building types within a
efficiency in building sector is especially significant given country.
in developing countries in view of rapid new
construction with opportunities to deploy efficient Benchmarks are applied mainly to heating,
materials and best practices. cooling, air-conditioning, ventilation, lighting, fans,
pumps and controls, office or other electrical
Energy efficiency of a building is the extent to equipment, and electricity consumption for external
which the energy consumption per square meter of lighting. The benchmarks used vary with the
floor area of the building measures up to country and type of building.
established energy consumption benchmarks for
that particular type of building under defined The building gross energy needs represent the
climatic conditions. anticipated buildings requirements for lighting,
heating, cooling, ventilation, air-conditioning and
Building energy consumption benchmark are the humidification. The indoor climate requirements,
representative values for common building types outdoor climatic conditions and the building
against which a building’s actual performance can properties are the parameters used for determining
263
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
what the gross energy needs of the building will 1.1 Shape which encourages the use of daylight
be. and natural ventilation, and reduces heat losses;
Delivered energy, natural energy gains and 1.2 An orientation that takes account of the
internal heat gains all contribute to providing the potential benefits from solar gains while
energy needs of the building. Natural energy gains reducing the risk of glare and overheating;
include solar heating, passive cooling, natural 1.3 Effective use of natural daylight;
ventilation flow and daylight. 1.4 Natural ventilation wherever practical and
appropriate with mechanical ventilation and/ or
Environmentally smart buildings make intelligent air conditioning used only to the extent they
use of energy resources, while minimizing waste. are actually required.
1.5 Good level of thermal insulation and
Natural energy gains can be maximized by
prevention of unwanted air infiltration through
exploiting the potential contribution to a building’s
the building envelope.
performance offered by the site and its
surrounding through:
2 Importance of Energy Efficiency in Buildings
Secured supply of energy is essential to ensure Although renewable sources of electricity from
economic growth of a country. In many developing hydro, geothermal or wind provide electricity at a
countries there is normally very little margin much lower cost than electricity generation from
between existing power supply and electricity petroleum their capital outlays is not only large,
demand. With increasing electricity use from but also complex and take much longer time to be
existing consumers and new connections, new implemented. Petroleum-based generation is
generation needs to be brought in line to meet usually brought in the short term to meet this
increasing demand. demand, which results in increased cost of
electricity, overdependence on petroleum and
subsequently vulnerability to oil price fluctuations.
3 Energy Efficiency Measures for Buildings
3.1 Energy efficiency measures for buildings are 3.2.6 Reducing electricity consumption of office
approaches which the energy consumption of a equipments and electronic appliances.
building can be reduced while maintaining or
improving the level of comfort in the building. The 3.3 Heating demand can be reduced by:
measures are:
3.2.1 Reducing heating demand;
3.2.2 Reducing cooling demand; 3.2.1 Limiting exposed surface area of buildings;
3.2.3 Reducing the energy requirement for
3.2.2 Improving the insulation of the basic
ventilation;
structure of a building;
3.2.4 Reducing energy use for lighting;
3.2.3 Reducing ventilation losses;
3.2.5 Reducing energy used for heating water;
264
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
3.2.4 By selecting efficient heating systems

with effective controls. 3.6 Energy use for heating water can be
reduced through:
3.3 Energy use in typical air-conditioned office
building is approximately double that of naturally 3.6.1 Setting time controls, and setting them to
ventilated office buildings. The need of air- correctly reflect the hours of hot water
conditioning or the size of the systems installed requirement;
can be reduced by: 3.6.2 Switching off electric elements when hot
water from the boiler is available;
3.3.1 Controlling solar gains through glazing;
3.6.3 Switching off any associated pumps when
3.3.2 Reducing internal heat gains;
hot water is not required;
3.3.3 Providing effective ventilation;
3.6.4 Identifying a suitable hot water system.
3.3.4 Reducing lighting loads and installing
effective lighting controls.
3.7 Office equipments such as computers,
monitors, printers, fax machines and photocopiers
3.4 The energy required for ventilation can be
to projectors, scanners and tele-conference
minimized by:
facilities are the fastest growing energy user in the
3.4.1 A building design that maximizes natural
business world, consuming 15 percent of the total
ventilation;
electricity used in offices. This is expected to rise
3.4.2 Effective window design;
to 30 percent by 2020. The typical measures to
3.4.3 Use of mixed mode ventilation;
reduce consumption which is also applicable to
3.4.4 Using efficient mechanical ventilation
household appliances are:
systems.
3.7.1 Switching off or enabling power off mode
3.5 Energy use for lighting can be reduced by:
reduces energy consumption and heat
produced by equipment;
3.5.1 Making maximum use of daylight while
3.7.2 Upgrading existing equipments which are
avoiding excessive heat gains;
energy efficient appliances may cost more
3.5.2 Installing energy-efficient luminaries with a
to buy but will recoup savings over the
high light output to energy ratio;
lifetime of the equipments.
3.5.3 Providing effective controls of lighting.
4 Codes and Standards
Codes refer to mandatory efficiency requirements Standards refer to minimum mandatory

for new construction in buildings. New construction requirements for equipments for equipment used
refers either to an entirely new building be erected, in buildings, such as air conditioning units,
or the construction of a new energy using system furnaces or boilers, water heaters, office
such as a lighting system or an air conditioning equipments, electronic appliances etc.
system in an existing building.
Conclusion
With the present rate of urbanization and efficiency in buildings has a pivotal role to play in
subsequent increase in energy demand, energy contributing to energy security in developing
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21-22 DECEMBER 2018
countries. With the increasing cost of complexity of Technological improvements in building design
new energy sources and the escalating cost of and appliances facilitate new opportunities for
energy, government should share the burden and energy savings. The lack of information on energy
cost of ensuring security of supply with end-users consumption trends in buildings and opportunities
through energy efficiency. and potential for energy savings is significant
hindrance towards anticipated targets.
References: building geometry and envelope design, Jounal

of Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews,
[1] Mir Sayed Shah Danish, Tomonobu Senjyu, 92(2018),897-920
Abdul Martin Ibrahimi, Mikaeel Ahmadi, Abdul
Motin Howlader,2018, A managed [4] Lonescu Constantin, Baracu Tudor, Vlad
framework for energy-efficient building, Journal Gabriela- Elena, Necula Horia, Badea
of Building Engineering, 21(2019),120-128. Adrian,2015, The historical evolution of energy-
efficient buildings, Journal of Renewable and
[2] Liu MM, Mi B, 2017, Life-cycle cost analysis Sustainable Energy Reviews,49(2015),243-253
of energy-efficient building subjected to
earthquakes, Energy Build, 154(2017),581-589.
[3] Kheiri Farshad, 2018, A review on

optimization methods applied in energy-efficient
266
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
VERIFICATION OF SIZE EFFECT IN PERVIOUS CONCRETE
ICID2018_D_014
T.Chockalingam1, Dr.J.Leon Raj2 Dr.C.Vijayaprabha3,
1 Assistant Professor, Ramco Institute of Technology, Rajapalayam, Tamilnadu, India

2 Scientist, CSIR-North East Institute of Science and Technology, Jorhat, Assam, India
3 Assistant Professor, Alagappa Chettiar Government College of Engineering and Technology, Karaikudi,
Tamilnadu, India
ABSTRACT
In this paper, the influence of the different shape and size of specimens on the properties such as compressive
strength, split tensile strength and flexural strength of pervious concrete was investigated. The value of aggregate-
cement ratio and the water-cement ratio was kept constant as 3.2 and 0.4. The study included casting specimens
such as cubes, cylinders,and prisms of different sizes. In this study, the size of pervious concrete specimens used for
mechanical properties were cubes by size (100 x 100 x 100 mm; 150 x 150 x 150 mm; 200 x 200 x 200 mm),
Cylinders by size (Φ50 x 100 mm; Φ100 x 200 mm; Φ150 x 300 mm) and prisms by size (100 x 100 x 200 mm; 150 x
150 x 300 mm; 200 x 200 x 400 mm). Experimental results indicate that smaller the size of specimen, compressive
strength, split tensile strength and flexural strength increases. The reduction aspect of the properties of pervious
concrete, particularly with increasing the aspect ratio of the specimen was seen as a matter of great worry. With the
results achieved the correction factor has been developed for the further experimental investigations in pervious
concrete.
Keywords: Size effect, Specimen Shape, Pervious Concrete, Shape effect, Correction factor
1 INTRODUCTION experimental results fit well with the available

theoretical models. According to Ali Jihad Hamad
Pervious concrete is an eco-friendly paving (2017), the compressive strength of the high
material made of cement, water, uniform coarse performance lightweight foamed concrete
aggregate,and meager or no fine aggregate. increased with the increase of the content of glass
Using only coarse aggregate leads to highly fibers. According to Mei Li et al (2018), the
porous and permeable concrete. Such pervious compressive strength of the concrete under static
concrete pavements shall be adopted for quick and dynamic tests was greatly influenced on the
drainage of storm water.Abdul Malik (2016) split cross-section of the specimen.
tensile strength and flexural strength of no fines From the review of literature, it was understood
concrete was found to increase by addition of that the mechanical properties of concrete such as
fines but reduced the density of the concrete. For compressive strength, split tensile strength and
porous concrete, water permeability is the main flexural strength strongly depends on the cross-
specification requirement instead of its strength section of the specimen. Limited number of
and continuity of the open porous is the main studies only available for the size effect on
concern in the production of porous concrete. The properties of pervious concrete. Therefore,
high water permeability of porous concrete makes mechanical characteristics of pervious concrete
it to be considered as an environmentally friendly were studied and size effect verification was
concrete. formulated in this paper.
According to E.I.Al-Sahawneh (2013) the
reduction in mechanical properties of concrete
specimens, particularly with increasing size of the 2 .RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
specimenis greatly considered and he found out
that concrete specimens subjected to Mechanical characteristics of pervious
compression with varying cross-section increases concretewas studied by considering the size of the
as the size of the specimen aggregate, size of the specimen and
decreases.M.Dehestani et al (2014) examined the aggregate/cement ratio as primary variables.
influence of specimen cross-section on properties
of Self-Consolidating Concrete. Specimens having
slenderness ratio of 2.0 mm was independent of 3 .EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
proportioning of concrete. S. Asadollahi (2016)
investigated the influence of the sizeof the 3.1 Material Properties
specimen on properties of self-consolidating
concrete. There was a strength reduction when Constituents used for the preparation of pervious
the size of the specimen increases and the concrete were Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC),
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coarse aggregate of size 12.5 mm and water. strength, Split tensile strength and flexural
Table 1 presents the physical properties of strength, different size of specimen such as Cube,
materials. The gradation curve of the coarse Cylinder and prism were prepared for mix
aggregate is shown in Figure 1. In sieve analysis, mentioned above. For each size of specimen,
the aggregate of mass 80 % had passed through three numbers of specimens were cast and cured
the sieve of size ranges between 10 mm and 80 in water for 28 days. Initially, a problem was
mm, which is the acceptable limit as per AASHTO encountered in curing process. When the cubes
T 27: 2014. were immersed in water the cement paste
dissolved in water. To overcome this, the concrete
Table 1. Physical Properties of Materials cubes were cured by placing them on straw and
Properties Cement Coarse Aggregate covering them with gunny bags as shown in
Figure 2. The geometrical details of the pervious
Consistency 36 % ---
concrete specimens cast for experimental
Initial Setting investigations were presented in Table 3. Molds of
35 minutes ---
time Circular and square section with aspect ratio (h/d)
Final Setting equal to 1.0 and 2.0 were used to measure the 28
230 minutes ---
time days compressive strength, where h and d
Specific represents the height and lateral dimensions of
3.15 2.39 the pervious concrete specimens respectively.
Gravity
The different size of the specimens chose were
Water
- 0.5 % sketched in Figure 3.
absorption
Soundness 4 mm ---
Fineness Gunny bags
5.3 % 7.93 %
Modulus
Straw
Figure 2: Curing of Test Specimen
Table 3: Geometrical details of Pervious Concrete

Specimens
Specimen Shape Size of Specimen
100x100x100 mm,
Cube 150x150x150 mm,
200x200x200 mm
Φ50 x 100 mm
Figure 1: Gradation of Coarse Aggregate Cylinder Φ100 x 200 mm
Φ150 x 300 mm
3.2 Mix Proportion 100x100x200 mm,
Prism 150x150x300 mm,
Mix corresponding to the aggregate size was 200x200x400 mm
proportioned. One of the influencing parameter,
the water-to-cement ratio was kept constant as
0.4. Aggregate/Cement ratio was maintained at
3.2:1 Designation and details of the mixes were
given in Table 2.
Table 2: Mix Proportion of Pervious concrete

Name Mix Material Quantity (kg/m 3)
of Mix ratio FA CA Cement
M1 1:0:3.2 0 1800 320
3.3 Test Specimen
In order to find out the effect of specimen size on

mechanical properties such as Compressive
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The experiments are conducted to realize the size

and shape effect of the specimens on the
compressive strength of pervious concrete. From
the above table 6, it was clearly evident that size
effect was there. Compressive strength of the
pervious concrete specimens goes on decreasing
when the size of the specimens increases and
vice-versa.
The compressive strength of 100 mm cube for mix

M1 having the aggregate size of 12.5 mm, shows
an increase of 38.89 % and 200 mm cube shows
a reduction of 13.75 % in compressive strength.
The corresponding variation of compressive
strength on different size of cube specimen was
shown below in figure 4.
8.00
6.97
7.00
Compressive Strength (MPa)

Figure 3: Specimen Geometry
6.00
5.02
3.4 Tests on Pervious Concrete 5.00 4.33
Mechanical properties such as Compressive 4.00

Strength, Split tension and three-point bending 3.00
were carried out on the different shape and size of
2.00
pervious concrete specimens according to the
specifications given in various codes of practice 1.00
as shown in the table 4 in order to study the size 0.00
effect. 100 150 200
Depth of the Specimen in mm (Cube)
Table 4: Tests carried out on Concrete
Tests Shape Formula Figure 4: Comparison of Compressive Strength of
Compressive Strength Cube fck = P/A Cube with different depth
Split tensile Strength Cylinder T= 2𝑃/𝜋𝐷𝐿
Flexural Strength Prism f =My/I Table 6: Compressive Strength results for
Cylinder
4 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Size Test Test 2 Test 3 Average
1
4.1 Effect of Specimen on Compressive 50 mm 6.85 7.53 6.70 7.03
Strength 100 mm 6.20 5.78 5.90 5.96
150 mm 5.17 4.72 4.55 4.81
The Compressive strength of different sizes of
Cubes and Cylinders were presented in the From the above table 6, it was inferred that the
following table 5 and table 6. In this experimental mix named M1 having the aggregate size 12.5
investigations, 150 x 150 x 150 mm Cube and Φ mm, Φ 50 mm pervious concrete cylindrical
150 x 300 mm Cylinders were used as the specimen shows an increase of 46.15 % and Φ
standard specimens according to the Indian codal 100 mm cylinder also shows an increase of 23.9%
provision IS 516: 1959. when compared to the standard specimen. The
corresponding variation of compressive strength
Table 5: Compressive Strength results for Cubes of cylindrical specimens was shown in Figure 5.
Size Test Test 2 Test 3 Average
1
100 mm 6.90 6.80 7.20 6.97
150 mm 5.25 4.85 4.96 5.02
200 mm 4.25 4.59 4.14 4.33
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dimension factor
5
4.34 100 mm 100 mm 1.4
M1 150 mm 150 mm 1.0
4 3.58 200 mm 200 mm 0.9

2.96
3 The same trend was followed for pervious
concrete cubes similar to pervious concrete
cylindrical specimens. Increase in depth of the
2
specimen results in decrease of compressive
strength of the specimen and vice-versa.
1
1.50
Relative Compressive Strength

0
50 mm 100 mm 150 mm
Diameter of the Specimen in mm 1.30
Figure 5: Comparison of Compressive Strength of
f’c(d)/f’c
Cylinder with different diameter y = -0.0053x + 1.8725
1.10 R² = 0.9294
The following figure show the conversion factor of
the non-standard specimens with respect to the 0.90
standard compressive strength of the cylinder (Φ
150 x 300 mm) and Cube (150 x 150 x 150
mm)respectively. Linear trendline also attached to 0.70
the graph in order to facilitate the comparison 90 110 130 150 170 190 210
between standard and non-standard specimen of Size of the Specimen in mm (Cube)
cylinders cast using pervious concrete. Figure 6
and Figure 7 clearly depicts that theconversion Figure 6: Variation of Compressive Strength with
factor decreases with increase in size of the different size of Cubes
specimen regardless of height/diameter ratio. This
confirms the existence of size effect on specimens 1.50
Relative Compressive Strength
of pervious concrete. 1.40
Conversion factors were derived for non-standard 1.30

specimens of cubes and cylinders with respect to
f’c(d)/f’c
the standard specimens of cube and cylinder such 1.20

as 150 x 150 x 150 mm and Φ 150 x 300 mm
1.10
respectively according to the Indian standard code
of practice (IS 516:1959). The observed strength y = -0.0046x + 1.6951
1.00
conversion factors with respect to the standard R² = 0.9996
specimens were shown in the following table 7 0.90
and 8. 40 90 140 190
Diameter of the Specimen in mm
Table 7: Conversion factors for Pervious Concrete (Cylinder)
Cylinder
Mix Diameter Height Conversion factor Figure 7: Variation of Compressive Strength with
50 mm 100 mm 1.5 different size of Cylinders
M1 100 mm 200 mm 1.2
150 mm 300 mm 1.0 4.2 Effect of specimen on Split tensile strength
The Split tensile strength of different sizes of Cylinders

From the above table, it can be concluded that the were presented in the following table 9. For split tension
compressive strength of pervious concrete also, Φ 150 x 300 mm cylindrical specimen was
specimen decreases linearly with increase of the considered as the standard specimen. Figure 8 shows
diameter of cylinder. This also confirms that the the variation of split tensile strength of pervious
existence of size effect in pervious concrete concrete cylindrical specimens.
specimens.
Table 8: Conversion factors for Pervious Concrete Table 9: Split tension Strength results for Cylinders
Cube Compressive Strength (MPa)
Size
Mix Lateral Height Conversion Test Test 2 Test 3 Average
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1 5 4.71
50 mm 4.50 4.32 4.20 4.34 4.22
100 mm 3.56 3.78 3.41 3.58
Flexural Strength (MPa)

150 mm 3.04 2.92 2.89 2.96 4 3.65
From the above table, it was observed that the 3

split tensile strength of Φ 50 mm pervious
concrete specimen shows an increase of 20.94 %
and Φ 50 mm cylinder also shows an increase of 2
46.62 % when compared to the standard
specimen 1
5
Split Tensile Strength (MPa)
4.34 0
100 150 200
4 3.58 Length of the Prism in mm
2.96
3
Figure 9: Variation of Flexural Strength with
different size
2
5 CONCLUSION
1
The effect of specimen cross-sectionon the
0 pervious concrete mechanical properties such as
50 mm 100 mm 150 mm compressive strength, split tensile strength and
Diameter of the Specimen in mm flexural strength was examined in this study. From
the test results, the following conclusion may be
Figure 8: Variation of Split tensile Strength with derived.
different size of Cylinders
1. The strength of cube and cylindrical
4.3 Effect of Specimen on Flexural Strength specimens increases with the decrease of
specimen sizes of same slenderness ratio due
The flexural strength of pervious concrete specimens to frictional effect.
were presented in the following table 10. In order to
2. The ratio of the 28 days compressive strength
understand the size effect on pervious concrete prisms,
150 x 150 x 300 mm was considered as the standard
of non –standard cubes compared that of
prism specimen standard 150 x 150 x150 mm cubes varied
from 0.9 to 1.4.
Table 10: Flexural strength for different pervious 3. The ratio of the 28 days compressive strength
concrete prisms of non –standard cylinders compared that of
Size (mm) Flexural Strength (MPa) standard 150 x300 mm cylinders varied from
Test Test Test 1.0 to 1.5.
L B H Avg 4. Mechanical properties such as Compressive
1 2 3
100 100 200 4.63 4.59 4.90 4.71 strength, Split tensile strength, Flexural
150 150 300 4.28 4.24 4.13 4.22 strength of pervious concrete specimens
200 200 400 3.64 3.68 3.64 3.65 increases with decrease in size of the
specimen and vice-versa.
From the figure 9, it was inferred that the flexural
strength of 100 x 100 x 200 mm prism shows an 6 REFERENCES
increase of 11.61 % and 200 x 200 x 400 mm
prism shows a reduction of 13.5 % in flexural 1. Al-Sahawneh, E.I. 2013. “Size Effect and
strengthwhen compared to the standard size of Strength Correction Factors for Normal
prism 150 x 150 x 300 mm respectively. Weight Concrete Specimens under Uniaxial
Compression Stress.” Contemporary
Engineering Sciences 6(2): 57–68.
2. Asadollahi, S., A. Saeedian, M. Dehestani,
and F. Zahedi. 2016. “Improved Compressive
Fracture Models for Self-Consolidating
Concrete (SCC).” Construction and Building
Materials 123: 473–80.
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3. Dehestani, M., I. M. Nikbin, and S. Asadollahi.

2014. “Effects of Specimen Shape and Size
on the Compressive Strength of Self-
Consolidating Concrete (SCC).” Construction
and Building Materials 66: 685–91.
4. Malik, Abdul. 2016. “An Experimental Study
on Properties of No-Fines Concrete.” Imperial
Journal of Interdisiplinary Research (IJIR)
2(10): 56–67.
5. Hamad, Ali Jihad. 2017. “Size and Shape
Effect of Specimen on the Compressive
Strength of HPLWFC Reinforced with Glass
Fibres.” Journal of King Saud University -
Engineering Sciences 29(4): 373–80.
6. Li, Mei, Hong Hao, Yanchao Shi, and Yifei
Hao. 2018. “Specimen Shape and Size
Effects on the Concrete Compressive
Strength under Static and Dynamic Tests.”
Construction and Building Materials 161: 84–
93.
272
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
AN ANALYTICAL STUDY ON COMPOSITE ACTION BETWEEN THE
VARIOUS SHEAR CONNECTORS ON SANDWICH PANEL
ICID2018_D_022
R.Pavithran1, Dr.K.Aarthi2
1
Post Graduate Student,Department Of Civil Engineering AlagappaChettiar Government College of
Engineering and Technology ,Karaikudi, Tamilnadu.
2
Assistant Professor,Department Of Civil Engineering AlagappaChettiar Government College of
Engineering and Technology ,Karaikudi, Tamilnadu.
ABSTRACT
Compositeconcretesandwich slab has been widely used because of their advantage of lightweight and energy
efficiency. More recently research are being conducted to study their application as roof/floor panels. This paper
presents an analytical study about the effect of various shear connectors on sandwich slab panels. The theoretical
investigation consists of the finite element analysis of the composite sandwich slab (CSS) which is carried out by
ANSYS. The composite sandwich slab is modelled and analysed using three different types of shear connectors. The
sandwich slab has top and bottom concrete layers and a insulation layer in the middle, which are connected with
shear connectors. There are steel reinforcing bar in both the longitudinal and transverse direction. The insulation
layer consists of Expanded polystyrene. It is concluded that the resulting 2D&3D model could be used to evaluate the
composite behaviour provided by the panel at elastic and ultimate stages.
Keywords: Finite element analysis (FEM); composite sandwich slab; shear connectors
1 INTRODUCTION way slabs take much higher loads compared to

one way slabs for a given configuration of shear
This paper deals with a composite sandwich slab connectors and that diameter of the bars does not
(CSS), The CSS formed by two or more material have much of a difference in the result of a one
with different properties which act as a single unit. way slab, but shows certain effects on the load
The composite sandwich slab used consist of top carrying capacities of a two way slab.
and bottom concrete layer and a insulation
Expanded Polystyrene(EPS) layer in the middle,
which are connected with shear connectors. The
shear connectors are the components which are
used to assure shear transfer between the
concrete layer, ending the composite action in (a)
composite Slab. The various type of shear
connectors used in this project they are truss
shaped, trapezoidal shaped and C- shaped
connectors, as shown in fig 1 and their behaviours
were analysed and effectiveness of the shear
connectors and its role in ensuring composite
behaviour. The main advantage of the shear (b)
connectors is to give the strength and to connect
the concrete layer together and also act as a
transverse shear reinforcement.
The structural behaviour of the panel depend (c)
greatly on the strength and stiffness of the Figure 1: (a) Truss Shaped shear connector, (b)
connectors while the thermal resistance of the Trapezoidal Shear connector, (c) C- Shaped
insulation layer governs the insulation value of the shear connector
panel.
The advantage of slab as good insulation, Bush and stine(1) (1994) studied the flexural
easier to handle, material and labour cost behaviour of precast concrete sandwich panel
reduction, quick and easy installation and show with continuous truss connectors in which two
high ductility and lead to cost reductions its low series were tested. Precast concrete sandwich
self weight while compare to the normal concrete panel were concrete to achieve up to 100 percent
Gowthami(1) (2014) studies the effects of composite action, depending on the ability of the
different type of shear connectors on one way slab embedded connectors to transfer the shear
and two way composite slab and found that two generated by longitudinal flexure. A specimen for
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cyclic loading was constructed with a few 1.1 Objective of this paper:
modifications;the loaded panel was simply The main objective to study the structural
supported and subjected to three point loading. behaviour of the Composite Sandwich Slab Panel
Since the study focused on flexural behaviour, no (CSSP) under flexure and examine the
axial load applied to the test panels. The intent effectiveness of the various shears connectors
was to fully force the truss girder to fully and its role in ensuring composite behaviour.
participate in order to obtain information on their To observe the failure mode of sandwich
contribution towards panel stiffness and shear composite concrete panel with different shear
transfer between the layers. The panel exhibited connectors.
composite action similar to that of a fully depth To analysis the composite sandwich slab
panel. panels by finite element model using ANSYS.
Benoyane et al(2) (2007) studied the flexural
behaviour of precast concrete sandwich 2 FINITE ELEMENT IDEALISATION
composite panel having truss type shear Non-linear finite element analysis of reinforced
connector. The flexure test results showed that concrete structure has been under continuous
the precast specimens had a load deflection development in recent decades. The worldwide
profile similar to that of one way and two way slab. research effort led to the formulation of sound
The difference in load is less then 4%, when finite constitutive models well as numerical techniques
element result is compared to experimental result for their implementation in computer software.
of one way specimen. The difference in deflection These advances have made possible the
during elastic stage is less than 1.5%. Therefore, application of non-linear finite element analysis to
finite element studies of the flexure test correlated the practical engineering problem of analysis and
with the experimental value. Finite element design. Several computer programs featuring non-
studies were carried out by varying number of linear material model are now available
shear connectors for the one way slab specimen. commercially and claim distinct features. The
It was observed that increasing the number of commercially available software known as
shear connector increases the ultimate load of the ANSYS, which can effectively depict the non-
specimen. linear behaviour of RC structure, has been used in
Thanoon et al (3) (2010) studies the structural the present study to simulate the behaviour of
behaviour of Ferro cement and brick composite CSS as under flexure through the elastic to the
slab panel. The slab is made of two layer (precast ultimate limit state.
ferrocement and brick mortar) joined together
using truss connectors. The slab was simple 2.1 Finite element method (FEM) Steps:
supported and two line load were created by
applying load through hydraulic jack. The ductility
ratio were observed to be more than 2. The peak Pre-
load is about 30% of the ultimate load. The Design model
processing
concrete rib enhances the ductile slab. The
specimen with triple shear connector showed
higher experimental load. The increase in the
number of shear connector increased the
compositeness thereby increases the load Post-processing solver
carrying capacity of the member
G.Carbonari(5) (2012) This paper shows an
experimental study about the flexural behaviour of
light-weight sandwich panel with perpendicular 2.2 Material Properties:
connectors. For that, three experimental programs The input properties for the different material are
were performed to assess the influence of as described below:
different support and loading condition. The result
obtained show that the contribution of the 2.2.1Concrete Properties:
connectors to the stiffness of the structure is low. Concrete material with the following properties,
The slab tested show a high deformability and
degree of cracking even under service loads. To Table 1: Concrete Material Properties
improve the structural response, a reinforced S.No Material Properties Value Unit
connection between the slabs and their supporting 1 Cube Strength (fcu) 40 MPa
element should be used. Furthermore, a model is 2 Elastic modulus (E) 3.1622x104 MPa
proposed to predict the failure of the panel. 3 Poisson’s ratio (µ) 0.2
4 Tensile strength 4.12 MPa
5 Compressive 42.1 MPa
strength
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2.2.2 Reinforcement Properties:

Reinforcement bar with the following properties
Table 2: Reinforcement bar Properties

S.No Material Properties Value Unit
1 Elastic modulus (E) 2.1x105 MPa
2 Yield strength (fy) 415 MPa
3 Specific weight (ρ) 78.5 KN/m3
4 Coefficient of thermal 1.2x10-5 /K
expansion(α)
Figure4: slab modelling with trapezoidal shaped
2.2.3 Expanded Polystyrene : shear connector.
Expanded polystyrene with the following The third type as C-shape shear connector
properties: here as two number of both longitudinal and
transverse direction, modelling is shown in fig (5),
Table 3: Polystyrene properties
S.No Material Properties Value Unit
1 Elastic modulus (E) 62.7x105 MPa
2 Density 100 Km/m3
3 Poisson’s ratio 0.05
4 Damping coefficient 0.2
2.3 Geometric Modelling:

Geometric modelling in the ANSYS APDL,
environment is highly automated and also
provides user the flexibility to customize according
to the type of analysis or application.
Figure5: slab modelling with C-shape shear
2.3.1 Slab modelling: connector
The dimensions of the slab are 1.7m x 2.1m and
depth of 150mm. the slab is simply supported on 2.4 Slab Loading and Support
opposite sides and is reinforced with 2bars of
8mm in both longitudinal and transverse direction. The two-way composite slab were analysed as the
Same reinforcement is provided at the top as well. shear connectors were placed both in the
In both cases effective cover given is 15mm. In longitudinal and transverse directions. The Finite
composite slab first layer as concrete with 35mm elemnt analysis idealization, the support
depth and then second layer as expanded conditions and the location of the loading shown in
polystyrene (EPS) with 80mm depth and third Fig (6), the model was considered to be simply
layer as concrete with 35mm depth.The slab is supported (A,B) and loading as two point load
loaded with two point loads of 10KN. There two (P1) with 10KN.
number of truss shape shearconnector used,
modelling is shown in Fig (3),
Figure6: slab with simply support and two point

loading
3 RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Type1: (Truss shape shear connector):
The model where loaded symmetrically by two-

Figure3: slab modelling with truss shape shear point loading and the position of applied load kept
connector. constant. The slab of truss shear connector
The second type as trapezoidal shaped shear deformed shape as shown below Fig (7),
connector here also two number of trapezoidal
shaped shear connectors used, modelling is
shown in fig (4),
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Figure7: Deflection of truss shape shear

connector
The load vs deflection graph shows below that Figure9: Deflection of trapezoidal shape shear
as show in Fig(8), when the load as increase connector
corresponding deflection of the slab also increase,
while compare to the normal concrete slab The load vs deflection graph shows below that
deflection is slight more of composite slab as show in Fig(10), In trapezoidal shape shear
connector is deflect less while comparing with the
truss shape shear connector.
TRAPEZOIDAL SHAPE SHEAR

CONNECTOR
15
LOAD (KN)
10
5
0
0 10 20 30 40
DEFLECTION (mm)
Figure 8: Load vs Deflection for truss shape shear

connector. Figure 10: Load vs Deflection for trapezoidal
shape shear connector
The table 4: shows that increase load with the
corresponding deflection. The table 5: shows that increase load with the
corresponding deflection.
Table 4: Deflection for truss shape shear
connector. Table 5: Deflection for trapizoidal shape shear
S.No Load (kN) Deflection (mm) connector.
1 0 0 S.No Load (kN) Deflection (mm)
2 2 7.14 1 0 0
3 4 14.56 2 2 3.79
4 6 22.33 3 4 8.85
5 8 30.172 4 6 13.845
6 10 38.172 5 8 18.81
6 10 35.07
Type2: (Trapezoidal shape shear connector)
Type3: ( C- Shape shear connector)
The model where loaded symmetrically by two-
point loading and the position of applied load kept The model where loaded symmetrically by two-
constant. The slab of trapezoidal shear connector point loading and the position of applied load kept
deformed shape as shown below Fig(9), constant. The slab of trapezoidal shear connector
deformed shape as shown below Fig(11),
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When the load reaches ultimate load then the

crack on middle layer of slab and they developed
flexural crack in the bottom layer along the width
of the slab as shown in Fig(14),
Figure 14: flexural crack pattern of truss shape

shear connector
Figure 11: Deflection of C- Shape shear connector Crack pattern of trapezoidal shape shear
connector as show in Fig (15), The typical crack
The load vs deflection graph shows below that patterns, which occurred at the middle layer and
as show in Fig(12), While compare to the other bottom concrete of the composite slab. They
type of shear connector deflect is more in C-shape developed crack in the middle layer and bottom
shear connector. concrete layer. The first crack occurred
approximately at a load of 75% of the ultimate
C-TYPE SHEAR CONNECTOR
load.
15
LOAD (KN)
10
5
0
0 20 40 60
DEFLECTION (mm)
Figure 15: Crack pattern of trapezoidal shape
Figure (12): Load vs Deflection for C-shape shear shear connector
connector
The table 6: shows that increase load with the When the load reaches ultimate load then the
corresponding deflection. crack on middle layer of slab and they developed
flexural crack in the bottom layer along the width
Table 6: Deflection for C- shape shear connector. of the slab as shown in Fig(16),
S.No Load (kN) Deflection(mm)
1 0 0
2 2 7.5
3 4 15.13
4 6 23.11
5 8 31.2
6 10 39.33 Figure 16: flexural crack pattern of trapezoidal
shape shear connector.
3.1Crack Pattern Developed In Composite Slab:
Crack pattern of truss shape shear connector as Crack pattern of C- shape shear connector as
show in Fig (13), Thetypical crack patterns, which show in Fig (17), The typical crack patterns, which
occurred at the middle layer for the composite occurred at the middle layer for the composite
slab. They developed crack in the middle layer slab. They developed crack in the middle layer
along the width of the slab. The first crack along the width of the slab. The first crack
occurred approximately at a load of 50% of the occurred approximately at a load of 20% of the
ultimate load. ultimate load
Figure 17: Crack pattern of C- shape shear

Figure 13: Crack pattern of truss shape shear connector
connector
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When the load reaches ultimate load then the Benoyane, A.A. Abdul Samad, D.N. Trikha, A.A.
crack on middle layer of slab and they developed Abang Ali, S.H.M. Ellinna, “Flexural Behavior
flexural crack in the bottom layer along the width Of Pre-Cast Concrete Sandwich Composite
of the slab as shown in Fig(18), Panel – Experimental And Theoretical
Investigations”, Construction and Building
Materials, 2008, 22, 580-592.
Bush TD, Stine GL, “Flexural Behavior Of
Composite Precast Concrete Sandwich Panels
With Continuous Truss Connectors”, PCI J,
1994, 39, 112– 121.
Carbonari G, Cavalaro S.H.P, Cansario M.M,
Figure 16: Flexural crack pattern of C-shape shear Aguado A, “ Flexural Behaviour Of Light-
connector Weight Sandwich Panel Composite By
Concrete And EPS”, Construction and Building
4 CONCLUSION materials, 2012,25,792-799
Davies J. M., “Design criteria for structural
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analyses of the various types of shear connectors Engineering”. 12, 435– 441., 1987.
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(a) Deflection of the trapezoidal shear connector is Of The Interfacial Behaviour Of Composite
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(b) Crack patterns in composite slab of trapezoidal FabrizioGara, Laura Ragni, DavideRoia,
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(c) Number of Crack patterns in Truss shape Panel”,Engineering Structures, 2012,12,258-
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load. Structural Performance Of Precast Lightweight
(d) C-Shape shear connector is more deflect while Foam Concrete Sandwich Panel With Single
compare to the other two type, because of the And Double Shear Truss Connectors
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(e) Number of Crack patterns of C-shape shear Pfeifer, D. W., and J. A. Hanson., “Precast
connector is more then the other two type. Concrete Wall Panels: Flexural Stiffness of
(f) The proposed 3D model could be used to Sandwich Panels”, SP-11, pp. 67–86.
evaluate the amount of composite behavior Farmington Hills, MI:American Concrete
provided by the composite slab at elastic and Institute (ACI), 1964.
ultimate stage. S.Samsuddin, N. Mohamad, “Structural Behaviour
Of Precast Lightweight Foamed Concrete
4.1 Recommendation Sandwich Panel Under Axial Load: An
Overview”,Building Material, 2014,22.
The following recommendations are suggested for Waleed A. Thanoon, YavuzYardim, M.S. Jaafar,
future researches which were not covered in the J.Noorzaei, “Development Of Interlocking
present study. Mechanism For Shear Transfer In Composite
(a) While increase shear connector number Floor ”, Construction and Building Materials,
deflection of slab as reduce. 2010, 24, 2604-2611.
(b) Based on this finite element method, compare
with the experimental result.
(c) Use a different type of insulation material on
the middle of the composite slab
(d) Find the correlation between the experimental
result and then finite element method
5 REFERANCE
Abdelfattah, E.A.,“StructuralBehaviour Of Precast

Concrete Sandwich Panel Under Axial And
Lateral Loadings”, Mc.S Report, University
Putra Malaysia, 1999.
278
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
A STUDY OF SLOSHING EFFECT SUBJECTED TO DYNAMIC LOAD IN A
LIQUID STORAGE TANK WITH AND WITHOUT INTERNAL OBSTRUCTIONS
ICID2018_D_023
Sridhar.K1, Dr. Vijayaprabha.C2
1.PG student, 2. Assistant professor, Department of Civil Engineering, AlagappaChettier Government

College of Engineering, Karaikudi, Tamilnadu, India.
ABSTRACT
Sloshing is a phenomenon in liquid storage tank subjected to base or body motions. The seismic design of liquid
storage tanks requires knowledge of sloshing frequency of liquid and hydrodynamic pressure on wall. In this paper,
an experimental investigation on the behaviour of liquid storage tanks with water subjected to sloshing during
dynamic excitation have been conducted. The effect of several parameters such as sloshing frequency, Amplitude,
Acceleration, Velocity, Displacement were studied using Horizontal shake table. The sloshing effect in liquid storage
tank with and without internal obstruction and also with different staging height (30%, 50%, 70%) of liquid has been
studied. The various types of internal obstructions like liquid dampers, Baffles, Slat screens are used in this
experiments. It is concluded the slat screen and baffles showed an efficient reduction of sloshing during dynamic
loading and also it is evident that the staging height increases, the sloshing effects also increases accordingly.
Keywords: Sloshing effect, Dynamic loading, Horizontal shake table, Internal obstructions, Staging height.
1 INTRODUCTION pressure on the wall. It will require proper analysis

of fluid-tank interaction under seismic excitation.
Liquid storage tanks constitute an important The main concerns for failure of liquid storage
component of life line systems such as water tanks are,
distribution system, petroleum plants etc. The  Consideration is not given to sloshing
seismic response of a liquid storage tank can be effects of liquid and flexibility of container
understood by visualizing that the liquid in the tank wall while evaluating the seismic forces
is divided into two parts, on tanks.
a) Convective
 It is recognized that tanks are less ductile
b) Impulsive and have low energy absorbing capacity
The convective liquid sloshes independently of and redundancy compare to the
tank wall and the impulsive liquid moves with (and conventional building system which is not
deforms) the tank wall. The natural frequency of considered properly.
the convective vibration is low, but that of the
 Unsuitable design or wrong selections of
impulsive vibration is high. The convective liquid
supporting system and under estimated
experiences low accelerations and high
demand or over estimated strength of the
displacements but the impulsive liquid
tank.
experiences high accelerations and low
 The need for this study is that, convective
displacements during seismic shaking. The
mode of vibration on seismic analysis of
convective liquid causes the free surface to move
tanks and more, rather than considering it
up and down but it does not apply any significant
as a parameter to fix the free float of tank.
pressure on the tank wall. The impulsive liquid
applies pressure on the tank wall and induces
In this paper, an experimental investigation on
seismic force in the supports. The impulsive
the behaviour of liquid storage tanks with liquid
acceleration to a liquid can result in impact
subjected to sloshing during dynamic excitation
hydrodynamic pressure of thefree surface on the
have been conducted. The effect of several
tank wall.
parameters such as Frequency, Amplitude,
Sloshing is defined as the periodic motion of
Velocity, Acceleration, Displacement were studied
the free liquid surface in a partially filled liquid
using Shake table.The sloshing effect in the liquid
storage tanks. It is caused by any disturbances to
storage tank with and without internal obstructions
partially filled liquid containers. Seismic design of
and also with different staging height of liquid
liquid storage tanks requires knowledge of
(30%, 50%, 75% of liquid in tank) has been
sloshing frequency of liquid and hydrodynamic
studied.
279
ICID 2018
The various types of internal obstruction like a 5 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Liquid damper, Baffles, Slat screen are used in
this experiment.  The shake table is an equipment to
simulate the condition of the earthquake,
2 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT with known frequency and amplitude of
vibrations. It consists Drive unit, Eccentric
 In this study, the seismic response of
cam unit, Shake table and control unit.
liquid storage tanks was determined by
 The square tank of size 24cm×24cm and
using Horizontal shake table experiment.
depth 15cm is used.
 An attempt was made to study the effect
 The tank model is mounted on the
of staging height in tanks having three
Horizontal shake table driven by a
different capacities (30%, 50%, 70% of
electrical motor.
liquid).
 The displacement of the tank wall is
 The Horizontal shake table experiment
measured using accelerometers and
was carried out to study the sloshing
which is attached to the data acquisition
effect of liquid storage tank.
system.
 The peak accelerations and peak
 The data acquisition system is connected
velocities and peak displacements were
to the vibration analyser software to
obtained from the analysis are compared
analyse the experiment data.
for with and without internal obstructions.
 specifications of Horizontal shake table:
The obstructions are placed centrally on
inside of tank. Specifications Range
6 P
3 OBJECTIVE R Motion Horizontal
O Load capacity 30 kg
B Operating frequency 0 – 25 Hz
 To conduct a study about the static
L Least count 0.5 Hz
and dynamic analysis of liquid E Frequency control ±5%
storage tank. M
Amplitude 0- 10 mm
 To study about the behavior of
S Dimension of sliding 400×400 mm
staging system under seismic load. P platform
 To study about internal obstruction E Rotating table diameter 390mm
provided to the tank, to control the C
IFICATION
sloshing under the seismic loading.
 To compare the parameters like peak  Liquids chosen for testing
accelerations, peak velocities, peak o Water
displacements for tanks with and o AWH 68 Machine oil
without internal obstructions.  Obstructions:
 To obtain the efficient method to o Slat screens made up of SS metal
control the sloshing effect in liquid with slats of 5mm square and
storage tank. 1mm thick.
o Baffles made up of SS rods 6mm
4 METHODOLOGY & 3mm, the rods of 6mm are
casted on vertical and 3mm rods
Selection of Setting up the tank model on are welded in horizontal in a
water tank model Horizontal shake table instrument
specified interval.
o The obstructions are placed
To performing the seismic
The peak displacements
and peak accelerations ,
centrally on inside of the tank.
analysis for different
staging height and also for
peak velocities are Two slat screens and two baffles
obtained and were
with and without internal compared for Tank with are placed on 8cm interval on
obstructions in tank and without internal
obstructions inside of tank.
Finally the effective methods of sloshing

control on liquid storage tanks were
obtain from this study
280
ICID 2018
7 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 40 WATER

20
The horizontal shake table results of tank wall for
VELOCITY
0
WATER
different staging heights of 30%,50%,70% of liquid -20 0 50 100 WITH SLAT
SCREENS
in a tanks are,
-40
WATER
-60 WITH
TIME PERIOD BAFFLES
WATER
0.1
Fig.7.5 Velocity vs Time period
ACCELERATION
0.05
WATER
WITH 3
0 SLAT WATER
SCREENS 2
0 50 100
DISPLACEMENT
WATER
-0.05 WITH 1
BAFFLES WATER WITH
-0.1 0 SLAT SCREENS
TIME PERIOD -1 0 50 100
-2 WATER WITH
Fig.7.1 Acceleration vs Time period BAFFLES
-3
40 WATER TIME PERIOD
Fig.7.6 Displacement vs Time period

20
WATER Fig.7.4, 7.5, 7.6 are the Accelerations, Velocities,
VELOCITY
WITH
0 SLAT Displacements of wall due to the water sloshing in
SCREEN
0 50 100 S a tank of 50% fill of water with and without
WATER
-20 WITH obstructions.
BAFFLES
-40
TIME PERIOD 0.1 WATER
ACCELERATION
Fig.7.2 Velocity vs Time period 0.05
0 WATER WITH
3 SLAT
0 50 100 SCREENS
2 WATER -0.05
DISPLACEMENT
1 -0.1 WATER WITH

BAFFLES
0 WATER TIME PERIOD
WITH SLAT
SCREENS
-1 0 50 100
Fig.7.7Acceleration vs Time period
WATER
-2 WITH 60 WATER
BAFFLES
-3
40
TIME PERIOD
VELOCITY
WATER WITH
20 SLAT
Fig.7.3 Displacement vs Time period SCREENS
Fig.7.1, 7.2, 7.3 are the Accelerations, Velocities, 0
Displacements of wall due to the water sloshing in -20 0 50 100 WATER WITH
BAFFLES
a tank of 30% fill of water with and without -40

obstructions.
TIME PERIOD

0.1 WATER
WATER
3
ACCELERATION
0.05 2
DISPLACEMENT
1 WATER WITH
0 WATER
WITH SLAT SLAT
0 50 100 SCREENS
0 SCREENS
-0.05
-1 0 50 100
WATER WATER WITH
WITH BAFFLES
-0.1 BAFFLES
-2
TIME PERIOD
-3
TIME PERIOD
Fig.7.9 Displacement vs Time period
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ICID 2018
Fig.7.7, 7.8, 7.9 are the Accelerations, Velocities, 4

Displacements of wall due to the water sloshing in
a tank of 70% fill of water with and without 2
DISPLACEMENT
OIL
obstructions.
0 OIL WITH SLAT
0.1 SCREENS
OIL 0 50 100
-2 OIL WITH
ACCELERATION
0.05 BAFFLES
OIL WITH
0 SLAT -4
SCREENS TIME PERIOD
0 50 100
-0.05 OIL WITH
BAFFLES Fig.7.15 Displacement vs Time period
-0.1 Fig.7.13, 7.14, 7.15 are the Accelerations,
TIME PERIOD
Velocities, Displacements of wall due to the oil
Fig.7.10 Acceleration vs Time period sloshing in a tank of 50% fill of oil with and without
OIL obstructions.
40
0.1
20
VELOCITY
OIL
OIL WITH
0 SLAT 0.05
ACCELERATION
SCREENS
-20 0 50 100
OIL WITH
OIL WITH 0 SLAT
-40 BAFFLES 0 50 100 SCREENS
TIME PERIOD
-0.05 OIL WITH
Fig.7.11 Velocity vs Time period BAFFLES
4 -0.1
OIL
TIME PERIOD
DISPLACEMENT
2
0
OIL WITH SLAT 60
0 50 100 SCREENS
-2 OIL
40
-4 OIL WITH
VELOCITY
BAFFLES 20
TIME PERIOD
OIL WITH SLAT
SCREENS
Fig.7.12 Displacement vs Time period 0
Fig.7.10, 7.11, 7.12 are the Accelerations, 0 50 100
-20 OIL WITH
Velocities, Displacements of wall due to the oil BAFFLES
sloshing in a tank of 30% fill of oil with and without -40

TIME PERIOD
obstructions.
0.1 Fig.7.17 Velocity vs Time period
OIL
ACCELERATION
0.05 2
0 OIL WITH OIL
SLAT 1
DISPLACEMENT
0 50 100 SCREENS
-0.05
0
OIL WITH OIL WITH
-0.1 BAFFLES 0 50 100 SLAT
TIME PERIOD -1 SCREENS
Fig.7.13Acceleration vs Time period -2 OIL WITH

BAFFLES
40 -3
20 OIL TIME PERIOD
VELOCITY
0 Fig.7.18 Displacement vs Time period

-20 0 50 100 OIL WITH
SLAT Fig.7.16, 7.17, 7.18 are the Accelerations,
SCREENS
-40 Velocities, Displacements of wall due to the oil
OIL WITH
-60 BAFFLES sloshing in a tank of 70% fill of oil with and without
TIME PERIOD
obstructions.
282
ICID 2018
Comparison of Peak accelerations (g), Peak 0.09

velocities (mm/s), Peak displacements (mm) of Oil
0.085
Acceleration
wall for different staging heights (30%,50%,70%)
and tank with and without obstructions are given 0.08
Oil with slat
by, 0.075 screen
0.07 Oil with

0.08 baffles
0.065
Acceleration
Water
0.075 30% 50% 70%
0.07 Percentage of oil added
Water with slat
0.065 screen
Fig.7.22
0.06 Water with
30% 50% 70% baffles
60 Oil
50
Percentage of water added
Velocity
40
30 Oil with
slat
20 screen
Fig.7.19 10 Oil with
50 Water 0 baffles
30% 50% 70%
Velocity
45
Percentage of oil added
40 Water with slat
screen Fig.7.23
35
30% 50% 70% Water with 6 Oil
Displacement
baffles 5
Percentage of water added 4
Oil with
3 slat
Fig.7.20
2 screen
4.5 1 Oil with
Water 0 baffles
4
3.5 30% 50% 70%
Displacement
3 Percentage of oil added

2.5 Water with
2 slat screen Fig.7.24
1.5 Fig.7.22,7.23,7.24 will give the comparison of
1 Peak values of Acceleration, Velocity,
0.5 Water with Displacement for oil tank wall with and without
0 baffles
obstructions.
30% 50% 70%
Percentage of water added
 Before testing a tank with liquid, we had
Fig.7.21
tested an empty tank that shows there is
Fig.7.19,7.20,7.21 will give the comparison of
no Acceleration, Velocity, Displacement in
Peak values of Acceleration, Velocity,
wall. So the liquid sloshing will introduce
Displacement for water tank wall with and without
some forces to the tank wall.
obstructions.
 Before fixing a frequency and amplitude,
we have conducted a several tests for
different frequencies and amplitudes from
the results, the increase in frequency and
amplitude increases the sloshing effect of
liquid. After that we had fix an amplitude
as 4mm and frequency as 3 Hz for
testing.
 The test results are taken for tank wall of
front side wall and adjacent side wall,
283
ICID 2018
from the results, the sloshing effect is high  Sloshing of liquids in a tank is reduced
in the adjacent side wall due to the due the presence of internal obstructions
arrangement of wall is perpendicular to placed centrally on the inside of tank.
the liquid flow. So we take only adjacent  Compare to baffles, slat screens has
side wall for consideration. better tendency to reduce the sloshing of
 The several tests have been conducted liquids in a tank.
for different staging height (30%, 50%,
70%), it shows that increase in staging
height which reduce the displacement of 9 REFERENCES
liquid, thus results in increase of sloshing
effect accordingly. 1. Akyildiz.A and Unal.E. 2005. Experimental
 Comparison of results of water and oil investigation of pressure distribution on
tank, oil tank has more sloshing effect due the rectangular tank due to the liquid
the low displacement of liquid and high sloshing, Ocean Engineering, 32: 1503-
mode of natural frequency of liquid in 1516.
tank. 2. Bae and Park. 2018. Shaking table test of
 Comparison of results tanks without steel cylindrical liquid storage tank
obstructions and with obstructions, considering the roof characteristics,
sloshing effect was reduced due to the International Journal of Steel Structures.
presence of internal obstructions. 3. Castillo.E. et al. 2018. An oil sloshing
 From, this study the control sloshing of study: Adaptive fixed-mesh ALE analysis
liquid and sloshing behaviour of different and comparison with experiments,
liquids are investigated. Computational Mechanics.
4. Chia-Ren chu. et al. 2018. Slosh- induced
hydrodynamic force in a water tank with
8 CONCLUSIONS multiple baffles, Ocean Engineering, 167:
282-292.
Sloshing is an important parameter in a seismic 5. Cho.I.H. et al. 2017. Sloshing reduction in
analysis of liquid storage tanks. In this paper, the a swaying rectangular tank by an
square tank was adopted for dynamic analysis by horizontal porous baffle, Ocean
horizontal shake table experiment and also Engineering, 138: 23-34.
different types of liquids like water and AWH 68 oil 6. Goudarzi.M.A. et al. 2010. Investigation of
were chosen. Several tests were carried out for sloshing damping in baffled rectangular
different staging heights (30%,50%,70% of liquid) tanks subjected to the dynamic excitation,
and various internal obstructions like slat screens Bull Earthquake Engineering, 8: 1055-
and baffles. 1072.
From the horizontal shake table experiment 7. Jin.H. et al. 2014. Experimental study on
results, this study was concluded by, sloshing in a tank with an inner horizontal
 The sloshing of liquids depends on its perforated plate, Ocean Engineering, 82:
mode of frequency, because of AWH 68 75-84.
oil has a high mode of frequency when 8. Muleki.A and Ziyacifar.M. 2018, Sloshing
compare to an water. So the control of damping in cylindrical liquid Storage tanks
sloshing is more important in oil tanks. with baffles, Journal of Sound and
 If staging height increase, the sloshing Vibration, 311. Issue 1-2 : 372-385.
effect also increase in both water and oil. 9. Nagahdali.H. et al. 2014. Shake table
 The dynamic analysis of liquid storage study of Annular baffles in steel storage
tanks by horizontal shake table tanks as sloshing dependent variable
damper, Journal of Loss and Prevention
experiment, with increase in frequency
in The Process Industries, 32: 299-310.
and amplitude, which results in increase
of sloshing effect in tanks.
284
ICID 2018
10. Park.J. et al. 2016. Experimental study on

dynamic behavior of a cylindrical liquid
storage tank subjected to seismic
excitation, International Journal of Steel
Structures, 16(3): 935-945.
11. Radnic.J. 2018. Shake table testing of an
open rectangular water tank with water
sloshing, Journal of Fluid and Structures,
81: 97-115.
12. Raouf.A. Ibrahim. 2005. Liquid sloshing
dynamics Theory and Application,
Cambridge University Press, New York,
NY, USA.
13. Roshini.V. et al. 2015. Parametric studies
on tuned liquid damper by Horizontal
Shake Table Experiments, Journal of
Mechanical and Civil Engineering, 12: 41-
47.
285
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
Utilization of various waste materials in concrete as Admixture
ICID2018_D_024
Shamsuz Zaman1, Dr.Nayanmoni Chetia2, Koushik Kalita3

1
P.G Student, Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam
2
3
Email: shamsuzzamanaei62@gmail.com Email: nayanmoni.chetia@gmail.com
Email: koushikaec08@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Effort has been made in this study to utilise the waste materials as a partial replacement of OPC cement by Fly ash,
Wood ash and Wood powder at different percentage to reduce the cost of the construction as well as it solves the
problem in its disposal. The specimens of concrete cubes in different proportion of Fly Ash-Wood ash are also
prepared for the investigation. The Mix design has been performed as per IS 10262:2009 for M25 grade of concrete.
Slump test, compaction factor test, bulk density, compression test and split tensile test are carried out to check the
quality and strength of the specimen. Compression tests were performed for 7days, 28 days and 56 days of curing
and split test were carried out for 28 days of curing. After analysing the various test results, it was observed that
replacement of cement by Fly ash at 20%; Wood ash at 10% and Wood powder at 3% replacement of cement by
weight showed the maximum improvement factor and also the combination of these admixtures shown satisfactory
results. Regression analysis and modelling has been carried out by SPSS technique and cost analysis of various
mixes also performed.
Keywords: Compressive strength; Split tensile strength; Improvement factors.
1. INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE

REVIEWS
The utilization of waste demolition debris in new 2. MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

construction work is very important due to the 2.1 Mterials
materials waste is gradually increasing with the 2.1.1 Fly ash: Global Coal reserves are expected
increase of population and urban development. to last another 200 years. India also has a vast
Therefore utilization of waste materials in the coal reserve of 211 billion tones making coal one
industry reduces the cost of the construction as of the most extensively used fossil fuel for
well as it minimise the waste disposal problem. In generating power. India is the third largest
this study OPC cement is partially replaced by producer of coal and coal based thermal power
some waste like Fly ash, Wood ash, Wood plant installations in India contribute about 70% of
powder etc. at different proportion. Mohod et al. the total installed capacity for power generation.
(2016) prepared concrete specimen in the range At present, 120-150 million tons of coal fly ash is
of 0%, 10%, 15%, & 20% replacement by fly ash generated from 120 existing coal based thermal
by weight for M-30 grade concrete and compared power plants in India. With 40 % to 50% ash
in terms of compressive strength, flexural strength content in Indian, coal this presents an inherent
and split tensile strength as an alternative to problem of ash disposal. This would require about
traditional concrete. The results shown that 40000 hectares of land for the construction of ash
Concrete with 15% replacement of cement with fly ponds.
ash shows good compressive strength and split
tensile strength for 28 days of curing as compared
to 10% and 20% of replacement. Adhikari et. al
(April-2017) performed various test to investigate
the behaviour and strength of concrete by
replacing cement with 5% wood ash and fine
aggregate with 5%,10% and 15% of wood powder
for M25 grade concrete. Workability, Compressive
strength, Split tensile strength and Flexural
strength test on cubes and cylinders are carried
out for 7 days, 14 days and 28 days of curing.
They had found replacement up to 5% of wood
ash and 10% of wood powder is beneficial in Fig.1: Fly ash
concrete.
286
ICID 2018
2.1.2 Wood: In 1952, the Government of India admixtures are IS 383-1970, IS 8112: 2013, IS
established a goal to raise the forested area to 4031:1996 (P-1), IS 269-2015, IS 5513-1959, IS
one third of India’s land mass. According to the 2720 (P-3), IS 1199-1959, IS 516-1959, IS
2011 Forest Survey of India, forests covered just 456:2000 and IS 5816-1999.
22% of India of which 2.5% is dense forest 2.3 Physical properties of materials and concrete
defined as a tree canopy density of 70%; 10% is The various physical properties of cement are
moderately dense defined as a tree canopy given in Table 1
density of 40% to 70%; and 9% is open forest Table - 1: Physical properties of OPC – 43 Grade
defined as a density of 10% to 40% percent. Cement
According to the FAO (2015) India has around Tests Value
70.7 million hectares of forested land, which Consistency of cement 31.50%
constitutes to 23.8% of the total land area. Around Initial Setting Time 2.05 hours
15.7 million hectares are primary forest, 43 million Final Setting Time 9.10 hours
hectares of otherwise naturally regenerated forest,
Fineness 92%
and around 12 million hectares are planted forest.
In 2015, India had imported about 18.01 million Avg. Specific gravity 3.14
cubic meters of timber and allied products worth Colour Grey
Rs 43,000 crores. The various physical properties of FA and CA are
given in Table 2
Table - 2: Physical properties of FA and CA
Sample Avg. Water Avg. Specific Size in mm
absorption gravity
FA 1.181 2.77 4.75 down
CA 0.523 2.525 20 down
The various physical properties of Admixtures are
given in Table 3 and 4
Table - 3: Physical properties of various
Admixtures
Sample Fineness Avg. Specific Colour
gravity
Fig.2: Wood ash Fly Ash 85% 2.24 Light Grey
Wood Ash 31.37% 1.92 Grey
Wood 1.82% 1.21 Brown
Powder
Table - 4: Slump and Compaction factor
Sample Slump Compaction factor
NC 48 0.931
F1 65 0.963
WA2 55 0.950
WP1 44 0.916
FWA1 59 0.949
3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The cubes with various proportion, with different
Fig.3: Wood powder amounts admixtures are tested for Compressive
strength at 7, 28, 56 days of curing are given in
2.2 Methodology the Table 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 having w/c 0.45
The materials use in the project work is OPC – 43 Table - 5: Compressive strength of specimen with
grade of cement (Dalmia), coarse sand from Fly ash as an admixture
Kanaighat (Kalioni River), coarse aggregates % of Average Compressive Improvem
(Bihubor). Locally available Rich husk ash, wood Admixture strength in N/mm2 ent factor
ash and wood powder are collected. CCB treated used 7 28 56 at 28 days
Bamboo fibres and Bamboo powder collected days days days
from Rain Forest Research Institute, Jorhat NC 0% 28.29 39.26 42.92 1.0
(ICFRE) and another admixture Fly ash is taken F1 20% 26.15 40.45 43.92 1.030
from Rajasthan NTPC with the help of TOPCEM F2 25% 22.88 35.56 42.00 0.906
INDIA Plant’s Quality Control Department. Others F3 30% 13.33 28.67 35.00 0.730
admixtures are collected from nearby market. The F4 35% 13.00 26.33 33.89 0.671
Mix design has been performed as per IS F5 40% 11.11 25.33 25.33 0.645
10262:2009. The code that has been used for Table - 6: Compressive strength of specimen with
physical properties of cement, FA, CA and Wood Ash as an admixture
% of Average Compressive Improve
287
ICID 2018
Admixture strength in N/mm2 ment 50

used 7 28 56 factor at
Compressive strength
40 7 days
days days days 28 days
30
NC 0% 28.29 39.26 42.92 1.0
in N/mm2
WA1 5% 28.29 39.26 42.92 1.000 20 28 days
WA2 10% 17.11 32.46 36.66 0.827 10
WA3 15% 18.11 34.78 38.78 0.886 0 56 days
Table - 7: Compressive strength of specimen with NC WP1 WP2 WP3
Wood powder as an admixture % of Admixture used
% of Average Compressive Improve
Admixture strength in N/mm2 ment Fig.6 : Wood powder used as Admixture
used 7 28 56 factor at
days days days 28 days 50
NC 0% 28.29 39.26 42.92 1.0 7 days
strength in N/mm2
WP1 3% 20.33 35.67 44.44 0.832
Compressive
WP2 6% 14.44 33.11 33.67 0.812
28 days
WP3 9% 12.33 23.89 25.22 0.614
Table - 8: Compressive strength of specimen with 0 56 days
Fly ash and Ash admixture NC FWA1 FWA2 FWA3
% of Average Compressive Improvem % of Admixture used
Admixtur strength in N/mm2 ent factor
Fig.7 : Fly ash and Wood ash used as
e used 7 days 28 days 56 days at 28
admixture
days
NC 28.29 39.26 42.92 1.0
FWA1 17.110 32.460 36.660 0.827 The Split Tensile Strength and Bulk density of
FWA2 18.110 34.780 38.780 0.886 various admixtures with 0% admixture are given in
FWA3 20.330 23.890 34.550 0.609 the Table 9
The comparison on compressive Strength at 7, 28 Table - 9: Split Tensile Strength and Bulk density
days and 56 days of curing of different admixtures Admixt Split tensile Improve Avg. Bulk
in various proportions with 0% admixture are ure strength at ment Density
given in the fig. 4, 5, 6 and 7 used 28 days Factor
NC 2.900 1.000 2320.000
F1 2.688 0.927 2306.667
50
WA2 2.476 0.854 2208.000
40 7 days WP1 2.122 0.732 2192.000

30 FWA1 2.688 0.927 2197.333
in N/mm2
20 Comparison on Split Tensile Strength at 28 days

28 days
10 of curing of different admixtures in various
0 proportions with 0% admixture are given in the fig.
NC F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 56 days 5
% of Admixture Used
1.200
Fig.4 : Fly ash used as admixture
1.000 NC
Improvement Factor
0.800 F1
50
0.600 WA2
40 7 days
30 0.400 WP1
in N/mm2
20 28 days 0.200 FWA1

10 0.000
0 56 days Types of concrete
. used
NC WA1 WA2 WA3 Fig. 8: Split tensile strength
% of Admixture used
Fig. 5: Wood Ash used as Admixture 4. REGRESSION ANALYSIS
The regression analysis is done with help of

SPSS software. It means “Statistical Package
for the Social Sciences” and was first launched in
1968. Since SPSS was acquired by IBM in 2009, it's
officially known as IBM SPSS Statistics but most
users still just refer to it as “SPSS”. The focus is on
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the relationship between a dependent variable and

one or more independent variables.
The Table10 provides the R, R2, adjusted R2, and the
standard error of the estimate, which can be used to
determine how well a regression model fits the data:
Table - 10: Model Summary
Adjusted Std. Error of
Model R R Square
R Square the Estimate
1 0.851 0.725 0.572 3.533
4.1 Fixing Dependent variable and predictors

a. Dependent Variable: Average Compressive
strength in N/mm2at 28 days of curing
b. Predictors: (Constant), F, WA, WP, FWA11,
FWA22
The Table 11 shows that the independent variables
statistically significantly predict the dependent
variable Fig. 9: Measured and Predicted Compressive
Table -11: ANOVA Table strength at 28 days (Normal P-P Plot of
Model
Sum of
df
Mean
F Sig. regression standardized residual)
Squares Square 5. COST ANALYSIS
Regres
296.034 5 59.207
sion
0.021 The price of different materials and labours are
Residu 4.74
1
al
112.321 9 12.480 taken as per market rate and cost analysis of
Total 408.355 14 concrete work are carried out and given in the
Table – 13
Table - 13: Cost Analysis of per cu.m of concrete
From the regression co-efficient obtained from
work as per Market price
SPSS, the predict compressive strength at 28 days % of
expressed in general form of the equation i.e Mixed Rate per decreased in
Total
Predicted compressive strength at 28 days = 42.840 Proportion cu.m cost per cum
– 0.022 × F – 0.462 × WA − 0.473 × WP − 0.060 work
× FWA11 + 0.092 × FWA22 …………Eq.(a) NC 77813 7781.34 0.00
Table - 12: Measured and Predicted Compressive F1 69813 6981.25 10.28
Strength at 28 days WA2 73582 7358.19 5.44
WP1 76542 7654.16 1.63
Average Predicted Average FWA1 69435 6943.49 10.77
Compressive Compressive
Sl No.
strength in N/mm2 strength in N/mm2 at 6. CONCLUSION
at 28 days of curing 28 days of curing
NC 39.26 42.840 From the experimental investigation, the various
F 40.45 41.021 admixtures reveal different improvement in
WA 32.46 33.292 compressive strength while used in different
WP 35.67 36.975 proportion. The partial replacement of cement was
FWA11 37.11 37.880 carried out for M25 grade of concrete.
FWA22 33.56 33.335
 At 20% partial replacement of cement by
Fly ash, observed improvement factor
1.030 and reduce 10.28% cost per cu.m
of concrete work.
 At 3% partial replacement of cement by
Wood Powder, observed improvement
factor 0.832 and reduce 1.63% cost per
cu.m of concrete work.
 Another admixture Wood ash is
considered as partial replacement of
cement at 10% replacement observed
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improvement factor 0.886 and reduce

5.44% cost per cu.m of concrete work.
 When the partial replacement of Fly ash
+ Wood ash is considered at a proportion
of 10% of Fly ash + 10% of Wood ash
observed improvement factor 0.995 and
reduce 10.77% cost per cu.m of concrete
work.
This study immensely highlights the proper use of
waste materials in a technical but in an eco-
friendly way. It reduce in the use of conventional
materials. The results ensure an eco-friendly
environment and reduce the cost of construction
and also minimise the waste disposal problem.
7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my special thanks of
gratitude to Dr. (Mrs) Nayanmoni Chetia, Assistant
Professor, Civil Engineering Department, Jorhat
Engineering College, Jorhat, for her excellent
guidance and encouragement and support during
the course of my work. Special thanks for Mr.
Koushik Kalita, Faculty of Jorhat Engineering
College for his valuable support. I am very NOTATIONS
thankful to all the Scientists and staff of RFRI,
CA Coarse Aggregates
Jorhat for their help in providing treated bamboo
products and valuable information. I would also FA Fine Aggregates
like to thank TOPCEM INDIA Plant’s Quality OPC Ordinary Portland Cement
Control Department for helping in the collection of CCB Copper Chrome Boron
samples. CS Compressive Strength
NC Normal concrete
REFERENCE
F1 Fly ash 20%
1. Adhikari, Mandira et. al (April-2017) F2 Fly ash 25%
“Experimental investigation on partial F3 Fly ash 30%
replacement of cement by wood ash and
F4 Fly ash 35%
fine aggregate by wood powder.” South
Asian Journal of Engineering and F5 Fly ash 40%
Technology Vol.3, No.7 Page 46-52 ISSN WA1 Wood Ash 5%
No: 2454-9614.
2. Mohod, M.V; Samrit, Swapnil; WA2 Wood Ash 10%
Shrikhande ,⃰ Piyush (2016) “Use of Fly WA3 Wood Ash 15%
Ash as Partial Replacement of Cement in WP1 Wood Powder 3%
Concrete Pavements” International
Conference on Science and Technology WP2 Wood Powder 6%
for Sustainable Development (ICSTSD) WP3 Wood Powder 9%
ISSN: 2348 – 8352 Page 60 FWA1 Fly ash 10% + Wood ash 10%
FWA2 Fly ash 15% + Wood ash 10%
290
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
A STUDY OF VARIATIONS OF M-K RELATIONSHIPS FOR RCC COLUMNS
UNDER FIRE LOADING
ICID2018_D_027
Borgohain, Ankit 1,Bhattacharyya, Sriman Kumar2
1
U.G.Student, Department of Civil Engineering, NIT Silchar, Silchar,788010, India.
2
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Kharagpur, Kharagpur ,WestBengal, 721302,India.
ABSTRACT
Fire is one of the most burning topics for design situations, as it has important influence on concrete structures and
structural members. It affects the strength of concrete and also the structural stiffness and stability. An RCC column,
compared to other structural members, has most often to cope with vertical forces and bending moments from slabs
and beams. The fire resistance design of concrete columns turns out to be rather complicated. In this paper a linear
finite-element procedure by three-dimensional modelling is developed for reinforced concrete column in fire
conditions. Because of the changes in material properties and the large deflections experienced in fire, both
geometric and material properties are taken into account in this formulation .The three stages associated with the
numerical procedure for evaluating fire resistance of RC columns; namely fire temperature calculation, thermal
analysis and strength analysis are modelled using a FE model. A finite element model is prepared in ABAQUS
software to study the response of a RCC column under fire during loading conditions. A fixed RCC column is
analysed for fire loading. The fire loading conditions have been varied .The temperature boundary condition follows a
temperature –time curve as per ASTM E119. Since the loading is less the material properties for the elastic region
are considered only. The M–k relationships are developed for the column at required sections in order to find out
mechanical behaviour of concrete columns in case of fire. These M-k relationship may be used to do the strength
analysis of the column members .A comparative study for section moments for the two fire-loading conditions have
been done. The M-k relationships have been found out for different times of fire exposure.
Keywords: M–k relationships, fire temperature calculation, thermal analysis .
1 INTRODUCTION moments. In addition, the use of high strength

concrete (HSC) is becoming more popular due to
Fire is one of the most severe design situations as the improvements in structural performance such
it not only affects the strength of concrete, but also as higher strength and durability that it can
the structural stiffness and stability. Once fire provide compared to conventional Normal
breaks out in a structure, it results in the loss of Strength Concrete (NSC). This paper presents the
strength of the structure and as it may not be development of a computer model for predicting
possible to use the structure safely, repair and the fire behavior of RC columns under realistic fire
rehabilitation options are to be chosen. It is often loading scenarios. The model is based on a
necessary to study the behaviour of the structural macroscopic finite element approach and a series
elements after fire exposure to check for the of moment–curvature relationships for tracing the
feasible option. The relationship between moment response of the column. If a complete moment-
and curvature demonstrates the strength and curvature relationship of fire damaged reinforced
deformation characteristics of a given reinforced concrete section is available, one can determine
concrete section. This paper reports the results of the residual strength and ductility of the structural
a numerical study carried out to determine the element.
moment curvature relationships for fire damaged
reinforced concrete columns. Test parameters 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
were duration of fire exposure and number of
surfaces on which fire loading was applied. Based Kodur V. et al.(1) Prepared batches of concrete
on the results, it has been found that the duration with NSC , HSC(siliceous aggregate) , HSC (
of fire and surface of application of fire loading carbonaceous aggregate),HSC(steel
have considerable amount of influence on the reinforcement) , HSC(polypropylene) and
moment carrying capacity and curvatures of the found that deformation in columns are due to 3
sections. The yield and the ultimate moment factors namely load, thermal expansion and
capacities of all the fire damaged columns creep. NSC has a higher deformation rate than
decreased with an increase in fire duration. While HSC due to the fact that HSC has higher young’s
the yield and ultimate curvatures increased with modulus. Carbonate aggregate has less spalling
an increase in fire duration, the overall curvature than siliceous aggregates due to its higher specific
ductility reduced. A reinforced concrete column, heat value.
compared to other structural members, has most Jae H. Chung (2)developed a finite difference
often to cope with axial forces and bending model that simulates coupled heat and mass
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transport phenomena in reinforced concrete considered and is subjected to constant pressure

structures exposed to rapid heating conditions load of 4.643 e3 kN/m 2 and concentrated load of
such as fires. A mathematical and computational 731.707 kN with an eccentricity of 102.5 mm
model for simulating the multidimensional, thermo- about the Y-Z surface. The column is exposed to
hydrological response of reinforced concrete ASTM E119 standard fire for different exposure
structural elements is developed and used to times at different faces.
study the effects of steel reinforcement on
3.1 Reinforced concrete column model
thermodynamic state variables. The effects of
steel reinforcement on heat and mass transfer in
the surface region of an R/C column are found. For the numerical analysis, on three faces of the
Zhaohui Huang (3)et al. developed a nonlinear referred RCC column, model temperature
finite-element procedure for three-dimensional boundary conditions are applied. Investigations
modeling of reinforced concrete beam-beam done for the temperature, stress, strain, curvature
structures in fire conditions. Due to the changes distribution pattern as field output and at specific
in material properties and the large deflections points as history output to characterize the
experienced in fire, both geometric and material column exposed to fire. The number of element
nonlinearities are taken in this formulation. The created were :
cross section of the beam is divided into a matrix a) Concrete column block 378 elements;
of segments and each segment may have b) Longitudinal reinforcement bar 42 elements.
different material, temperature, and mechanical
properties. The more complicated aspects of
3.2 Thermal conductivity
structural behavior in fire conditions, such as
thermal expansion, transient state strains in the
concrete, cracking or crushing of concrete, The thermal conductivity for siliceous concrete is a
yielding of steel, and change in material properties function of temperature and is expressed by
with temperature are modeled. equation (ENV 1992-1-2, 1995). Upper limit of
thermal conductivity,
λc=2-0.2451(θ/100) +0.0107(θ/100)2 W/mK
3 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM for 200C ≤ θ ≤ 12000C
lower limit of thermal conductivity
A reinforced concrete column of 3810mm length λc=1.36-0.136(θ/100) +0.0057(θ/100)2 W/mK
and cross-sectional area 305mm ×305 mm used for 200C ≤ θ ≤ 12000C
for the study. An attempt is made to compute the where λc is thermal conductivity in [W/m-K]
moment vs. curvature relationship at various θ is the concrete temperature in [0C]
locations of the column when the fire loading is The Thermal conductivity Vs temperature curve is
applied in various faces of column. M40 grade of presented in Fig 1.
concrete and Fe 415 grade of steel have been
used and geometric parameters of considered 2
Thermal conductivity
column are described in given in Table-1.

1.5
(W/m-K)
Table 1. Geometric parameter of RCC column 1

Geometric parameter of RCC column
0.5
Column length (mm) 3810
Concrete cross- 305×305 0
section (mm2) 0 500 1000 1500
Reinforcement 25 Temperature (0C)
diameter (mm) Fig. 1: Thermal conductivity as a function of
Percentage 0.527 % temperature (ENV 1992-1-2, 1995)
reinforcement
Transverse 16-8 dia. @250 mm 3.3 Specific heat
reinforcement (mm) c/c
Concrete cover (mm) 40 The specific heat is a function of temperature and
Support conditions Fixed ends according to Euro code, it is valid to both siliceous
Fire exposure method ASTM E119 and calcareous concrete (ENV 1992-1-2, 1995).
Standard fire The Specific heat Vs temperature curve is
Exposure time in 0.5,1, 2, 3 presented in Fig 2
hours
In the present study a fixed support condition is
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0.00002
thermal expansion
0.000015
Coefficient of
(/0C)
0.00001
0.000005
0
0 500 1000 1500
Temperature (0C)
Fig.5 Thermal expansion co-efficient Vs
Fig.2. Specific heat as a function of temperature temperature
for ordinary siliceous concrete (ENV 1992- 3.5 Fire exposure methods
1-2, 1995)
3.4 Thermal properties of steel In this analysis ASTM E119 Standard fire method
is considered.
Steel is considered an isotropic material in
temperature calculations and its thermal 1500
properties could be described by three different
Temperature (0C)
material properties: thermal conductivity, specific 1000
heat and thermal expansion co-eff and respective
graphs are presented in Fig 3,4 and 5. 500
60 0
50 0 50 100 150 200
Thermal conductivity
40 Time (minute)
30
(W/m-K)
Fig.6: Temperature-time curve for the standard

20 fire (ASTM E119, 2007)
10
0 The temperature-time relationship on the
0 500 1000 1500 boundary member is defined by equation.
Temperature (C) Tf = T0 + 750(1- exp(-3.79553th1/2)) + 170.41th1/2
th, time (h);
T0, initial temperature (° C); and
Fig.3.Thermal conductivity as a function of Tf, fire temperature (° C)
temperature for steel (ENV 1993-1-2, 1995)
Specific heat of steel is a function of 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

temperature and expressed by the graph
below(ENV 1993-1-2, 1995).
4.1 Overview of the analysis.
3000 It is observed that initially the reinforced
2500 concrete column experiences a compression due
Specific heat (J/kg-K)
2000 to constant pressure load at the bottom fixed

1500 surface. But when it is exposed to fire it
experienced an expansion in elements and strain
1000 is developed. Due to the heating on the various
500 surfaces, curvature of the entire column
0 configurations changes and varies accordingly
0 500 1000 1500 with time. Due to the cost of computation only
Temperature (0C) data for some selected element of the column is
calculated such as 22(mid span) and 1,42(both
Fig.4. Specific heat as a function of temperature ends) etc. A reinforced concrete column exposed
for steel (ENV 1993-1-2, 1995) to fire according to the fire curve ASTM E119
Standard fire (Transient ) with exposure condition
Density of steel and ordinary Siliceous as one and two faces are considered .The other
concrete are considered a constant value 7850 surfaces of the column are kept at a constant
kg/m3 and 2400 kg/m3 respectively. temperature at 25°C.
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90000
Moment can be computed by the curvature at
the desired elements on the colum. Fireload is 80000
applied on the two faces of the column and
moment Vs curvature curves are obtained. Fig 7 70000
and 10 represent the M-k relationship in elements
1 and 42, the edge elements and fig 9 represent 60000
M-k relationship for element 22.
Moments (Nm)
50000 30 min
1 hour
1200000 40000
3 hour
30000 2 hour
1000000
20000
800000
Moments (Nm)
30 min 10000
600000
1 hour
0
2 hour -0.0005 0 0.0005 0.001 0.0015 0.002 0.0025
400000
3 hour -10000
Curvatures(1/m)
200000 Fig 9: Moment vs Curvature for element 22 of the
central part for various durations of fire exposure.
0
-0.005 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
-200000 Curvature(1/m) 1200000
Fig 7: Moment vs Curvature for element 1 of the
central part for various durations of fire exposure. 1000000
800000
Moments(Nm)
1 hour
600000
2 hour
400000
3 hour
200000
30 minutes
0
-0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03
-200000
Curvature (1/m)
Fig 8: Curvature vs temperature for element 1 for Fig 10: Moment vs Curvature for element 42 of the
durations of 3 hours of fire loading central part for various durations of fire exposure.
The Curvature Vs Temperature curve for different Initially the curvature is almost constant during
exposure times such as 30 minute, 1 hour, two the analysis of the loading step as there is no
hour and 3 hour is obtained. The process is temperature change during the loading step.
carried out with element 1 is repeated for element Temperature changes monotonically only in the
22 ( mid element) and element 42 (edge element). fire load step and both temperature and curvature
The total curves obtained for various conditions of magnitude keeps on increasing until heating
time and element are 4 in number for each stops. The former is a condition which is observed
element considered. A representative graph for at all the plots for curvature vs temperature as the
element 1 for temperature vs time for exposure of static loading step is same in all the cases.
3 hours has been presented in Fig 8. Different durations for fire loading exposure for
0.5hr, 1hr, 2hr, 3 hr have been tried for.
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Fig 11: Displacement in y direction for 30 minute

duration fire loading
Maximum deflection for the above fig is 1.372 Fig 13: Displacement in y direction for 30 minute
mm and the minimum deflection is -1.896 mm. duration fire loading is presented.
Deflection characteristics were studied for the
beam for different exposure times. Fig 12 shows a
representative case corresponding to 60 minutes
loading.
Fig 14: Displacement in y direction for 60 minutes

duration fire loading is presented.
0.0016
Fig 12: Displacement in y direction for 60minutes
duration fire loading is presented. 0.0014
Maximum deflection for the above fig is 1.604 0.0012

mm and the minimum deflection is -2.229 mm for
1 hour fire loading case. For two hour fire loading 0.001
Moments (Nm)
case, maximum deflection for the above fig is 30

1.837 mm and the minimum deflection is-2.567 0.0008 mi
n
mm. Similarly maximum deflection for three hour
fire loading case is is -2.573 mm and the minimum 0.0006 1
deflection is -2.374mm.The whole study ho
ur
mentioned above was associated with fire loading 0.0004
applied to two adjacent faces of the column. The 2
analysis was repeated for a fire loading applied on 0.0002
ho
ur
one face of the column. Fig 13 and 14 gives
displacement in y direction for 30 and 60 minutes 0
of loading. As done in case of two sided fire -1E-11 0 1E-11 2E-11 3E-11 4E-11
loading case, 12 different combinations can be -0.0002
Curvatures(1/m)
obtained for one side exposed fire loading case.
Fig 15: Moment vs Curvature for element 22 of the
central part for various durations of fire exposure.
From the moment Curvature relationships
obtained, the values of respective moments have
been presented in Table 2 and Table 3.
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Table 4: Moment and curvatures for salient points

for different durations of fire exposures for fire
loading on two faces (AB and BC).
Two Location 1 Location 2 Location 3

Faces (Element 1) (Element (Element 42)
fire 22)
loading
Fig 16: Cross section of column showing eccentric .
loading.
Sl Ex Mom Cur Mom Cu Mo Curv
. po ent vatu ent rva men ature
N su (Nm) re (Nm) tur t (/ m)
Table 2: Moment and curvatures for salient points o. re (/ m) e (Nm
for different fire exposures for fire loading on one ti (/ )
face. m m)
e
Fire Loading on one face on which eccentricity is 1 30 8333 0.02 5699 0.0 740 0.018
mi 65.94 124 6.45 01 568 88
absent (AB face)
nu 45
Location 1 te 3
(Element 22) s
Sl. Exposure Curvature Momen 2 60 9552 0.02 6644 0.0 847 0.021
No Time(Min (/ m) t mi 43 436 7.26 01 120 6
. ) (Nm) nu 69
1 te 4
6.2E-12 0.00108
30 s
3 12 1069 0.02 7579 0.0 946 0.024
0 349.7 727 7.79 01 062 12
2 mi 2 93
60 0.00117 nu 3
3E-11
te
s
3 120 3.3E-11 0.00131 4 18 1111 0.02 7901 0.0 982 0.025
0 424 834 8.53 02 916 06
4 180 0.00137 mi 01
3.5E-11 nu 5
te
s
Table 3: Moment and curvatures for salient points The moment–curvature curve at any position in a
for different fire exposures for fire loading on one column has coincidental curves (at same locations
face. for various times of exposures to fire). It is so
because the loading step is same for all the
different conditions and time of exposure to fire.
Fire Loading on one face on which eccentricity is
present (DC face)
Location 1 5. CONCLUSION
(Element 22)
Sl. Exposure Curvature Moment 5.1 The moment-curvature values for two face
No. Time(Min) (/m) (Nm)) exposure at location 1 (element 1) and 3 (element
1
30
6.845E-10 0.1188 42) are more than the moment–curvature values
for location 2 (element 22)
2 -2.714E-
60 5.2 The maximum moment in moment curvature
10 -0.0106
curve is at location 1(element 1) at time 180
3 120 -3.110E- 0.0121 minutes and is of magnitude 1111424 Nm at
10 curvature of 0.02834 m -1. for two adjacent side
4 180 -3.243E- -0.0127 exposure. The next highest moment in moment
10 curvature curve is at location 3(element 42) at
time 180 minutes and is of magnitude 982916 Nm
at curvature of 0.02506 m -1. (TABLE 4) .
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5.3 The moments at location 2 (element 22) are

smaller in comparison.
5.4 The difference in the curves for Moment vs

curvature for different times of exposure is
negligible in comparison to beams due to the fact
that after 30 minutes of fire exposure in fire
loading step the increase in temperature is very
gradual .Hence the effect in the moment vs
curvature curve is very less making the difference
between all the curves seemingly smaller.
Moreover the effect of bending moments is quite
less in columns as compared to beams.
5.5 After exposure to fire for 180 minutes the

peak Moment values and corresponding
curvatures are reached for all the three locations
elements 1, 22, 42 respectively in Table 4.
5.6 M-k relationship shown above have almost

coincidental curves for various times of fire
exposure which is not the case for RCC beams.
But the M-k relationship curves length keeps on
increasing with increase in time of exposure to
fire. Analysis shows that two face exposure
causes more section moments than one sided fire
exposure.
6. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I would like to express my special thanks to
Prof.Sriman Kumar Bhattacharyya, IIT Kharagpur
for his excellent guidance and encouragement.
I would also like to thank Prof. Arghya Deb, IIT
Kharagpur for his valuable suggestions. I express
my sincere gratitude to Indian Academy of
Sciences for offering me this opportunity.
7. REFERENCES
1. Kodur VKR, Cheng F-P, Wang T-C, Sultan MA.
Effect of Strength and Fiber Reinforcement on
Fire Resistance of High-Strength Concrete
Columns. J Struct Eng [Internet].
2003;129(2):253–9. Available from:
http://ascelibrary.org/doi/10.1061/%28ASCE%2
90733-
9445%282003%29129%3A2%28253%29
2. Chung JH, Consolazio GR. Numerical modeling
of transport phenomena in reinforced concrete
exposed to elevated temperatures. Cem Concr
Res. 2005;35(3):597–608.
3. Huang Z, Burgess IW, Plank RJ. Three-
Dimensional Analysis of Reinforced Concrete
Beam-Column Structures in Fire. J Struct Eng.
2009;135(10):1201–12.
297
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
APPLICATION OF FERROCEMENT IN CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING: A

REVIEW
ICID2018_D_028
Akachi Cheran Momin1, Supran Chakravarty2, Ingti Chutia3

Assam Don Bosco University, Azara, Assam, India
ABSTRACT
Ferrocement is a new construction technology in the field of Civil Engineering. Ferrocement structures differ greatly
from the conventional reinforced concrete structures in regard to strength to weight ratio and flexibility. The father of
ferrocement, Joseph Luis Lambot experimented with ferrocement in 1847. Later, circa 1940, Pier Luigi Nervi
reintroduced ferrocement in many prominent structures in an around Rome. In 1972, ferrocement was formally
studied as a building material in the developing nations. Due to its extremely versatile behaviour, it has got a wide
range of applications. Materials for ferrocement are easily available and it has been accepted widely as a construction
material for beams, tanks, roofs, floors, manhole cover, boats, etc. It exhibits a high degree of elasticity and can be
made without using form-work. In this review paper, it has been concluded that the ferrocement can be used as a
strengthening material in various concrete structures. It also shows the use of ferrocement in building lightweight and
low-cost structures which is economical and have a good performance against cracking, fire, water, corrosion and
does not require any skilled labour.
Keywords: Ferrocement; Low-cost; Construction; Applications
1 INTRODUCTION
Ferrocement is a composite material and is water tanks, sewage, manhole covers, planks and
considered as a thin wall reinforced concrete low cost housing in rural areas. It is known for the
construction made with a cement based mortar low-cost construction and also high performance
mix. It consists of small size diameter wire meshes composite material. The materials are easily
of closely spaced multiple layers with or without available, low-cost maintenance and the repairing
steel bars in the middle. Different types of wire can be done easily. The structures made of
meshes are used in the ferrocement construction. ferrocement can resist corrosion completely with
It can be woven wire mesh, welded wire mesh, negligible maintenance.
hexagonal or expanded wire mesh. The meshes
can be of metallic or any other suitable material. 1.1 Historical Development of Ferrocement:
Portland cement is used in a ferrocement instead
of concrete. Since the binding materials for the Ferrocement consists of wire mesh plastered
ferrocement are cement mortar, so coarse with cement mortar which is used in the
aggregates are not used. Ferrocement is a construction of various structures.
homogeneous material composition and the In 1849, a Frenchman named Joseph Monier
cement content is very high so it has a high built a flower pot made of cement mortar which is
strength. It is applied with a pressure over the wire reinforced with chicken mesh and he presented his
mesh and the shuttering is not required in product at the world exhibition which was held on
ferrocement construction as the mortar can hold 1867 in Paris. Joseph Monier was known as the
the materials in position. It is a highly versatile form father of reinforced concrete.
of reinforced concrete which has unique properties Another Frenchman in 1847, Joseph Luis
of strength and serviceability. Its small thickness, Lambot started his experiment. He constructed
strength and durability make a composition cement boat, wire reinforced seats, pots in 1855.
suitable for making light weight structures. It differs he was considered as the father of ferrocement. In
greatly from the conventional reinforced concrete 1940’s, Italian Engineer and Architecture, Pier
structure. It can be fabricated into any desired Luigi Nervi reinvented ferrocement. He went on a
shape for different designs. Ferrocement is a new real research onto the ferrocement technology. He
technology for increasing the flexural strength of named the material as ‘Ferro-cemento’. Then in
weak reinforced concrete structures. Ferrocement 1947, he built a storehouse made of ferrocement
has been used widely and successfully all over the and later in 1948, Pier Luigi Nervi combined the
country and it has a large number of applications. reinforced concrete with the ferrocement technique
It is used as a strengthening material for concrete and built an exhibition hall at Turin with a roof
structures, repairing and rehabilitation which system of 100m span. In 1953, the roof of Milan
includes roofs, walls, columns, slabs, beams, etc. Fair building and Flamingo Stadium in Rome was
It is also used in making beams, walls, floors, slabs, made out of ferrocement by Nervi and then in 1959
298
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he constructed a cantilever roof with ferrocement. 3.4 Curing - The curing work is done after 24
In 1972, the National Academy of Sciences of the hours. To complete the work curing is done for 28
USA reported the utilization of ferrocement in the days.
developing countries. As a result, people started
studying the material and started using it. In
November 1974, Asian Institute of Technology
(AIT) and US National Academy of Sciences (NAS)
sponsored a workshop on ferrocement which was
held in Bangkok, Thailand. Then in October 1976,
an International Ferrocement Information Centre
(IFIC) was established at the AIT in Bangkok. In
January 2001, the International Ferrocement
Society (IFS) formed a committee and published a
model code for ferrocement (FMC).
2 MATERIALS USED
 Cement - Ordinary Portland cement is

usually used in ferrocement construction.
Figure 1. Ferrocement construction (from
 Fine Aggregate - the fine aggregates
Kulkarni Sandeep, 2018)
used should be free from impurities.
 Water - water used for mixing and curing
should be potable, clean and free from
4 APPLICATIONS
foreign materials.
 Skeleton Steel - the diameter of the steel
Ferrocement has a large number of applications.
varies from 3mm to 20mm. It should be
Some of the applications are -
free from rust and any other impurities.
 Reinforcing Mesh - different kinds of
4.1 Ferrocement tanks - Ferrocement tanks can
reinforcing mesh are used. It can be
be placed underground, elevated or at the ground
metallic or any other suitable material
level. They are used for collection of water, storing
 Binding Wire - 18 to 24 gauge of binding
of chemicals and petroleum products.
wire is used.
Rainwater harvesting (RWH) tank of
 Admixture - admixtures are added only if
ferrocement of 10m3 was constructed in Nagercoil,
it is required. For increasing the setting
India to harvest water from the roof as the rainfall
time of the cement and their workability
is very less in this region. More than 100 tanks
admixtures are used.
have been constructed in the town of Nagercoil.
The system was installed by NGOs. The tank is a
cylindrical form of 2.5m diameter and 2m height.
3 METHODOLOGY FOR FERROCEMENT
Asbestos sheets are used for the tank cover and
CONSTRUCTION
the overflow pipe is fitted near the cover level and
the area of the catchment is100 m 2 approximately.
3.1 Fabrication of skeletal frame - Reinforcing
mesh is fixed to the skeletal frame with the help of
binding wire. Mild steel is generally used for the
skeletal frame.
3.2 Preparation of Mortar - For the mortar

preparation cement and sand are carefully
proportioned by weighing. First, it is mixed dry then
the water is added according to the requirement of
the mix. Figure 2. Ferrocement Tank
(Source:https://sites.google.com/site/houseconstr
3.3 Plastering - Before plastering, the skeletal uctionprotips/ferrocement-in-construction-applicati
frame and the wire mesh are checked properly for ons-advantages )
their stability. The mortar is then applied either by
hand or with a trowel. The plastering is first done 4.2 Beams and slabs - Ferrocement beams and
on the inner part then secondly on the outer part. slabs have higher cracking load and lower
deflection in comparison to the normal beams and
slabs.
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ICID 2018
“Bong J.H.L and Ahmed E, (2010)” conducted

a study on the structural behaviour of ferrocement 4.4 Ferrocement bins - Bins made of ferrocement
beams. In this paper, the flexural behaviour of the are mostly used for agriculture purposes for storing
beam strengthened with ferrocement laminates water, food grains, for planting, etc.
and its advantages are studied. The strengthened Airtight ferrocement bin was developed in Sri
beam with ferrocement laminate is compared to Lanka for the storage of paddy. It is most suitable
the control beam and the cracking behaviour and in a tropical climate. The capacity of the bin is 2.5
ultimate load carrying capacity is highlighted in this tons. The ferrocement wall of the bin is 25mm thick
paper. It was concluded from this study that the and to reduce the gas permeability, latex or
ferrocement beam increases the first cracking load cement slurry is used as a coating. It is made from
of the beam by about 50% and lower deflection two inverted stacked cones of diameter 2.3 m at
than the deflection found in the control beam and the base and is supported by three pillars 0.75m
the ferrocement laminate increases the ultimate above the ground. The total height is 3m. The rice
load of the beam by about 17%. straw layer is used to cover the upper cone and to
make the bin airtight, the inlet and outlet openings
are sealed with grease.
(a)
(b)
Figure 3. (a) Ferrocement laminate
(b)Ferrocement cracking pattern
4.3 Ferrocement low cost housing - Figure 5. Airtight ferrocement bin

Ferrocement houses are light in weight, easy (Source:http://www.academia.edu/15418959/Rece
affordability, easy to construct and requires less nt_advances_in_on-farm_paddy_storage)
skilled labour.
After the devastating flood in Kerala, the 4.5 Manhole covers - Ferrocement manhole
covers are superior in quality than conventional
architects of Kerala have come up with an idea of
covers.
ferrocement technology for re-building of houses
Ferrocement manhole covers of light-duty,
for those who have lost their homes. A house of
only 5 lakh measuring 450 sq ft comprises of two medium duty and heavy duty have developed at
bedrooms, kitchen and a living room which is Structural Engineering Research Centre (Council
affordable and requires low maintenance. of Scientific and Industrial Research, Ghaziabad,
U.P, India). To prevent the edges of cover from
breaking, mild steel flat edging has been provided
all around the cover. Ferrocement manhole covers
are cheaper and have a good resistance to
cracking than the cast iron cover.
Figure 4. A Ferrocement low-cost house being

constructed in Kerala (from Rayomand Engineer,
2018
(Source:https://www.thebetterindia.com/157735/k
erala-floods-ferrocement-houses-news/)
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(a)
Figure 6. Manhole cover

(Source:http://www.jadferrocements.net/applicatio
n.html )
4.6 Strengthening of RCC structure -

Strengthening with ferrocement provides good (b)
strength and durability to the RCC structures.
“Takiguchi A and Abdullah, (2000)” conducted Figure 8. (a) Ferrocement Institutional Building
an experimental study on reinforced concrete at Tara Nirman Kendra Delhi (left) and Core house
column strengthened with ferrocement jacket. In - Cyclone Resistant shelter in Orrisa(right)
this paper, a strengthening method using circular (b) Construction of roof channel.
ferrocement jacket to improve the confinement of (Source:http://www.basinsa.net/training_menual/F
substandard column was investigated and errocemnt%20Channel%20Roof.pdf)
compared with control specimens and different
strengthening methods. Total of 5 columns was
constructed and have been tested. Two columns 5 CONCLUSION
are tested as a control specimen, one column was
strengthened with circular ferrocement jacket and From this study, a few general conclusions can be
the other two identical square RC columns are drawn.
strengthened circularly with steel plate and carbon
fibre. The test results showed that the circular I. Construction procedure for ferrocement
ferrocement jacket can be an effective alternative structures is simple.
material to strengthen reinforced concrete column. II. Construction of ferrocement structure does
not require very skilled workers.
III. Judging by the construction material for
ferrocement we can conclude it to be more
economical than RCC.
IV. Jacketing with the help of ferrocement is
advantageous for retrofitting of structural
elements.
V. It is observed that ferrocement has a wide
range of application in and around the
Figure 7. Circular columns strengthened with country.
ferrocement. VI. Different test results suggest that the cracking
(Source : https://goo.gl/images/bBaXGh) load and ultimate load carrying capacity of
beams is significantly increased.
4.7 Roofs - Ferrocement roofs are constructed for
residence, office, sheds, office, etc. It provides
more uniform distribution of strength than RCC. 6 REFERENCES
Ferrocement channel roof of size 12’ X 15’
has been designed and applied at Ferrocement Batra, A. et al. 2017. A Review Study of
Institutional Building at Tara Nirman Kendra Delhi Applications of Ferro - cement, International
and Core house - Cyclone Resistant shelter in Research Journal of Engineering and
Orrisa. The channel length of up to 5.4m, clear bay Technology (IRJET), 4(6):2395- 0072.
length of 750mm, rise of arch 290mm, shell Singh, G. et al. 2016. Retrofitting of Reinforced
thickness of 25mm and unit length of 50kg per Concrete Beam by Ferrocement Technique,
meter length has been constructed.
301
ICID 2018
Indian Journal of Science and Technology,

9(15):0974-5645
Bong, J.H.L. and Ahmed, E. 2010. Study the
Structural Behaviour of Ferrocement Beam,
UNIMAS e-Journal of Civil Engineering,1(2)
Sridhar, J. et al. 2014. Flexural Strengthening of
Reinforced Concrete Beams using
Ferrocement Laminates with Partial
Replacement of Fine Aggregates by Steel Slag,
Journal of Engineering and Technology, 4(2)
Takiguchi, K. and Abdullah. 2000. Experimental
Study on Reinforced Concrete Column
Strengthened with Ferrocement Jacket.
12WCEE2000 Graduate School of Information
Science and Engineering, Tokyo, Japan.
Sandeep, K. 2018. Ferrocement Material for
Construction, Int. Journal of Engineering
Research and Application, 8(3)(Part-2):53-55
Sakthivel, P.B. and Jagamnathan, A. 2011.
Ferrocement Construction Technology and its
Application - A Review.
Bhardwaj, S. and Sharma, R. 2015. Recent
Advances in On-Farm Paddy Storage,
International Journal of Farm Sciences,
5(2):265-272
Khan, S.U. et al. 2013. Effects of Ferrocement in
Strengthening the Serviceability Properties of
Reinforced Concrete Structures, Advanced
Materials Research, 690-630:686-690
Patil, S.S. et al. 2012. Performances of Chicken
Mesh on Strength of Beams Retrofitted using
Ferrocement Jackets, IOSR Journal of
Engineering, 2(7):01-10
302
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
UTILIZATION OF QUARRY DUST IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SELF
COMPACTING CONCRETE USING BAGASSE ASH AND RICE HUSK ASH
ICID2018_D_029
H.S.Narashimhan1, Karisiddappa2 and M. Ramegowda3

1
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Malnad College of Engineering, Hassan,
2
Dr. Karisiddappa, Vice Chancellor, Visvesvaraya Technological University Belagavi, India.
3
Dr. M. Ramegowda, Professor and Head, Department of Civil Engineering, AIT, Chikmagalur, India
ABSTRACT
Self-compacting concrete is one of the types of concrete which will compact by its own weight. Now a day’s, due to
the increase in cost of cement and sand it is very much important to think for other materials as a replacement of
concrete materials. In the present study an attempt has been made with partial replacement of cement by pozzolanic
materials like rice husk ash and bagasse ash and also to make use of quarry dust instead of using river sand due to
scarcity of natural resources. Fresh concrete properties tested for various mix proportions, mechanical properties
such as compressive, split tensile strength & durability studies such as sulphate attack at different ages in days. The
result of fresh concrete property test satisfies the limits as specified by EFNARC. For all levels of cement
replacement, concrete achieved improvement in the performance both for the fresh and hardened properties as
compared with the reference mix. Maximum slump flow value of 690mm has obtained for 10% replacement of
cement and 70% replacement of fine aggregate. Based on the study 10 % replacement of cement by Bagasse ash
and Rice husk ash and 50 % replacement of sand by quarry dust can be taken as optimum replacement for tests.
Keywords: Bagasse ash, Rice husk ash, Compressive strength, Split tensile strength and acid attack.
1. INTRODUCTION
Self compacting concrete (SCC), flows under its and durability of SCC made its extensive use in
own weight without the need of external compaction concreting projects. SCC has become an important
or vibration. SCC was first introduced in the late research and application aspect of the high-
1980’s by Japanese researchers, as highly performance concrete. In recent years, a number of
workable concrete that can flow under its own research and application on self-compacting
weight through restricted sections without concrete have been carried out [5-6]. The
segregation and bleeding [1]. Elimination of production of SCC is ensuring a good balance
vibrating improves the environment on and near between the deformability and stability. SCC
construction sites where concrete is being placed, requires high cement content that leads to increase
reducing the exposure of workers to noise and in cost and temperature rise during heat of
vibration. This saves time, reduces the cost and hydration. To overcome this drawback additive or
improves quality of concrete and working pozzolanic material such as fly ash is used. The
environment. An invention of SCC can be strength and durability performance of SCC is a
considered as a major evolution in the construction wide range of concrete strength is varying fly ash
industry. SCC has very little resistance to flow so were through micro structure is related to the
that it can be placed and compacted under its own properties of concrete like water absorption
weight without any vibration. The general purpose permeability etc. [7-8]. The durability concrete is
mix design method was first developed by Okamura mainly depends on the filler materials in the mix
and Ozawa [2]. SCC typically has a higher content design incorporated on the ash.SCC usually
of fine particles and different flow properties than improved durability of concrete as compared to
the conventional concrete, the aggregate contribute conventional vibrated concrete with same w/c ratio
is about 60 to 70 percentage of the total volume. It [9,14]. The decrease of weight was observed for
has three essential properties like filling ability, SCC when exposed to 18 g/l of sodium sulphate in
resistance to segregation and passing ability when distilled water. So that the limestone filler is added
it is ready for placement. The mix design of SCC to the mix, SCC is not suitable to use with large
must satisfy the criteria on filling ability, passing amount of limestone powder [10]. SCC requires
ability and segregation resistance as given by higher powder content, lesser quantity of coarse
EFNARC [3]. In the production of SCC, several aggregate, high range Superplasticizer and VMA to
different approaches can be used. One of the provide Stability and fluidity to the concrete mixes.
methods to achieve self-compacting property is to The flow characteristic increases with increasing
increase significantly the amount of fine materials VMA. Compressive strength, flexural strength and
[4]. The excellent workability, mechanical property split tensile strength decreases with increased
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addition of VMA Substitution of 10% of cement with 150 micron IS sieve was used for the replacement
Quarry limestone powder improved the of fine aggregate. The sieve analysis of fine
compressive strength of cement pastes [11-13].The aggregate has been carried out as per IS 383-1970
main objective of this paper study the fresh [17] and from that it is confirmed to grading zone-II
concrete properties such as filling ability and and other properties of fine aggregate are shown in
passing ability and mechanical properties such as Table 2.
compressive strength and durability of SCC made
with up to 30 percent replacement for cement. The
Table 2 Physical Properties of Fine Aggregate,
results are compared to those obtained with a
Quarry Dust and Coarse Aggregate
control mix.
2. MATERIALS USED 2.5 Water

2.1 Cement
Generally tap water is used in this experiment. The
Cement is the fine material which is used as a water which is used should be free from salt. It is
binding material. Ordinary Portland cement 43 very important ingredient in the concrete mass, as it
grade was used. It is confirming to the requirements actively participates in a chemical reaction with
of Indian standard specification IS: 8112-1989 [15]. cement.
The physical properties are given in Table 1. The
Property Materials
tests on cement have been carried out as IS: 4031-
1999. Fine Quarry Coarse
Aggregate Dust Aggregate
Bulk Loose
Table 1 Properties of Ordinary Portland cement 1552 1520 1465
density state
Sl.No. Physical test Results Kg/m3 Compact
1645 1615 1595
obtained state
1 Fineness (%) 5.50 Specific gravity 2.55 2.45 2.62
2 Specific gravity 3.05 Fineness modulus 2.97 2.88 6.90
3 Vicat time of Initial 80
Surface Moisture
setting setting 1.45 2.35 Nil
(%)
(minutes) time
Final 325 Water absorption
(%) 1.53 2.80 0.15
setting
time
4 Compressive 3 days 24.00 2.6 Rice Husk Ash
Strength 7 days 35.00
(MPa) 28 days 45.20 The rice husk ash (RHA) had greyish white colour.
RHA was passed through IS 90 micron sieve was
2.2 Fine Aggregate used. The specific gravity at 27°C is 2.18 and bulk
Fine aggregate (FA) used in the present study is density is 895 kg/m 3 which was determined as per
IS 1727-1967 [16] .
from the river bed of Hemavathi River,
Holenarasipur. The sieve analysis of fine aggregate
has been carried out as per IS 383-1970[17] and 2.7 Bagasse Ash
from that it is confirmed to grading zone-II and other
properties of fine aggregate are shown in Table 2. The bagasse ash (BA) is collected from Hemavathi
sugar factory near Channarayapatna (Karnataka
state) was used in this study. The ash obtained in
2.3 Coarse Aggregate the factory was coarser and it was put to the ball
mill to convert into fine particles of size most likely
The common coarse aggregates (CA) are crushed
to the cement particles. Bagasse ash has grayish
stone and gravel. The 16 mm downsize coarse
white color. Bagasse ash was passed through IS 90
aggregate was tested as per IS 2386 (I, II, III)
micron sieve and used for the research. The
specifications and the properties are given in Table
specific gravity at 27oC is 2.32 and bulk density is
2. It is confirming to the requirements of Indian
1075 kg/m3 which was determined as per IS 1727-
standard specification IS: 383-1970 [17].
1967 [16].
2.4 Quarry Dust
2.8 Chemical Admixture
Quarry dust (QD) comprises of the smaller
Admixtures mainly affect the flow behavior of the
aggregate particles, so it was sieved and quarry
Self-compacting concrete. The admixture used here
dust passing from 4.75mm IS sieve and retaining on
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is sika viscocrete 5231. The properties of this range [3]. In the J ring test, it can be seen that the
admixture are Specific gravity at 250C is 1.08, pH is control mix got 9 mm depth. The acceptable
7.25 and bluish brown colour. difference as per available literature is 0-10 mm. V
funnel test was performed to assess the flowability
and stability of the SCC. V-funnel flow times were in
3. MIX PROPORTIONS, PREPARATION AND the range of 6 to 12 sec. [3]. The results of
CASTING OF TEST SPECIMENS rheological properties of SCC Mixes are given in
Table 4.
Several trial mixes are prepared by varying the
volume ratio of fine aggregate, coarse aggregate,
water/powder ratio and super plasticizer. On the 5.2 Mechanical Properties
basis of test results many trail mixes are tried in the
laboratory and final mix proportion which satisfies 5.2.1 Compressive strength
the fresh concrete properties as per EFNARC 2002
[3] guidelines is selected for control concrete mix. The results of compressive strength of cubes for 28,
The final mix proportion is the reference mix of SCC 56 and 120 days curing are given in Table 5. Also
mixes with different replacement levels of bagasse results are compared graphically in Fig.1. The
ash, RHA and QD. For all the mixes coarse compressive strength increased with a decrease in
aggregate content is kept constant which are given the percentage of the bagasse ash and RHA at all
in Table 3. These mixes are tested as per EFNARC levels of replacement at 28, 56 and 120 days and
[3] and satisfied their requirements. The test an increase trend strength is observed as the age of
specimens were cast in one layer in steel moulds concrete increases. The reductions of compressive
without any vibration or tamping, all the specimens strength are 2.96% to 59.07 % for 28 days, 5.46 %
are then cured in water until the specified date of to 56.15 % for 56 days and 6.38 % to 52.73 % for
testing [18]. 120 days when compared with control mix. In the
early age bagasse ash and RHA reacts slowly with
calcium hydroxide liberated during hydration of
4. TESTING OF SPECIMENS cement and does not contribute significantly to the
densification of concrete matrix. It can be seen from
The fresh concrete properties such as filling ability the Fig. 1 up to the age of 28 days, there was
and passing ability (Slump flow test, Slumpflow T 50 progressive improvement. The improvement of
cm, J-ring test, V-funnel test, V-funnel 5 minitues
compressive strength is mostly due to the micro
and L box were carried out according to EFNARC filling ability and pozzolanic activity of bagasse ash
[3]. Hardened concrete properties such as and RHA.
compressive, split tensile strength and durability
test such as acid attack [18]. 5.2.2 Split Tensile Strength
The split tensile strength increased with a decrease

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION in percentage of bagasse ash and RHA. The results
5.1. Fresh Concrete Properties of split tensile strength of cylinder for 28, 91 and
120 days curing are given in Table 5. Mixes MB1 to
During slump flow test, final diameters of concrete MB16 showed increase of 8.07 to 29.84 percent
in both perpendicular directions (d1 \ d2) were from 28 days to 91 days and 11.57 to 43.45 percent
measured. It can be seen that the control mix got from 28 to 120 days. The significant increase in
640 mm slump flow. As the replacement of cement strength of concrete is due to pozzolanic reaction of
increases, the slump flow also increases. The bagasse ash and RHA.
slump flow value obtained maximum is 690 mm for
10% replacement of cement and 70% replacement 5.3 Acid Attack
of fine aggregate. The slump flow values of various
mixtures were between 590 mm to 690 mm, a SCC cubes of size 100x100x100mm were cast with
slump flow between 650 mm to 800 mm [3], is an various proportion of fine aggregate replaced by
indication of a good deformability. quarry dust at 0%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50% and 70%,
Based on the slump flow and visual observation, cement replaced by bagasse ash and RHA at 10%,
SCC property for all mixtures was found to be 20% and 30%. After 24 hours the specimen were
satisfactory except for the mix BR8. T50cm slump demoulded and subjected to water curing. After 28
flow for the control mix had 7 seconds. T50cm slump days of curing, the dry weights of the cubes were
flow shows that the workability of SCC is within the
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Table 3 Mix proportion for SCC mixes

Mix Cement BA RHA FA QD CA W/c super
Notation (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) ratio plasticizer (%)
MB1 450 0 0.00 891.00 0.00 742.50 0.46 0.50
MB2 405 22.50 22.5 712.00 179.00 742.50 0.46 0.50
MB3 405 22.50 22.50 623.70 267.30 742.50 0.48 0.50
MB4 405 22.50 22.50 534.60 356.40 742.50 0.48 0.50
MB5 405 22.50 22.50 445.50 445.50 742.50 0.50 0.60
MB6 405 22.5 22.5 267.30 623.70 742.50 0.55 0.60
MB7 360 45.00 45.00 712.00 179.00 742.50 0.50 0.50
MB8 360 45.00 45.00 623.70 267.30 742.50 0.52 0.55
MB9 360 45.00 45.00 534.60 356.40 742.50 0.52 0.50
MB10 360 45.00 45.00 445.50 445.50 742.50 0.55 0.60
MB11 360 45.00 45.00 267.30 623.70 742.50 0.55 0.60
MB12 315 67.50 67.50 712.00 179.00 742.50 0.52 0.50
MB13 315 67.50 67.50 623.70 267.30 742.50 0.53 0.65
MB14 315 67.50 67.50 534.60 356.40 742.50 0.55 0.50
MB15 315 67.50 67.50 445.50 445.50 742.50 0.55 0.70
MB16 315 67.50 67.50 267.30 623.70 742.50 0.55 0.65
Table 4 Rheological Properties of SCC Mixes

Mix Notation Slump Flow (mm) T50 cm Slump Flow (sec) J-Ring(mm) V- Funnel(sec) V- Funnel T5 min.(sec)
MB1 640 7 9 8 11
MB2 665 6 8 6 8
MB3 649 5 8.5 11 14
MB4 630 7 5 10 13
MB5 605 7 5 11 13
MB6 690 5 8 10 14
MB7 665 6 8 6 8
MB8 590 7 14 14 17
MB9 630 5 6 10 14
MB10 645 6 9 10 13
MB11 650 6 10 10 14
MB12 660 6 10 7 9
MB13 613 7 12 12 15
MB14 650 7 5 12 14
MB15 654 5 8 11 14
MB16 652 6 9 10 14
Table 5 Compressive Strength and Split Tensile Strength of SCC Mixes

Mix Notation Average Compressive Strength(MPa) Average Split Tensile Strength (MPa)
28 Days 56 Days 120 Days 28 Days 91 Days 120 Days
MB1 42.17 45.96 48.09 3.28 3.96 4.34
MB2 36.95 42.73 45.02 3.02 3.34 3.52
MB3 32.83 35.11 41.00 2.55 3.01 3.15
MB4 37.17 42.85 44.07 2.85 3.08 3.18
MB5 40.92 43.45 47.00 2.88 3.54 3.62
MB6 38.98 41.00 43.22 2.59 3.02 3.25
MB7 35.20 37.23 40.27 2.24 2.75 2.94
MB8 26.52 28.91 34.58 2.25 2.68 2.84
MB9 25.17 28.56 34.42 2.20 2.61 2.88
MB10 25.93 29.12 33.21 2.20 2.61 2.88
MB11 24.93 28.71 32.67 1.91 2.48 2.74
MB12 25.60 27.30 31.30 1.77 2.28 2.48
MB13 23.20 24.53 29.82 1.67 2.08 2.28
MB14 21.93 23.29 25.69 1.67 2.08 2.28
MB15 18.95 20.70 22.98 1.65 1.91 2.18
MB16 17.26 20.22 22.73 1.57 1.91 2.18
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calculated and then they were immersed in 2.5%  As percentage replacement of cement by
H2SO4 solution for 28, 91 and 180 days. The pH of bagasse ash and RHA increases the slump flow,
the acidic media was periodically checked and T50cm slump flow, J-ring, V funnel and L box
maintained constant. In H2SO4 solution, the decreases. Due to the reduction in viscosity of
specimens turned into a white pulpy mass in SCC, the time required for slump flow value
addition to peeling. The percentage of weight loss decreases.
due to acid attack was calculated and the variation  The compressive strength increased with a
of percentage weight loss with ages are shown in decrease in the percentage of the bagasse ash
Fig.2. A visual inspection of specimens shows the and RHA, but 28 days compressive strength
deterioration of the samples, particularly for the achieved 40.92 MPa with the mix made by 10%
concrete with high cement content. It can be seen partial replacement of RHA and BA to cement
that the weight reduction in the cube after and 50% of quarry dust to fine aggregate when
immersing in acid solution for a period of 28 days is compared to other replacements for 28 days
more in MB1 mix when compared to other mixes. strength. The significant increase in strength is
This shows that when the cement is replaced in due to pozzolanic reaction.
concrete enhances the sulphate resistance.  The splitting tensile strength decreases as the
percentage of replacement increases for all the
Compressive strength v/s Age
MB1 mixes. The split tensile strength of SCC is
60
Compresive Strength (MPa)
MB2 obtained maximum for 10% partial replacement

MB3 of RHA and BA to cement and 50% to fine
50 aggregate.
MB4
 When the specimens are in sulphate solution for
40 MB5
28, 91 and 180 days respectively, the average
MB6 reduction in weight is increased with decrease in
30 MB7 bagasse ash and rice husk ash in concrete.
MB8  Bagasse ash and rice husk ash is a by-product
20 MB9 material, it is used as a cement replacing
MB10 material which reduces the levels of CO2
10
MB11 emission by the cement industry. In addition its
MB12 use resolves the disposal problems associated
0
MB13 with it in the sugar industries and thus keeping
28 Day 56 Day 120 Day
MB14 the environment free from pollution
Age (Day) MB15
MB16 7. REFERENCES
Fig. 1 Variation of Compressive Strength of Cubes
with Age
1) Okamura, H. 1997. Self-compacting high-
performance concrete, Concrete international, 19
MB1 (7), pp.50-54.
Percentage Weight Loss v/s Age 2) Okamura H, Ozawa K. 1995. “Mix design for
30 MB2
MB3 self-compacting concrete”. Concrete Library of
Percentage Weight Loss
25 MB4 Japanese Society of Civil Engineers 25(6), 107-

MB5 120.
20 3) EFNARC-2002, “achieving and highest
MB6
MB7 standards”, Specification and Guidelines for
15
MB8 Self-Compacted Concrete. EFNARC,
10 MB9 Association house, 99 West Street, Farnham,
MB10 Surrey GU9 7EN, UK.
5 MB11 4) Nadeem A. Siddiqui, 2011. " Influence of Fluidity
MB12 on Reliability of SCC Produced Using Local
0 MB13 Saudi Materials. Arabian Journal for
28 Day 91 Day 180 Day MB14 Science and Engineering. 36, 2, 203–214.
Immersion Immersion Immersion MB15 5) Bui, V.K., Montgomery. D., Hinczak. I and
Age (Day) MB16 Turner. K. 2002. “Rapid Testing Method for
Segregation Resistance of Self-Compacting
Concrete”, Cement and Concrete Research,
Fig. 2 Variation of Percentage Weight Loss with
32,1489-96.
Ages
6) Ho .D.W.S., Sheinn, Ng, C. C. and Tam, C. T.
6. CONCLUSION
2002. “The Use of Quarry Dust for SCC
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Applications”, Cement and Concrete Research,

32 (4), 505-511.
7) Al-Tamimi A.K. and Sonebi M, 2003.
“Assessment of Self-Compacting Concrete
Immersed in Acidic Solutions”, Journal of
Materials in Civil Engineering,15,No.4,.354-357.
8) Abdullah Ahmad, “Fatigue Behavior of
Polypropylene Fiber Reinforced Bituminous
concrete Mix” International Journal of
Engineering Research & Technology, ISSN:
2278-0181, 4 Issue 02.
9) Abhishek Kumar Singh, Anshul Jain and
Deependra Singh. 2013. “Evaluation of
Mechanical Properties For Polypropylene And
Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete” International
Journal of Engineering Research & Technology,
2 Issue 4.
10) Qian.C.X,P.Stroeven. 2014. “Development
of hybrid polypropylene-steel fibre-reinforced
concrete” International Journal of Emerging
Technology and Advanced Engineering (ISSN
2250-2459,4l,, Special Issue 4.
11) Burak Felekoglu.2007. “Utilisation of high
volume limestone quarry wastes in concrete
industry (self compacting concrete case)”,
Resources Conservation & Recycling 51 (4),
770-791.
12) Hossain K.M.A and Lachemi M. 2010. “
Fresh, Mechanical, and Durability Characteristics
of Self-Consolidating Concrete Incorporating
Volcanic Ash”,Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering, 22, No. 7, 651-657.
13) Vilas V. Karjinni, Shrishail B. Anadinni and
Dada S. Patil, 2009. “An Investigation on the
Characteristic Properties of High Performance
SCC with Mineral Admixtures”. Indian Concrete
Journal, 15-19.
14) Prakash Nanthagopalan and Manu
Santhanam. 2011. Fresh and hardened
properties of self-compacting concrete produced
with manufactured sand Cement and concrete
composite,33, 353-358.
15) IS: 8112-1982, Specification for 43-Grade
Portland cement, Bureau of Indian Standards,
New Delhi, India.
16) IS: 1727: 1967, Indian Standard Methods of
Tests for pozzolanic materials, Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi, India.
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fine aggregate from material sources for
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practice, Methods of Tests for strength of
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India.
308
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
LINEAR STATIC ANALYSIS OF AN IRREGULAR (L SHAPED) BUILDING
FOR PROGRESSIVE COLLAPSE
ICID2018_D_030
Augustin Karadigudd1, Dr. M. T. Venuraju2, K. S. Manjunath3
1. M.Tech student, Dept of Civil Engg, Malnad College of Engineering, Hassan, Karnataka
2. Professor Emeritus, Dept of Civil Engg, Malnad College of Engineering, Hassan, Karnataka
3. Associate Professor, Dept of Civil Engg, Malnad College of Engineering, Hassan, Karnataka
ABSTRACT
Concrete and steel structures dominate the construction of multistorey structures. But when there is a failure of one
or more load bearing structural element then there might be a chance for progressive collapse. Therefore this study
is carried out to ascertain the possibility of the progressive collapse of an irregular (L shaped) building due to the
failure or removal of two adjacent columns present in the ground floor. Failure may happen because of the natural or
manmade accidental loads like seismic loads or explosion, collision of vehicles, etc. Columns at different locations
were removed and the slab loads had been increased as per the GSA guidelines and the results in terms of Demand
Capacity Ratios are compared for all the cases. The Demand to Capacity Ratio (DCR) values were calculated for the
columns. It is observed that when the interior columns were removed then the possibility of progressive collapse is
more. This study has been made for the case or earthquake forces corresponding zone II.
Keywords: DCR; progressive collapse; linear; static; irregular
1 INTRODUCTION “Fatema and Hamane (2016) considered a

building of 5x5 bays of 5m with 13 floors
The accidental loads can be because of the designated as a special moment resisting frame
explosions, vehicle collision to the structure, as per Indian code. The model was created in
unexpected earthquakes, tsunami, etc. When this ETABS as per GSA guidelines. The building was
happens in most of the cases, there could be analyzed by linear and nonlinear static method.
damage to the structure. Progressive collapse is The study showed that shear in the beams is not
initiated by a local failure, where only some part of critical during the progressive collapse, the lower
the building fails and if that failure progresses storey beams are critical compared to upper
across a significant part of the building; then it is storey ones.”
known as progressive collapse. So as per the “Sudden column loss in a flat slab
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) the structure was analyzed by Justin and Russell
progressive collapse should be taken into design (2015) using FEM. This study showed that the flat
consideration with the possible loss of structural slab structures have higher capacity beyond their
elements. A popular methodology that is being elastic limit, due to the material non-linearity. The
used by the Department of Defense (DoD) as well comparison between static and dynamic cases is
as GSA is the Alternative Path Method that is made making use of Dynamic Amplification Factor
APM. As the name of the method itself describes, (DAF). DAF was less than 1.62. The study
when a load bearing element from the building is concludes that the RC flat slab buildings are
removed, the building re-adjusts itself to transfer robust and can resist the progressive collapse, if
the loads through an alternative path. there is no brittle failure. Material non-linearlity
This study aims at the analysis of the depends on the design of the slab, with maximum
possible failure of the structures which are likely to displacement 3.31 times the yield one. For higher
be in situations, where there could be columns non-linearity DAF gets reduced.”
lost. It is an irregular building of L shape, shown in “Divya, Gururaja and Sridhar
the figure 1.The critical case considered is the (2016)investigated the progressive collapse of a
possibility of failure of two columns at the same building with and without the shear walls. Static
time, which could happen during an explosion analysis using ETABS 9.8 is performed. Here two
between two columns. So, in each case two models of same number of storeys are compared,
columns at critical locations as per GSA in which one model is with shear walls and the
guidelines, have been removed and analysis is other is without shear walls. When the models are
made, as per the Indian codal provisions. analyzed, it is found that the model with shear wall
performed better when the columns were
2 LITERATURE REVIEW removed; this is because of the fact that the shear
walls provide sufficient strength to resist the
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progressive collapse even though there is loss of  The structural details are:Floor to floor
columns by providing an alternative path.” height= 3 m (constant); Column size=
“A G+9 RC flat slab building with shear 0.5x0.5mm2; Spacing = 5 m; Slab depth=
walls is analyzed by four methods with respect to 150 mm; Drop panel= 75 mm; Seismic
the positions of the shear walls by Muralidhar and zone: zone II; Soil type II; R= 3; I=1
Swathi Rani (2016). The positions of shear wall
considered are: at center of the building, at the 3.2 GSA Guidelines
corners, at the middle of the exterior earthquake x
direction, at the middle of the exterior earthquake General Service Administration guidelines (GSA)
y direction. Zone V is considered for the analysis help us in identifying critical columns to be
of storey drift, storey shear using the time history removed. Two columns at a time are removed at
method in ETABS.” critical locations as per GSA guidelines. Those
Based on the review of literature, it is columns removal cases are shown in figure 1. The
apparent that (i) there are not many studies loads on the tributary panels of the removed
involving irregular flat slab structures. (ii) the columns are increased on GSA guidelines.
investigations so far have considered only
removal of a single column at critical locations as 3.3 Cases Considered
per GSA guidelines.
But there is a distinct possibility that an  Corner columns removal: Case 1, 2 and 3
explosion may happen at a location midway  Exterior columns removal: Case 4 and 5
between two adjacent columns, in which case the  Interior columns removal: Case 6 and 7
pressure wave due to the explosion may damage
both these adjacent columns.
The present investigation tries to address
these two factors (i) by considering an irregular (L
shaped) flat slab structure to visualize how the
progressive collapse advances in such a
structure. (ii) to simulate the possible damage to
two adjacent columns simultaneously, two
columns are removed at critical locations as per
GSA guidelines and the structure analyzed for
progressive collapse.
3 BUILDING CONFIGURATION
3.1 General Data and Details of the Building
For this study the structure selected is an L Figure 1. Irregular building plan with 7 cases
shaped flat slab structure. It is a G+10 storey
building. Along the x-direction it has 4 bays, along
the y-direction 3 bays. Column to column distance 4 PROGRESSIVE COLLAPSE ANALYSIS
is 5m. The model is analyzed using ETABS
version 16. The punching shear is checked first for The following are the steps that are followed in the
the flat slab, which is the primary check. The analysis of the model in ETABS.
punching shear is checked manually. Also ETABS Step-1: The structure is modeled in
16 has the feature to check for the punching shear ETABS and the loads are applied to the model
failure. As per the ETABS guidelines, if the ratio of including the seismic loads. The model is
demand to capacity for punching shear is more
analyzed under linear static condition.
than 1, then it is considered as failure at that Step-2: The punching shear is checked
column. The structure is safe in punching shear for the entire structure for load combinations as
when the DCR for all columns is less than 1. per IS 1893. Also the DCRs are found out.
The details of the building analyzed are
Step-3: Case-wise two columns are
listed below:
removed simultaneously in the ground floor and
 Grades: Concrete: M25; and Steel: Fe500 the loads are applied as per the GSA guidelines to
 Number of cases analyzed: 7 cases
simulate criticality.
 Loads on the building:Super Imposed Floor load on the slabs above the
Load= 1.5 kN/m 2; Live Load= 3 kN/m 2;
removed column in all floors:
Seismic Loads: based on zones as per GLF = 2 [1.2 DL + (0.5 LL or 0.2 SL)] [1]
the IS 1893:2002
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Floor load on the all slabs except the each of the cases are as shown below for all the
slabs above the removed column in all floors: storeysat neighboring columns of interest.
G = 1.2 DL+ (0.5 LL or 0.2 SL) [2] Figure 3 to 6 show the DCR values for the
columns, in the neighborhood of the removed
Where DL - Dead Load; LL - Live Load; columns. The surrounding columns numbers are
SL - Snow Load (zero for this study) given at the right side of the graph and only for the
Step-4: The results of the analysis are columns of interest, the DCR values are found.For
extracted to spreadsheets. The DCR values for figures 3 to 6, the horizontal line indicates the floor
the columns of interest are found out. numbers and the vertical line indicates the DCR
values range.
DCR = Qud/ Que  [3]
Where Qud - Acting force (demand)
observed in member or connection (axial force,
bending moment, punching shear, etc.) and Que -
Expected ultimate, nonfactored capacity of the
member or connection (axial forces, bending
moment, punching shear, etc).
Step - 5: As per the GSA guidelines, the
columns which have DCR less than 2 are safe
against progressive collapse. Figure 3.DCR values for thesurrounding columns
5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5.1 Punching Shear
Figure 4.DCR values for the surrounding columns

Figure 2. Punching Shear Ratio check
As punching shear failure is the common mode of

failure in the flat-slabs, the punching shear check
is the primary check to safeguard the slab at
column locations. Figure 2 shows the DCR ratios
in punching shear at the columns. All the values
are less than 1, therefore the structure is safe.
5.2 Comparison of DCR values for columns, in the
neighborhood of the removed column From the above graphs it is observed that,
the columns which are surrounding the removed
As it had been mentioned, there are 7 cases of columns have higher DCR values than those at
removal of column pairs studied for the building. higher floor locations of removed columns. And
Among the 7 cases; the first three cases viz. the DCR values for the surrounding columns are
case1, case2 and case3 are the corner column higher in the top floor (Floor 10), whereas for the
removal cases, the next two cases viz. case4 and removed columns, the DCR values in the floor just
case5 are exterior column removal cases and the above are highest in most of the cases (Floor 2).
last two cases viz. case6 and case7 are the From all the seven cases graph of the DCR values
interior column removal cases. The results for for the surrounding columns, it is observed that,
removal of the external corner columns cases are
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more critical than any other cases.
5.3 Comparison of DCR Values for Columns,

those are In-line with, Perpendicular to and
Diagonal to the Removed Columns
Just knowing the DCR values of the surrounding Figure 11. Case 5: DCR values for the columns
columns is not enough, we need to know, how the inline with C76 and C77
DCR values would vary with the columns in-line
with, perpendicular to and diagonal to the Figure 10 and figure 11show the DCR
removed columns. This will help us to understand variations, when the exterior columns are
the behavior of the structure. Figures 7 to 13 removed. These figures show that, the DCR value
report those variations for different cases. Each goes on decreasing as we move away from the
curve represents variation of DCR values at the removed columns. The highest DCR value 3.2
floor under consideration in each case. was found for the column C65 and C71. It can
also be seen that floor 2 and floor 10 have the
highest DCR values than any other floors.
Figure 7. Case1: columns in-line with C1-C2

Figure 12. Case 6: DCR values for the columns
perpendicular with C57 & C58
Figure 8.Case 2: DCRs for the columns diagonal

to C97 and C88
Figure 13. Case 7: DCR values for the columns

inline with C10 and C14
Figure 12 and figure13 represent the

variation of DCR values when the interior columns
are removed. In these two cases, it can be seen
Figure 9.Case 3: DCRs for the columns
that, the DCR values vary alternatively for the
perpendicular to C87 and C81 through C81
columns in-line with and perpendicular to the
removed columns. Also the DCR from floor to floor
Figure 7 to Figure 9show the DCR
does not follow a particular pattern.
variations, when the corner columns are removed.
In general it is observed from the above
It is observed that the removed columns have the
figures (figure 3 to figure 13) that, the columns
highest DCR values in floor 2. And maximum DCR
which are surrounding the removed columns have
value 3.4 was found in case 1 for C2 column. The
higher DCR values. And it is observed that, case 6
columns, which are far away from the removed
is the most critical of all the cases, as it has more
column, have the lesser DCR value for in-line with
number of columns that are susceptible for
and perpendicular cases, whereas the end
progressive collapse. In case 6, the highest DCR
columns in the diagonal direction have
value was found to be 3.103 for C51 column in
considerable DCR values.
floor 10. It shows that, when the interior columns
are removed then there is higher possibility of
progressive collapse.
6 COMPARISONS OF RESULTS OF SINGLE

Figure 10. Case 4: DCR values for the columns COLUMN REMOVAL AND TWO COLUMNS
diagonal to C65 & C71 REMOVAL
GSA guidelines are for the removal of single

column at the critical locations to analyze for
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progressive collapse. But this work is mainly The above results clearly show that there
interested in analyzing progressive collapse for is difference between the single column removal
the case of a pair of adjacent columns damaged, and two columns removal. It is clear that, two
which is a distinct possibility. With this in view a columns removal results have higher DCR values
comparison is made, for one of the cases that is than the corresponding value for single column
case 1, between the situations that obtain when a removal, in the neighborhood of columns removed
single column is removed as per GSA guidelines and for the other columns DCR values remain
and when a pair of adjacent columns are removed almost the same. In the bottom floor, the floor
as in the present study. This is to highlight the where the columns are removed, has the
criticality of removal of a pair of adjacent columns exceptional result, that C2 has DCR < 1.0 and C3
compared to removal of a single column. To know has 1.3, whereas it is <1 for 2 columns removal
the difference and also to understand the behavior case, for columns beyond C4 DCR values for
of the structure when different number of columns two columns removal are slightly higher.
are removed, this paper presents the comparison
of the results of the single column removal with 7 CONCLUSION
those for two columns removal. This comparison
is done only for the case 1. The results are as It can be concluded from the above discussions
follows that, in general, the interior columns removal are
the most critical cases. Between the two interior
6.1 Comparison of DCR values for columns, in the columns removal cases, case 6 is more critical of
neighborhood of the removed column for the two as the more number of surrounding
case1 columns have high DCR values than the other
cases. And also it may be concluded from the
comparison of single and two columns removal
that, the DCR values are higher generally for the
two column removal in the neighborhood of
removed column(s).
Highest DCR value at one of the locations
in the neighborhood of the removed columns is
almost double for two columns removal compared
Figure 14. DCR values for the columns, in the to single column removal at the same location.
neighborhood of a removed column for case 1 Also the location of highest DCR value is at the
floor immediately above the column removed and
From figure 3 and figure 14, it may be seen that at the same floor in column just adjacent to one of
the DCR values for the columns, in the the removed columns.
neighborhood of the removed columns are greater The fact that DCR values at these
for the two columns removal as compared to locations are very high (>2) and for single column
those for single column removal. removal case it is <2 at all locations is indicative of
the necessity for considering two columns removal
6.2 Comparison of DCR Values of Columns In- situation for ascertaining the possibility of
line with C1 and C2 progressive collapse.
Figure 16 and17show the REFERENCES
comparison of DCR values for Figure 15 Indicator
a single column removal and [1] Divya N, Gururaja B, R Sridhar, “Comparative
a pair of columns removal for case 1 for selected Study of Progressive Collapse Analysis of Flat
floors. Slab with and without Shear Wall”, IJRET,
Volume: 05, Special Issue: 2016.
[2] Mir Sana Fatema and Hamane A. A.,
“Progressive Collapse of Reinforced Concrete
Building”, IJETST, Volume 03, Issue 12, 2016.
[3] Muralidhar G.B, Swathi Rani K.S, “Study of
Figure 16. Comparison of DCR values for columns Seismic performance of RC Building with Flat
in line with C1 and C2 Plate influenced by Concrete Wall”, IRJET,
Volume: 03 Issue: 01, 2016.
[4] IS 456:2000, IS 1893:2002, IS 875:1987, GSA
guidelines and DoD guidelines.
[5] Russell and Justin, “Progressive Collapse of
Reinforced Concrete Flat Slab Structures”,
Figure 17. Comparison of DCR values for columns PhD thesis, University of Nottingham, 2015.
in line with C1 and C2
313
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
UTILIZATION OF WASTE AND RECYCLED MATERIALS IN CONCRETE: A
REVIEW
ICID2018_D_031
Mriganka Kr. Duttabaruah1, Nayanmoni Chetia2
1. M.E student, Department of Civil Engineering, Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat,Assam,India

2. Asstt. Prof., Department of Civil Engineering, Jorhat Engineering College,Jorhat,Assam,India
ABSTRACT
The main objective of this study is to investigate the potential use of various solid wastes for producing construction
materials. Numerous waste materials are generated from manufacturing processes, service industries and municipal
solid wastes. The traditional methods of producing concrete mostly consume valuable natural resources. Besides,
solid wastes management is a burning problem in modern urban life. Studies have been going on recycling of
different types of solid wastes with a view to utilize them in the production of various concrete .A detailed review
about waste and recycled plastics, waste management options has been done. Research has been done on the
effect of recycled plastic on the fresh and hardened properties of concrete has also been reviewed. A new approach
has been adopted in mixing concrete, namely “two-stage mixing approach (TSMA)”, intended to improve the
compressive strength and decrease the strength variability for recycled aggregate concrete. Applying TSMA
improvements in strength to recycled aggregate concrete were achieved. An improved interfacial zone around
recycled aggregate and thus a higher strength when compared with the traditional mixing approach was obtained.
Keywords: Waste management; Recycled aggregate; TSMA.
1 INTRODUCTION About 6% of this amount is generated in India

(Yoshizawa et al., 2004; CPCB, 2000). The major
The traditional construction materials such as solid wastes are generated in India from
concrete, bricks, hollow blocks, solid blocks, agricultural, industrial, municipal and mining
pavement blocks and tiles are being produced sources. The disposal of these wastes has
from the existing natural resources. This is become a major environmental problem in India
damaging the environment due to continuous and thus the possibility of recycling the solid
exploration and depletion of natural resources. wastes for use in construction materials is of
Moreover, various toxic substances such as high increasing importance. The utilization of fly ash,
concentration of carbon monoxide, oxides of blast furnace slag, recycle aggregate, tire rubber,
nitrogen, and suspended particulate matters are plastic aggregate, waste marble, waste glass etc.
invariably emitted to the atmosphere during the in concrete shows some example of the success
manufacturing process of construction materials. of research in this area.
The emission of toxic matters contaminates air,
water, soil and thus influences human health as
well as their living standard. Therefore, the issues 3 RECYCLING METHODS OF WASTES
related to environmental conservation have
gained great importance in our society in recent Recycling of waste is one of the main tasks in this
years. Consequently, major changes regarding greater environment awareness. Plastics and
the conservation of resources and recycling of concrete aggregate recycling has to be taken into
wastes by proper management are taking place in consideration in any waste management program.
our ways of living and working. The utilization of
solid wastes in concrete is one of such innovative 3.1 Mechanical Recycling of Plastic
efforts.
Mechanical recycling of plastics refers to
processes which involve melting, shredding or
2 MAJOR SOLID WASTES AND THEIR USE granulation of waste plastics. Plastics must be
IN CONCRETE sorted prior to mechanical recycling. Plastics can
be sorted using various techniques such as X-ray
Globally, the estimated quantity of solid wastes fluorescence, infrared and near infrared
generation was 12 billion tons (Pappu et al., 2007) spectroscopy, electrostatics and flotation.
and about 19 billion tons of solid wastes are Following sorting, the plastic is either melted down
expected to be generated annually by the year directly and moulded into a new shape, or melted
2025 (Yoshizawa et al., 2004). Annually, Asia down after being shredded into flakes and then
alone generates 4.4 billion tons of solid wastes. processed into granules called re-granulate.
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Compressive Strength vs % of RA
3.2 Chemical Modification
Compressive Strength
60
Plastic can be recycled by chemical modification 40

or depolymerisation. The two ways to achieve
depolymerisation are hydrolysis (chemical 20
decomposition) and pyrolysis (thermal
decomposition).For example, PET (polyethylene 0
terephthalate) can be chemically modified to 0 10 20 30 40
produce unsaturated polyester, thermoset NMA (MPa) TSMA(MPa)
polyester typically used in bathtubs, boat hulls, % of RA
and automobile exterior panels. Another example Fig1. 7 day Compressive Strengths Using NMA
is the thermal decomposition of acrylic wastes and TSMA(From Vivian, Tam, 2004)
intomethyl methacrylate (MMA), a monomer Compressive Strength vs % of RA
65
typically used in aircraft windows and neon signs.
60
3.3 Concrete Aggregate Recycling
Concrete recycling has a number of benefits that 55

have made it a more attractive option in this age
of greater environmental awareness, 50
more environmental laws, and the desire to 0 10 20 30 40
keep construction costs down. NMA (MPa) TSMA(MPa)
Concrete aggregate collected % of RA
from demolition sites is put through a crushing Fig2. 14 day Compressive Strengths Using NMA
machine. Crushing facilities accept and TSMA(From Vivian, Tam, 2004)
only uncontaminated concrete, which must be free
of trash, wood, paper and other such Compressive Strength vs % of RA
materials. Metals such as rebar are accepted,
80
since they can be removed with magnets and
other sorting devices and melted down for 60
recycling. The remaining aggregate chunks are 40
sorted by size. Larger chunks may go through the
crusher again. After crushing has taken place, 20
other particulates are filtered out through a variety 0
of methods including hand-picking and water 0 10 20 30 40
flotation. These recycle concrete aggregate can NMA (MPa) TSMA(MPa)
be used again in the construction. % of RA
Fig3. 28 day Compressive Strengths Using NMA
and TSMA(From Vivian, Tam, 2004)
4 RESEARCH FINDINGS ON THE USE OF
RECYCLED AGGREGATE CONCRETE Compressive Strength vs % of RA
PRODUCED FROM TWO STAGE MIXING
80
APPROACH
75
Vivian W. Y. Tam et al. (2004) investigate that,
mix proportions of recycled aggregate concrete 70
using TSMA and NMA are controlled with slump of
65
75mm. The results of compressive strengths and
0 10 20 30 40
the percentages of improvement in different
proportions of RA using NMA and TSMA are NMA (MPa) TSMA(MPa)
shown with the improvement trends for 7 day, 14 % of RA
day, 28 day and 56 day strengths. Fig4.56day Compressive Strengths Using NMA
and TSMA(From Vivian, Tam, 2004)
From the graph we can conclude that gradual

improvements in strength with increased
percentages of RA can be observed when using
TSMA.
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The mixing procedure of nominal mixing

approach (NMA) and two stage mixing approach
(TSMA) is given below (Fig5)
Fig7. Loose Cement Paste for NMA (From Vivian,

Tam, 2004)
Fig5. Mixing Procedures of the (i) Normal Mixing
Approach and (ii) Two-Stage Mixing Approach
(From Vivian,Tam, 2004)
Concrete is of a three-phase system,
comprising coarse aggregate, mortar matrix with
fine aggregate, and interfacial zones (ITZ)
between coarse aggregate and the mortar matrix.
In concrete, the interfacial zone between cement
paste and aggregate plays a critical role. The
bond between coarse aggregate and fine
aggregate of concrete critically determines the
Fig8. Dense Cement Paste for TSMA (From
mechanical performance. In a typical concrete
Vivian, Tam, 2004)
composite, the mean spacing between aggregate
The experiments show that the two-stage mixing
particles is 75 to 100μm. Assuming a 40μm
approach can enhance the compressive strength
thickness for the ITZ, it has been estimated that
of RAC by developing a stronger interfacial zone.
the ITZ makes up 20 to 40 percent of the total
The quality of ITZ depends on surface
volume of the cementitious matrix. The weakness
characteristics of the aggregate particles, the
of the interfacial zone inhibits the achievement of degree of bleeding, chemical bonding and the
composite action in normal strength
specimen preparation technique. Under the
concrete.Hence, the interfacial region is generally
examination of SEM, both the new interfacial zone
regarded as the ‘weak link’ in concrete. In fact, the
and old interfacial zone of RAC are identified.
structure of RAC is much more complicated than
that in normal concrete. RAC possesses two ITZs,
one between the RA and new cement paste (new
ITZ), and the other between the RA and the old
mortar attached.
Fig9. New Interfacial Zone for TSMA (From

Vivian, Tam, 2004)
`
Fig6. Unfilled Crack in RA using NMA
(From Vivian, Tam, 2004)
Fig10. Poorer New Interfacial Zone for NMA

(From Vivian, Tam, 2004)
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observed failure was more of a gradual failure,

5 RESEARCH FINDINGS ON THE USE OF depending on the plastic aggregates content. As
RECYCLED PLASTIC IN CONCRETE the plastic aggregates content was increased, the
failure type became more ductile. The specimens
Al-Manaseer and Dalal (1997) investigated the containing plastic aggregates were capable of
effect of plastic aggregates on the bulk density of resisting the load for a few minutes after failure
concrete. For this purpose, they made 12 concrete without full disintegration. This trend was found to
mixes with different w/c containing varying be more obvious as the percentage of plastic
percentages (0%, 10%, 30%, and 50%) of plastic aggregates was increased. A plot between
aggregates. Angular post-consumer plastic percentages reductions in compressive strength
aggregates having a maximum size of 13 mm versus plastic fiber percentage is given in Fig 12.
were used. They concluded that, bulk density of
concrete decreased with the increase in plastic
aggregates content and density of concrete was
reduced by 2.5%, 6%, and 13% for concrete
containing 10%, 30%, and 50% plastic
aggregates, respectively. A plot between bulk
densities versus plastic aggregate percentage is
given in Fig11. They also determined the slump of
concrete mixes made with plastic aggregates.
Table 2 shows the slump data for all mix. They
reported that, there was increase in slump when
plastic aggregates were incorporated in concrete. Fig12. Compressive Strength versus Plastic
The concrete containing 50% plastic aggregates Aggregates (From Manaseer, Dalal, 1997)
had a slightly higher cone slump than the concrete They studied the effects of plastic aggregates
without plastic aggregates. Plastic aggregates on the splitting tensile strength of concrete. They
neither absorbed nor added any water to the concluded that: (i) splitting tensile strength
concrete mix. Due to this non-absorptive decreased with the increase in plastic aggregates
characteristic, concrete mixes containing plastic (ii) for a given plastic aggregate content, the
aggregates will have more free water. splitting tensile strength was found to decrease
Consequently, the slump increased. when w/c was increased and (iii) splitting failure of
concrete specimens containing plastic aggregates
did not exhibit the typical brittle failure observed in
the case of conventional concrete. A plot between
splitting tensile strength versus plastic aggregate
percentage is given in Fig 13.
Fig11. Bulk Density versus Plastic Aggregates

(From Manaseer, Dalal, 1997)
They investigated the effects of inclusion of

plastic aggregates on the compressive strength of
concrete. Concrete mixtures were made with Fig13. Splitting tensile strength Vs Plastic
different w/c and varying percentages of plastic Aggregate (From Manaseer, Dalal, 1997)
aggregates. At any given plastic aggregates
content, the compressive strength was found to They reported the effects of plastic aggregates
decrease when the w/c was increased. This may on the modulus of elasticityof concrete. Fig below
due to either a poor bond between the cement shows the results of modulus of elasticity of
paste and the plastic aggregates or to the low concrete containing different percentages of
strength that is characteristic of plastic plastic aggregates. They concluded that: (i)
aggregates. The failure of the concrete specimens modulus of elasticity decreased with the increase
containing plastic aggregates under compression in plastic aggregate content; and (ii) in general,
load did not exhibit the typical brittle type of failure increase in w/c ratio decreased the modulus of
normally obtained for conventional concrete. The elasticity of concrete. A plot between modulus of
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ICID 2018
elasticity versus plastic fiber percentage is given Ashraf M. Wagih, Hossam Z. El-Karmoty, Magda
in Fig14. Ebid, Samir H. Okba., 2013. Recycled
construction and demolition concrete waste as
aggregate for structural concrete. Housing and
Building National Research Center (2013) 9,
193–200.
Batayneh, M., Marie, I., Asi, I., 2007. Use of
selected waste materials in concrete mixes.
Waste Management 27 (12), 1870–1876.
Bayasi, Z., Zeng, J., 1993. Properties of
polypropylene fiber reinforced concrete. ACI
Materials Journal 90 (6), 605–610.
BS 812: Part 109. Methods for determination of
moisture content. British Standards Institution,
Fig14. Modulus of Elasticity Vsplastic aggregates London, United Kingdom (1990).
(From Manaseer, Dalal, 1997) Choi, Y.W., Moon, D.J., Chumg, J.S., Cho, S.K.,
2005. Effects of waste PET bottles aggregate
on the properties of concrete. Cement and
6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION Concrete Research 35, 776–781.
Marzouk, O.Y., Dheilly, R.M., Queneudec, M.,
The following conclusion can be summarized, 2007. Valorization of post-consumer waste
1. Compressive strength decreased with the plastic in cementitious concrete composites.
increase in recycled plastic content. Reduction in Waste Management 27, 310–318.
the compressive strength was between 34% Pappu A, Saxena M, Asolekar SR (2007). Solid
and67% for concrete containing 10–50% recycled Wastes Generation in India and their Recycling
plastic. Potential in Building Materials, Building and
2. Splitting tensile strength of concrete made with Environment, 42: 2311-2320.
post-consumer plastic aggregates was found to
Rafat Siddique., Jamal Khatib, Inderpreet Kaur.,
decrease with increase in the percentage of
2008. Use of recycled plastic in concrete: A
plastic aggregates. The splitting tensile strength review. Waste Management 28 (2008) 1835–
was found to decrease by 17% for concrete
1852.
containing 10% plastic aggregates. For a given
Safiuddin, ZaminJumaat, M. A. Salam, M. S. Islam
plastic aggregate content, the splitting tensile
and R. Hashim., 2010. Utilization of solid
strength was found to decrease when w/cm
wastes in construction materials, International
increased. However, concrete containing plastic Journal of the Physical Sciences Vol. 5(13), pp.
aggregates exhibited more ductile behaviour than 1952-1963.
concrete made with conventional aggregates. This
Shi Cong Kou; Chi Sun Poon; and Dixon Chan.,
ductile behaviour could be of significant
2007. Influence of Fly Ash as Cement
advantage in reducing crack formation and Replacement on the Properties of Recycled
propagation. Aggregate Concrete. JOURNAL OF
3. Recycled plastic can be effectively used in the MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING ©
repair and overlay of damaged cement concrete ASCE / SEPTEMBER 2007 / 709-717.
surfaces in pavements, bridges, floors, and dams.
Soroushian, P., Plasencia, J., Ravanbakhsh, S.,
4. Recycled plastic can be used in transportation 2003. Assessment of reinforcing effects of
related components (e.g., median barriers, bridge recycled plastic and paper in concrete, ACI
panels, and railroad ties). Materials Journal 100 (3), 203–207.
5. TSMA is proposed to strength the weak link of Vivian W. Y. Tam, X. F. Gao2 and C. M. Tam.,
RAC, which is located at the interfacial transition 2004. Micro-structural analysis of recycled
zone (ITZ) of the RA. The two-stage mixing
aggregate concrete produced from two-stage
approach gives way for the cement slurry to gel up mixing approach, Cement and concrete
the RA, providing a stronger ITZ by filling up the research, 1195-1203.
cracks and pores within RA.
Yoshizawa S, Tanaka M, Shekdar AV (2004).
6. From the study we can concluded from the Global Trends in Waste Generation. In:
laboratory experiments, the compressive Recycling, Waste Treatment and Clean
strengths have been improved. Technology, TMS Mineral, Metals and
Materials Publishers, Spain. pp. 1541-1552.
REFERENCES
Al-Manaseer, A.A., Dalal, T.R., 1997. Concrete

containing plastic aggregates. Concrete
International 19 (8), 47–52.
318
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
A REVIEW ON STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING
ICID2018_D_034
Hitesh Kumar1, Dr. (Mrs) Nayanmoni Chetia2
1M.E student, Department of Civil Engineering, Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat,Assam,India

2Asstt. Prof., Department of Civil Engineering, Jorhat Engineering College,Jorhat,Assam,India
ABSTRACT
Structural health monitoring is a technique used to determine strain, stress, displacement etc, at critical members
and some of the dynamic parameters like natural frequency, damping and mode shapes with their time variations.
This paper reviews some of the studies related to Structural health monitoring. The performance of a structural
system can be considered as satisfactory if it transfers the applied loads safely and without causing any distress in its
constituent members. However, the deterioration of concrete structures with time due to number of reasons may
become responsible for the reduction in the strength of the members. SHM comprises of Sensory system, Data
acquisition and transmission system, Data processing and analysis system, Data management system and structural
health evaluation system. The various case studies associated with different Civil Engineering Structures such as
Vintage bridge, High Rise building, have been incorporated in the paper. The objectives mainly includes performance
enhancementof an existing structure, monitoring of structures affected by external factors, feedback loop to improve
future design based on experience, move towards performance-based design philosophy.
Keywords: Structural health monitoring (SHM);Sensors;Berkeley-mote platform;Wirelessmonitoring system
1 INTRODUCTON
Structural health monitoring (SHM) refers to the

process of implementing a damage detection and
characterization strategy for engineering
structures. Damage is defined as changes to the
material and/or geometric properties of a
structural system, including changes to system
connectivity, which adversely affect the system's
performance. The SHM process involves the
observation of a system over time using
periodically sampled dynamic response
measurements from an array of sensors, the
extraction of damage-sensitive features from
these measurements, and the statistical analysis
of these features to determine the current state of
system health.The main objectives of the SHM are Figure 1.structural health monitoring system (from
to monitor the loading conditions of a structure, to http://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/17/9/2151)
assess its performance under various service
loads, to verify or update the rules used in its In Figure 1, the function of each sub-system is
designstage, to detect its damage or deterioration, briefly summarized as: the sensory sub-system is
and to guide its inspection and maintenance. utilized for sensing the information of the working
environment of a structure and various factors that
affect the safety of the structure, such as wind
2 STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING speed and wind direction, environmental
SYSTEMS temperature and humidity monitoring, structural
load, vibration, structural temperature, strain, etc.
A long-term structural health monitoring system The data acquisition and transmission subsystem
shall include the following modules/systems is used to sample and transmit the information
 Sensory system. sensed by the sensory subsystem; the data
 Data acquisition and transmission system. processing and analysis subsystem is used to
 Data processing and analysis system. process and analyze the obtained data so that the
 Date management system. data can be conveniently utilized for further
 Structural heath evaluation system. analysis; the data management subsystem is
 Decision-making and management. used to receive and storage the observed data;
the structural health evaluation subsystem is
utilized to evaluate and assess the condition of a
structure; the decision-making and management
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sub-system reflects the condition of the monitored Monitoring of world's tallest building BurjKhalifa
objective, which is easily utilized by manager to tower in Dubai-It is 828m tall with more than 160
make decisions about the objective, such as stories.Construction period -2004-2010
maintenance, repair, reinforcement and re-built of Temporary real time monitoring –Afterearthquake
the objective. in Iran on 9th September, 2008. Permanent full
scale real time monitoring - After earthquake in
Iran on 20th July, 2010. There are many sensors
3 LITERATURE REVIEW installed at different stories with their own
significance such as:-
Kenneth and Zimmerman, et al. (2007) Studied • 3 pairs of accelerometers at foundation to
Wireless Monitoring Techniques for Structural record base acceleration,
HealthMonitoring.In thisstudy, a prototype • 6 pairs of accelerometers at level 73, 123,
wirelesssensing system is deployed on the Voigt 155 on the top of concrete and 10M3,Tier 23A on
Bridge (La Jolla, CA) and a historical theatre the top of pinnacle to record the tower
(Detroit, MI) to validate its performance against acceleration simultaneously atall levels,
cabled monitoring systems. Acceleration time • There is a GPS system installed at level
history records collected from wireless sensors 160 M3 to capture the building displacement,
during ambient and forced vibrations suggest • 23 sonimeters at all terrace and setback
excellent correlation with those obtained from levels to measure wind speed and directions,
tethered systems. Furthermore, the embedded • A weather station at level 160M3 to
data processing capabilities of wireless sensors measure wind speed and direction, relative
are highlighted; operational deflection shapes of humidity and temperature,
the bridge deck and theatre balcony are identified • There are sensors to capture building
autonomously by the wireless sensor network frequencies, damping ratio at low amplitude due to
using embedded algorithms. both wind and seismic events,
Shanker.R (2009) investigated piezo ceramic • Time history are also recorded at the base
sensors. Piezo-electric ceramic (PZT) sensors; of the tower due to seismic events
operates at higher frequency range and can
typically detect damage at microscopic level.PZT
sensors are better than other sensors and are
also very cost effective. A simple low cost
experimental technique has been developed to
extract the experimental strain mode shapes of
the structures. Experimental mode shapes
extracted using the proposed technique require
less interpolation and are obtained using a single
PZT sensor.
4 CASE STUDIES OF SHM OF CIVIL

INFRASTRUCTURES
Monitoring of vintage bridge in Russia-TheBridge

was constructed in 1936-37 over Moskova River
in Moscow next to Kremlin. It is a Reinforced
Concrete arched box girder bridge.It was declared
a heritage bridge as it is more than 70 years old.
Total length of bridge is 250m with 3 spans
(43+92+43), 3 parallel arches. The SHM was
started in 2003. Types of sensors used were 16
standard SOFO sensors in central arch plus 6
thermo couples. Numbers of sensors used were
22. Instrumentation was designed by SMARTEC
SA, Switzerland and ZAO Triada holdings, Russia.
Purpose-To continuously monitors temperature
and average strain along horizontal and vertical
directions.
Results- Settlement of an abutment producing Figure 2.Shm of BurjKhalifa(from
cracking of the stone lining and structural element. http://www.ctbuh.org)
Another was chloride penetration into the structure
leading to reinforcement corrosion.
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5 TYPES OF SENSORS USED IN SHM under the Network Embedded Software

Technology (NEST) program. The main idea
Following are the types of sensors I have studied behind this program is to develop smart dust, or
in this paper Motes, in which the ultimate goal is to create a
low-cost, fully autonomous system within a cubic
5.1 Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG)Sensors millimeter volume (Hollar), allowing for the
realization of dense sensor arrays.
It is started to be used as strain sensors Mote system consists of four basic
embedded in composite structures around 1995, components: power, computation, sensors, and
and some articles appeared around 2000 looking communication. It is capable of autonomy and
for changes in the spectrum of the reflected peak interconnection with other Motes. Besides the
as an indicator of damage, when the damage was advantage of the open hardware/software
happening on just the position of the embedded platform, they have the advantage of small
FBG. Again, the procedure cannot be extended to physical size, low cost, modest power
a general case of damage detection in structures. consumption, and diversity in design and
usage.The first devices (Hollar) were designed at
5.2 Fiber-optic sensors (FOS) the University of California at Berkeley by Prof.
Kris Pister. The second generation of Motes,
This optical fiber has a diameter of 150 microns called Rene, implemented a modular construction,
when coated with polyimide, so it can be allowing the use of one unique base with the
embedded within the composite material during possibility of various interchangeable sensors.
manufacturing. Other benefits of FOS are EMI/RFI The third generation, called Mica, improved
immunity, wide temperature range, very long memory capacity and the use of a better
cabling if needed because of the low attenuation, microprocessor (4MHz). The most recent devices,
and multiplexing capability (several sensors on the Mica2 and Mica2dot, improved the radio
same optical fiber). communication (with a tune able frequency radio),
and the microprocessor unit (7.3728 MHz).The
Berkeley-Mote platform has been recently used in
diverse research fields. Some of the
representative applications include: robotics
(Bergbreiter, localization (Whitehouse), and
environmental monitoring (Mainwaring).In civil
engineering, Kurata presents a study in which the
Mica Mote (a previous version of the Mica2), is
used as a risk monitoring tool. Two test structures
were mounted on a shaking table and subject to
the Kobe (NS) earthquake. One Mica and a
Figure 3.Fiber-optic sensors (from reference accelerometer were placed at the top of
http://www.elprocus.com) the structures to measure the acceleration. Figure
4 show the collapse sequence and the associated
5.3 PZT sensors- sensor responses of one the test structure. The
Mica was able to detect the damage; however
Piezo-electric ceramic (PZT) sensors; operates at data loss during radio transmission and the
higher frequency range and can typically detect sensitivity of the accelerometer were identified as
damage at microscopic level. Damage can be limiting factors.
detected at a very early stage by the EMI
technique.PZT sensor is better than other sensors
and is also very cost effective. The PZT sensor is
embedded in structure at the time ofconstruction.
It is successfully demonstrated that the embedded
patch acts as sensors for both the global dynamic
technique and the EMI technique
6 PRELIMINARY STUDIES USING THE

BERKELEY-MOTE PLATFORM
An open hardware/software platform for smart

sensing applications has recently been developed
with substantial funding from the US Defence
Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)
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sensor data). The laptop computer is installed in

the vicinity of sensor location.
Figure 5. Wireless monitoring system for

Figure 4. Damage process of test structure geumdang Bridge (from Andrew Swartz, 2007)
Sensor’s records of test structure(fromKurata,
2004) a) Location of wireless sensors installed along the
length of the Geumdang Bridge; (b) external view
of the bridge box girder; (c) cross section of the
7 WIRELESSMONITORING SYSTEM FOR box girder; (d) typical wireless sensor-
GEUMDANG BRIDGE, KOREA: A CASE STUDY accelerometer installation.In addition to the
wireless monitoring system, the bridge is
To validate the performance of the wireless instrumented with a traditional wired monitoring
monitoring system proposed, a dense network of system. The tethered monitoring system (National
wireless sensor prototypes are installed during Instruments) employs a seismic accelerometer to
July 2005 in the Geumdang Bridge located in record the bridge acceleration along one side of
Icheon, Korea. The bridge, was constructed in the bridge. The PCB Piezotronics 393
2002, spans 273 m across an irrigation valley in piezoelectric accelerometer is interfaced to the
an agricultural region of South Korea. The bridge National Instruments data acquisition system. The
employs two structural systems to carry two lanes noise floor of the PCB393 accelerometer is 0.05
of southbound highway traffic. On the northern mg while its sensitivity is high (10 V/g). Prior to
span (151 m), the 27 cm concrete bridge deck is interfacing with the National Instruments 12-bit
supported by 4 pre-cast concrete I-beam sections. data acquisition system, a PCB Piezotronics
The southern span (122 m) is a continuous 481A03 signal analyser is used to further amplify
concrete box girder supported along its length by the accelerometer output by a factor of 10. To
three concrete piers and a sloped retaining wall excite the structure, three trucks with calibrated
abutment.A wireless monitoring system weights are selected. The trucks are loaded until
assembled from 14 wireless sensors proposed by their total weights are 15, 30 and 40 tons. The
Wang et al. is installed within the interior of the bridge is kept closed to normal traffic during
concrete box girder. Attached to each wireless testing to ensure the trucks can cross the bridge
sensor is a high sensitivity PCB Piezotronics 3801 without interruption. The trucks are commanded to
accelerometer (sensitivity is 0.7 V/g) oriented to travel across the bridge at fixed speeds ranging
measure the vertical acceleration of the bridge. from 40 to 80 km/hr. During forced vibration
This accelerometer is selected because of its low testing, the wireless and tethered monitoring
noise floor (0.5 mg), bandwidth (80 Hz) and broad systems record the vertical bridge response. As
range (± 3g). During installation, the shown in Figure 6, the wireless structural
accelerometers are fixed to mounting plates that monitoring system provides identical acceleration
have been aligned orthogonal to gravity. Again, a recordings when compared to the tethered
signal conditioning circuit is used with each monitoring system.
accelerometer to amplify its output by a factor of To identify the primary modal frequencies of the
20. The 14 wireless sensors are distributed evenly instrumented bridge span, the acceleration
along both sides of the box girder span. (Figure 5) response time histories are transformed to the
A laptop computer is used to serve as a frequency domain using the embedded FFT
coordinator of the wireless monitoring system (for algorithm. Upon calculation of the Fourier
example, initiate data collection and received response spectra at each sensor location, an
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embedded peak picking algorithm is executed to

identify modal frequencies. After frequencies are 8 CONCLUSIONS
identified, the wireless sensors exchange their
picked frequencies and collectively decide which The concept of structural health monitoring helps
frequencies are probable modal frequencies. to identify a damage detection of structural system
Once the modal frequencies are decided, each and consequently their strength restoration. Their
wireless sensor transmits the imaginary safe performance is necessary for ensuring safety
component of their Fourier spectrum to the to the human and economic activities, thereby, it
remainder of the network. The imaginary has become important to monitor the damage for
component of the complex-valued Fourier its existence, location and extent and retrofit the
spectrum is correlated to the mode shape of the same to enhance its performance features
structure if the structure is lightly damped and
modes are well separated. Referred to as the
peak picking approach to mode shape estimation, REFERENCES
minimal data exchange is required between
wireless sensors, yet ahighly accurate mode Bandyopadhyay,D. (2006). “Case Study of
shape is derived. The final modes yielded by the Structural Health Monitoring of an Age Old
wireless monitoring system are presented in Stone Masonry Arch Bridge”, Structural Analysis
Figure 7. of Historical Constructions, New Delhi
Chen,Zengshun. Zhou, Xiao. Wang,
Xu.Dong,Lili.andQian,Yuanhao.(2017)
.“Deployment of a Smart Structural Health
Monitoring System for Long-Span Arch Bridges:
A Review and a Case Study”MDPI
Ruiz,Manuel.Kurata,Narito.(2004) “Smart sensing
technology for Structural Health Monitoring”13th
World Conference on Earthquake
Neethu,Madhukumar.Baiju,M. (2017). “MEMS
based Wireless Sensor Network for Structural
Health Monitoring” International Journal of
Advanced Research in Electronics and
Communication Engineering (IJARECE)
Shanker,Rama.(2009). “An integrated approach
for structural health monitoring”Indian Institute
of Technology Delhi.
Verma,Shekhar.Raj,Vijay.(2017)“Structural Health
Monitoring Case Study Review”International
Journal of Civil Engineering Research
vinnarasiand,(2017) “strain measurement for
Figure 6. Comparison of box girder vertical structural health monitoring using fiberbragg
acceleration recorded during forced excitation grating sensors”IndianJ.Sci.Research
using a 40ton truck driving at 60 km/hr. (wireless Zaman,Danish.Ali,Amir.Singh,Ayush.(2011).
versus wired monitoring systems).(from R. “structural health monitoring of civil
Andrew Swartz, 2007) infrastructure” International journal of advance
research in science and engineering.
Figure 7. First four modes of the Geumdang

Bridge (3.0, 4.4, 5.0, and 7.0 Hz)(from R. Andrew
Swartz, 2007)
323
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS ON BUCKLING MODES OF CORRODED
AND UNCORRODED COMPRESSION MEMBERS
ICID2018_D_035
Manu.K.C1, Cinitha.A2, Palani.G.S3, Kalappa.M.S4 Jeevitha T.P5

1
Assistant professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Malnad College of Engineering, Hassan,
Karnataka, India.
2
Senior Scientist, CSIR-Structural Engineering Research Center, Chennai, India.
3
Chief Scientist, CSIR-Structural Engineering Research Center, Chennai. India.
4
Professor Department of Civil Engineering, Malnad College of Engineering,Hassan, Karnataka, India.
5
Lecturer,Department of Civil Engineering, Smt L.V Polythenic college, Hassan, Karnataka, India.
ABSTRACT
Cold formed steel products are used in modern life in many situations. They are extensively used in manufacturing of
durable goods, building components, Automobile industry, Railway coaches, transmission towers etc. They are
gaining more popularity compared to hot rolled steel sections as they are available in different thicknesses. But
corrosion has played a major role in degradation of cold formed steel products causing catastrophic failure. In the
present study cold formed steel lipped channel sections are used to study the buckling modes. Lipped channel
specimen of thickness 3mm was considered and it was corroded for 15, 30 and 45% respectively. The specimen
was corroded by electrochemical processes for a length of 500mm from the base. The test was carried out by
keeping both ends in fixed condition and different buckling modes were studied for corroded and uncorroded lipped
channel specimens. It was found that corrosion plays a major role in reduction of ultimate load carrying capacity
leading to failure of structures.
Keywords: Corrosion, Buckling, Cold formed steel, Load carrying capacity
1. INTRODUCTION
Cold formed steel specimens are also called light Buckling is considered as the major design
gauge steel produced by bending at ambient consideration in cold formed steel compression
temperatures. The thickness of cold formed steel members whereas in hot rolled steel sections
varies from 1mm to 3mm. sometimes much yielding is considered as the major design
thicker material upto 8mm can be formed. criterion. The mode of failure of specimens may
Normally the yield strength of cold formed steel is be in the form of local buckling, distorsional
280N/mm2 and sometimes as low as 230N/mm 2. buckling, flexural torsional buckling and lateral
As the thickness of cold formed steel sections is distorsional buckling as shown in figure 1. In the
small one of the major difficulties in using cold figure first mode of failure is by local buckling
formed steel compression members is buckling (Point 1) which is an important parameter in the
due to lower thickness to width/ length ratio. study of cold formed steel channel elements as
the elements will buckle before yielding. The
mode of failure of the elements is in the form of
buckling of web, buckling of compression flange
and buckling of lip portion. The second mode of
failure is distorsional buckling (Point 2) it is also
known as stiffener buckling. It is a mode
characterised by rotation of flange at the flange-
web junction in lipped channel elements. In
intermediate stiffened elements it is characterised
by displacement of intermediate stiffener normal
to plane of the element. The third mode of failure
(Point 3) is flexural torsional buckling which occurs
when structural member experiences significant
out of plane bending and twisting. Fourth mode of
failure is lateral distorsional buckling (Point 4)
here the tension flange is torsionally restrained.
Because cold formed steel sections are generally
thin sections the action of adverse weather
conditions has a very severe effect as corrosion
Fig : 1 Different buckling modes for lipped channel takes place. Due to corrosion the sections
section become thinner and have irregular thickness
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consequently when they are used as compression and reduction reaction at the surface of corroding
members there is a distinct possibility that the load material. The oxidation reaction generates metal
carrying capacity is drastically reduced as the ions and electrons, the electrons are then
element buckles. consumed in the reduction reaction .
Corrosion is a chemical reaction between a metal In the present study Galvanostatic approach is
and its environment and can take many forms [1] used to corrode the compression member. The
which leads to degradation of the structures. specimen with 3mm thickness was corroded at a
Thickness loss and weight loss are the main height of 500mm from the the base for a total
parameters used to measure the rate of corrosion. length of 1700mm.The remaining height of
Due to corrosion geometric properties such as 1200mm was coated with paint to prevent
moment of inertia , radius of gyration and section corrosion. The electrolyte solution is a 3.5%
modulus change [2]. Cold formed steel products sodium chloride solution prepared by dissolving
are extensively used in modern days. But laboratory grade sodium chloride in distilled water.
corrosion plays a prime role in reduction of The specimen which is going to be corroded is
ultimate strength due to lesser thickness of the taken as anode and another specimen which is
elements. The classification of corrosion level extracted from parent metal is taken as cathode.
such as minor, moderate and severe corrosion Corrosion process was carried out by passing a
plays a major role in estimating the reduction of current to the steel specimen from cathode
ultimate strength and evaluation of buckling through electrolyte.
strength for a corroded steel structural member
[3]. Buckling strength tests are conducted on steel
specimens to predict the residual strength of steel
structures[4,5,6] as these elements fail by
buckling before yielding. From the study it is
concluded that [7] corrosion reduces the buckling
resistance and it is also noticed that thickness
wastage and local pitting due to corrosion patch is
critical for buckling resistance. In the present
study cold formed steel lipped channel specimens
of 3mm thickness were corroded for different
percentages 15%, 30% and 45% respectively for
a length of 500mm from the base of the specimen
and the buckling loads of corroded and
uncorroded specimens were evaluated by
compression test by keeping both ends in fixed
condition. Fig : 2 Corrosion Experimental setup
2.MATERIAL SPECIFICATION
In the present study cold formed steel lipped
channel section of 3mm thickness with height
1700mm is used. Both ends of the specimen is
fixed by welding a 9mm thick plate of size 250mm
x 250mm. Cold formed steel lipped channel
specimen used has a breadth of flange of
140mm, breadth of web of 160mm and lip portion
of 30mm.
2.1 Electrochemical corrosion of compression

member
Corrosion is a process which leads to

deterioration of structures. Most metal corrosion Fig : 2(a) Position of cathode
occurs via electrochemical reaction at the
interface between metal and electrolyte solution After corroding specimen ultrasonic thickness
[8,9] at anodic sites on the surface iron goes into gauges are used to measure the thickness loss of
solution as ferrous ions thus causing anodic the specimen. The specimen were corroded for
reaction. As iron atoms undergo oxidation they different percentages such as 15%, 30% and 45%
release electrons whose negative charge would respectively and reduction in metal thickness was
quickly build up in the metal and prevent further found out.
anodic reaction. Corrosion consists of an oxidation
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3.1 Load v/s Displacement Curve
250
200
L oa d( K N)
150
100
50
0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1
D is pla c e me nt( mm)
Fig: 5(a) - Uncorroded specimen
160
Fig: 3 Corroded lipped channel specimens 140
120
L oa d( K N)
100
80
60
40
20
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
D is pla c e me nt ( mm)
Fig: 5(b) - 15% corroded specimen

100
80
L oa d( K N)
60
40
Fig: 4 Experimental setup for lipped channel

section 20
-0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
3.EXPERIMENTAL SETUP D i s pl a c e me nt( mm )
Fig: 5(c) - 30% corroded sample

Experimental investigations were carried out for
3mm thickness uncorroded and 15%, 30% and
45% corroded compression members. The test 50
was carried out on a 250 ton UTM. Specimens

40
were welded with 9mm thickness plate for
L oa d ( K N)
simulating fixed end of the columns. The 30
specimens were attached with dial gauges and

strain gauges to measure deformations in the 20
specimens. The schematic view of experimental 10

setup is shown in figure 4.
-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Table1. Ultimate load of 3mm thickness corroded D is pla c e me nt( mm)
and uncorroded compression members Fig: 5(d) - 45% corroded sample

Specimen original Final Actual Corroded Ultimate
no thicknes thickness corrosion Rate % load(KN)
(mm) (mm) planned 3.2 Failure of compression members in different
%
buckling modes
CLC
3 3 - - 215.07
3-UC Buckling can occur elastically and inelastically.
CLC
Inelastic buckling normally occurs in intermediate
3 2.53 15 15.11 144.17
3-15% columns due to less slenderness ratio. In the
CLC
present study uncorroded 3mm thickness
3-30%
3 2.10 30 28.41 85.85 specimen carried an ultimate load of 215.07KN.
CLC
Distorsional buckling mode of failure was noticed
3-45% 3 1.47 45 43.48 50.17 as shown in figure 4. In distorsional buckling edge
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stiffened flange elements deformed by the rotation

of the flange about the flange-web junction.
Distorsional buckling occurs at a longer wave
lengths compared to local buckling. It was noticed
that the columns failing by distorsional buckling
showed lower post buckling capacity. The load
carrying capacity of a specimen is mainly affected
by geometric imperfections on the material
surface. Imperfections are developed at the time
of manufacturing or at the time of transporting the
specimens.
The specimen which had been corroded for a Fig: 8(a) 15% corroded specimen failure mode
distance of 500mm from the base for 15%
corrosion it carried an ultimate load of 144.17KN.
The specimen failed in local distorsional buckling
mode. Due to imperfections present on corroded
surface vaguely outward buckling in web region
and inward buckling in flange region was noticed
nearer about 50mm from the base of the
specimen Fig 8(a). Uncorroded region in the
specimen was unaffected and the failure of
specimen was noticed in the corroded region.
Fig: 8(b) 30% corroded specimen failure mode
Fig: 8(c) 45% corroded specimen failure mode

Fig: 6 Uncorroded 3mm specimen failure mode
45% corroded specimen carried an ultimate load
of 50.11 KN. The specimen failed in the mode of
local buckling. As the specimen was 45%
corroded lower end of flange- web region was
eaten away as shown in fig 8(c). from the base of
corroded region buckling in flange and lip was
noticed.
4. CONCLUSION
From the compression tests carried out on

corroded and uncorroded lipped channel
specimens, it was noticed that corrosion played a
Fig: 7 Corroded 15%, 30% and 45% failure mode major role in failure mode of compression
members. In uncorroded specimens failure mode
30% corroded specimen carried an ultimate load was noticed in mid height of the specimen. Where
of 85.85KN. The specimen failed in the mode of as in corroded specimens failure occurred in the
local buckling. Due to imperfections present on corroded portion due to reduction in thickness
corroded surface vaguely outward buckling at one and imperfections on the corroded area. From the
end of flange and outward buckling in lip region compression test reduction in ultimate strength of
was noticed, fig 8(b) Similar to 15% corroded 76.67 % was noticed in 45% corroded specimen.
specimen uncorroded region in the specimen was Uncorroded specimen failed in the mode of
unaffected and the failure of specimen was distorsional buckling where as corroded
noticed in the corroded region. specimens failed in the mode of local buckling for
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15%, 30% and 45% corrosion respectively. It was The Development of corrosion processes on
noticed that stress distribution was non uniform in weathering steel bridges,Procedia engineering
the corroded region. 114. Pages 546 – 554.
5. REFERENCES 11.Sharon John,C.Banu Priya,Y.Preethy Dhranya,

Meera Muthulakshmi, R.Suresh, M.S.Dinesh
Kumar and M.S.HariKrishnan 2016.Numerical
1. K.E.Heusler.1990.Present state and future investigation on corroded and uncorroded
problems of corrosion science and engineering, structural Steel coupons, Indian Journal of
Corrosion Science, Volume 31, Pages 753-761. Science and Technology Volume 9(16), ISSN
(Print) : 0974-684, ISSN (Online) : 0974-5645.
2. A.Cinitha, P.K.Umesha, and Nagesh R. Iyer.
2014. An Overview of corrosion and 12.Ghavami, K. and Khedmati, M.R.2006.
experimental studies on corroded mild steel Numerical and experimental investigations on
compression members, KSCE Journal of Civil the compression behavior of stiffened plates”,
engineering,Volume 18(6), pages 1735-1744. Journal of Constructional Steel Research.,
Volume 62, pages 1087-1100.
3. W.K.N. Sandamali, H.P. Wijesena and J.M.R.S.
Appuhamy.2015. Prediction of residual buckling 13.Raphaei Shadai Oguike.2014.Corrosion
strength in corroded steel bridge members, 6th studies on stainless steel(FE6956) in
International conference on Structural hydrochloric acid solution”, Advances in
Engineering and Construction Management, Materials Physics and Chemistry, Volume 4,
11th to13th December. Kandy, Srilanka. pages 153-163.
4. Appuhamy, J.M.R.S., Kaita, T., Ohga, M. and

Fujii, K. 2011. Prediction of residual strength
Of corroded tensile steel plates, International
Journal of Steel Structures, Volume11, pages
65-79.
5. Nazaria, Masoud, Khedmati, Mohammed reza

and Khalaj, Amir Foad. 2014. A Numerical
investigation into ultimate strength and buckling
behaviour of locally corroded steel tubular
memebers, Latin Americal journal of Solids
and Structures,Volume 11, no-6 , pages 1063-
1076
6.AparnaBen,Vikraman.R,Cinitha.A, P.K.Umesha,
Eapen Sakaria. 2014. Compressive strength of
uniformly corroded steel angle members
retrofitted with CFRP, International Journal of
emerging technology and advanced
Engineering, Volume 4, Issue 8, ISSN pages
2250-2459
7. F H oyasaeter, A Aeran, S C Siriwardane and O

Mikkelan.2017. Effect of corrosion on the
buckling capacity of tubular members”, Material
science and Engineering.276.012037
8. Application Note Basics of Electrochemical

Impedence Spectroscopy. Rev.1.09/3/2010
Copyright 1990-2009 Gamry Instruments, Inc
9. Getting started with Electrochemical corrosion

Measurement. Rev. 1.1 1/3/2011 copyright
1990- 2010 Gamry Instruments,Inc
10.Viktor Urban, Vit Krivy,Katerina Kreislova.2015.
328
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
STUDY OF FRAME- SHEAR WALL INTERACTION PROBLEM AGAINST
LATERAL LOADS FROM NUMERICAL APPROACH
ICID2018_D_036
Richma Devi1.AtanuKumar Dutta2

1Postgraduate Student,richmadevi@gmail.com,2Associate Professor,emailatanu.dutta@gmail.com
Department of Civil Engineering.Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India
ABSTRACT
In this work, frame-shear wall interaction has been studied for multi-storeyed frame with varying flexural rigidity of
frame and shear wall using simulated earthquake load and simulated wind load. A 2-D analysis is undertaken on two
numerical models created in ETABS®, suggested by Wight and MacGregor (2012). The first model using axially stiff
hinged link beams between the frame and shear wall is explored and then compared with the model created in FEM-
code using C-language, modelling the shear wall with an equivalent cantilever beam. The FEM model created in
FEM-code is visualized in MATLAB® using a finite element toolbox devised by Dr. J.M. Caicedo, University of St.
Louis, USA. The second one is done with idealization of the frame as propped cantilever with varying flexural rigidity.
It is observed thatas the flexural rigidity of the frame increases relative to the stiffness of the shear wall, the base
shear of the shear wall decreases.Also, the shear force and bending moments of the frame decreases from top
storey to bottom storey in a frame-shear wall system. Thus, an insight is obtained in finite element formulation of
buildings; the results being quite similar with that mentioned in Wight and MacGregor (2012).
1 INTRODUCTION details such as geometrical properties, material

properties, layout details, etc. Thus, more in-depth
Frame and shear walls are more common in Indian discussions are elaborated in this paper investigating
context for medium and high rise buildings. Frame can on how the change in relative stiffness between the
be either rigid or braced frame. frames and walls over the height affects their horizontal
In case of high rise buildings, the frame and the interaction against lateral loads, with a numerical
shear walls horizontally interact to carry the lateral approach.
loads as well as the gravity loads. The physical inter-
relationship between the structural components is quite 2 DESCRIPTION OF THE STRUCTURE
complex. Shear walls and frames when arranged in the
same plane interact horizontally through connecting A fictitious structure with both shear wall and frame as
beams, and when arranged in parallel planes interact lateral load resisting system is undertaken for the
horizontally through floor slab. The presence of the parametric study. As the study is about comparison of
shear walls increases the lateral stiffness of the interaction between a shear wall and strong and weak
structure for which the horizontal interaction between frame, the cross-sections of beams and columns are
the frames and the walls have a great influence in the varied relative to the thickness of the shear walls as a
distribution of loads on the walls and frames, making part of this parametric study.
shear-walled frame structure moderately efficient in The material used is RCC with concrete M25 and
high rise buildings. HYSD 415. M25 has Modulus of Elasticity (E) as 25000
This paper is based on the shear wall -frame MPa and Shear Modulus as (G) 10416.67 MPa. HYSD
interactions discussed by Wight and MacGregor (2012) 415 has Modulus of Elasticity (E) as 200000 MPa.The
using frame analysis and a model in which the frame frame-shear wall structure is considered to be fixed at
members in the model represent the sums of the the bottom. The soil structure interaction is neglected in
stiffnesses of the columns and beams in the building in this work.
the bays parallel to the plane of the wall. The wall in the For the fictitious structure undertaken for the study,
model represent the sum of the walls in the structure. beams are included up to 8 m in the global X-axis
The frame and the walls are connected by axially stiff direction and the height of each storey is taken as 3m
link beams which may or may not be hinged. as shown in Figure 2. For the present study, section A-
According to Wight and MacGregor (2012) due to A' as represented in the Figure 1 is taken. Figure 3
the incompatibility of the deflected shapes of the wall shows the plan view of the section A-A'.
and the frame, the fraction of total lateral load resisted
by the frame and the shear wall differ from storey to
storey. The lateral deflection of the wall in a given
storey tends to be larger than that of the frame in the
same storey near the top of the building and the frame
pushes back on the wall. Thus, this alters the forces
acting on the frame in these stories. At some floors the
forces change direction. As a result, the frame resists a
larger fraction of the lateral loads in the upper stories
than it does in the lower stories.
Though the effect of frame stiffness on shear and
moment in the wall are discussed in Wight and
MacGregor (2012) the description is void of structural Figure 1.A Building with symmetric plan
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3 MODELLING SHEAR WALL-FRAME SYSTEM

USING ETABS®
The physical reality of a building system can be

represented by members or elements in ETABS®. The
program internally ensures the connectivity among each
member through meshing, thus, converting the object
based model into an element based model during
analysis. After the analysis, results are obtained for the
overall object rather than the sub-element used for
creating the object, making the information to be
interpreted easily and keeping consistency with the
actual physical structure.
An 8-storey model with a shear wall of 250 mm
thickness is considered. Beam element is used for
beams and columns and shell element is used for shear
wall.
3.1 Application of Lateral Loads
Typical lateral loads acting on a building would be a

Figure 2. Elevation view of section A-A' wind load or an earthquake load.
In the present study, wind loads are represented by
simulated wind load (uniformly distributed) as well as
simulated wind load (nodal).
While representing earthquake by static equivalent
load method, invert triangular distribution is observed.
In this present study, arbitrary lateral loads have been
applied as triangular load increasing toward higher
Figure 3.Plan view of the section A-A' stories to represent seismic loading pattern. An attempt
has been made to understand the interaction of shear
2.1 Modelling Of The Structure wall-frame systems in resisting lateral loads which have
been applied as a triangular load. But these loads
Two models have been undertaken for this study as cannot be termed as earthquake loads as no seismic
suggested by Wight and MacGregor (2012). The first mass measurement and ground acceleration
model is modelled using axially stiff hinged link beams measurements have been included. Lateral loads have
between the frame and shear wall. The second one is been applied as seen in equivalent earthquake load
done with idealization of the frame as propped representation, done in design procedure.
cantilever with varying depths of propped cantilever.
3.2 Variation In Shear Force And Moments
2.1.1 Geometrical Properties of the Models
Figure 4 shows the isometric view of the 2D model used
In this present study, three sets of depths of beams and for the analysis. Three types of loading are appliedfor
columns for the frame are undertaken. As the depths of the analysis as mentioned in Section 3.1.
the beam and columns increases their flexural rigidity,
the lateral stiffness of the frame also increases. The
sets of the beam and column dimension are chosen
carefully so as to represent a practical structure.
Table 1.Cross-sectional properties of the models

Model No. Model 1 Model 2 Model 3
Elements Beams Beams Beam
(250 mm× (250 mm× (250 mm×
350mm) 450mm) 500mm)
and and and
Columns Columns Columns
(250mm× (250mm× (250 mm×
350mm) 450mm) 500mm)
Figure 4. Isometric view of the 8 storey model
Area (m2) 8.75×10-2 11.25×10-2 12.50×10-2
3.2.1 Simulated Earthquake Load
Ix (m4) 4.56×10-4 5.85×10-4 6.5×10-4
Iy(m4) 8.93×10-4 1.89×10-3 2.6×10-3 Simulated earthquake load can be represented by an
Torsional 1.02×10-3 1.52×10-3 1.78×10-3 inverse triangular load pattern, as already discussed in
moment section 3.1. The value of the lateral force applied are
of inertia, presented in tabular form in Table 2.
J (m4)
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Table 2. Lateral forces applied does in the lower stories, increasing from 4.74 % at the
Loads Total Shear Moment
base to 87.78 %. of total shear force at the top storey.At
Storey No. the base 80.44 % of the moment generated is resisted
applied force(kN) generated(kNm)
by the shear wall that decreases to 12.22 % at storey 7.
Storey 8 8 8 -
For Model 3, at the base 93.85 % of the total shear
Storey 7 7 15 24 force is taken by the shear wall and 6.14 % of the total
Storey 6 6 21 69 shear force is taken by the frame. The frame resists a
Storey 5 5 26 132 larger fraction of shear force in the upper stories than it
Storey 4 4 30 210 does in the lower stories, increasing from 6.14 % at the
base to 96.83 % at the top storey. At the base, 76.13 %
Storey 3 3 33 300
of the moment generated is resisted by the shear wall
Storey 2 2 35 399 decreasing to 3.16 % at storey 7. The nature of shear
Storey 1 1 36 504 force and moment changes from positive to negative in
Base N/A 36 612 the shear wall at the top storey.
Thus, from Model 1 to Model 3, at the base of the
For Model 1, analysis is done with the lateral load shear wall, the moment decreases from 542.67 kNm to
and the percentage of total shear force and moments 465.9 kNm and the base shear decreases from 35.10
shared by the shear wall and the frame is presented in kN to 33.78 kN.
Table 3 and Table 4.
3.2.2 Simulated Wind Load(Nodal)
Table 3. Sharing of total Shear Force in terms of %
Storey Shear force in Percentage of Shear force Wind load is represented by evenly distributed load
no. the shear wall (%) (nodal). The average of the total lateral load i.e. 36 kN,
Shared by Shared by taken for simulated earthquake load, gives 4.5 kN which
shear wall frame is applied at the nodes of every storey.
8 3.6766 45.9575 54.0425 For Model 1, at the base 97.13 % of the total shear
7 11.3818 75.8787 24.1213 force is taken by the shear wall and 2.86 % of the total
6 17.4212 82.9581 17.0419 shear force is taken by the frame. The frame resists a
larger fraction of shear force in the upper stories than it
5 22.6066 86.9485 13.0515
does in the lower stories, increasing from 2.86 % at the
4 26.9512 89.8373 10.1627 base to 67.17 % of the total shear force at top storey. At
3 30.4871 92.3852 7.61485 the base, 89.54 % of the moment generated is resisted
2 33.2607 95.0306 4.96943 by the shear wall that decreases to 32.82 % at storey 7.
1 35.1053 97.5147 2.48528 In case of the frame, 10.45 % of the moment generated
Base 35.1053 97.5147 2.48528 is taken at the base increasing to 67.17 % at storey 7.
For Model 2, at the base 94.78% of the total shear
force is taken by the shear wall and 5.211% of the total
Table 4.Sharing of Moments in terms of % shear force is taken by the frame. The frame resists a
Storey Moment in the Percentage of moment larger fraction of shear force in the upper stories than it
number shear wall (kNm) generated (%) does in the lower stories, increasing from 5.21 % at the
Shared by Shared by base to 92.5 % of the total shear force at top storey. At
shear wall frame the base, 81.89 % of the moment generated is resisted
7 11.0298 45.9575 54.0425 by the shear wall decreasing to 7.5% at storey 7.
6 45.1753 65.4714 34.5286 For Model 3, at the base 93.36 % of the total shear
5 97.4388 73.8173 26.1827 force is taken by the shear wall and only 6.63 % of the
total shear force is taken by the frame. The frame
4 165.259 78.6946 21.3054
resists a larger fraction of shear force in the upper
3 246.112 82.0374 17.9626 stories than it does in the lower stories increasing from
2 337.574 84.6049 15.3951 6.63 % at the base to 97.62 %. at the top storey. At the
1 437.356 86.7769 13.2231 base 77.86 % of the moment generated is resisted by
Base 542.671 88.6718 11.3282 the shear wall decreasing to 17.9% at storey 7.
Thus, from Model 1 to Model 3, the moment at the
base of the shear wall decreases from 435.2 kNm to
It can be seen in Table 3 at the base 97.51 % of the 378.41 kNm and the base shear decreases from 34.96
total shear force is taken by the shear wall and only kN to 33.61 kN. The nature of shear force and moment
2.48 % of the total shear force is taken by the frame. changes from positive to negative at top storey of the
The frame resists a larger fraction of shear force in the shear wall in Model 2 and Model 3.
upper stories than it does in the lower stories,
increasing from 2.48 % at base to 54.04 %. at the top
storey. In Table 4, it is seen that, at the base, 88.67 % 3.2.3 Simulated Wind Load (Uniformly Distributed)
of the moment generated is resisted by the shear wall
which decreases to 45.96 % at storey 7. Wind load is represented by uniformly distributed load.
The average of the total lateral load taken for simulated
earthquake load i.e.36 kN for 24 m height that gives 1.5
force is taken by the shear wall and 4.75 % of the total
kN /m is applied throughout the height of the model.
shear force is taken by the frame. The frame resists a
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For Model 1, at the base 91.07 % of the total shear 3.3 Idealization of The Frame As A Propped
force is taken by the shear wall and 8.89 % of the total Cantilever
shear force is taken by the frame. The frame resists a
larger fraction of shear force in the upper stories than it The span of propped cantilever is taken as 4 m with
does in the lower stories increasing from 8.89 % at the three sets of depths. Simulated earthquake load in the
base to 92.71 %. at the top storey. Moreover, at the form of inverse triangular load distribution is applied.
base, 89.78 % of the moment generated is resisted by The cross-section of the propped cantilever for Model
the shear wall which decreases to 12.73 % at storey 7. 1is taken as250 mm ×350 mm, Model 2as 250 mm
For Model 2, at the base 88.89 % of the total shear ×450 mm, Model 3as 250 mm ×500 mm. The
force is taken by the shear wall and 11.10 % of the total comparison of moments and shear force of the shear
shear force is taken by the frame. The frame resists a wall are presented in tabular form in Table 5 and Table
larger fraction of shear force in the upper stories than it 6.
does in the lower stories, increasing from 11.10 % at
the base to 77.33 %. at the top storey. Also, at the Table 5. Comparison of Moments (in kNm)
base 82.37 % of the moment generated is resisted by Story number Model 1 Model 2 Model 3
the shear wall which decreases towards upper stories.
Story 8 0.047 0.104 0.1444
force is taken by the shear wall and 12.42 % of the total Story 7 -40.552 -40.694 -40.7273
shear force is taken by the frame. At the base the frame Story 6 -60.1509 -60.492 -60.599
resists 12.42 % of the total shear force which increases Story 5 -61.7498 -62.2901 -62.4707
towards upper stories. Also, at the base 78.46 % of the Story 4 -48.3488 -49.0881 -49.3425
moment generated is resisted by the shear wall which
Story 3 -22.9477 -23.8861 -24.2142
decreases towards top storey.
Story2 11.4533 10.3159 9.9141
base of the shear wall decreases from 387.86 kNm to Story 1 51.8544 50.5179 50.0424
338.95 kNm and the base shear decreases from 32.78 Base 95.2554 93.7198 93.1706
kN to 31.52 kN. The nature of shear force and moment
changes in shear wall from positive to negative at top Table 6. Comparison of Shear forces (in kN)
storey in the three models.
Story number Model 1 Model 2 Model 3
Story 8 -13.533 -13.5993 -13.6239
3.2.4 Comparison of a Model with different loading
pattern Story 7 -6.533 -6.5993 -6.6239
Story 6 -0.533 -0.5993 -0.6239
As the loading pattern changes from simulated Story 5 4.467 4.4007 4.3761
earthquake load to simulated wind load in the models, Story 4 8.467 8.4007 8.3761
the following observations are seen. For Model 1, the Story 3 11.467 11.4007 11.3761
base shear of the shear wall decreases from 35.10 kN Story2 13.467 13.4007 13.3761
to 32.78 kN. The value of moment generated at the
Story 1 14.467 14.4007 14.3761
base for simulated earthquake load is greater than that
of simulated wind load, but for simulated earthquake Base 14.467 14.4007 14.3761
load it is 88.67 % of the moment generated and for
simulated wind load (uniformly distributed) it is 89.78 % Thus, changing the depths of the propped cantilever
of the moment generated, in case of shear wall. doesn’t have any major difference on the shear force
For Model 2, the base shear of the shear wall and moment of the shear wall. Thus, a proper
decreases from34.29 kN to 32 kN. The value of conclusion cannot be drawn about the idealization of
moment generated at the base for simulated frame as propped cantilever due to the lack of sufficient
earthquake load is greater than that of simulated wind data by Wight and MacGregor (2012).
load, but for simulated earthquake load it is 80.44 % of
the moment generated and for simulated wind load 4 MODELLING SHEAR WALL-FRAME SYSTEM
(uniformly distributed) it is 82.37 % of the moment USING FEM-CODE
generated, in case of shear wall.
For Model 3, the base shear of the shear wall In the present FEM-code modelling, an insight is
decreases from 33.78 kN to 31.52 kN. The value of provided into the formulation and solution process for
moment generated at the base for simulated finite element programming using C- language. Nodes
earthquake load is greater than that of simulated wind and members are created and then added to the model.
load, but for simulated earthquake load it is 76.13 % of The geometrical and mechanical properties including
the moment generated and for simulated wind load the stiffness matrix are assigned to the elements as per
(uniformly distributed) it is 78.46 % of the moment our requirement. Constraints are assigned to nodes and
generated in case of shear wall. then finally loads are assigned to nodes.
The same structural system as developed in ETABS
Thus, for the three models for the three types of
is modelled using axially stiff hinged link beam between
loading, the shear force and moments increases from
the frame and the wall. The shear wall is modelled with
bottom storey to top storey in case of the frame and that
a cantilever beam. Truss element is used for the axially
of the shear wall decreases from bottom storey to top
stiff hinged link beams and beam element for the rest of
storey.
the beams, columns and the shear wall.
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4.1 Preparing The Input File for Analysis 400.58 kNm and the base shear decreases from 34.88
kN to 33.64 kN.
The input file has been prepared as follows:
 The coordinates of the nodes of the frame and 4.3.2 Simulated wind load (nodal)
the shear wall have been defined.
 The connecting nodes of each and every For Model 1, at the base 96.57 % of the total shear
member have been defined. force is taken by the shear wall and 3.43 % of the total
 Properties of the respective members are shear force is taken by the frame. The frame resists a
given, such as cross sectional area, moment larger fraction of shear force in the upper stories than it
of inertia etc. does in the lower stories, increasing from 3.43 % at the
 Property of the material of the elements are base to 84.4 % of the total shear force at top
defined. storey.Also, at the base, 82.85 % of the moment
 The boundary conditions are applied i.e. for all generated is resisted by the shear wall that decreases
the fixed support, all the displacement to 2.01 % at storey 7. In the frame, 17.15 % of the
corresponding to the degrees of freedom are moment generated is taken at the base that increases
set to ‘0’. to 97.98 % at storey 7.
 Respective forces are applied to the nodes. For Model 2, at the base 94.36% of the total shear
force is taken by the shear wall and 5.64 % of the total
4.2 Visualization of The Model In MATLAB shear force is taken by the frame. The frame resists a
Finite Element Method (FEM) package is not provided does in the lower stories increasing from 5.64 % at the
by MATLAB and hence, in this work an FEM toolbox base to 82.97 % of the total shear force at the top
devised by Dr.Juan Martin Caicedo, Washington storey.Also, at the base, 72.95 % of the moment
University in Saint Louis Structural Control and generated is resisted by the shear wall which decreases
Earthquake Engineering Laboratory, created in 2002 towards upper stories.
has been used to have the Finite Element Capability For Model 3, at the base 93.02 % of the total shear
imported to the MATLAB environment. For input into force is taken by the shear wall and 6.98 % of the total
MATLAB an input file has to be prepared. The input file shear force is taken by the frame. The frame resists a
consists of the details of the coordinates of the nodes larger fraction of shear force in the upper stories than it
and the elements that jointsthe nodes. does in the lower stories increasing from 6.98 % at the
base to 77.02 % of the total shear force at the top
4.3 Variation In Shear Force & Moments storey.Also, at the base, 68.04 % of the moment
generated is resisted by the shear wall which decreases
Loads applied are similar as presented in Table2. towards upper stories.
4.3.1 Simulated Earthquake Load base of the shear wall decreases from 402 kNm to 330
kNm and the base shear decreases from 34.76 kN to
For Model 1, at the base 96.87 % of the moment 33.49 kN. The nature of shear force and moment
generated is taken by the shear wall and 3.13 % is changes in shear wall from positive to negative at top
taken by the frame. The frame resists a larger fraction storey in Model 2 and Model 3.
of shear force in the upper stories than it does in the
lower stories, increasing from 3.13 % at base to 68 %. 4.3.3 Simulated Wind Load (Uniformly Distributed)
at the top storey.At the base, 81.38% of the shear force
is resisted by the shear wall which decreases to 17.9 % For Model 1, at the base 90.56 % of the total shear
at storey 7. force is taken by the shear wall and9.44 % of the total
For Model 2, at the base 94.74 % of the total shear shear force is taken by the frame. The frame resists a
force is taken by the shear wall and 5.25 % of the total larger fraction of shear force in the upper stories than it
shear force is taken by the frame. The frame resists a does in the lower stories increasing from 9.44 % at the
larger fraction of shear force in the upper stories than it base to 86.76 %. at the top storey. At the base, 83.46 %
does in the lower stories, increasing from 5.25 % at the of the moment generated is resisted by the shear wall
base to 99.93 %. of total shear force at the top which decreases towards upper stories.
storey.70.71% of the moment generated by the For Model 2, at the base 88.51 % of the total shear
application of the lateral force is resisted by the shear force is taken by the shear wall and 11.49 % of the total
wall at the base that decreases to 1.33 % at storey 7. shear force is taken by the frame. The frame resists a
For Model 3, at the base 93.44 % of the total shear larger fraction of shear force in the upper stories than it
force is taken by the shear wall and only 6.55 % of the does in the lower stories, increasing from 11.49 % at
total shear force is taken by the frame. The frame the base to 74.54 %. at the top storey. At the base
resists a larger fraction of shear force in the upper 73.85 % of the moment generated is resisted by the
stories than it does in the lower stories, increasing from shear wall which decreases towards upper stories.
6.55 % at the base to 88.1 % at the top storey.Also, at For Model 3, at the base 87.26 % of the total shear
the base, 65.45 % of the moment generated is resisted force is taken by the shear wall and 12.74 % of the total
by the shear wall decreasing towards upper stories. The shear force is taken by the frame. At the base the frame
nature of shear force and moment changes from resists 12.42 % of the total shear force which increases
positive to negative in the shear wall at the top storey. towards upper stories.Also, at the base 69.05 % of the
Thus, from Model 1 to Model 3, at the base of the moment generated is resisted by the shear wall which
shear wall, the moment decreases from 498 kNm to decreases towards top storey.
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From Model 1 to Model 3, the moment at the base An insight is obtained in finite element formulation of
of the shear wall decreases from 360.53 kNm to 298.31 complicated structures such as a building with both
kNm and the base shear decreases from 32.6 kN to beam and truss element. Based on the results, the
31.41 kN. The nature of shear force and moment following conclusions can be drawn:
changes in shear wall from positive to negative at top  The fraction of total lateral loads resisted by
storey in the three models. the shear wall and the frame differ from storey
to storey.
4.3.4 Comparison of A Model with Different Loading  The reaction at the top of the shear wall
Pattern decreases as the stiffness of frame decreases
relative to the stiffness of the wall.
As the loading pattern changes from simulated  For a particular thickness of shear wall, the
earthquake load to simulated wind load in the models, base shear of the shear wall decreases as the
the following observations are seen. For Model 1, the flexural rigidity of the frame increases as well
base shear of the shear wall decreases from 34.86 kN as when the loading pattern changes from
to 32.6 kN. The value of moment generated at the base simulated earthquake load to simulated wind
for simulated earthquake load is greater than that of load.
simulated wind load, but for simulated earthquake load  The shear force and moment of the shear wall
it is 81.37 % of the moment generated and for decreases from bottom storey to top storey
simulated wind load (uniformly distributed) it is 83.46 % and increases from bottom storey to top storey
of the moment generated, in case of shear wall. for the frame.
For Model 2, the base shear of the shear wall  For a particular thickness of shear wall, as the
decreases from 34.108 kN to 31.86 kN. The value of flexural rigidity of the frame increases, the
moment generated at the base for simulated nature of shear force and moments of the
earthquake load is greater than that of simulated wind shear wall changes from positive to negative in
load, but for simulated earthquake load it is 70.7 % of the upper stories.
the moment generated and for simulated wind load The reason for these conclusions are as follows:
(uniformly distributed) it is 73.8 % of the moment A rigid frame which is an interconnection of vertical
generated, in case of shear wall. columns and horizontal beams, bends predominantly in
For Model 3, the base shear of the shear wall a shear mode whereas a shear wall deflects
decreases from 33.64 kN to 31.41 kN.The value of predominantly in a bending mode i.e. as a cantilever.
moment generated at the base for simulated For a complete rigid frame or a complete shear wall
earthquake load is greater than that of simulated wind structure, the analysis is comparatively simple. Then
load, but for simulated earthquake load it is 65.45 % of the load can be distributed directly in proportion to their
the moment generated and for simulated wind load stiffnesses. When walls and frames are present
(uniformly distributed) it is 69.06 % of the moment together in a frame-shear wall building, non-uniform
generated in case of shear wall. interacting forces develop.
Thus, for the three models for the three types of If the frame is stiff or strong, then it prevents
loading, the shear force and moments increases from horizontal deflection of the top of the wall, applying a
bottom storey to top storey in case of the frame and that reaction at the top of the wall. As the lateral stiffness of
of the shear wall decreases from bottom storey to top the frame decreases relative to the lateral stiffness of
storey. the wall, the reaction at the top of the wall decreases,
approaching zero for a very flexible frame combined
5 COMPARISON OF RESULTS OBTAINED FROM with a stiff or stronger wall. As a result, the shear-force
ETABS® AND FEM-CODE and bending-moment diagrams for the wall varies. The
sum of the shear forces in the frame and the wall in a
While discretizing the structure for finite element given storey must equal the shear due to the applied
analysis in FEM-code, the shear wall is modelled as an loads. Thus, it is seen that in the upper stories the
equivalent cantilever beam with a beam element, frame resists a larger fraction of the lateral loads
whereas in ETABS®, it is modelled with a shell element. compared to that in the lower stories.
Thus, the results derived using FEM-code shows a little The analysis can be extended for 3D model and
deviation from that using ETABS®. This is because in non-linear analysis can also be done to study the
FEM-code, a 3-noded beam element is used whereas interacting forces in a shear wall-frame building with
in ETABS 5-noded shell element is taken into varying heights for varying thickness of shear wall.
consideration. Thus, the total number of nodal degrees
of freedom decreases for a beam element compared to 7 REFERENCES
shell element. In FEM-code, the beam element used for
modelling shear wall does not take into consideration Wight, J.K. and MacGregor, J.G. 2012.Reinforced
the shear deformation whereas shear deformation is Concrete Mechanics & Design, 6thed., Pearson,
taken into consideration in shell element which is used New Jersey, NJ, USA.
in ETABS®.
6 CONCLUSION AND SCOPE OF FUTURE WORK
The nature of shear force and moment diagrams

obtained by the analysis of the analytical model with
lateral loads mentioned by Wight and MacGregor(2012)
are found to be similar to those obtained by this study.
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21-22 DECEMBER 2018
GREEN BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

ICID2018D_D_037
Nitisha Mazumdar1, Antara Banerjee1.

1
Assistant Professor, Deptt. of Civil Engg., Royal Global University, Ghy-35, Assam
ABSTRACT
Green building also known as sustainable building is designed to find out the efficiency of a building using naturally
available resources. The objective of the present study is to analyze the successful application of green technology
in AWRMI (Assam Research And Management Institute), a green building in Basistha, Assam. In this study two
different aspects of green building viz. power supply using solar energy and rainwater harvesting is studied. The
power calculation in the building using solar energy has been done which shows that 20% of the power consumption
is saved using this green technology. The second aspect which deals with rainwater harvesting shows that one
green building can fulfil the water demand of approximately two normal household.
Keywords: Green building, AWRMI, solar energy, rainwater harvesting
1 INTRODUCTION
The construction sector poses a major challenge to the Sewage generated after considering 80% return flow as
environment as it is responsible for at least 40% of sewage = 16,000 litres
energy use, 42%and 50% each of global consumption
of water andraw materials. It is alsoresponsible for the Considering 10% sewage inflow, sewage to be treated
world’s air pollution, water pollution, solid wastes and = 17,600 litres
greenhouse gas emission to the environment. Green
buildings holds immense potential to reduce Cost for setting up of Liquid Waste Management
consumption and boostsresource regeneration from System as per (PHE) division, Betkuchi, Guwahati
waste and renewable sources to offer a win-win solution
to the mankind and environment. The aim of green Table 1
building design encourages the utilization of renewable
resource. Green building reduces the demand ,
Sl. No. Description of work Amount(Rs.
increases the utilization efficiency and maximizes the
)
recycling of non-renewable resource. It uses minimum
energy to power itself; uses efficient equipment to meet 1. Sewer System (NP2 5,00,000.00
its requirements and provides comfortable and hygienic class)
indoor working conditions. Assam Water Research and 2. Manholes 1,00,000.00
Management Institute (AWRMI) is the first green 3. Treatment Plant (bar 1,00,000.00
building in Assam whichis conceived for Flood and screen, equalization
River Bank Erosion Management Agency Assam. Govt tank, anaerobic reactor
of Assam which has a built up area of around 80000 1st stage, aerobic
Sqft spread over 5 floors including a 200 Seat Seminar reactor 2nd stage)
Hall. 4. Treated water storage 1,50,000.00
tank
1.1 OBJECTIVE OF STUDY 5. Pumping to storage 15,00,000.0
system
Green building reduces consumption of resource and
minimize long-term costs. There are six principles of Total 23,50,000.0
green building and the objective is to optimize at least 0
one of them viz. design efficiency, energy efficiency,
water efficiency ,materials efficiency, indoor air quality
and waste reduction.
2.1 AMOUNT OF WATER HARVESTED IN A YEAR:
The objectives of this study was
i) to design a basic and economically viable Size of catchment area in the the building under our
water harvesting system. study i.e. New Water Resources Headquarters located
ii) to calculate the household energy in Basistha, Guwahati is 1402m2
requirements and estimating the overall
Rainfall Harvested = 1402 x 1698 x 0.9 = 2142536.4
litres/year where average amount of rainfall in Guwahati
2 DESIGN OF WATER HARVESTING SYSTEM IN A is 1698mm
GREEN BUILDING
Water used in the residential and office building

= 20,000 litres
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2.2 SIZE OF CATCHMENT AREA AND STORAGE Total power consumed by the entire building in 12
TANK REQD. FOR AN AVERAGE HOUSEHOLD months ( a year) =125736 KW
Total power consumed by the fans in the building in 7
months = 17428.32kw
TABLE 2 Total power consumed by the building for the entire
year after deducting the 3 months with 18 working days
= 106875.988 kw.
Sl. No. Description of work Amount(Rs. Total power actually consumed by the building for one
) year =1432.148kw
1. Average water 135lcpd Total Watt- hour rating of the system = 4972.736 watt/hr
demand in India 20% of total watt- hour rating of system = 994.547
2. Average household 4.7 watt/hr
size in Assam Actual power output of a PV Panel = 30watt
3. Water needed to 231592.5 The power used at the end ( lessdue to lower combined
implement a rain water liters/year/h efficiency of the system ) =24.3W
harvesting project in ousehold Energy produced by one 40 watt panel in a day =194.4
Guwahati for an watt/hr
average household Number of Solar Panels required to satisfy 20% of
4. Size of a catchment 1630.7ft2 given estimated daily load =6 numbers.
area required for an The inverter is of 6000 VAis required with with number
average household to of batteries and inverter equal to 4 and 2 respectively
harvest rain water for a
year 3.1 COST ESTIMATION OF A PV SYSTEM
 Cost of arrays =Rs 7,00,000
 Cost of batteries =Rs 41,200(luminous solar
75 Ah.Tubular battery)
Assuming the max period between two consecutive  Cost of inverter = Rs16,000
rainy days in Guwahati = 100 days  Total cost of system = Rs 7,57,200
No. of people working at the office at an average day Table 3. Ground floor
=100
Type of Room Dimension Total power
Consumed
Daily water requirement at the office = 10 litres/ day (in a month) kw
Flood Forecasting and 20x10 396.768
Storage tank for the office building under our study at warning erosion prediction
New Water Resources Headquarters located in centre
Basistha, Guwahati, Assam to meet the requirements Database Record Room 12x6 336.864
for the dry period GIS &Remote Sensing 20x8 385.248
Centre
= 8.0m x 8.0m x 2.0m = 128m3 (128000l) Digital Library 8x8 272.256
2Class Room 10x8 387.552
Water requirement for the household in this dry period 2 Stores 4x2 122.88
considering 10 percent larger value as safety factor = 2 Toilets 6x6,6x6 9.216
69795 litres. Corridor 2x15,2x8 8.64
Courtyard 1,2 15x10,18x20 75.168
Tank size 6.0m x 6.0m x 2.0m i.e. 72m 3can meet basic 2 Cabin 4x2,4x2 136.128
water requirement of an average family residing in Flood Forecasting and 20x10 396.768
Guwahati, Assam for the dry period. warning erosion prediction
centre
Database Record Room 12x6 336.864
GIS &Remote Sensing 20x8 385.248
3 POWER EFFICIENCY OF SOLAR ENERGY Centre
SYSTEM IN A GREEN Digital Library 8x8 272.256
The assumptions made for the power calculations of
the entire building are viz. Fans have been used from Total 1733.952
the months of March to October for approximately 8
hours ;Lights have been used for 8 hours; lift has a
capacity to carry 10 people and office is working 24
days a month. The power of energy efficientfan ,light,
laptops,printer , projector ,freeze, deep freeze, chimney,
coffee machine, microwave, charging point, LED and 36
inch blade fanare11.52 , 2.304,60, 1.44, 30,216, 468,
36.75, 292, 10.5, 0.72 , 0.012 and 0.06 KW/month
respectively.
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Table 3. First floor Table 6 Fourth floor

Type of Room Dimension Total power Type of Room Dimension Total power
Consumed Consumed
(in a month) kw (in a month) kw
Flood Forecasting and 20x10 396.768 CEO Room 10x10 112.992
warning erosion prediction EO(NT)and EO(T) 8x8 152.256
centre Officers Cabin: 525.888
Database Record Room 12x6 336.864 Technical and 12x14, 12x10
GIS &Remote Sensing 20x8 385.248 Non Technical
Centre Finance 10x12 184.512
Digital Library 8x8 272.256 Work Station 12x6 392.254
2Class Room 10x8 387.552 2 Toilets 6x6,6x6 9.216
2 Stores 4x2 122.88 2 Waiting Lobby 8x4, 10x4 32.256
2 Toilets 6x6,6x6 9.216 Courtyard 1,2 15x10,18x20 75.168
Corridor 2x15,2x8 8.64 Terrance Below 18x20 36.288
Courtyard 1,2 15x10,18x20 75.168 2 Corridors 8x4, 8x2 5.184
2 Cabin 4x2,4x2 136.128 2 Stores 4x2 122.88
Flood Forecasting and 20x10 396.768
warning erosion prediction Total 1648.894
centre
Database Record Room 12x6 336.864
GIS &Remote Sensing 20x8 385.248
Centre
Total 1949.316 Table 7 Fifth floor

Type of Room Dimension Total power
Table 4 Second floor Consumed
Type of Room Dimension Total power (in a month) kw
Consumed FREMAA Consultants
(in a month) kw PMC
Two meeting/Banquet 28x10,12x10 412.704 16x10
halls 145.248
Exhibition Hall with VIP 12x15 178.272 Conference Hall for 12x10 154.512
Lounge Area FREMAA
Open Terrance Area 15x18 106.768 Toilet 6x6,6x6 9.216
Cafeteria Area 18x14 1069.748 Waiting Lobby 8x4 16.128
2 Toilets 6x6,6x6 9.216 Courtyard 1,2 15x10,18x20 75.168
Courtyards 1,2 15x10,18x20 75.168 2 Corridor 12x4, 25x4 16.416

Rest Room 8x10 88.8
Total 416.688
Total 1949.316
Table 5 Third floor

Type of Room Dimension Total power 4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Consumed
(in a month) kw The present study was conducted in the under
4 Business Rooms for 12x12 551.424 construction project of Green Building AWRMI as well
B2B/B2G part of as the PHED, Guwahati Headquarter building.
conferences Guwahati receives very high amount of rainfall during
VIP Lounge Area 15x10 191.424 the monsoon period. The estimation of average amount
Conference Hall 1 14x10 175.248 of water that is required by a typical household and the
Conference Hall 2 6x10 142.992 amount of water that is to be harvested is shown here
Food Court 12x12 1069.748 along with the water harvesting system storage tank
Open Terrance Area 18x20 48.096 design. Power can be generated by the use of Solar
Waiting Lobby 8x8 32.256 Energy. Under this study the total power required by
AWRMI building is 6174.885watt/hr and only 20% of it
Courtyard 1,2 15x10,18x20 75.168 can be supplied with the help of solar energy. The
2 Toilet 6x6,6x6 9.216 calculation of the entire setup of solar power system is
shown .From all the above mentioned practices we can
Green Roof Below 25x25 88.128 reduce the usage of non-renewable resources which
2 Corridor 8x6,2x2 6.912 are harmful to the environment and make use of
renewable resources. This will enable us to save
Total 2390.612 resources for the future generation. Though initial cost
for implementation of green building is high but it
requires less maintenance. Again its efficiency can
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never be 100 percent because performance of green

buildings heavily depend on the weather and climatic
condition of the place but in the long run this practice
can be very effective.
5 SCOPE OF FUTURE STUDY
The future scope of this study can include i) study of

orientation of building, use of turbine to generate
electricity etc; ii) The various water treatments that can
be adopted so that rain water can be used for cooking
purpose and not just be limited to gardening or sanitary;
To check the strength and durability of the structure
reinforced with naturally available material such as jute
etc to minimize the use of RCC or iv) The effect on
flood of an area by rain water harvesting.
338
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
A REVIEW PAPER ON BLAST RESISTANT STRUCTURE
ICID2018_D_038
Rituparna Mazumdar¹, Dr. Nayanmoni Chetia²
1.PG student, Jorhat Engineering College 2.Asstt. Professor,Jorhat Engineering College,Assam, India
ABSTRACT
Advancement of technology results in large numbers of terrorist activities in last few decades which necessitates
dynamic effect of blast loading to take into account, like wind and earthquake load. The main object of this study is to
access amount of blast load which the structure may subjected to, evaluation of vulnerability, and providing guidance
to the designer to mitigate the effect of blast on building in economic way to provide protection to human and
infrastructure against explosion. A case study is carried out on an RC column subjecting blast loading; effect of
strength on deflection with time, strain rate on ductility is studied. Collapse mechanism is studied by following
alternative path method for Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and other Structures. Structural, architectural and
managerial aspects of design are also included in this report to make the structure to be blast resistant.
KEYWORDS: blast loading, standoff distance, ductility, collapse mechanism, aspects of design.
1. INTRODUCTION: confined explosion and explosion caused by

Blast loading was not so important in the earlier explosive attached to the structure. Unconfined
age. With the advancement of technology, the explosion causes effect as an air burst or a
increasing numbers of terrorist activities in last surface burst. In case of air burst, detonation of
few decades show the importance of taking the explosive occurs above the ground level. An
dynamic effect of blast loading in design of immediate amplification of shock wave is
structure like wind and earthquake which are caused by ground reflection; prior to initial blast
also unpredictable. Attacks are exceptional wave arrives the building. As the wave
cases, man-made disaster and its probability of continues to propagate outward along the
occurrence cannot be determined accurately. ground surface, a front is formed which is known
Also, terrorist activities can’t be stopped. as Mach stem; by interaction of initial waves and
Extremist uses newer chemical and technology, reflected wave.
which causes serious threats to life as well as
property .Concerning safety of life property, the
blast resistant design was brought into light. It is
not economical and realistic too to design a
completely blast proof structure. However; with
the advancement of current engineering and
architectural knowledge, various strategies can
be followed right from the planning stage. The
effect of blast can be mitigated to a large extent
Fig 1.1: Air burst
in new structure, and in existing structure too.
The main objective of the study is to
Surface burst occurs when detonation is
access literature on blast load that the structure
very close to or on ground surface. The initial
may subjected to, vulnerability evaluation, to
shock waves get reflected and amplified by
provide guidance to the designer to mitigate the
ground surface, which produces reflected
effect of blast on building in economic way to
waves. Unlike in case of air burst, reflected
provide protection to human and infrastructure
wave merges incident wave at the point of
against multiple extreme events.
detonation; resulting in single wave. In most of
1.1. EXPLOSIVE TYPE AND EXPLOSION:
cases of terrorist activities, in built-up areas,
Some of chemical explosive are TNT, TATP,
devices are placed on or very near to ground
RDX, PETNTand aziroazide azide etc. Among
surface.
them TNT is the most commonly used explosive
chemical as it is very easy and convenient to
handle. Full form of TNT is tri-nitrate-toluene.
Infect it is used as benchmark, where all other
explosives are expressed in terms of equivalent
mass of TNT and the most common method of
equalization is ratio of specific energy of the
explosive to specific energy of TNT.
There are mainly three type of
explosion, namely unconfined explosion, Fig1. 2: surface burst
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If explosive is attached with structural Air shock waves cause instantaneous

member like column, it will cause instantaneous increase in pressure above ambient
stress, as the shock waves arrives the surface, atmospheric pressure at the point of
resulting in crushing of material. Except this, an consideration, some distance away from source;
explosion within a structure will produce the which is commonly known over pressure. As a
same effect as those of confined and unconfined result, differential pressure is generated
explosion. between the atmosphere and gases; which is
known as negative pressure. When air returns to
1.2 SHOCK WAVES: its original state equilibrium state is reached.
Due to the effect of blast the surroundings are Ground shock wave consists of three principal
subjected to different type of loading, which can components, wave travels radially from source
be grouped under three heads; the effect in known as compression waves; waves travel
which surrounding air get compressed, known radially and particle moves in plane normal to
as air shock waves. Due to accumulation of the radial direction; where shock wave intersects
gases due to chemical reaction of explosion, with the surface, known as shear waves and a
causes air pressure and air movement, which is surface or Rayleigh waves; these waves
known as dynamic pressure. The effects due to propagates with different velocities and
which the ground gets rapidly compressed, is frequencies.
known as ground shock waves.
Fig 1.3: Shock waves created by blast
2. CASE STUDY:
2.1. RC COLUMN SUBJECTED TO BLAST
LOADING: RC column of ground floor of height
6.4m of a multi-storied building is analysed in
this case. Parameters considered for study are-
Strength- 40MPa for NSC (Normal Strength
Concrete) ;80MPa for HSC (High Strength
Concrete)
Spacing of stirrups- 400mm for OMRF
(Ordinary moment Resisting Frame); Fig 2.2: C/S of NSC column-ordinary detaling
100mm for SMRF (Special Moment Resisting with 400 mm spacing (Gupta A., Mendis P., Ngo
Frame) T., & Ramsay J.;2007)
It is found that by increasing compressive
strength of concrete, size of column can be Table 2.1: concrete grade, member size and
reduced effectively. Column of size (500×900) spacing of stirrups
mm for NSC can be reduce to (350×750) mm for
HSC, with the same axial load carrying capacity. column Size(mm) 𝑓𝑐 (MPa) Stirrup spacing
NSC 300×900 40 400&100 mm
HSC 350×750 80 400 &1100 mm
Blast pressure 10 MPa A 3-D column was analysed using

nonlinear explicit code LS-Dyna3D (2002) taking
into consideration of non-linearity of both
Time 1.3 sec
material and geometry. Effect of blast loading
Fig 2.1: blast loading (Gupta A., Mendis P., Ngo are analysed dynamically to obtain the
T., & Ramsay J.;2007) deflection time history of the column.
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effect of shear reinforcement is also significant.

The ultimate lateral displacements at failure
increase from 45 mm to 63 mm for stirrup
spacing 400mm and 100mm respectively for the
HSC column; which are 20mm and 32mm for
the NSC with stirrup spacing 400mm and
100mm respectively.
Table 2.2: energy absorption at failure of HSC

Fig 2.3: model of the column using explicit code and NSC column
LS-Dyna3D (Gupta A., Mendis P., Ngo T., &
Ramsay J.;2007) column 400mm spacing 100mm spacing
NSC 12kNm 33.9kNm
HSC 27.6kNm 43.5 kNm
2.2 PROGRESSIVE COLLAPSE ANALYSIS:

After the collapse of 22-storey Ronan Point
apartment building, Design recommendations on
progressive collapse analysis have been
introduced in British Standards, since 1968.
After that, a number of European countries, USA
Fig 2.4: lateral deflection with time at mid-point and Canada have included progressive collapse
of column with 400 mm spacing of stirrup provisions in their building codes. The American
(OMRF) (Gupta A., Mendis P., Ngo T., & National Standards Institute (ANSI) Standard
Ramsay J.;2007) A58.1-1982, “Minimum Design Loads for
Buildings and other Structures” recommended
the alternative path method, in which the local
failure is allowed to occur but an alternative path
must be provided around the failed structural
members.
Fig 2.5: lateral deflection with time at mid-point

of column with 100 mm spacing of stirrup
(SMRF)(Gupta A., Mendis P., Ngo T., & Ramsay
J.;2007)
Fig 2.7: structural configuration (Gupta A.,

Mendis P., Ngo T., & Ramsay J.;2007)
A 52 storey building of storey height
3.85m, a modified form of a typical building in
Fig 2.6: comparison of energy absorption Australia is analysed in this study. The plan and
capacities with 100mm stirrup spacing structural configuration of the building is shown
(Gupta A., Mendis P., Ngo T., & Ramsay in fig 2.7. The spacing of column is 8.4m C/C in
J.;2007) the periphery, which are connected by spandrel
Lateral deflection of column at mid beams to support the front face. The lateral
height of column with time is shown in graphical loads are resisted by 6 core boxes located at the
form. (fig.2.4 and fig.2.5) for both NSC and HSC centre of the plan. The building is designed to
column which shows lateral resistance of resist lateral loads due to wind and seismic
column. It shows that at nearer standoff distance loading specified in Australian Loading
causes both NSC and HSC to fail by shear. Standards AS1170.2 and AS1170.4. The slab,
However, HSC column of strength 80MPa with columns and core walls are casted at site. The
reduced cross section have higher lateral lateral load is resisted by Lateral Load
deflection, showing better energy absorption Resistance System (LLRS) of the core walls,
capacity, than NSC column of strength 40 MPa. which is about 80% of the overall capacity.
From fig.2.4 and fig. 2.5, it is clear that, the
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Here, local damage of the example is

studied due to bomb blast at ground level and
progressive collapse of the building is analysed.
By considering the effect of failure of column in
the perimeter, spandrel beams, and floor slabs
due to blast over-pressure, structural stability
and integrity of the building is assessed. The
main object of this analysis is to check if failure
of any primary structural member will cause
progressive collapse, which may propagate to a
storey level, above or below the affected
member vertically, or to the next vertical
structural member.
Fig 2.10: progressive collapse analysis of the
perimeter frame, caused by blast loading (Gupta
A., Mendis P., Ngo T., & Ramsay J.;2007)
To detect local damage, the blast
analysis is carried out on beams, and column on
the perimeter of building and floor slabs,
subjected to actual blast pressure on the each of
element. In fig 2.10, results are plotted, which
Fig 2.8: direct column loading (blast shows that column lines 4, 5 of the ground and
pressure)(Gupta A., Mendis P., Ngo T., & 1st floor levels failed due to the direct impact of
Ramsay J.;2007) the blast wave. Also slabs and beams from
column line 3 to 6 collapsed. Member
assessments were carried out using program
RESPONSE (2001) which is based on the
Modified Compression Field theory and
LSDYNA. It also shows that, if reinforcement
detailing are as per the requirement of Special
Moment Resisting Frame (SMRF), then shear
capacity and ductility will be improve
Fig 2.9: uplifting of floor slabs (blast pressure) significantly, which will improve the blast and
impact resistance of the member. In the
(Gupta A., Mendis P., Ngo T., & Ramsay
damaged model of perimeter frame, failed
J.;2007)
elements were removed and again analysed to
Fig 2.8 & 2.9 shows the effect of blast check whether progressive collapse would
pressure on columns and beams on the propagate beyond one story level above or
below.
perimeter of the building at perimeter and floor
Fig 2.10 shows the alternative load
slabs. The thickness of slab of the building is
path, which go through the columns surrounding
125mm, which is supported by pre-stressed
the damaged area, from where the vertical loads
wide band beams. The portion of slab nearer to
blast, were hit by the blast over-pressure are transferred. Due to the failure of the
directly. The normal glazing in the facade of the supporting columns, beams and floor slabs
above that area become critical. The overall
building causes insignificant resistance to the
stability of the structure will depend on continuity
blast wave. As a result, after failure of the
and ductility of these elements which will
glazing system, the blast fills the structural bay
redistribute forces within the structure. Falling
above and below of each floor slab. The
pressure due to blast below the slab is greater debris, resulting from the collapsed members
than the pressure above it, and thus it causes also imposes severe loading on the floors
below, and thus it becomes essential to check
net upward load on each slab.
whether that overload can be carried without
causing further.
3. ASPECTS OF BLAST RESISTING DESIGN design the dynamic design of blast resistant
OF STRUCTURE: structural design also uses the collapse limit
3.1 STRUCTURAL ASPECTS: Though the blast design and serviceability limit design. The
loadings are extra ordinary load cases, their targets of design isto provide enough ductility, to
effect should be take into account in adequate prevent overall collapse of building. In case of
ratio, during structural design. As the static an explosion, significant translational movement
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and moment will occur and the loads should be 3.2 ARCHITECTURAL ASPECTS: The target of
transferred from the beams to columns. The blast resistant design is to minimize damage to
structure doesn’t collapse after the explosion the structure in the event of an explosion. A
however it cannot function anymore. However, primary requirement is to prevent catastrophic
as per serviceability limit design the building failure of the entire structure or large portions of
should function properly after an explosion. Only it. It is also necessary to minimize the effects of
non-structural members like windows or blast waves transmitted into the building through
cladding may need maintenance after an openings and to minimize the effect. Important
explosion, so that they should be designed considerations to reduce the effects of blast are
ductile enough. In connections, the normal planning and layout, bomb shelter area,
details for static loading have been found to be installations, glazing and claddings etc.
inadequate for blast loading. Especially for the 3.3 ANAGERIAL ASPECTS: Whether the
steelwork beam-to-column connections, it is building is new or an existing one, risk reduction
essential for the connection to bear inelastic process involves the following steps as shown in
deformations so that the moment frames could fig.3.1
still operate after an instantaneous explosion.
The main feature is, extra links are used in the
reinforced concrete connection, which are used
to reduce the risk of collapse or the connection
be damaged, possibly as a result of a load
reversal on the beam. In critical areas, full
moment-resisting connections are made in order
to ensure the load carrying capacity of structural
members after an explosion. Beams acts Fig3.1: steps involved in risk reduction process
primarily in bending may also have to carry (Bhor Amol.S, Prof. Salunkhe H.H; March 2016)
significant axial load during blast.
CONCLUSION: Blast effect causes ‘air burst’ to blast over-pressure, structural stability and
when detonation is above and ‘surface burst’ integrity of the building is assessed, to check if
when detonation takes place near ground. A failure of any primary structural member will
case study is carried out in this report in an RC cause progressive collapse. If reinforcement
column subjected to blast loading, NSC and detailing is as per the requirement of Special
HSC are considered for study, in which Moment Resisting Frame (SMRF), then shear
deflection and energy absorption of the both capacity and ductility will improve significantly,
concrete is observed; which shows that at which will improve the blast and impact
nearer standoff distance causes both NSC and resistance of the member.“Minimum Design
HSC to fail by shear. However, HSC column of Loads for Buildings and other Structures” which
strength with reduced cross section have higher recommends the alternative path method to
lateral deflection, showing better energy study collapse mechanism, where the local
absorption capacity, than NSC column. failure is allowed to occur, but an alternative
A 52 storey building is considered to path must be provided around the failed
study the progressive collapse mechanism. The structural members, and failed structure is
local damage of the example is studied due to considered as surcharge debris load for design.
bomb blast at ground level and progressive Structural, architectural and managerial
collapse of the building is analysed, by aspects of blast resistant design in also included
considering the effect of failure of column in the in this report.
perimeter, spandrel beams, and floor slabs due
REFERENCE building’; International Journal of

1. Atef Eraky, Osman Shallan, Shimaa Advance Technology in Engineering
Emad, Tharwat Sakr; (August 2014) and Science, Vol. No. 4, Issue no
‘Response of Building Structures to 03 www.ijates.com; ISSN 2348-
Blast Effects’; International Journal 7550.
of Engineering and Innovative 3. B. Murali Krishna, Dr. V. Sowjanya
Technology (IJEIT), ISSN: 2277- Vani; (2015) ‘Determination of blast
3754, Volume 4, Issue 2. load parameters for 2D framed over
2. Bhor Amol.S, Prof. Salunkhe H.H; the façade of structure’;
(March 2016); ‘To study of International Journal of Engineering
architectural and management Research; Vol.3., Issue.3; ISSN:
related aspect of terrorist resisting 2321-7758.
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4. Chitra V. Payoshni Mali, Savita 2224-5790 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0514

Lokare; (December-2014); ‘Effect of (Online), Vol.6, No.10.
blast loading on Reinforced 10. Meghanadh M., Reshma T.; (March
Concrete structures’; International 2017); ‘Blast analysis and blast
Journal of Scientific & Engineering resistant design of R.C.C residential
Research, http://www.ijser.org; building’; International Journal of
Volume 5, Issue 12, ISSN 2229- Civil Engineering and Technology
5518. (IJCIET) Volume 8, Issue 3., pp.
5. DassGoel Manmohan, Vasant A. 761–770 Article ID:
Matsagar; (May 2014); ‘Blast- IJCIET_08_03_076.
Resistant Design of Structures’; 11. Potnis S.C., Unde Amol B.;(July-
Practice Periodical on Structural 2013); ‘Blast Analysis of Structure’;
Design and Construction; DOI: International Journal of Engineering
10.1061/(ASCE)SC.1943- Research & Technology (IJERT);
5576.0000188. ISSN: 2278-0181, Vol.2, Issue 7.
6. Deepthishree S. Aithal, Prajna; 12. Sharma Abhay, Tewari Pravesh,;
(2017); ‘Parametric Study of Multi- (May-2018);‘Effects of Blast Loading
Storey Buildings for Blast Load’; on Building Frames’; International
International Journal of Advanced Research Journal of Engineering
Research Ideas and Innovation in and Technology (IRJET), Volume:
Technology, ISSN: 2454-132X, 05 Issue: 05, www.irjet.net .
Volume3, Issue4, www.ijariit.com 13. IS 1893
7. Fatih Sutcu, Necdet Torunbalci, 14. IS:875-1987 part -2
Zeynep Koccaz;(October12- 15. IS: 4991 - 1968 (Reaffirmed 2003)
17,2008); ‘Architectural and
structural design for blast resisting
building’; The 14th World
Conference on Earthquake
Engineering, Beijing, China.
8. Gupta A., Mendis P., Ngo T., &
Ramsay J.; (2007); ‘Blast Loading
and Blast Effects on Structures – An
Overview’; the University of
Melbourne, Australia; EJSE Special
Issue: Loading on Structures.
9. Kulkarni A. V., Sambireddy G,
(2014) ‘Analysis of Blast Loading
Effect on High Rise Buildings’; Civil
and Environmental Research, ISSN
344
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
CHALLENGES IN DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WORLD’S TALLEST

RAIL BRIDGE
ICID2018_D_041
Saibaba Ankala, ME, IRSE
Chief Engineer (Con), NF Railway, Guwahati, INDIA
ABSTRACT
The paper deliberates on the challenges of designing and constructing the World’s Tallest Railway bridge with
pier height of 141m.The bridge is situated in the Northeast hill state of Manipur under highest seismic zone o f
India, heavy winds and intense rainfall area. Access to site being hilly terrain and security concerns due to militancy
are other serious challenges to be addressed. Due to the pier locations on the steep slope of the hill, rigorous
slope stability has also been ensured by rigorous analysis. The bridge is being designed and constructed with the
latest state-of-the-art technology with Indian as well as International codes
Keywords: Tallest Pier, Site specific spectra, wind tunnel tests, instrument monitoring
1. INTRODUCTION: of aesthetics, environment, sustainability and

As part of Northeast Policy, it is intended to economy on long term basis
connect Imphal city in Manipur with a new
railway link.The proposed alignment takes- The tallest of such bridges(Br.No.164) spans
off from Jiribam in Assam and covers a over a orge of depth 141mand lengthof703 m.
length of 111km to connect to Imphal, This bridge is slated to become the tallest in the
traversing along the scenic lush green hills world from the point of view of pillar height
marked with waterfalls and rivers. surpassing the existing tallest of Mala-Rijeka
viaduct on Belgrade-Bar railway line in Europe
At present passengers travel by road on where the height is 139m.
NH-37 which is 230km long and takes
more than 10 hours, whereas it is In this paper, attempt is made to describe the
expected to be cut down to less than 2 various challenges encountered and specific
hours by train. techniques developed in designing and building
this World record bridge to make it safe and
The rail link is also of strategic importance and sustainable.
ushers economic development of Manipur, with
tremendous tourist potential. It will also form a 2 SPECIAL CHALLENGES
vital link of the proposed Trans-Asian Rail
Network connecting several countries 2.1 Hilly Terrain
Manipur is a hilly state with little road network.

1. 1 Need For Tall Bridges:
Except for a meandering NH-37, there are no
Therail link passesthroughhill ranges
other significant roads.The alignment is interior
ofPatkairegion (easterntrailofHimalaya), in the hilly forests and far-flung from the NH. All
entailing series of construction material like cement, steel,
tunnelsandviaducts.Whilethehigh mountains aggregate and equipment are to be carted from
arepenetrated by tunnel,thedeepgorgesneed to various places to the work-sites along the NH.
be spanned by tall viaducts. Hence new approach roads were to be made
with heavy duty excavators from the NH to the
1.2 Tall Bridges Vs High Fills sites often at steep slopes and sharp
curves.(Fig.1)
An alternative to viaducts is high embankments.
But this is not a professional solution in the Undulating ground with thick vegetation poses
present scenario, considering their susceptible severe constraint of space required for stacking
for failures, required huge earth quarries and of various materials
occupy large spaces, yet requires huge
maintenance efforts. Hence a detailed Contamination of streams by construction
comparative study was made and viaducts are wastes is to be minimised. The rich local
found to be the best choice from considerations culture and heritage are to be given their due
respect
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Seismic detailing is obligatory to ensure safety,

stability and ductility and avoid collapse
2.4 Geological conditions
Being sedimentary formations, the general soil

type is shale interspersed with siltstone and
sandstone. Shale when exposed to air and
moisture looses its shear strength drastically
and flows like slurry
Special protection measures are required to
protect the surface of cuttings including
shotcreting, wire-mesh facia, geomat green
faciaetc
Fig.1 2.5 Security and Law and Order issues
The salubrious environment of Northeast with Militancy is a serious concern which needs to
fragile flora and fauna is a treasure to be be properly addressed not only during
properly protected with least damage during construction but also during operation.
construction or operation phases. Threat calls, armed attacks on sites, kidnap
and ransom demands of engineers are a
2.2 Heavy Rainfall regular phenomenon which are to be properly
tackled in consultation with the State
The area receives almost 3500mm of rain Government
annually. Hence the alignment needs to be
designed with adequate drainage to cater to 3 BRIDGE CONFIGURATION FINALIZATION
the flash floods and sharp flows causing
erosion and instability Due to the complexity of the conditions and
challenges enumerated in para 2 above, it was
Flash floods with landslides are a serious decided that the total bridge system need to be
concern, as experienced by the NH presently properly dealt right from design to construction
(Fig.2) which need to be addressed now to operation stage to develop the most
sustainable solution
Hence a specialteam of experts, called

Technical Advisory Group (TAG) had been
exclusively formed comprising members from
various fields like Bridges, Earthquake,
Geotechnology, Hydrology, Environment and
Security.
The TAG was given full powers to deliberate

and decide the best configuration for the bridge
from all aspects.
Fig.2
After detailed investigations, site visits and
2.3 Most-Severe Seismic Zone deliberations, TAG made recommendations
considering the constructability, maintainability,
Entire Manipur state lies is in Seismic Zone-V durability and environmental conformity besides
(as per IS:1893), which is the most severe meeting functional requirements of the
zone. Frequency of seismic events is also structure. The provisions are discussed in the
highdue to the presence of faults nearby. subsequent paragraphs
Static methods given in the code may not be 3.2 Reference Codes& Manuals
sufficient to study the dynamic response of the
structure as a whole to ensure overall stability As this bridge is first-of-its kind in India, TAG
of the bridge and trains recommended that apartfromIRScodes
(IndianRailway Standard),othercodeslikeIS
(IndianStandard),IRC(IndianRoadCongress),A
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REMA(AmericanRailwayEngineering and sandstone rock. Open foundations are ruled

Maintenance-of-way Association), UIC out as the SBC of shale are extremely poor.
(International Union of Railway) and Euro Well foundations are practically difficult
codes shall also be considered to the relevant considering boulder strata.
extent and ensuring robust design. Hence Bored cast-in-situ RCC piles are the
preferred option. The pile is 30m long well-
3.3 Deciding Span Lengths
anchored into the hard sandstone to safely
with stand the huge vertical and horizontal
The total gorge length to be spanned is
forces under most-adverse conditions
around 700 metres. Various options w e r e
c o n s i d e r e d :Continuous spans, Arch,
balanced cantilever, cablestayedand simply- Skin friction is not considered as per the
supported-through-type-open-web-girder Codal requirementdue to soil liquefaction in
for high seismic zones, corroborated by cyclic
Longer the span length, higher are the seismic pile load tests
forces and associated deformations which are
detrimental to the safe running of the trains. All piles are tested ultrasonically by CHUM
On the other hand, smaller spans entail more method to establish their integrity for full
number of tall piers enhancing the cost. depth
To strike the right balance, compromise, it was 3.6 Substructure:

proposed to adopt span of 106m, as such
spans are already in-vogue. Simply- Asthepierarehigh,t h e d e si g n is
supportedoption was most desirable in view g o v e r n e d m o r e b y t h e t o p lateral
ofits advantages of simple design and deflectionin
maintainability besides safety and long- viewofthestabilityofthesuperstructure
term stability. Other spans of 71.5m and andsaf ety of running trains.
30m are also adopted on the sloped Threedifferentp i e r types were
approaches as per site-suitability examined:Steeltrestle,RCChollowcylindricalan
dRCChollowtapered. As there are no other
3.4 Design Methods: standards, itwasdecidedto limit the lateral
deflectionofpiert o H/500as per the Building
As desired by TAG, Consultants having Code, where H is the pier height. Time-
sufficient experience in similar designs have History Analysis are performed to
been engaged. In addition, following IITs were understand maximum pier deflections and
associated: associated curvature of the track
IIT/ Kharagpur: For developing the site- Steel trestle was failing in deflection criteria.
specific earthquake spectra, as per Colda Tapered hollow sections though apparently
requirements economical, pose problem during construction
by slip-form. Hence cylindricalhollowRCC
IIT/ Kanpur: For performing the wind tunnel piersare selected which have better
tests for ensuring safety and stability against
aesthetically appeal. Economy is achieved
vibrations
by reducing the thickness along the
IIT/ Guwahati: Comprehensive proof-checking height. To provide better rigidity,
of all the designs and drawings and advising diaphragms are provided at regular
any improvements intervals
IIT/Roorkee: It is now proposed for detailed Construction of the pier is by slip-form

proof checking of the slope-stability studies technique, which does not need any
and protection works support from the bottom. It is supportedon
series of jacks that anchor against the set
3.5Foundations: concrete.
As per exploratory bore-logs, the general 3.7 Super-structure:

trend in soil profile is 5m of thick soft shale,
followed by 12m of fractured siltstone with As mentioned in para 3.3 supra, maximum
interspersed boulders and overlaid on hard span of 106m is proposed. Open-web through
(OWT) steel girders are ideal and economical.
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Besides, steel elements can be fabricated in They are equipped with claw-and-clamp
workshops with controlled conditions ensuring arrangement to hold the superstructure down
consistent quality. to the pier with anchor bolts. However, lateral
The overall height of the OWT girder is seismicrestrainingblocksare also provided to
decided as per the vertical deflection criterion, contain the girder from toppling down during a
whereas width had to be decided from severe seismic event
consideration of stability and torsional rigidity.
After several alternatives, height of 12.5m and
width of 8.5m are found to be satisfying the
requirements
High Tensile Steel of grade E410-B0 is
proposed for chord members while E250-B0
grade is ideal for cross-girders and stringers as
per the load patterns
All members are fabricated from sheets and
rolled sections by Submerged-Arc-Welding,
tested ultrasonically. Site connections are with
HSFG bolts for their over-riding advantages
over rivets
Apart from normal loads, members are 3.9 Final Span Configuration
designed for special requirements like fatigue,
erection loads and serviceability. Central Fig 4
camber of 165mm is provided to counter for Summing up the studies of various elements
the vertical deflection under loads of the bridge, the final configuration adopted
is5 spans of 106m with 2 spans of 71.5 and
Improvised cantilever launching is proposed for
one of 30.0m on the approaches. As the
erection of the OWT girders, as temporary
bridge is situated on a deep ravine, pier
supports are not possible in the deep gorge.
heights vary from 20m to a maximum of
Surface protection of steel is achieved by grit- 141m (which is going to be the World’s
blasting and metalizing with Alumimium to a Tallest in this category!)The final
thickness of 150 microns followed by 4 layers configuration of the Bridge is shown in Fig.4
of finishing coats
3.8 Bearings
Due to the long span configuration,tall piers 4 SPECIAL DESIGN FEATURES:
and high order of wind and seismic forces, the
magnitude of loads as well as movements is Due to the specific challenges mentioned in
high. Conventional roller-rocker-bearings are above paras, certain unique features have
found inadequate especially to counter the been built into the design process. Some of
uplift forcesdueto earthquake loads. Even pot them are explained below:
bearings are having limitation of load capacity
4.1 Site-specific spectra
Sphericalbearingsare most suited to safely
The spectra given in the code (IS:1893) is
cater to these special requirements (Fig.3)
general in nature and valid for the entire
Zone-V uniformly. The effect of faults in the
vicinity of the structure is not reflected.
Hence site-specific spectra had been
developed by IIT/ Kharagpur.
All the seismic events within a range of

350km and magnitude exceeding 3.5 Richter
in the last 250 years had been considered for
the study and an empirical formula developed
based on regression analysis.
Fig 3 Based on this, responses with various time

periods had been developed for the bridge
location using computer software and these
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data are utilized for plotting the site-specific

response spectra. The PGA as per this 4.3 Slope-stability Analysis
spectra is 1.1 times higher than the code
specified value as shown in Fig.5 As the piers are located on sloped surface,
detailed analysis is made simulating the
ground conditions and soil properties to
establish the stability during construction
phase as well as on long-term basis
Necessary soil stabilization and slope
protection measures proposed by expert
consultants in consultation with IIT/ Roorkee
are being provided
The scheme adopted is a combination of
grouted soil nails with wire-mesh support and
green facia with coir mats as shown in Fig.7
Fig.7
While the soil nails provide stability of slope,

the green facia ensures surface protection
from erosion due to rains
4.4 Mechanized Construction
Due to restriction of time and working space,

most of the activities right from piling to pier
construction are mechanized to improve
efficiency and quality
Hydraulic rigs, slip-form shuttering, concrete

pumps, self-erecting lifts for carrying men
and material are some of the equipment
deployed. Typical slip form arrangement is
Fig.5 (Sa/g vs T) shown in Fig.8
Hence the same had been adopted for the

analysis and design of the various
components of the bridge
4.2 Wind Tunnel studies

The design wind speed calculated as per
IS:875 exceeds 225kmph. Hence wind tunnel
analysis was performed by IIT/Kanpur to
understand the behaviour of the structure by
means of instrumentation. (Fig.6)
Fig.6
A comparison of forces as per theoretical

analysis and wind tunnel studies was
performed and seen that the computer
analysis is giving higher forces, which are
adopted for design Fig.8
5. INSPECTION & MAINTENANCE
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During trains operation phase, the bridge

needs to be inspected on regular basis and Data from cameras can be stored and
maintained. Due to the magnitude of the compared at intervals to assess the
bridge, conventional methods are not propagation of damage if any
adequate.
Hence following 3-pronged approach is 6. SUSTAINABILITY FEATURES
proposed:
Following innovative measures are being
5.1 Providing access by way of spiral adopted to make the project sustainable
ladders, lifts and walk-ways to reach the
various elements of the bridge 6.1 Soil Cement Blocks
Excess soil from the excavations are
5.2 Structural health monitoring by converted into blocks which are used for
instrumentation where different sensors are protective works and drain linings, thereby
fixed at critical locations on the bridge which promoting recycle and reuse of waste soil.
constantly measure various parameters like This is also economical and environment
stresses, deflections, tilt and wind speed. friendly
Typical scheme is shown in Fig.9
6.2 Eco-tourism
The bridge is located in a valley rich in scenic
beauty with hills and greenery. It is proposed
to involve local people and promote home-
stay concept in co-ordination with the State
Government and this eco-tourism concept
will be a win-win situation for all
Similarly a few other locations have also
been identified as potential tourist spots due
to their natural beauty like water-falls and
scenic views apart from pleasant weather
6.3 Local materials

Fig.9 To the extent feasible, local material is
The sensors are connected to a central data promoted by way of river boulders to make
processing system and storage unit.Real- aggregate and sand for non-critical
time alerts are flashed whenevera threshold applications. This will benefit the local people
value of a parameter is exceeded so as to who are engaged in the supply of the
regulate train services asrequired material
5.3 Drones fitted with high-resolution 6.4 Fossil museum

cameras that scan the surface of piers to The project is located in sedimentary rocks
identify any defects like cracks are flown at rich in fossils and special formations. It is
regular intervals. (Fig10). proposed to collect such rocks with rare fossil
images and make a museum at the identified
tourist spots
6.5 CSR activities

Railways realized that the project
acceptability of the local people is of utmost
importance.
Hence in order to promote positive image

among them, certain CSR activities have also
been taken up which includewater storage
tanks with piped drinking water facility,
Fig.10 equipping schools with additional rooms, play
They can cling to the pier surface and move grounds and toilet facilities, thereby
continuously while recording the data promoting Swach Bharat!
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7. CONCLUSIONS
It is a proud honour that this World record
Like necessity is the mother of invention, we bridge is entirely designed and constructed
believe that challenges are the mother of indigenously with local talent
innovation!
The dedicated efforts of all stake holders is
The wide spectrum of challenges in this highly commendable in realizing the vision to
project ranging from technical tosocial, build this mega bridge project using state-of-
cultural, environmental and security have the-art technology to make it sustainable and
given us the opportunity to innovate and to provide rail connection tothe remote Manipur
introduce certainnovel concepts in designing state benefitting millions!
and constructing this iconic structure to serve
the nation for decades to come. ***
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21-22 DECEMBER 2018
DIRECT DISPLACEMENT BASED SEISMIC DESIGN FOR T-SHAPED RC
FRAMED STRUCTURE
ICID2018_D_042
Mrinmoy kirtania, Probhakar Chakravorty
Sikkim Manipal Institute of technology, Majhitar, Sikkim, India
ABSTRACT
The main purpose of this paper is the design and analysis of RC framed structure under several performance level
by direct displacement based design (DDBD) method. Past years it was our tradition to choose Force based design
(FBD) method as design method. Applying force based design we need to take some predefined codal parameter
which does not give full satisfactory output. For limiting error and increasing accuracy of calculation of design the
displacement is very good primary parameter because it is displacement which has direct relation with damage or
cracking. This paper gives a description of design of RC framed structure under displacement based method taking
into view the inter storey drift and justifying with help of SAP2000 software in a non-liner time history analysis on G+9
RC frame building. The results also indicate the efficiency of displacement approach of the T-shaped building.
Different performance levels are found corresponding to respective Ductility, Damping, Stiffness of frame and Base
Shear which contributes to understand the behavior and determine the capacity of the structural member under
seismic load.
Keywords: DDBD; Ductility; Damping; Base Shear; Capacity; Non-linear time history analysis.
1 INTRODUCTION Yield displacements are mainly dependent on

beam depth and after choosing design
The demand of high rise buildings in urban areas displacement or target displacement which mainly
are increasing day by day. With high rise multi depends on this because plastic rotation is very
storey building having a big concern about their negligible. So in future, if we wanted to change the
safety and efficiency, the building or structure is capacity, we can easily do by changing sectional
not possible to design with 100% earthquake depth and get respective building response.
resistant. But as a structural engineer we must
know the ethics of a collapse safety design.
Demand of Performance based Design is 2 ROTATION CAPACITY
increasing, so our old and traditional design
method of FBD[1] has some problem. It is not The ethical concept of structural designer we
possible with FBD to indicate different design the building such that first collapse formed
performance level. So group of design developer in beam because failure of beam is local failure
mainly gives us the concept of DDBD which is and if hinged formed in column then it was global
easy and efficient design method than FBD and failure. So for safety we take strong column weak
with this we can denote different performance beam concept, our rotation comes from total
level also. rotation which in simple summation of yield
rotation and plastic rotation.
The basic approach “Direct Displacement Based
Design” first introduce by Pristley in 1993[].
Structure should be passed under specified target 2.1 Yield Rotation Capacity
drift level when the lateral load comes through
ground motion. Artificial motion through non linear Pristley develop this simple equation [1] to find
time history analysis is done and cross target drift yielding rotation, here 𝜀𝑦 yield strain of rebar, 𝐿𝑏 is
levels are checked. If the model fails or performs length of beam, ℎ𝑑 depth of beam, so Yield
unsatisfactorily, then it is redesigned and the Rotation
sections are changed, until it justifies the
condition. 𝐿𝑏
Ѳ𝑦 = 0.5𝜀𝑦 . (1)
ℎ𝑏
This paper considers a T-shaped RC framed
2.2 Plastic Rotation capacity
building and DDBD method is used to calculate
member rotation capacity and divided into it three Plastic rotation capacity is found out from FEMA-
performance level IO,LS and CP[2]. The concept 356
of Secant stiffness and viscous damping effect on
structure much noticeable here. Frame member 2.3 Frame Rotation Capacity
capacity performance consideration are
considered here, total rotation capacity comes
from yield rotation and plastic rotation together.
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𝐻𝑖
For n ≤ 4 𝛿𝑖 = (6)
𝐻𝑛
4 𝐻𝑖 𝐻𝑖
For 𝑛 > 4 𝛿𝑖 = . . (1 − ) (7)
3 𝐻𝑛 4𝐻𝑛
∆𝑐
∆𝑖 = 𝛿𝑖 . (8)
𝛿𝑐
Fig.1. Allowable Design Target Displacement and here ∆𝑐 is critical displacement which is found
ref.3 at critical point of structure.
𝜃𝑑 = 𝜃𝑦𝐹 + 𝜃𝑝 (2) 4 VISCOUS DAMPING AND DUCTILITY OF

SYSTEM
3 METHODOLOGY
Damping (𝜉) of structure we got from combination
First stage design we choose our structural of total damping and the structural response by
member dimensions as per gravity load design correlating with ductility (𝜇) demand. In
and hence check that design is safe or not. mathematical terms we can say ductility of
structure is ratio between yield displacement (∆𝑦 )
SDOF Representation and design displacement (∆𝑑 ). So we got
Our model structure is MDOF, approach of DDBD
∆𝑦 = 𝜃𝑌𝐹 𝐻𝑒 (9)
based on single degree of freedom structure so
we need to convert it, for that some assumption 𝜇 =∆d/∆y (10)
are made with structure. 1 − 𝜇 −0.5
𝜉 = 5 + 120( )% (11)
𝜋
5 TIME PERIOD & SHEAR
Fig2: SDOF representation ref.1

Here F is lateral force which is produce by under
earth quake motion in real structure, 𝑚𝑒 is
equivalent mass of structure, 𝐻𝑒 effective mass of Fig.3. Displacement And Period Relation
structure. These design parameter can be found Respect To Damping Of System ref.3
some pre-defined equation which was develop by Here from fig:11 we have a graph, we know our
M.J.N Pristley. design displacement and damping so from these
∑𝑚𝑖 ∆𝑖 we got our effective time period (𝑇𝑒 ) which bring
𝑚𝑒 = (3) our design methods next step.
∆𝑑
Stiffness (𝐾𝑒 ) is our most important parameter,
∑𝑚𝑖 ∆𝑖 ℎ𝑖 because it has the direct relation with strength. By
𝐻𝑒 = (4)
∑𝑚𝑖 ∆𝑖 determine the stiffness we have clear about
These two parameter help us to find next design capacity of member.
parameter which is call ‘Design Displacement’ it 𝑚𝑒
can be found
𝐾𝑒 = 4𝜋 2 (12)
𝑇𝑒 2
∑𝑚𝑖 ∆𝑖 2 Here from eq(13) we determine base shear and
∆𝑑 = (5) eq(14) the force distribution at each floor level.
∑𝑚𝑖 ∆𝑖
Δi is the displacement at each floor 𝑉𝑏 = 𝐾𝑒 ∆𝑑 (13)
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∆ 𝑖 𝑚𝑖 (14) Table.1. list of ground motion

𝐹𝑖 = 𝑉𝑏 Artificial
∑∆𝑖 𝑚𝑖
Ground GM1 GM2 GM3 GM4 GM5
Motion
Lom
6 DDBD APPLY IN T-SHAPE STRUCTURE Record
Centr
Kobe Whitte a Koccace
o
No 1995 r 1987 Priet li
1940
a
Duration
40 48 40 40 28
(S)
6.2 DDBD Design Parameter
Our all calculated enlisted design parameter has

been here we calculate, these are all design
parameter in difference performance maximum
performance point.
Table.2. Design parameter

Target drift IO LS CP
Fig.4.T-Shape G+9 Layout
Ѳd
1.2 1.5 1.7
(%)
6.1 Member Properties
Δd
0.202 0.252 0.286
(M)
6.1.1 Sectional Properties Me 1063 1063 1063
He
SLAB 140 MM 20.3 20.3 20.3
(m)
BEAM 250 MM X 400 MM
µ 1 1.24 1.41
COLUMN 250 MM X 400 MM
ξeff 5 8.9 11
6.1.2 Material Properties
Te 1.6 2.5 3
Concrete grade M 20 Ke
Rebar grade Fe 415 1639 675 469
(KN/M)
Strain of Rebar 0.002
Vb
331 170 134
(KN)
6.1.3 Rotation Capacity
6.3 Justification of Proposed Method
From the eq. 1 we got yielding rotation capacity of
our structure which is 0.01, from FEMA 356 we Methods of ddbd only satisfy when we have beam
got plastic rotation so total max rotation for each sway mechanism, soft story or column sway are
floor level are, not considerable. We take 5 types of ground
motion which detail are given in 6.1.5 section,
Performance Level Rotation
Immediate Occupancy 0.012
12
Life Safety 0.015
10 IO
Collapse Prevention 0.017
LS
8
CP
6.1.4 MASS 6 GM1
4 GM2
n storey 120 TON
GM3
(n-1) storey 130 TON 2 GM4
0 GM5
6.1.5 Ground Motion Detail 0 1 2
These are 5 different types of ground motion Fig.5.IDR under ground motion
which can be artificially applying structure through
NTH method help of Sap2000. Under this artificial
ground motion we notice the IDR of structure and Here we got max IDR is 1.6% which means our
plat and compare with it target displacement. g+9 T-shape building lie in IO LS performance
level in Centro 1940. So all building are satisfy
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under LS level if we need to justify it on IO or LS FEMA-356, in Prestandard and Commentary for

level we can decrease beam depth which in the Seismic Rehabilitation of Buildings. US
increase the capacity of rotation. Federal Emergency Management Agency,
For top floor we add 10% extra base shear which 2000.
make our structure more believable. SAP2000 v.19.1 Nonlinear, Educational Version
The design spectrum we consider from IS1893- (Computer and Structures Inc,2017).
2002 at acceleration 0.45 and soil type medium. M. Aschheim, Seismic design based on the yield
Most cement concrete given data are given help displacement. Earthq.Spectra 18(4), 581-600
of IS456-2000 code in pre-designing of model. (2002).
T.J.Sullivan M.J.N. Priestley, G.M. Calvi, in
Seismic Design of Frame-Wall Structures.
35 Research Report No. ROSE-2006/02, 2006.
HEIGHT OF BUILDING (M)
30 M.J.N. Priestley, in Myths and Fallacies in

Earthquake Engineering. Bull.NZ. Natl. Soc.
25 Earthq. Eng. 26(3), 329-341 ((1993).
20 IO J. Browning, in satisfying Performance Criteria for
of Existing Concrete Buildings. Applied
15 LS Geochronology Council, 1996.
10 CP Q. Xue, A direct displacement-based seismic
design procedure of inelastic structures. Eng.
5 Struct . 23(2001), 1453-1460 (2001).
0
0 50 100
FORCE (KN)
FIG.6.Height Vs Force Curve
7 CONCLUSION
The method of DDBD mainly proposed here to do

a justification of design and analyse an 10TH
storey building. the method is not satisfy or justify
100% of Indian standard code in its drift limit or
serviceability criteria. The approach approved by
UBC other some country like American, Euro
mostly justify its drift limits. From this ddbd
method we conclude that is easily possible to
design a structure under various performance
levels which is give us clear design capacity and
increase the efficiency of analysis. Under that we
notice member ductility behavior which is increase
proportionally with displacement and decrease the
base shear. By ddbd we can design buildings
under different performance level easily as per our
design requirement.
REFERENCE
M.J.N. Priestley, G.M. Calvi, M.J. Kowalaski,

Displacement-Based Seismic Design of
Structure.
J. Didier Pettinga, M.J. Nigel Priestley, Dynamic
Behaviour of Reinforced Concrete Frames
Designed with Direct Displacement-Based
Design, European school for Advance
Studiesin Reduction of Seismic Risk
Research Report No. ROSE-2005/02.
S.Choudhory, S.M.Singh (2013), A Unified
Approach to Performance-Based Design of
RC Frame Buildings, J. Inst. Eng. India Ser,
94(2):73–82.
355
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
STUDY ON MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR OF THE CEMENT MORTAR
CONTAINING EGGSHELL AND SEASHELL AS A REPLACEMENT
MATERIAL
ICID2018_D_043
MURALI RAM KUMAR S M1, Dr. VIJAYAPRABHA C2

1. PG student, 2. Assistant professor,
Alagappa Chettiar Government College of Engineering and Technology, Karaikudi, Tamilnadu, India
ABSTRACT
The main objective of this investigation is to study and compare the mechanical behaviour of cement mortar sam ples
containing crushed eggshell as a partial replacement for sand and grounded seashell as a partial replacement for
cement and combination of both eggshell and seashell as a partial replacement for sand and cement. In these
cement mortar samples, 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% by mass of sand was replaced by crushed egg shells and 2%, 4%,
6% and 8% by mass of cement was replaced by grounded seashell. The results showed that the addition of seashell
of 2% by mass of cement increased the compressive strength of cement mortar when compared to conventional
cement mortar sample. For the cement mortar samples using eggshell as a partial replacement for sand leads to
decrease in compressive strength of the cement mortar sample due to the lack of bonding between the ceme nt
mortar paste and eggshell. But the addition of eggshell results in decrease of self weight of cement mortar when
compared to ordinary cement mortar. For the cement mortar samples contains the combination of both eggshell and
seashell with the optimum 2% results in increase of compressive strength compared to cement mortar sample
containing eggshell as a partial replacement for sand.
Keywords: Crushed Eggshell; Grounded seashell; Cement mortar; Compressive strength
1. INTRODUCTION 2. MATERIALS
Waste of any kind in the environment when its 2.1 Cement

concentration is in excess can become a critical
factor for humans, animals and vegetation. The Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) 53 grade
utilization of the waste is a priority today in order to cement was used for all mortar mixtures. The
achieve sustainable development. Nowadays, chemical composition of the crushed eggshell is
Indians are generating waste products at a rather shown in Table 1.
alarming rate. As a way to reuse the waste, the
waste product such as oil palm shell, fly ash and Table 1. Chemical composition of cement
bottom ash are being used in construction
industries as an additional material or replacement Components %
of the material in the concrete to decrease the cost
while reducing the amount of waste. The Lime ( CaO ) 60 – 63 %
construction industries are searching for the
Silica ( SiO2 ) 17 – 25 %
alternative product that can increase their profit and
in the same time can be an environmentally friendly Alumina ( Al2O3 ) 03 – 08 %
material. Chicken's egg and Seashell is one of the
waste materials that contribute lot to the 2.2 Sand
environmental problem. The major benefit of egg
shell is its ability to replace certain amount of fine Ennore standard sand passing through 4.75mm
aggregate and still able to display fine aggregate sieve was used for all mortar mixtures (Figure
property, thus reducing the weight of concrete, 1).
where seashell can be used as a replacement for
cement to a certain amount because of its
cementitious properties. The use of such by
products in concrete construction not only prevents
these products from being land-filled but also
enhances the properties of concrete in the fresh
and hardened states. Crushed Eggshell obtained
by crushing the shells using the crusher has been
established to be good partial replacement for fine
aggregate and the powdered seashell can be used
as a good replacement material for cement.
Figure 1. Ennore Sand
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2.3 Eggshell Table 3. Chemical composition of seashell
In this investigation, eggshells collected from Components %

bakeries and fast-food restaurant are used. The
crushed eggshell passing through 1.18mm and Calcium Oxide 95.7
retained on 600μ were used for all mortar mixtures Silicon dioxide 1.60
(Figure 2).
Aluminum oxide 0.92
Magnesium oxide 1.43
Sodium oxide 0.08
Potassium oxide 0.06
Water 0.31
3. SAMPLE PREPARATION
3.1 Preparation of cement mortar

Figure 2. Crushed Eggshell Powder In the preparation of cement mortar cubes, cement
conforming with IS 3535-1986, standard Ennore
The chemical composition of the crushed eggshell sand conforming to IS: 650-196, Eggshells and
is shown in Table 2. Seashells were used. The practical work is done
based on the “BS EN 1015: Methods of test for
Table 2. Chemical composition of eggshell mortar for masonry”, the formula there in has been
used to calculate manually. Initially the mix is made
Components % by taking the regular quantity of cement and sand
which is of CM mix ratio 1:3 for a 7.1cm x 7.1cm x
Calcium carbonate 95
7.1cm cube. The quantity of cement and sand
Magnesium 0.8 taken are 200 g and 600 g respectively with water
cement ratio as 0.5 which is 100 g by weight of
Calcium Phosphate 0.8 cement. The cement is of OPC 53 grade and the
Organic Materials 3.4 sand is of the size passes through 4.75mm sieve
and retains on 2.36mm is used.
3.2 Preparation of cement mortar containing

2.4 Seashell seashell
In this investigation, seashells collected from In the preparation of cement mortar sample
nearby seafood shop. The shells are cleaned and containing seashell, cement conforming to BS EN
dried properly. The cleaned seashells are then 1015, sand and seashell were used. The sample
crushed into powder by using Los Angles Machine names, mixing ratios and the materials used are
(Figure 3). given in Table 4. While preparing the sample
mortars, 2%, 4%, 6% and 8% [5] by mass of
cement was replaced by powder seashell. The
materials are weighted accurately and mixed
properly, and then compacted by using the
vibrating machine for 2 minutes. The 3 no’s of
samples were allowed to set for a day, after which
the samples were taken and kept in the curing tank
for the period of 7 days and 28 days. After the 7
days and 28 days of curing, samples were taken
from the curing tank and dried. Next the cube
sample is tested for its compressive strength by
using the CTM of 200 ton and their corresponding
values were noted.
Figure 3. Seashell powder The mix proportion of cement mortar containing

seashell is shown in Table 4.
The chemical composition of the powdered
seashell is shown in Table 3.
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Table 4.Mix proportion of cement mortar containing mortars, 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% [2] by mass of
seashell sand was replaced by crushed eggshells and the
optimum 2% by mass of cement as discussed in
Samples
Cement(g) Sand(g) Seashell(g) result. The materials are weighted accurately and
Name mixed properly, and then compacted by using the
M 200 600 - vibrating machine for 2 minutes. The 3 no’s of
MS1 196 600 4 (2%) samples were allowed to set for a day, after which
MS2 192 600 8 (4%) the samples were taken and kept in the curing tank
for the period of 7 days and 28 days. After the 7
MS3 188 600 12 (6%)
MS4 184 600 16 (8%)
sample is tested for its compressive strength by
3.3 Preparation of cement mortar containing using the CTM of 200 ton and their corresponding
eggshell values are noted.
In the preparation of cement mortar sample Table 6.Mix proportion of cement mortar containing
containing seashell, cement conforming to BS EN seashell and eggshell
1015, standard sand and eggshell were used. The
sample names, the mixing ratios and the materials Samples Cement Sand Seashell Eggshell
used are given in table 5. While preparing the Name (g) (g) (g) (g)
sample mortars, 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% [2] by
mass of sand was replaced by crushed eggshells. M 200 600 - -
The materials are weighted accurately and mixed
MES 1 196 570 4 (2%) 30 (10%)
properly, and then compacted by using the
vibrating machine for 2 minutes. The 3 no’s of MES 2 196 540 8 (4%) 60 (10%)
samples were allowed to set for a day, after which
the samples were taken and kept in the curing tank MES 3 196 510 12 (6%) 90 (15%)
for the period of 7 days and 28 days. After the 7 MES 4 196 480 16 (8%) 120(20%)
sample is tested for its compressive strength by 3.5 Compressive strength of cement mortar
using the CTM of 200 ton and their corresponding
values were noted. Compressive strength of cement mortar samples
were determined according to IS 4031-Part 7
Table 5.Mix proportion of cement mortar containing (1988). The compressive strength of the cement
eggshell mortar sample was tested by means of using the
Compression Testing Machine (CTM) of 200 ton.
Samples Cement Sand Eggshell The 28 days compressive strength of cement
Name (g) (g) (g)
mortar samples are shown in the following graphs,
M 200 600 -
ME1 200 570 30 (10%)
ME2 200 540 60 (10%)
ME3 200 510 90 (15%)

ME4 200 480 120 (20%)
3.4 Preparation of cement mortar containing

eggshell and seashell
For comparing the result between the cement

mortars containing eggshell alone with the cement
mortars containing both eggshell and seashell, the
cement mortar samples containing both eggshell
and seashell were casted. In the preparation of Graph 1. Compressive strength of cement mortar
cement mortar containing both eggshell and containing seashell
seashell, cement conforming to BS EN 1015, sand,
seashell and eggshell were used. The sample
names, the mixing ratios and the materials used
are given in table 6.While preparing the sample
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day compressive strength of cement mortar sample

containing eggshell is shown in Table 8,
Table 8.Compressive strength of cement mortar

containing eggshell
Average Compressive
Samples
Ultimate Load Strength
Name
(kN) (N /mm2)
M 277.10 54.97
ME1 244.84 48.57
ME2 228.41 45.31
Graph 2. Compressive strength of cement mortar ME3 213.23 42.3
containing eggshell ME4 194.08 38.5
From the Graph.3, it can be inferred that the

compressive strength of cement mortar containing
both eggshell and seashell is high when compared
to cement mortar containing eggshell alone. The
28-day compressive strength of cement mortar
sample containing eggshell and seashell is shown
in Table 9,
Table 9. Compressive strength of cement mortar

containing eggshell and seashell
Average Compressive
Samples
Name
Graph 3.Compressive strength of cement mortar (kN) (N /mm2)
containing eggshell and seashell M 277.10 54.97
MES1 255.33 50.65
4 DISCUSSION
MES2 235.62 46.74
From the Graph 1, it shows that the mortar mix MES3 221.35 43.91
containing seashell as a 2% replacement by mass of MES4 202.65 40.2
cement gives more compressive strength when
compared to that of ordinary cement mortar mix. So it
can be concluded that seashell of 2% by mass of 4.1 Comparison of compressive strength of cement
cement can be used as an optimum percentage. mortar with and without seashell
Even so, after 28 days, the increment in strength was
quite significant for the seashell mortar. The 28-day The graph which shows the comparison between
compressive strength of cement mortar sample the cement mortar with and without seashell is
containing seashell is shown in Table 7, shown in Graph.4,
Table 7.Compressive strength of cement mortar

Compressive strength (N/mm2 )
60
containing Seashell
Average Compressive 55
Samples
Name 50
(kN) (N /mm2)
45
M 277.10 54.97
40
MS1 302.91 60.09
35
MS2 281.79 55.9
30
MS3 264.65 52.5 5% 10% 15% 20%
MS4 246.25 48.85 Mortar Samples
Mortar + E.S Mortar + E.S + S.S (2%)
From the Graph 2, it shows that increase in
percentage of eggshell results in decrease in Graph 4.Comparison between the cement mortar
compressive strength of cement mortar. The 28- with and without seashell
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From the above graph, it shows that the cement 6 REFERENCES

mortar contains both eggshell and seashell had
higher or increased compressive strength when [1] IS: 12269 (1987) Specification for 53 grade
compared to cement mortar sample containing ordinary Portland cement.
eggshell alone. [2] Hanifi Binic, Orhan Aksogan, Ahmet H.
Sevinc, Erdi Cinpolat, Mechanical and
4.2 Comparison of weight of ordinary cement radioactivity shielding performances of mortars
mortar with the cement mortar containing made with cement, sand and egg shells
eggshell [3] Sivakumar M, Mahendran N, Strength and
permeability properties of concrete using fly
805 ash, rise husk ash and egg shell powder.
[4] Batayneh M, Marie I, Asi I. Use of selected
Weight of Mortar cube (g)
800
waste materials in concrete mixes. Waste
795 Manage 2007;27:1870–6.
790 [5] Monita Oliviaa, Annisa Arifandita Mifshellaa,
785 Lita Darmayantia, Mechanical properties of
780 seashell concrete.
[6] E.I. Yang, S.T. Yi, Y.M. Leem, Effect of
775
oyster shell substituted for fine aggregate on
770 concrete characteristics.
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% [7] Nakano, T., N.I. Ikama and L. Ozimek,
2003. Chemical composition of eggshell and
% of Eggshell Added
shell membranes.
Graph5.Comparison of weight of ordinary [8] B. Safi, M. Saidi, A. Daoui, A. Bellal, A.
cement mortar with the cement mortar Mechekak, K. Toumi, The use of seashells as a
containing eggshell fine aggregate (by sand substition) in
selfcompacting mortar (SCM), Construction
From the above graph we can concluded that Building Material.
the increase in percentage of eggshell results in [9] Ministry of Marine and Fisheries. Statistical
decrease in self weight of cement mortar. Hence of Marine and Fisheries, Ministry of Marine and
the eggshell can be used as partial replacement Fisheries.
of sand in the place where the light weight [10] H. Cuadrado-Rica, N. Sebaibi, M. Boutouil,
cement mortar with permissible compressive B. Boudart, Properties of ordinary concretes
strength is required. incorporating crushed queen scallop shells,
Materials and Structures.
5 CONCLUSION [11] MacNeil, J., 1997. Separation and
utilization of waste eggshell. International egg
Thus the addition of seashell as a partial commission annual biochemical data on blood
replacement of cement results in increase of production and marketing conference.
compressive strength, when compared to the [12] Burley, R.W. and V. Vadehra, 1989. The
conventional cement mortar sample. The eggshell and shell membranes: Properties and
addition of eggshell as a partial replacement of synthesis. In: The avian egg chemistry and
sand results in decrease in compressive biology.
strength of cement mortar. But the advantage of [13] Okonkwo, U. Odiong, I. and Akpabio, E,
using eggshell was that, the increase in “The effects of eggshell ash on strength
percentage of eggshell results in the decrease properties of cement-stabilized lateritic”
in self weight of cement mortar. Also, the [14] N.H. Othman, B.H.A. Bakar, M.M. Don,
chemical composition of eggshell have a M.A.M. Johari, Cockle shell ash replacement
property to resist the radioactivity to the certain for cement and filler in concrete, Malaysian
extent, hence it can be used for radiotherapy Journal of Civil Engineering 25(2013).
rooms, nuclear reactors and in the buildings [15] Gidley S.J, Sack A.W.(1984) .
where the radioactive materials are used. The "Environmental aspects of waste utilization in
decrease in compressive strength of cement construction", ASCE-Journal of Environmental
mortar containing eggshell was increased by Engineering.
means of using seashell as partial replacement [16] King’ori A.M. (2011). "A Review of the
for cement for an optimum percentage of 2%. In Uses of Poultry Eggshells and Shell
future, the cement mortar containing eggshell Membranes", International Journal of Poultry
can be used for paver blocks and for Science.
radioactivity resisting bricks.
360
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
APPLICABILITY OF NET ZERO ENERGY BUILDING (NZEB) CONCEPT IN
THE RESIDENTIAL SECTOR IN INDIA
ICID2018_D_044
Ar. Prajakta Dalal-Kulkarni1, Dr. Vasudha Gokhale2,

1, 2, Dr. BhanubenNanavati College of Architecture, Pune, Maharashtra, India
ABSTRACT
Building sector uses about 40% of global energy and is one of the major contributors of GHG emissions. Considering
long life span of buildings, it was realised worldwide that incremental improvements in energy efficiency will not help
to solve the climate change issue; this initiated emergence of new building concept of NZEBs. The Indian building
sector consists predominately of the residential sector, which accounts for up to 24% of the total energy
consumption. Currently, Indian residential sector is not covered by any energy related regulation which is a matter of
concern. Most of the residential building stock that will be there in 2030 is yet to come-up in the country need to
address the issue of energy saving. Considering the severity of the issue it is found that energy saving measures
currently taken in Indian residential sector are not capable to attain sustainability targets. It has become imperative to
take more advanced and efficient measures like aim for NZEBs for future construction. This paper aimed to put
forward the importance of NZEB concept in the residential sector to achieve energy and emission savings, which can
finally contribute to a larger goal of achieving climate change challenge taken up by India.
Keywords: NZEB, Climate Change, Energy Saving, GHG emissions
BACKGROUND
In 2015, 171 countries including India ratified

Paris agreement to combat global challenge of
Climate change. Keeping global temperature rise
well below 2 degrees Celsius was unanimously
decided as the main aim under the COP21.
(UNFCCC. Conference of the Parties (COP),
2015). The Importance of building sector in
reducing GHG emissions was recognised in
COP21 and it was realised that it is difficult to
achieve 2 degrees target without reducing GHG
emissions from the building sector. Global Alliance
Figure 1. NZEB targets set by various countries
for Buildings and Construction which was
(Source: Author- based on official govt. websites
launched in COP in Paris reported that, a below
and various reports)
2degrees path requires building sector to avoid at
least 50% of the projected growth in energy
consumption through mainstreaming of highly
energy-efficient, near-zero, net-zero energy and
energy-plus buildings in new construction by 2030
(GABC & Report, 2016).
NZEB buildings surpass high energy
performance buildings in terms of GHG reduction
and energy efficiency. As per the report of World
Business Council for Sustainable Development,
‘Buildings constructed now will probably still be
standing near the end of the century. Business-as-
usual, with incremental improvements, will miss
Figure 2. NZEB policy and objectives by various
the target. Thus we need a transformation of the countries (Source: Energy et al., 2014)
building sector towards zero net energy use’
(Wbcsd, 2009). Realising this, various countries
have set up targets to transform their building It can be observed from the above examples
sector to NZEB to help reduce GHG emissions. that most of the countries are targeting residential
Following are few examples of the countries sector first to become net zero; while others are
having NZEB targets, targeting all new buildings to be constructed as
NZEBs including residential buildings.
Though various countries from Europe,
America and Asia have already set up the targets
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to transform the building sector to NZEB its annual total energy consumption. (Ravi
maximum by 2030, the NZEB concept is that way Kapoor, 2011)
new to the developing country like India. (Institute,
2018)The govt. of India also showed interest in NZEB Status worldwide:
developing a long-term roadmap for NZEBs
through BEE-USAID ECO-III Project. The project Though total worldwide count of NZEB is still in
conceives the vision that, from 2030, all newly the single digit percentage of total buildings; a
constructed buildings in India must be large growth in NZEB can be seen as a result of
NZEBs.(Ravi Kapoor, 2011) Few NZEB pilot efforts made by developed nations for uptake of
projects are already built in India. All These pilot NZEBs in market conditions and policy
projects are mainly from commercial building interventions. In the last six years, nearly 700%
category, and ignorance from the residential increase in NZEBs in the commercial sector can
sector in the uptake of NZEB concept is seen. The be observed across US & Canada. Further, 72%
literature states that the residential sector in India of the existing NZEBs fall under three main
is growing at a very fast pace, and soon it will typologies: 1) education (36%); 2) offices (20%);
become the largest consumer of electricity in the and 3) multifamily (16%). Making residential
country.India will miss the opportunity of huge sector third most explored sector in the NZEB
energy and emission saving potential if this category. As per the New Buildings Institute’s
upcoming residential stock is not addressed with report currently in Us & Canada over 8,000
intense energy efficiency measures like housing units in 4,077 buildings and 741 projects
NZEB(Rawal & Shukla, 2014). are going for zero energy in the residential sector.
Out of these projects, 61% are multifamily
projects. As per the Builders of these Zero Energy
NZEB DEFINITION: Residential projects, “ZE residential projects have
been profitable, sustainable, and rewarding for
NZEBs are highly energy efficient buildings which their businesses and their customers.”(Institute,
over the year produce as much energy using 2018)
renewable energy technology as they consume.
NZEBs take “reduce and then produce” approach NZEB status in India:
i.e. first reducing the energy demand of the
building by designing it highly energy efficient and India has committed to reducingthe emissions
then meeting remaining energy demand through intensity of its GDP 33-35% by 2030 as compared
the renewable energy technology. (Marszal & to 2005 level in its INDCs submitted in
Heisenlberg, 2011)Torcellini, et al. (2006), defines International Paris Agreement on Climate Change.
NZEB as - “a residential or a commercial building To achieve this set target, the importance of
with greatly reduced energy needs through NZEB concept for the construction sector was
efficiency gains such that the balance of energy realised by GOI. Bureau of Energy efficiency
needs can be supplied with renewable (BEE) collaborated with USAID for a bilateral
technologies.” “Net” as a modifier indicates that project agreement to develop a long term road
the goal refers to a calculated result over a map for NZEBs development in India. The Energy
defined period for the balance between demand or Conservation and Commercialization (ECO)
consumption values and electricity fed into the project was implemented in three phases in which
grid. It certainly does not mean buildings without the NZEB concept was introduced in ECO III. The
any energy demand at all.(Voss, Musall, & vision set up by BEE-USAID ECOIII project is,
Lichtmeß, 2011) The National Renewable Energy after 2030, all newly constructed buildings in India
Laboratory (NREL) of the U.S. Department of must be NZEBs(Ravi Kapoor, 2011). Web portal
Energy has listed four definitions for ‘net-zero’ to promote and mainstream NZEBs in India was
based on the energy goals: Net Zero Site Energy, launched by The Ministry of Power and USAIDin
Net Zero Source Energy, Net Zero Energy Costs May 2016. NZEB demonstration projects have
and Net Zero Energy Emissions. (Pless & been built by both private and public sector
Torcellini, 2010) stakeholders to showcase the feasibility of
In India, the BEE’s ECO-III Project has NZEBs. Few examples of the built NZEBs
adopted Net Zero Site Energy definition. It defines available in India are, Indira ParyavaranBhawan,
NZEB as, “A Net Zero Energy Building (NZEB) is MoEF; CEPT Living lab- Ahmadabad,
defined as a highly energy efficient building which AkshayUrjaBhawan, HAREDA, Panchkula,
on annual basis consumes as much energy as it Haryana; Eco Commercial Building (ECB) Bayer
produces energy at the site using renewable Material Science Noida and Sun Carrier Omega
energy sources.” i.e., a building is said to be a NZEB at Bhopal(“Case Studies - NZEB,” n.d.).
NZEB, when building’s annual on-site energy Further, in the private sector, IGBC is planning to
generation through renewable sources is equal to
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launch a net zero energy certification by the end air-conditioners, and thus increase in appliances
of 2018. usage (Chunekar, Varshney, & Dixit, 2016).
As per one of the researches on overview of As per one of the reports on the Indian building
NZEB in India, NZEB niche in India is growing at a market, in future maximum growth will be
slow pace. It can be seen that the NZEB pilot observed in the residential sector of India followed
projects in India are mainly under Commercial by the commercial. (Chary Vedala et al., 2012). As
building category and residential building’s per CEU data, by 2050, 85% of floor space will be
participation in the uptake of NZEB is lacking. under the residential sector, while 15% will be
‘Spilt incentives’ is identified as the main reason under commercial sector. India's National
for the negligence of the residential sector to go Housing Bank (NHB) has estimated that because
for NZEB, as developers do not see any specific of government’s initiatives such as “Smart City
advantage to them to develop NZEB. The other mission” and “Housing for all by 2022”, real estate
hurdles in the uptake of residential NZEB are, sector in India will surpass US$ 150 Billion
perceived higher initial investment cost, lack of industry by 2020.The maximum growth in the
knowledge, technical knowhow and lack of residential sector will be experienced in urban
awareness (Jain, Hoppe, & Bressers, 2017). areas, asby 2050 India is expected to have 50%
urban population. The census data projects that
the urban residential household will increase by
RESIDENTIAL BUILDING SECTOR IN INDIA: ~2 folds from 2014 to 2032.; and in this duration
GROWTH & ENERGY USE due to the scarcity of land and cost in urban areas
the share of high rise residential buildings will
India is experiencing tremendous growth in the increase by 5 timesto accommodate higher
construction sector. It is projected that around 700 population in lesser footprint (“India _ Statistics _
- 900 million sq.m. of commercial and residential EMPORIS,” n.d.)(NITI & Aayog, 2015).
space will be built every year in India, which is The above statistics show that the residential
similar to building two Mumbai’s every year. The sector is growing exponentially, not only building
energy consumption by both residential and footprint wise but also energy usage wise.
commercial sector combined will be around 2,000 Meeting this increasing energy demand of the
TWH by 2030, i.e. more than double the energy residential sector will be challenging in near future
consumption in 2012. As per the scenario analysis considering continuously widening gap between
produced by the Centre for Climate Change and electricity demand and supply, as being seen
Sustainable Energy Policy (3CSEP) of the Central currently in the country.
European University (CEU), by 2050, 700%
increase in the building energy consumption and
CO2 emission is estimated in India as compared RESIDENTIAL ENERGY CODES & GREEN
to 2005 levels. BUILDING RATING SYSTEMS IN INDIA:
Currently, Buildings account for up to 40% of
the total energy consumption in India. The Indian India has its national energy code called Energy
building sector consists predominately of the Conservation Building Code (ECBC) which is
residential sector, which accounts for up to 24% of currently voluntary. ECBC establishes minimum
the total energy consumption while the energy efficiency requirements for the commercial
commercial sector accounts for 9%. It is observed buildings.Residential buildings are not covered by
that though individually commercial building ECBC. For residential buildings guidelines for
consumes more energy when compared to a ‘energy efficient multi storey residential buildings’
residential building, the total built up area under are offered by BEE.
residential buildings is 7 times more than Residential buildings which intend to become
commercial. Hence electricity consumption of the ‘green’ can voluntarily apply for green building
residential sector is 3 times more than commercial rating systems. LEED, IGBC, and GRIHA are
(McKinsey & Company, 2009). As per NitiAayog’s three main green building rating systems available
report, in near future residential sector is expected in India. Green building rating systems help
to show 10 times growth in the energy reduce the energy consumption of the building
consumption making it largest electricity consumer compared to non-rated conventional buildings.
in the country with 39% share of the total These rating systems are voluntary for adoption.
electricity consumption (NITI & Aayog, 2015). This They help to make buildings ‘Green’ by
substantial growth in the energy consumption of addressing various areas such as building Design,
the residential sector can be credited to higher Water, Energy, Material, Indoor air quality etc.
disposable income, better access to electricity, And energy efficiency is only one of the
higher expected levels of comfort, better access to category.Apart from meeting a prerequisite for
the finance for purchasing home appliances like building energy efficiency, a building that is LEED,
IGBC or GRIHA certified does not have to meet a
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particular energy efficiency standard (although

buildings can receive more points if they become
more energy efficient). CONCLUSION:
Hence it can be observed that currently, the
residential sector in India is not covered by any The residential sector in India is growing at a very
energy code or energy efficiency regulation. fast pace, and soon it will become the largest
consumer of electricity in the country. Residential
sector has high energy saving potential which
IMPORTANCE OF NZE CONCEPT IN needs to be addressed. Current energy efficiency
RESIDENTIAL BUILDING SECTOR: measures for residential sector in terms of
guidelines and voluntary Green building rating
Most of the residential building stock that will be systems may not be enough to address increasing
there in 2030 is yet to come up in the country. With residential energy demand, challenge of energy
this growing build stock, the problems related to supply and climate change challenge targets
energy saving, energy security, and GHG emission perceived by India. NZEB can provide a
are going to increase. The buildings, unlike other cumulative solution to it and thus the approach
commodities, last for decades or even centuries. taken to build new residential building stock in
Thus for this upcoming residential build stock, if India needs to be zero energy approach. Though
energy efficiency measures are not incorporated at implementation of NZEB concept to the residential
the construction stage, then these buildings will sector has many practical challenges, its
keep on consuming a huge amount of energy importance in terms of India’s energy and
throughout their operational life. Retrofitting of environmental security cannot be denied.
these buildings can not be a good solution
economically(Rawal & Shukla, 2014). Hence,
urgent action needs to be taken to address this REFERENCES
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Sustainable Development’s (WBCSD) report, BAU, http://www.nzeb.in/case-studies/
with incremental improvements in energy efficiency Chary Vedala, S., Bilolikar, R. V, Kumar Parnandi
will not be sufficient to meet the target of keeping NRDC team, P., Khosla, R., Jaiswal, A.,
temperatures well below 2deg.C. (Wbcsd, 2009) Goldstein, D., & Deol, B. (2012). Constructing
This fact is emphasied by the research carried out Change: Accelerating Energy Efficiency in
regarding energy use projections by 2050 in the India’s Buildings Market, (October).
Indian residential sector using various energy Chunekar, A., Varshney, S., & Dixit, S. (2016).
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2014). Hence as one of the biggest electricity Institute, N. (2018). Getting to Zero Status Update
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and even energy supply side should be addressed https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eist.2016.11.004
i.e. usable energy in the building should come from Marszal, A. J., Heiselberg, P., Bourrelle, J. S.,
a clean source. NZEB can be a cohesive solution Musall, E., Voss, K., Sartori, I., & Napolitano,
to these problems. A. (2011). Zero Energy Building - A review of
NZEBs have the potential to provide long term definitions and calculation methodologies.
solutions to the challenging situation regarding Energy and Buildings, 43(4), 971–979.
future energy demand (NHB & KFW, 2014). This https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.12.022
upcoming residential stock has a huge potential to Marszal, A. J., & Heisenlberg, P. (2011). Life cycle
save energy & emissions and, the transformation of cost analysis of a multi-story residential Net
the residential building sector towards zero net Zero Energy Building in Denmark. Energy,
energy use will effectively provide a secured zero 46(9), 5600–5609. Retrieved from
energy future. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii
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/S0360544211004580
McKinsey & Company. (2009). Environmental and
Energy Sustainability: An Approach for India,
90. Retrieved from
http://www.mckinsey.com/client_service/sustai
nability/latest_thinking/greenhouse_gas_abate
ment_cost_curves
NHB, & KFW. (2014). National housing bank.
NITI, & Aayog. (2015). Niti aayog report.
Pless, S., & Torcellini, P. (2010). Net-Zero Energy
Buildings : A Classification System Based on
Renewable Energy Supply Options. Contract,
(June), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.2172/983417
Ravi Kapoor, A. D. and S. L. (2011). Strategy
Roadmap for Net Zero Energy Buildings in
India.
Rawal, R., & Shukla, Y. (2014). Residential
Buildings in India : Energy Use Projections and
Savings Potentials. Gbpn, 2030(September),
1193–1206.
UNEP. (2016). What the Paris Climate Agreement
means for the Building Sector Critical to
realizing global objectives: Combating Climate
Change Sustainable Development Housing
and Urbanization Disaster Risk Reduction.
Unep, (September). Retrieved from
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(2015). Paris Climate Change Conference-
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21932(December), 32.
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Voss, K., Musall, E., & Lichtmeß, M. (2011). From
Low-Energy to Net Zero-Energy Buildings:
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https://doi.org/10.1108/EUM0000000002227
365
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
FLOOD PROOF HOUSE: AN ALTERNATIVE APPROACH TO
CONVENTIONAL HOUSING TECHNOLOGY
ICID2018_D_046
Gautam Das1, Mousom Mrinmoy Kashyap2,Niranjan Konwer3, Atanu Kumar Dutta4

1,2,3 UG Student, 4-Associate Professor Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India
Email id mousommrinmoykashyap@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
This paper deals with the conceptualization, planning and design of a flood proof house for Assam(India)’s flood
plain. The main objective of the house is to replace the normally used building technology in highly flood prone areas
of Assam and to provide a safe, affordable and comfortable house which meets all the modern day requirements.
The planning of the house is done with an aim to harnessing the natural light and air. The structural design is done
for both afloat and aground condition considering the water current, stability for the former and seismicity for the later.
The house, mainly made of steel, will rest on steel hollow base which will serve the purpose of a hull when afloat.
The upper part of the house is made of steel, bamboo, wood and glass. Ansys 19.1® is used to analyze the fluid-
solid interaction in real time.
Keywords: Flood; Finite Element Method; Anchorage Pile; Hull; Steel Hollow Base
1 INTRODUCTION become endemic to the people of the region and

Assam is one of the most populated state in North will cause more deaths and other severe losses.
East India, mainly consists three major regions;
Brahmaputra Valley, Barak Valley, Dima Hasao &
Karbi Anglong (East & West) Hilly region. Among
these three major regions, Brahmaputra valley
covers the largest portion of the area. The flood
prone area of the state is 31500sq km as
assessed by Rastiya Barh Ayog [Ref.
http://assam.gov.in/web/department-of-water-
resource/flood-and-erosion-problem] which is
about 39.58 percent of total land area of Assam. Figure-2 Showing flood plain of River
Brahmaputra
This work attempts to address this problem using

an alternative approach of designing a Flood
Proof House which will serve the basic needs for
the whole year. One of the main objective in
design is to make the house affordable to the
weaker section of the society at the same time it
must fulfil the serviceability condition. Construction
materials are proposed to be FRP, steel, timber
and bamboo which will make the house low
Figure-1 Showing Flood Hazard areas of Assam costing.An anchorage system is proposed to
in the year of 2017 ensure safety of the structure during flood. The
Due to global warming the glaciers of Himalayan house is to be tested against possible high water-
mountain range melt excessively, which results current and wind during flood and possible
further increase in flood level of the Brahmaputra earthquake while this is aground.
plain year by year. Due to excessive melting of ice
the intensity of flood is more likely to increase in 2. PLANNING OF THE SUPER-STRUCTURE
coming years. Release of water from dams on While designing safety and serviceability
Brahmaputra riveris also a major reason requirements of the structure the primary
causingflood. consideration, the structure should also be green.
According to statistical report released by NDTV Planning of the superstructure needs proper
India [Ref. www.ndtv.com/india-news/12-lakh- knowledge of the geological, geographical and
affected-in-assam-floods-number-of-deaths-nears- environmental condition of the area where the
60-1725250], about 12 lakhs of people have been structure is to be constructed. By orienting the
affected by flood and 60 were dead in the year of structure in a proper way it is possible to harness
2017. If no measures have been taken than it will natural advantages such as light and air.Good
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orientation can increase the energy efficiency the

home, making it more comfortable to live in and
cheaper to run.
The proper orientation of the structure is achieved
by using Wind Rose diagram and Sun Diagram.
The Wind Rose diagram is used to find the
direction in which the wind intensity is maximum
and it is correlated with the Sun Diagram to plan
the house properly. The following Wind Rose
diagram of Jorhat Airport is constructed within the
time period 5th January 2017 to 28th August 2018
and it is shown below. Here it is found that the Figure-6Column and beam details
maximum intensity of air is found in North-
Eastern direction of the wind rose diagram. 3. DESIGN OF THE FLOATING BASE
After planning of the super-structure, the next step
is to design the base which is very important to
ensure the floating condition of the whole
structure. The depth of the base is calculated from
application of principle of buoyancy. According to
principle of buoyancy, the buoyant force of a
structure is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the structure. The floating base is
made using FRP which is constitute of 5mm PVC
foam sandwiched between fibreglass isophthalic
marine grade resin with UV self- pigmented
gelcoat (polyester pigment). FRP sheet is used to
cover the floating base. To connect the I-section
columns (ISLB 100) with the base, perforated
sheet plate in the lower base of the floating base
can provided. The columns are fixed with the steel
base using welding and bolting by providing angle
brackets. To strengthen the base plate, 2mm steel
Figure-3 Wind Rose diagram of Jorhat Airport tie plate perpendicular to the base plate is
from 5th January 2017 to 28th August 2018 provided by welding in grid pattern.
To cover the steel frame work, water proof FRP
Using Wind Rose diagram and The Sun diagram sheets described above is used. FRP sheets is
the plan of the house is proposed within an area provided below the perforated steel plate and
of 150 sq. m. sides forming a trapezoid of height 1m, bottom
base area 10×7 sq. m and top base area 15×10
sq. m. Only in the room of the upper base vinyl
flooring sheet is used to increase the floor friction
and thermal insulation.
Total Load of the structure is found as=
11570.95kg
Figure-4 3D View of the house from SW direction
Figure-7 Free body diagram of the base
Assume x be the depth of submerge of the base,

now from equilibrium of the base
or W − FB = 0
or x = 0.097m < 1𝑚, 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑘
For analysis of the strength of the plates used in
Figure-5 plan of the house the base ANSYS 19.1® is used. The analysed
results are given in the Table-1 below,
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(iii) 5 no. thick steel plate 5×5 m2=

1000Kg
Table 1. Calculation of loads of the structure (iv) 5 mm thick steel plate 3.6×5m2=
Solution Minimum Maximum Average 720kg
Information (v) Trapezoidal plate 5 pieces = 600kg
(vi) Rectangular plate 2 piece = 396 kg
Equivalent .89MPa 124.8Mpa 4.76Mpa (vii) Rectangular section 4 pieces = 560
stress kg
Total 0mm 14.06mm 2mm Total = 3907.6 kg
deformation Gross total=1.5 × 3907.6 kg= 5855.4
Elastic Strain 9.15x10-7 6.24x10-4 3.82x10-5 kg
Since maximum Stress develop is 124.81 Mpa Provided 50mm nominal bore steel tube in the
which less than f y (250 Mpa), hence base is safe roof truss. Now as per IS: 1239 (Part I)- 2004,
from failure. mass of the tube is 5.03 kg/m.
Mass of the single truss provided in the roof
= 8.83 × 5.03
= 44.4149 kg
Total mass of all the trusses= 44.415 × 3
= 133.245kg
Now total mass of the truss system= (6 × 3 ×
5.03) + 133.245
= 223.785kg
Mass of the frame structure and base of the
447.6
Figure- 8 Image of results in ANSYS 19.1® structure = 3903.6 − 2
= 3679.8kg
It is impossible to analysis of the whole structure Net total mass of the whole structure(W) =
in ANSYS 19.1® Student version because of the 3679.8 + 223.785
limitation in number of elements and nodes. So a = 3903.585kg
scaled down model is prepared to analysis in
ANSYS 19.1® Student version with base 5. CALCULATION OF ECCENTRICITY OF THE
dimension of 5m by 5m and plan dimension of 3m HOUSE DUE TO EARTHQUAKE LOADING
by 3m with single room. (SEISMIC LOADING)
As per IS: 1893-(Part-I)-2002 clause 6.4.2 the
Design Horizontal Seismic Coefficient (Ah ) is
calculated as,
ZISa 0.36 × 1
Ah = = × 2.5 = 0.09
2Rg 2×5
5.1Calculation of Design Seismic Base Shear-
As per IS: 1893- (Part-I)-2002 clause 7.5.3 the
Design Seismic Base Shear (VB ) is calculated as,
Qi = VB = 0.09 × 3903.585 = 351.322kg
Assume Qi is acted on the C.G. of the roof truss,
which provide maximum moment for lateral load.
Fig-9 Plan of scaled down house The height of the structure to the base from the
C.G. of the roof truss
1
̅ = 0.7 + 3 + × 0.866 = 3.989m
h
3
Now, moment due to lateral load is calculated as,
̅ = 351.322 × 3.989 = 1383.86 kg m
Mi = Qi h
5.2 Check for safety of the structure against

overturning effect due to seismic load
Fig- 10 Elevation of the scaled down house The eccentricity of the structure due to earthquake
moment (𝑀𝑖 ) is calculated as,
4. LOAD CALCULATION SCALED DOWN Mi
MODEL e=
W
= 354.51 mm
Calculation of weight of the scaled down model- Permissible limit of eccentricity is given as
(i) 4 no. of ISMB 200 = 447.6 kg l
(ii) 4 no. ISMB 150 = 180 kg = = emax
6
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Since the base length of the structure is(l) = Elastic x10-4 x10-8 x10-4
5m = 5000 mm Strain
Now, Equivalent 1.3089 2438.8P 1.5512x10
5000 Stress x108 Pa a 6
Pa
emax = = 833.33 mm
6 Directional -4.5994 -2.0634 -7.3161
Since e < emax , hence ok Deformatio x10-3 m x10-2 m x10-3 m
The structure is safe against seismic loading. n
9. CALCULATION OF INCLINATION OF THE

6. CALCULATION OF WIND LOAD BASE OF THE STRUCTURE
Calculation for designing wind speed as per IS Calculation of critical angle of friction for surface of
875: part 3, the plinth-
Design speed, Vz = k1 k2 k3 Vb The coefficient of static friction(μs) between
As per wind map of India, Vb =50 m/s for North wooden structures is ranges between 0.25 to 0.5.
Eastern region (Assam) The critical angle for resisting the sliding of the
structures (Furniture) is calculated below,
For design life, N =50 years and risk θ = tan−1 0.25 = 14.036°
level,PN=0.63, height of building =3.5m, the value If the structure pitching about outer edge, then
of k1,k2 and k3 are total base length is to be consider. The
k1= 1, k2 =1, k3 =1 (Considering plain area) permissible heave is calculated as below,
Now, θ = sin−1
x
= 14.036x = 121.27cm
Vz = 1 × 1 × 50 5 × 100
= 50m/s Hence maximum heave for rotation of the
Design wind pressure- structure about outer edge is 121.27 cm>2.6cm,
Pz = 0.6 × 502 = 1.5 kPa Hence ok.
7. CALCULATION OF METACENTRIC HEIGHT 10. DESIGN OF TENSION PILE AND

ANCHORAGE CABLES
For design of tension piles and anchorage cables
the soil parameters are to be calculated first.
Different soil parameters are given in the table
5given below. [Ref.- Geotechnical Properties of
the Bank Sediments along the Dhansiri River
Channel, Assam, Geological Society of India Vol
78, August 2011, pp. 175- 183].
Table 3. Bed soil parameters of the proposed site
Sample Bulk Unit Angle of
Location Unit Cohesion, internal
Weight, cu (N/cm2) friction,
Ɣ ϕu
(gm/cc)
Figure- 11 Calculation of metacentric height at a Barguriagaon 1.79 2.60 27o
particular section of the scaled down model Butalikhowa 1.87 2.20 36o
Iyy = 30.323 m4 Golaghat 1.54 1.05 30o
V = 12.8 m3 Dachmuagaon 1.53 2.00 28o
I
= 2.369 m Average 1.683 1.963 30.25o
V
(4.4 + 2 × 3.6) . 4 Calculation pressure due to river current-
yb = × = 0.193 Assume velocity of the river current (v) = 4m/sec
4.4 + 3.6 3
I For peak velocityvp = 2.5 × v = 2.5 ×= 10m/sec
GM = − (2.2 − 0.193) = 0.362m p = ρvp 2 = 100 kPa
V
8. CALCULATED DATA FROM FINITE ELEMENT Design of the anchorage cable-
ANALYSIS USING ANSYS 19.1® Projected area of the base= 3.01 m2
Table 2.Calculated data from Finite Element Total force on the base of the structure = 301kN.
Analysis using Ansys 19.1®
Parameter Maximu Minimum Average
s m
Total 2.693 0m 1.174
Deformatio x10-2 m x10-2m
n
Equivalent 7.8398 3.7561 1.0196
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Capacity of the pile in kN

Unlimate Load carrying
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
Figure- 12 Anchorage cables connected to the pile 0
cap 0 5 10 15
Provide 20mm diameter cables in the upstream
side as anchorage.
Downstream side cables are provided for Length of the Pile in m
preventing the overturning effect of the base due Figure- 13 Variation of total ultimate load carrying
to river current. capacity with length of the piles
Provided 12 mm diameter cables in the
downstream side as anchorage. 11. MOORING AND ANCHORAGE OF THE
The total uplift force on the cables is Q = BASE
425.678 kN P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 , P5 , P6 , P7 , P8 , P9 are position of the piles
Now factored uplift force is Qu = 1.5 × Q = 1.5 × and A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 , A5 , A6 , A7 , A8 , A9 , A10are the
425.678 = 638.517 kN position of the anchorage points shown in figure
For c-ϕ soil ultimate bearing capacity of bored and below. Cables at anchorage point A9 , A4 makes an
cast in-situ piles is calculated as; angle 90o with the side of the base, cables at
Ultimate skin friction, anchorage point A1 , A7 , A8 , A10 makes an angle
Qs = As [kσv tanδ + αcu ] 45o with the side of the base, cables at anchorage
For Tension piles, QP = 0 point A3 , A5 makes an angle 75o with the side of
Since the piles are made- up of concrete and ϕ= the base and cables at anchorage point A2 , A6
30.25o makes an angle 60o with the side of the base.
δ = 22.69°, k = 1.179
From the graph given by Tomlinson:1986
[Ref.“Analysis and Design of Substructure Limit
State Design” by Swami Saran, Page no- 355], α
is calculated from Lf/B ratio and cu
Table 4. No of piles required for different Length of
piles
Diameter Length Ultimate Load No of
of the of the Carrying piles
pile (D) Pile (Lf) Capacity of the required
in m in m Pile in kN (Qu)
0.5 4 206.194 4
0.5 5 283.654 3
0.5 6 371.479 2
0.5 7 469.669 2
0.5 8 578.223 2
0.5 9 697.143 1 Figure- 14 Mooring arrangement of the house
0.5 9.5 760.489 1
0.5 10 826.426 1 12. CONCLUSION
0.5 10.5 894.955 1
0.5 11 966.075 1 This work explored the possibility of designing
0.5 11.5 1039.786 1 a floating house for flood plans of Assam. If
0.5 12 1116.088 1 implemented in a mass scale this typology could
result in safe and affordable house for flood
plains. Use of other cost effective material and
technology can be further explored for reducing
the cost and finding the solution to the long
standing problem of Assam.
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13. REFERENCES
a. Saran Swami, 2006. Analysis and Design

of Substructures Limit State Design,
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b. Moitra Debashis, 2016. Geotechnical
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c. Singh Alam, 2014. Soil Engineering in
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d. Subramanian N., 2016. Design of Steel
Structures Limit State Method, Oxford,
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e. Duggal K. S., 2014. Limit State Design of
Steel Structures, Mc Graw Hill Education,
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f. Kotoky P., Dutta K. M., Goswami R. and
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h. IS 875: part 3- 2007.
i. IS: 1893- (Part-I)-2002
371
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
POTENTIAL USE OF GEOPOLYMER: A STATE OF THE ART
ICID2018_D_047
Sulaem Musaddiq Laskar1, Sudip Talukdar2

1Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Jorhat Engineering College, Assam, India
sulaem.laskar@gmail.com
2 Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, India
ABSTRACT
Geopolymer is an emerging sustainable supplementary cementitious material in construction industry. Till date,
numerous research works have been carried out to understand the behaviour of geopolymeric systems in terms of
workability, strength, durability, etc. This paper presents an overview of the studies on the behaviour of geopolymer
in fresh and hardened state. Emphasis is given on the studies related to bonding characteristics of geopolymer.
Studies on concrete repairing ability of geopolymer have also been included in this paper.
Keywords: flyash; ground granulated blast furnace slag; geopolymer; bond strength; retrofitting
1 INTRODUCTION Geopolymer mortar (GPM) and geopolymer

concrete (GPC) differ significantly from Portland
Geopolymer has found profound research cement (PC) based mortar (PCM) and concrete
attention in construction industry as sustainable (PCC), as it uses totally different reaction pathway
supplementary cementitious material. Initially in order to attain structural integrity. PCC depends
geopolymer was prepared from sources consisting on the presence of C-S-H for matrix formation and
of aluminium and silicon-containing compound strength whereas GPC utilizes raw materials with
which were of geological origin and undergo low calcium and high SiO2 and Al2O3 content such
polymerisation process in an alkaline medium. as FA, metakaolin (MK), etc or low Al 2O3 and high
Hence, it is termed as geopolymer, ‘geo’ relates to SiO2 and CaO content such as GGBS. These
soil and ‘polymer’ relates to the polymerisation when activated with alkali compounds in solution
process. However, in present day, the alumino- form such as sodium hydroxide (SH), sodium
silicate sources are primarily by-products from silicate (SS), potassium silicate (PS) and
industrial process like flyash (FA), ground potassium hydroxide (PH) form the alumino-
granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), silica fume silicate and/or calcium-silicate compound. Some
(SF), etc.Geopolymer is a chain of mineral secondary products are also formed in the
molecules formed by the process of an exothermic geopolymerisation process which improve the
reaction known as geopolymerisation. It is a properties of GPM and GPC.
complex process comprising of many steps such As geopolymer is prepared by by-products of
as dissolution, precipitation, restructuring and various industrial processes, its use in mortar and
polycondensation. These processes are largely concrete can reduce CO2 accumulation in the
coupled and occur concurrently. environment which is otherwise contributed during
Geopolymerisation binds together the naturally manufacture of PC used in PCC. It is reported that
occurring silica (SiO2) and alumina (Al2O3) and/or manufacturing of PC results in release of large
SiO2 and calcium oxide (CaO) to form an amount of CO2 of about 13,500 tons per year into
amorphous material with high structural strength. the Earth’s atmosphere. This accounts to 7% of
The process is activated with the help of an alkali the green-house gas emission annually. 1 ton of
component, which is a compound from the PC preparation releases about 1 ton of CO2 as
element of first group in the periodic table. This waste, which is a serious threat to the
alkali component in geopolymer is termed as alkali environment. Moreover, the utilization of these by-
activator. Under alkaline condition, polymerization products of industrial processes greatly cater the
takes place when reactive aluminosilicates are need to recycle and reuse of waste materials
rapidly dissolved and free [SiO4]‾ and [AlO4]‾ avoiding the trouble of their disposal in landfills at
tetrahedral units are released in solution. The suitable sites which leads to soil toxication and
tetrahedral units are alternately linked to each ground water contamination. Hence, the use of
other by sharing oxygen atoms, forming the these by-products in mortar and concrete
polymeric Si-O-Al-O bonds. However, in case of preparation eradicates the problem of disposal
GGBS based geopolymer, the end products and eventually minimize the environmental impact
consist of linear chain of calcium-silicate-hydrate caused by the industrial processes.
(C-S-H) and calcium-alumino-silicate-hydrate (C-
A-S-H) along with alumino-silicate-hydrate (A-S-
H).
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2 RESEARCH BACKGROUND was also suggested that alkaline solution

concentration higher than 10 M delayed formation
2.1 Fresh and Hardened State Properties of alkaline polymer and temperature increase
accelerated the alkaline activation process and
Long since, a number of studies were performed hence increased strength gain.
on the fresh and hardened state properties of Early strength gain of slag-based geopolymer
geopolymeric systems to find the feasibility of its mortar was also noted from tests performed by
practical application (Brough and Atkinson 2002, Binici et al. (2007). Pozzolanic activity increased
Pacheco-Torgal et al. 2008, Vargas et al. 2014, due to increases in binder fineness, which
Morsy et al. 2014, Gorhan and Kurklu 2014). Back contributed to early formation of reaction products
in the 19th century, Douglas and Brandstetr(1990) and thus led to early strength (Zhu et al. 2012).
prepared PCM and GPM to draw out the potential Brough and Atkinson (2002) developed slag
of geopolymer in replacing PC in concrete. GGBS based mortars which exhibited early strength
based GPM activated with Na2SiO3 along with development and attained high strength in the
addition of either PC, FA, silica fume (SF), lime or order of 80 MPa (cured at room temperature, 20
sodium sulphate (Na2SO4) or their combination ºC). At higher levels of GGBS in PC based mortar,
showed better 7-days and 28-days strength Barnett et al. (2006) observed that early age
compared to PCM. However, except Na2SO4 strength development is dependent on
added GPM, remaining all exhibited lower one temperature. Strength gain in PC-GGBS mortar
daystrength than PCM. Improvement of was investigated by performing laboratory
workability of GPM was attempted by using experiments on mortars prepared with varying
sodium lignosulphate and sulfonated naphthalene content of GGBS in the binder (0, 20, 35, 50 and
based superplasticizer but no success was 70%), w/b ratio and curing temperature (20, 30, 40
achieved. Douglas et al. (1991) preformed and 50 ⁰C). Results ascertained that higher
laboratory experiments on GGBS based GPC and temperature leads to high early strength
found that significant strength gain occurred at 7 regardless of GGBS content and w/b ratio.
days in mixes compared to 14, 28 and 91 days. However, the improvement in early strength is
Lime slurry and air entrainer which were added in more significant at higher levels of GGBS.
an attempt to act as retarder and to improve Chindraprasirt et al. (2012) investigated the effect
workability respectively, performed satisfactorily. of SiO2 and Al2O3 content on setting, phase
Law et al. (2012) hold that slag based geopolymer development and strength of high calcium based
exhibit strength that is comparable to that of PCC. geopolymer mixes. It was observed that
The durability properties of such concrete was SiO2/Al2O3 ratios in the range of 3.20 to 3.70
found to be lower. produced geopolymer mixes with high strengths
Collins and Sanjayan (1999) found that and delayed setting times. Moreover, at this
geopolymeric systems with finer binder exhibit SiO2/Al2O3ratio, strength was found to be higher
lower setting time and workability compared to than that with other SiO2/Al2O3ratios. Increase in
that prepared with the same binder of lower SiO2/Al2O3ratio decreased both rate of strength
fineness. Higher amounts of available particle development and compressive strength.
surface areas in the binder facilitated increased Results from laboratory experimental works on
pozzolanic activity for formation of reaction strength development of alkali activated slag
products instantaneously and reduced the setting mortars using alkali hydroxide (KOH or NaOH)
time. Again, a high particle surface area required and Na2SiO3, undertaken by Altan and Erdogan
higher amount of alkali solution for the reaction (2012) ascertained that the samples cured at 80
process, decreasing the available amount of ºC attained higher strength than other samples
solution for providing mobility to particles within that were cured at ambient temperature. Ambient
the mix (Zhu et al. 2012, Memon et al. 2013) and temperature cured samples were also able to
hence, reduced the mix’s workability. attain similar strength as that of 80 ºC temperature
Oner et al. (2003) brought to light that, cured samples but at later ages (beyond 60 days).
fineness of the binding agent of geopolymer mix KOH with Na2SiO3 activated samples exhibited
govern the desired strength achievement. Alonso higher strength than NaOH with Na2SiO3 activated
and Palomo(2001) added Ca(OH)2 to metakaolin samples at early ages. But later, the strength gain
based geopolymer mix in 30 and 50% of total mix decreased in KOH with Na2SiO3 activated
content. Each mix was activated with 10, 12, 15 samples. Increase in NaOH concentration
and 18 molar (M) NaOH solution. Activation increased the strength at all ages regardless of
process was carried out at 35, 45 and 65 ºC. curing temperature.
Results indicated involvement of three step Influence of combination of FA and on the
reaction in the geopolymerisation process viz: properties of granulated blast-furnace slag flyash
dissolution, induction period and massive concrete (GGFAC) and high-volume FA high-
precipitation for the formation of final product. It strength concrete (HFAC) was studied by Li and
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Zhao (2003). GGFAC was prepared by partial lignosulphonate admixture improved workability;
replacement of cement in PCC with 25% FA and however, it retarded strength development
15% GGBS while HFAC with 40% of FA. (Bakharev 2000).Rattanasak et al. (2011) added
Assessments of the concrete mixes were based various types of chemical admixtures to high-
on short and long-term performance of concrete calcium FA-based geopolymers to overcome the
and included compressive strength and resistance problems of rapid setting time and low workability.
to sulphate (H2SO4) attack observation. The In the investigation of setting time of GGBS based
results showed that the GGFAC had higher early geopolymer by Rao and Rao (2015), addition of
strength compared to HFAC, similar strength FA contributed towards retarding the setting times.
development as of PCC. GGFAC also showed
better resistance to H2SO4 attack as the strength 2.2 Bonding Properties
degradation rate of GGFAC was lowest among all.
Tsai et al. (2014) attempted to prepare a new type Many researchers drew attention towards bonding
of blended cementitious material using GGBS and properties of geopolymer mixes. Phoo-
ground granulated basic oxygen furnace slag ngernkham(2015) arrived at satisfactory bond
(GGBOS). It was observed that higher dosage of strength by addition of PC to FA based
GGBS increased setting time, while higher usage geopolymer mortars. Higher alkali concentration
of GGBOS decreases setting time. Rate of contributed to superior bond strength in the mixes.
strength gain in all the GGBS and GGBOS mortar Wenzhong and Jing (2013) observed that
samples was observed to be low. At 28 days, the increase in exposure temperature reduced the
samples could attain compressive strength as low bond strength of GGBS based geopolymer mixes.
as 50% of that of similar PCM samples. However, However, it can maintain relatively stable strength
significant strength development occurred post 28 even at high temperatures of order 800 ºC.
days. Atis et al. (2015) reported that FA based Beyond this temperature, the strength deteriorate.
GPM cured at temperature of order 45 ºC can Sarker(2011) compared bond performances
attain strength even after 72 hours of curing between OPCC and FA based GPC. Better
irrespective of the concentration of the alkali bonding capacity with rebars was exhibited by
activator. High temperature curing of order 115 ⁰C GPC.
contribute to high strengths. For low alkali Khan et al. (2015) prepared FA based
concentration samples, increase in curing geopolymer mixes activated using NaOH
temperature increases the strength but upto a solutions. The adhesion strength test revealed
certain temperature point, beyond which, that 3 days of curing at 60 ⁰C was adequate for
temperature increase decreases the strength. It developing the strength. Samples cured beyond 3
was also observed that two beneficial curing days till 7, 28 and 180 days showed negligible
combination existed viz: low temperature curing variation in the adhesion strength. Mixes with very
for longer duration and high temperature curing for high and low setting times showed weaker
shorter duration. Work on rheological properties of adhesion compared to the others. On exposing to
FA based GPC was performed by Laskar and high temperature of order 800 ⁰C, the geopolymer
Bhattacharjee (2013). It was found that plasticizer mixes exhibited only 12% of mass loss due to
and superplasticizer dosage had adverse effect on dehydration and dehydroxylation. The alkali
the rheological properties of GPC when the alkali concentration did not show any effect on the
activator concentration was higher than 4 M. thermal stability of geopolymer systems. In the
Attempt of developing an economic binder was attempt to modify the repair interfacial transition
also made by Gailius and Laurikietyte (2012) by zone by introducing FA into a primer between
mixing of GGBS with waste paper sludge ash concrete substrate and repair materials, Xiong et
(WSA). The results indicated the feasibility of al. (1881) found that FA modified primer made the
combining WSA and GGBS (a waste product and microstructure of the repaired interface zone more
a byproduct respectively) to produce a binder dense and uniform. As a result, the splitting bond
without incorporating PC. WSA-GGBS concrete strength of the interface coated with the FA-
gained most strength between 1-7 days. modified primer was significantly higher than
Several types of chemical and mineral those coated with the other kinds of conventionally
admixtures were tried by researchers to modify used primers.
the properties of geopolymer mixes in their fresh Hu et al. (2008) developed metakaolin based
state. Douglas and Brandstetr(1991) observed geopolymeric binders to use as repair material. It
that addition of very high amount of sulfonated was observed that geopolymeric repair materials
naphthalene (SN)-based superplasticizer (SP) possessed better repair characteristics than PC
improved the workability of slag-based based materials. Irrespective of curing ages,
geopolymer, but the strength reduced compared geopolymeric repair materials exhibited higher
to the strength of geopolymer containing no SP. strength and better abrasion resistance compared
Some researchers found that addition of a to PC based materials. Geopolymeric repair
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materials even possessed better transition zone 2.3 Bonding Properties in Repair
bonding than PC based materials. The specimen
description and modes of failure in the bond test is Of late, large number of techniques have been
given in Fig. 1. Mode A was basically exhibited by employed for rehabilitation and retrofitting of
PC based repair material while Modes B and C concrete structures. This include, strengthening by
were exhibited by geopolymeric repair materials fibre reinforced polymer (FRP), cement grouting,
for different curing ages. Addition of steel slag concrete jacketing, steel plate jacketing, etc.
enhanced the mechanical properties of Strengthening by fibre reinforced polymer being
geopolymeric repair materials. Investigation on the the most used (2012) where FRP is attached to
mechanical properties of ambient temperature the concrete surface using epoxy adhesive
cured blended and unblended FA and slag based (1997). however, Gamage et al. (2006) and Aguiar
GPC was carried out by Manjunatha et al. (2014). et al. (2008) recommended such epoxy adhesive
GPC consisting of only slag exhibited superior used for bonding not to be exposed at
performance among others including conventional temperatures above 70 ⁰C, in order to maintain is
PCC. Increase in slag content in the mixes integrity and avoid debonding, etc. Hence, in such
progressively increased the strength and case geopolymers can be used as an alternative
improved bonding. for FRP bonding as both rehabilitation and
strengthening material in concrete.
Effectiveness of geopolymer mortar for
bonding FRP for retrofitting of structures was
investigated by Vasconcelos et al. (2011).
Metakaolin (MK) geopolymer mortar was used as
both repairing layer and binding agent for
adhesion of carbon fibre reinforced polymer
(CFRP) sheets with concrete. It was concluded
that the geopolymer mortars can be cost effective
Figure 1. Failure modes of specimens in bond rehabilitation material in concrete, which show
strength test, Hu et al. 2008. satisfactory result. But its adhesion strength with
CFRP was found to be lower than as expected
Ultra-fine slag based geopolymer concrete which might be due to the fact that CFRP used
developed by Laskar and Talukdar (2017) showed was not prone to such kind of application or the
appreciable bond strength with rebar and PCC. composition of geopolymer mortars was not
Bond strength of the slag based geopolymer appropriate for such use. Investigation on the
concrete at 3 days was about 65% of that at 28 adhesive behaviour at interface of geopolymer
days. Addition of admixtures (FA, SP) at certain and cement mortar under compression was also
quantity level further improved the bond strength attempted by Ueng et al. (2012). To fulfill the
of the concrete. Relationship between purpose, failure modes, deformational moduli and
compressive and bond strength was also strength parameters of cement mortar,
observed from the results. In specimens with low geopolymer, their interface and the composite
bond strength the failure surface was along the specimen were studied. Experimental results
interface of the GPC and PCC as the bond indicated that, the apparent friction angle of the
between the GPC and PCC interface was weaker interface was close to that of the geopolymer and
than the bond within the GPC or PCC matrix. On was much higher than that of cement mortar. The
the other hand, the failure surface for GPC with interface adhesion was about 34–43% as strong
higher bond strength was not only along the as the cohesions of the two components. Certain
interface of the GPC and PCC but also within the comprehensive failure envelope were obtained for
GPC and PCC matrix (Fig. 2). the specimen that were recommended to be used
to predict the failure mode and strength under
various stresses when geopolymer is used as an
adhesive material for repairing concrete defects.
Zanotti et al. (2017) prepared and tested MK
based geopolymer for using as repair mortar.
Significant strength was achieved by curing the
specimens at elevated temperature. Addition of
polyvinyl alcohol fibers to the geopolymer
improved its cohesion with the substrate. MK
based geopolymer was also employed for
Figure 2. Slant shear test specimens with failure preparing PCC pavement repair mortar. The 3
plane along GPC-PCC interface, Laskar and days strength of MK based GPM was found to be
Talukdar 2017. as high as 80% of its 28 days strength. It also
outperformed the other commercial materials
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available for concrete repairing Alanazi et al. be used for repairing of deteriorated concrete
(2016). Duan et al. (2016) prepared novel structural elements. Such attempt can help to
concrete repairing agent using MK based develop cost effective geopolymer based concrete
geopolymer. It possessed properties such as repairing agent.
water resistance, fast setting, hydrophobic
surface, high compressive and bond strength.
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curing regime and PVA fiber reinforcement.
Cement and Concrete Composites. 2017; 80: 307-
316.
Alanazi H., Yang M., Zhang D., and Gao Z. Bond
strength of PCC pavement repairs using
metakaolin-based geopolymer mortar. Cement
and Concrete Composites. 2016; 65: 75-82.
Duan P. , Yan C., and Luo W. A novel waterproof,
fast setting and high early strength repair
material derived from metakaolin geopolymer.
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Laskar S.M., and Talukdar S. Development of
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378
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
IN-PLANE FREE VIBRATION AND WAVE PROPAGATION OF
COMPOSITE CURVED BEAM USING SPECTRAL ELEMENT METHOD
ICID2018_D_048
Baharul Hussain1, Prof. Manoranjan Barik2
1. Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Jorhat Engineering College, Assam, India
2.Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Orisha, India
ABSTRACT
For vibration problems with higher modes of vibrations, the dynamic stiffness matrices for elements can be formed by
using the frequency dependent shape functions. The shape functions in the frequency domain can be derived using
frequency dependent solutions for the exact governing differential equations. These dynamic stiffness matrices for
the elements are assembled like FEM to form the global Dynamic Stiffness Matrix. The great advantage of such a
method is that even higher frequencies of a structure can be obtained by considering only a few elements thus
minimising the computational cost.
Keywords: Composite Curved beam, Dynamic Stiffness Matrix, Spectral Element Method (SEM), Finite Element
Methods, Natural Frequency
1. INTRODUCTION behaviour of laminated shallow arch. As vertical

deflection, shear deformation, rotary inertia are
In today’s world of digital computation, the coupled, HYSD theory was used to study the free
researchers are trying to develop new methods and forced vibration of the arch. Tseng (Tseng et
which are more accurate and has less al. 2000) used the dynamic stiffness analysis
computational cost. Though finite element method method to study in-plane vibration of laminated
(FEM) has been considered as one of the most curved beams with variable curvature. Shear
competent numerical tool to analyse the dynamics deformation and rotary inertia were considered.
of a structure, it is limited to lower frequency wave The arch was decomposed into many segments
modes. In FEM to capture higher modes of and for each element a series solution was
frequencies, structures need to be modelled with formulated in terms of polynomials. The
very large number of elements. This increases the coefficients of which are related through
computational cost. Hence other efficient methods recurrence formulas. As a result, in order to obtain
needed to be developed. an accurate solution, there was no need of lot of
The exact relationships between the deflections terms in Taylor expansion series for the variable
and stress resultants of Timoshenko curved coefficients in the governing equations.
beams and Euler-Bernoulli curved beams were Maur and Kant (Maur et al. 2008) used a higher
presented by Lim et al. (Lim et al. 1997). These order refined model with seven degrees of
relationships are applicable for any normally freedom per node for free vibrational analysis of
loaded curved beam with any boundary composite and sandwich arched beams. The
conditions. Davis et al. (Davis et al.1972) used stress-strain relationship was derived from an
exact differential equations to present constant orthotropic lamina in a three-dimensional state of
curvature beam finite elements for in-plane stress. They also studied the frequency spectra of
vibrations. They concluded that for a thin beam the higher order model for laminated arches.
frequencies rapidly converge to the equivalent Along with basic spectra corresponding to axial,
exact frequencies if shear deformation and rotary flexural and shear, presence of higher-order
inertia are not allowed. Large errors in frequency spectra was discussed.Lu and Lu (Lu and
will be obtained when for a curved beam the Lu,2008) did exact analysis on the in-plane
wavelength of vibration is of the same order as the vibration of simply supported laminated circular
radial thickness of the beam. Issa (Issa, 1988) arch. To expand all the variables, the method of
considered a circular Timoshenko curved beam separation of variables was used. The state space
element on Winkler type foundation and method was used to derive first order differential
analytically derived its dynamic stiffness matrix equations. Jun et.al. (Jun et al.2008) used the
and determined the natural frequencies. Qatu dynamic stiffness method to studythe vibrational
(Qatu, 1992) developed the fundamental characteristics of the laminated composite shallow
equations for laminated composite beams of circular arches. The exact dynamic stiffness
shallow curvature neglecting shear deformation matrix was formulated from the governing
and rotary inertia. He studied effects of curvature, differentialequations of motion of the laminated
lamination and orthotropic ratio on natural circular arches, based on second-order
frequency. Khdeir and Reddy (Khdeir and Reddy, sheardeformation theory. They compared the
1997) developed a model for the dynamic effect of curvature, sequence of lamina, thickness
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ICID 2018
ratio and end conditions over natural frequencies 2.1 The Equations of Motion
with the availableliterature.Malekzadeh
(Malekzadeh,2009) did the static analysis of The three governing equations of motion for in-
circular arches with different endconditions. The plane free vibration of a composite beam can be
method consists of a layer wise technique in the written as (Nanda et al.2015)
thicknessdirection in conjunction with differential / 𝑄
𝐼11 𝑢̈ 𝑜 + 𝐼22 𝜓̈𝑜 − 𝑁𝜃 − 𝑅𝜃 + 𝜂1 𝑢̇ 𝑜 = 0 [1]
quadrature method (DQM) in the axial direction. / 𝑁
He studied the effects of different opening angles, 𝐼11 𝑤̈𝑜 − 𝑄𝜃 + 𝑅𝜃 + 𝜂2 𝑤̇𝑜 − 𝐹2 = 0[2]
lamination scheme,end conditions, and thickness- /
𝐼22 𝑢̈ 𝑜 + 𝐼33 𝜓̈𝑜 − 𝑀 + 𝑄𝜃 = 0[3]
𝜃
to-length ratio on the stress and
displacementcomponents of the circular arch. The Where 𝑢0 , 𝜔0 and 𝜓𝑜 denote the tangential, the
effects of transverse shear deformation,rotary radial and the rotational displacements of the mid
inertia and torsional rotary inertia were studied for surface respectively and𝜂1 and𝜂2denote the
a thin circular beamelement by Kim et al. (Kim et viscous damping constants associated with the
al.2009).Park and Lee (Park and Lee, 2012) tangential and radial velocity components
presented a spectral element model for the respectively. 𝐹2 is the normal traction on the
dynamic analysisof two layered smart composite beam. ‘ ̇ ’ denotes differentiation with respect to
beams using axial-bending coupled equations of
motion. Ojah (Ojha,2015) used spectral element time t, ‘ ́ ’denotes the differentiation with respect
method to find the free vibrational behaviour of to the length 𝑠(= 𝑅𝜃). The inertiaelements are
curved beam considering in-plane and out of [18]
𝑧 𝑧
plane vibration. Rajasekaran (Rajasekaran,2014) 𝜌𝐴𝑒𝑞 = 𝐼11 = ∑𝐿𝐾=1 ∫𝑧 𝑘 (1 + 𝑅) 𝑏𝜌 [4]
𝑘−1
derived the shape functions for nodal variables of 𝑧
𝜌𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝐼22 = ∑𝐿𝐾=1 ∫𝑧 𝑘 (1 + 𝑅)𝑏𝜌𝑧 [5]
𝑧
a curved beam with non-uniform cross-section by 𝑘−1
𝑧𝑘 𝑧
differential transformation method. Nanda et al. 𝜌𝐼𝑒𝑞 = 𝐼33 = ∑𝐿𝐾=1 ∫𝑧 (1 + 𝑅)𝑏𝜌 𝑧 2 [6]
𝑘−1
(Nanda et al.2014) used spectral element method Where, 𝜌𝐴𝑒𝑞 denotes the apparent mass of the
to study wave propagation in composite and laminated beam, 𝜌𝑅𝑒𝑞 denotes the apparent first
sandwich beams. An efficient layer wise theory order mass moment of inertia about an axis
was used for evaluation of governing equations. perpendicular to the depth of the beam and 𝜌𝐼𝑒𝑞
Nanda and Kapuria (Nanda et al. 2015) compared
denotes second moment of inertia about the same
the wave propagation behaviour of laminated
axis mentioned above.
composite curved beams for FSDT and CLT
The stress resultant and the displacement
methods. Spectral finite element method was
relations are
used to find the solutions to the governing / 𝐴 𝑤 /
differential equations. 𝑁𝜃 (𝑠, 𝑡) = 𝐴11 𝑢𝑜 + 11𝑅 𝑜 + 𝐴13 𝜓𝑜 [7]
/ 𝐴13 𝑤𝑜 /
𝑀𝜃 (𝑠, 𝑡) = 𝐴13 𝑢𝑜 + + 𝐴22 𝜓𝑜 [8]𝑄𝜃 (𝑠, 𝑡) =
2. SPECTRAL ELEMENT MODEL FOR 𝐴33 𝑢𝑜 /
𝑅
COMPOSITE CIRCULAR CURVED BEAM − + 𝐴33 𝑤𝑜 + 𝐴33 𝜓𝑜 [9]

𝑅
In Figure 1 (Nanda et al.2015) a L-layered where 𝐴𝑖𝑗 are the beam stiffness coefficients
composite circular curved beam is considered defined by
having thickness h, width b and radius R of the
middle surface. The mid-surface (z = 0) is 𝐴11 = ∑𝐿𝐾=1 ∫𝑧 𝑘 𝑄11
𝑧
𝑘 (1
/ + 𝑅)
𝑧
considered as the reference surface. The z- 𝑘−1
coordinate of the top of the 𝑘 𝑡ℎ layernumbered [10]

𝑧 𝑧
from the bottom is denoted as 𝑧𝑘 , and its material 𝐴13 = ∑𝐿𝐾=1 ∫𝑧 𝑘 𝑧𝑄11
𝑘 (1
/ + )
𝑘−1 𝑅
symmetry direction makes an angle𝛼 to the [11]
circumferential axis 𝜃. 𝑧
𝐴22 = ∑𝐿𝐾=1 ∫𝑧 𝑘 𝑧 2 𝑄11
𝑘 (1 𝑧
/ + )
𝑘−1 𝑅
[12]
𝑧 𝑘 𝑧
𝐴33 = ∑𝐿𝐾=1 ∫𝑧 𝑘 𝑘𝑠 𝑄55 / (1 + )
𝑘−1 𝑅
[13]
The constant 𝑘𝑠 is the shear correction factor,

which is taken as 𝜋 2 ⁄12 (Nanda et al.2015).
𝑄11and 𝑄55 are stiffness coefficients. Now putting
the values of Eqs.(7), (8) and (9) into Eqs.(1), (2)
Figure1: Composite Curved Beam and (3), then removing the viscous damping
constants𝜂1 , 𝜂2and traction force 𝐹2 gives us
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ICID 2018
/
// 𝐴11 𝑤𝑜 // 𝐴33 𝑢𝑜
𝐼11 𝑢̈ 𝑜 + 𝐼22 𝜓̈𝑜 − 𝐴11 𝑢𝑜 − 𝑅2
− 𝐴13 𝜓𝑜 + 𝑅2
− Using MATLAB command polyeig the values of
/
𝐴33 𝑤𝑜
−
𝐴33 𝜓𝑜
=0 [14] wave number 𝑘𝑝 (𝑝 = 1, 2, … 6)and Eigen vectors
𝑅 𝑅
/ / for each mode of vibration can be evaluated. From
𝐴33 𝑢𝑜 // / 𝐴11 𝑢𝑜 𝐴11 𝑤𝑜
𝐼11 𝑤̈𝑜 + − 𝐴33 𝑤𝑜 − 𝐴33 𝜓𝑜 + + + Eigen vectors we can find out values of 𝛼𝑝 (𝑝 =
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅2
/
𝐴13 𝜓𝑜 1, 2, … 6)and 𝛽𝑝 (𝑝 = 1, 2, … 6)for each value of
𝑅
=0 [15] wave numbers 𝑘𝑝 (𝑝 = 1, 2, … 6). By using six
/
// 𝐴 𝑤 // 𝐴 𝑢
𝐼22 𝑢̈ 𝑜 + 𝐼33 𝜓̈𝑜 − 𝐴13 𝑢𝑜 − 13 𝑜 − 𝐴22𝜓𝑜 − 33 𝑜 + wavenumbers, we can write the general solution
/
𝑅 𝑅
to Eqs.(18), (19) and (20) as
𝐴33 𝑤𝑜 + 𝐴33 𝜓𝑜 = 0 [16]
𝑢(𝑠) = ∑6𝑝=1 𝑎𝑝 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑝𝑠
[26]
2.2 Spectral Element Modelling
𝑤(𝑠) = ∑6𝑝=1 𝛼𝑝 𝑎𝑝 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑝𝑠
The displacement fields are assumed in the [27]
spectral forms to be ψ(s) = ∑6p=1 βp a p e−ikps
[28]
𝑢𝑜 (𝑠, 𝑡) 𝑢𝑛 (𝑠, 𝜔𝑛 )
1
[𝑤𝑜 (𝑠, 𝑡)] = ∑𝑁−1 [𝑤 𝑛 (𝑠, 𝜔𝑛 )] 𝑒
𝑖𝜔𝑛 𝑡
[17] The Eqs.(26),(27) and (28) can be expressed a
𝑁 𝑛=0
𝜓𝑜 (𝑠, 𝑡) 𝜓𝑛 (𝑠, 𝜔𝑛 )
Substituting Eqs.(17) into the governing Eqs.(14), 𝑢(𝑠) = 𝑒(𝑠, 𝜔)𝑎 [29]
(15) and (16) gives the frequency domain 𝑤(𝑠) = 𝑒(𝑠, 𝜔)𝐴(𝜔)𝑎
equations of motion. [30]𝜓(𝑠) = 𝑒(𝑠, 𝜔)𝐵(𝜔)𝑎 [31]
𝐴11 𝑤/
𝐼11 𝜔2 𝑢 + 𝐼22 𝜔2 𝜓 + 𝐴11 𝑢// + + 𝐴13 𝜓 // − Where
𝑅
𝐴33 𝑢 𝐴33 𝑤 / 𝐴33 𝜓 𝑒(𝑠, 𝜔)
+ + =0
𝑅2 𝑅 𝑅 = [𝑒 −𝑖𝑘1𝑠 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘2𝑠 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘3𝑠 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘4𝑠 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘5𝑠 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘6𝑠 ]
[18] 𝐴(𝜔) = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔[𝛼𝑝 (𝜔)]
𝐴33 𝑢 / 𝐴11 𝑢 / 𝐴11 𝑤
𝐼11 𝜔2 𝑤 − 𝑅
+ 𝐴33 𝑤 // + 𝐴33 𝜓 / − 𝑅
− 𝑅2
− 𝐵(𝜔) = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔[𝛽𝑝 (𝜔)] ; 𝑝 = 1,2, … . .6
𝐴13 𝜓 /
=0 [19] [32]𝑎 = {𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎4 𝑎5 𝑎6 }𝑇
𝑅
𝐴13 𝑤 /
𝐼22 𝜔2 𝑢 + 𝐼33 𝜔2 𝜓 + 𝐴13 𝑢// + + 𝐴22 𝜓 // + The degrees of freedoms at the two ends may be
𝑅
𝐴33 𝑢 / written as
− 𝐴33 𝑤 − 𝐴33 𝜓 = 0[20] 𝑢(0)
𝑅 𝑢1
𝑤1 𝑤(0)
Assuming the general solution of the Eqs (18), 𝜓 𝜓(0)
(19) and (20) to be 𝑑 = 𝑢1 = [33]
2 𝑢(𝑠)
𝑤2 𝑤(𝑠)
𝑢(𝑠) = 𝑎𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑠 [21] {𝜓2 } { 𝜓(𝑠)}
𝑤(𝑠) = 𝛼𝑎𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑠 [22]
Substituting Eqs (29),(30) and (31) into Eq.(33) we
ψ(s) = βae−iks [23] get
𝑑 = 𝐻(𝜔)𝑎 [34]
we can generate the following matrix form the Where
Eqs.(18), (19) and (20) 𝑒(0, 𝜔)
𝑋11 𝑋12 𝑋13 1 𝑒(0, 𝜔)𝐴(𝜔)
0
[24] 𝑒(0, 𝜔)𝐵(𝜔)
[𝑋21 𝑋22 𝑋23 ] {𝛼} = {0} 𝐻(𝜔) = [35]
𝑋31 𝑋32 𝑋33 𝛽 0 𝑒(𝑠, 𝜔)
𝑒(𝑠, 𝜔)𝐴(𝜔)
Where, {𝑒(𝑠, 𝜔)𝐵(𝜔)}
The forces at the two ends may be written as
𝑋11 = 𝑅2 𝜔2 𝐼11 − 𝑘 2 𝑅2 𝐴11 − 𝐴33 −𝑁1 𝑁𝜃 (0)
𝑋12 = −ⅈ𝑘𝑅𝐴11 − ⅈ𝑘𝑅𝐴33 −𝑄1 𝑄𝜃 (0)
𝑋13 = 𝑅2 𝜔2 𝐼22 − 𝑘 2 𝑅2 𝐴13 + 𝑅𝐴33 −𝑀1 𝑀𝜃 (0)
𝐹𝑐 = = [36]
𝑋21 = ⅈ𝑘𝑅𝐴11 + ⅈ𝑘𝑅𝐴33 𝑁2 𝑁𝜃 (𝑠)
𝑋22 = 𝑅2 𝜔2 𝐼11 − 𝐴11 − 𝑘 2 𝑅2 𝐴33 [25] 𝑄2 𝑄𝜃 (𝑠)
𝑋23 = ⅈ𝑘𝑅𝐴13 − ⅈ𝑘𝑅2 𝐴33 { 𝑀2 } { 𝑀𝜃 (𝑠)}
𝑋31 = 𝑅𝜔2 𝐼22 − 𝑘 2 𝑅𝐴13 + 𝐴33 Or
𝑋32 = −ⅈ𝑘𝐴13 + ⅈ𝑘𝑅𝐴33 𝐹𝑐 = 𝑆𝑐 𝐺 𝑎 [37]
𝑋33 = 𝑅𝜔2 𝐼33 − 𝑘 2 𝑅𝐴22 − 𝑅𝐴33
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ICID 2018
𝑆𝑐 = [
−𝑆 0
] [38] Table1: Comparisons of non-dimensional
0 𝑆 frequencies ωn of a two-layer (90/0) circular beam
𝐺= with clamped-clamped boundary condition.
1 1 1 1 1 1
PDRF(Raveendrana Exact
𝛼1 𝛼2 𝛼3 𝛼4 𝛼5 𝛼6 𝛼 (rad Presen
th et al.2000) (Qatu,199
𝛽1 𝛽2 𝛽3 𝛽4 𝛽5 𝛽6 ) t
𝛾1 𝛾2 𝛾3 𝛾4 𝛾5 𝛾6 3)
𝛼1 𝛾1 𝛼2 𝛾2 𝛼3 𝛾3 𝛼4 𝛾4 𝛼5 𝛾5 𝛼6 𝛾6 0.01 10.86 10.86 10.86
𝛽1 𝛾1 𝛽2 𝛾2 𝛽3 𝛾3 𝛽4 𝛾4 𝛽5 𝛾5 𝛽6 𝛾6 0.05 14.93 14.95 14.94
𝑒1 𝑒2 𝑒3 𝑒4 𝑒5 𝑒6
0.1 23.25 23.33 23.26
𝛼1 𝑒1 𝛼2 𝑒2 𝛼3 𝑒3 𝛼4 𝑒4 𝛼5 𝑒5 𝛼6 𝑒6
𝛽1 𝑒1 𝛽2 𝑒2 𝛽3 𝑒3 𝛽4 𝑒4 𝛽5 𝑒5 𝛽6 𝑒6 0.2 29.21 29.52 29.31
𝛾1 𝑒1 𝛾2 𝑒2 𝛾3 𝑒3 𝛾4 𝑒4 𝛾5 𝑒5 𝛾6 𝑒6 0.3 29.14 29.47 29.23
𝛼1 𝛾1 𝑒1 𝛼2 𝛾2 𝑒2 𝛼3 𝛾3 𝑒3 𝛼4 𝛾4 𝑒4 𝛼5 𝛾5 𝑒5 𝛼6 𝛾6 𝑒6 0.4 29.04 29.39 29.13
[𝛽1 𝛾1 𝑒1 𝛽2 𝛾2 𝑒2 𝛽3 𝛾3 𝑒3 𝛽4 𝛾4 𝑒4 𝛽5 𝛾5 𝑒5 𝛽6 𝛾6 𝑒6 ] 0.5 28.91 29.3 29.01
0.8 28.41 28.86 28.51
Where𝑒𝑝 = −𝑖𝑘𝑝 (𝑝 = 1,2 … .6) [39]
1 27.98 28.46 28.07
0 𝐴11⁄𝑅 0 𝐴11 0 𝐴13
2 24.84 25.44 24.93
𝑆 = [− 𝐴33⁄𝑅 0 𝐴33 0 𝐴33 0 ] [40]
π 20.37 20.94 20.44
0 𝐴13⁄𝑅 0 𝐴13 0 𝐴22
3.2. Circular Composite Curved Beam with
Different Boundary Conditions
Substituting Eq(34) into the Eq (37) eliminating 𝑎,
gives us The beam is modelled using two spectral
𝐹𝑐 = 𝑆𝑐 𝐺 𝐻 −1 𝑑 [41] elements with the interior node placed
Or symmetrically. The natural frequencies are
𝐹𝑐 = 𝐾𝑑 [42] computed by obtaining the frequency response
𝐾 = 𝑆𝑐 𝐺 𝐻 −1 [43] function, and locating its peaks. A circular cross-
Where 𝐾 denotes dynamic stiffness matrix of the ply composite (90/0) beam where the stacking
beam.The stiffness matrix is a function of sequence is from bottom to top. The subtended
frequency. To find the natural frequency we need angle 𝛼 = 1 rad is considered. The material
to find the determinant of the dynamic stiffness properties of the composite are taken as [4]𝐺12 =
matrix and equate it to zero. The frequencies for 𝐺13 = 𝐺23 = 0.5𝐸2,𝜌 = 1580 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3with two values
which the determinant of the stiffness matrix is 𝐸
equal to zero is taken as one of its natural of orthotropic ratio 𝐸1 = 1 and 40. The value of
2
frequencies. 𝐸1is taken as√𝐸1⁄𝜌 = 1000. The results for the
first four non-dimensional frequencies 𝜔 ̅𝑛 (=
3. NUMERICAL RESULTS
𝜔𝑛 𝑙 √12𝜌⁄𝐸1 ℎ ) are presented in Table 2 for
2 2
thickness ratios ℎ/𝑅 = 0.1, 0.2 and 0.25 for

The natural frequency of the in-plane vibration of
the circular curved beam with uniform cross- different boundary conditions.The stiffness
coefficients of one lamina which are obtained from
section under different boundary conditions are
the Young’s moduli 𝐸𝑖 , shear moduli 𝐺𝑖𝑗 and
computed using SEM.
Poisson's ratio 𝜗𝑖𝑗 as
3.1.Circular Composite Curved Beam with 𝑄11 = 1⁄𝑠̅11 , 𝑄55 = 1⁄𝑠̅55 , 𝑐 = cos(𝛼) , 𝑠 = sⅈn( 𝛼)
Clamped Boundary Condition and Varying 𝑠̅11 = 𝑐 4 𝑠11 + 𝑐 2 𝑠 2 (2𝑠12 + 𝑠66 ) + 𝑠 4 𝑠22
Subtended Angles 𝑠̅55 = 𝑠 2 𝑠44 + 𝑐 2 𝑠55
𝑠11 = 1⁄𝐸1 , 𝑠22 = 1⁄𝐸2 , 𝑠12 = −𝜗⁄𝐸12
Material properties of composite are taken as
(Qatu,1992)Laminated scheme [90/0],
𝐸1
= Table2: Comparisons of non-dimensional
𝑘𝑔
𝐸2 frequencies ω n of a two-layer (90/0) circular beam
15,𝐺12 = 𝐺13 = 𝐺23 = 0.6𝐸2 , 𝜌 = 1 𝑚3 , 𝜗12 = 𝜗21 = with different boundary condition.
0.25, 𝑙⁄ℎ = 100. 𝑙 is the arc length. The lamination 𝐸1 Mode1 Mode 2
ℎ/𝑅 B.C
scheme used is [0/90]. The value of 𝐸1is taken as 𝐸2 P Ref P Ref
[6]√𝐸1⁄𝜌 = 1000. The results for the first non- SS 8.355 8.355 36.137 36.153
dimensional frequencies 𝜔 ̅𝑛 (= 𝜔𝑛 𝑙2 √12𝜌⁄𝐸1 ℎ2 ) CS 12.731 42.542
0.1
is presented in Table 1 for different subtended CC 35.171 52.481
angles 𝛼 (𝑙/𝑅)in radian. 1 CF 3.585 18.96
SS 8.086 8.088 32.124 32.124
0.2 CS 11.587 29.124
CC 23.304 40.738
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CF 3.507 16.680 [0/90/0] 17.527 17.536

SS 7.906 7.909 29.938 29.969 [0/90]2/0 15.948 15.959
CS 10.912 29.873 [0/90]4/0 14.666 14.677
0.25
CC 20.597 35.561
CF 3.471 15.360
SS 3.079 3.081 11.951 11.964
CS 4.417 13.177
0.1
CC 14.707 19.096
CF 3.471 6.339
SS 2.590 2.594 8.374 8.399
CS 3.221 8.492
40 0.2
CC 8.824 10.632
CF 1.273 4.417
SS 2.363 2.366 7.162 7.182
CS 2.763 7.142 Figure 2: Variation of fundamental non-
0.25
CC 7.290 8.680 dimensional frequency over numbers of layers for
CF 1.206 3.777 symmetric and antisymmetric composite
B.C- Boundary Condition, P- Present, Ref- It is clear from the Table 3, that non-dimensional
Reference natural frequency increases with increase in
number of lamina for antisymmetric type of
3.3. Effect of Geometry and Stacking Sequence stacking sequence, or it can be concluded that for
antisymmetric type of stacking sequence with
To find the effect of stacking sequence and increase in number of lamina bending rigidity
geometry on the natural frequency of the curved increases. Whereas for symmetric type of stacking
beam, the non-dimensional natural frequency sequence having 0𝑜 fibre orientation for the mid-
̅𝑛 (= 𝜔𝑛 𝑙 √12𝜌⁄𝐸1 ℎ ) is calculated using 𝐸 =
𝜔 2 2 𝐸1
layer, bending resistance decreases with increase
𝑘𝑔
2 in number of lamina. The relationship of increased
40,𝐺12 = 𝐺13 = 𝐺23 = 0.6𝐸2 , 𝜌 = 1 𝑚3 , 𝜗12 = 𝜗21 = stacking sequence can be shown in the Fig. 2.
0.25, 𝛼 = 0.2 𝑟𝑎𝑑. For different stacking The bending resistance increases for symmetric
sequence, the variation of non-dimensional stacking sequence having 90o as the fibre
natural frequency is shown in Table 3. orientation for the mid layer.
Table3: Comparisons of non-dimensional 4. CONCLUSION

frequencies ωn ofdifferent layeredcircular
composite curved beam A circular composite curved beam which is
𝑙⁄ℎ Stacking Present Exact [9] modelled with spectral element method is
[0/90] 5.893 5.714 presented. In view of the results obtained we can
[0/90]2 7.919 7.354 conclude that the natural frequencies obtained by
[0/90]5 8.244 8.022 SEM are found to have good agreement with
5 exact method as well as results found in other
[0/90/0] 9.295 9.137
[0/90]2/0 9.030 8.982 literature.
[0/90]4/0 8.773 8.743 Non-dimensional natural frequency increases with
[0/90] 6.796 6.782 increase in numbers of lamina for antisymmetric
[0/90]2 10.236 9.933 type of stacking. Non-dimensional natural
frequency decreases with increase in numbers of
[0/90]5 10.911 10.791
10 lamina for symmetric type of stacking having
[0/90/0] 13.699 13.523
90ofibre orientation at themid-layer of the
[0/90]2/0 12.9 12.854
composite curved beam.Non-dimensional natural
[0/90]4/0 12.188 12.156 frequency increases with increase in lamina
[0/90] 7.235 7.264 forsymmetric type of stacking having 0ofibre
[0/90]2 11.602 11.613 orientation at the mid-layer ofthe composite
[0/90]5 12.555 12.566 curved beam.
50
[0/90/0] 17.359 17.355
[0/90]2/0 15.821 15.829 5. REFERENCES
[0/90]4/0 14.567 14.575
[0/90] 7.256 7.276 DavisR,HenshellRD,andWarburtonGB.Constantcurv
100 [0/90]2 11.659 11.676 aturebeamfiniteelementsforin-
[0/90]5 12.622 13.635
383
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384
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
BOND STRENGTH OF CONCRETE SUBSTRATE AND REPAIR MATERIAL-
A STUDY ON THE METHODOLOGY
ICID2018_D_049
Sayed Injamamul Hussain1, Sulaem Musaddiq Laskar2, Baharul Hussain3

1. M.E. Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India
2. Asst. Prof., Department of Civil Engineering, Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India
3. Asst. Prof., Department of Civil Engineering, Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India
ABSTRACT
In recent years, the maintenance and repair of concrete structures have become increasingly important due to
ageing and deterioration of structures. The performance of the repaired concrete structures depends not only on the
properties of the repairing agent but also on how well the repairing agent and old concrete bond and work together.
This paper presents an overview of the research works on bonding characteristics between concrete substrate and
repair material. The works have been briefly described to get clear picture of the efficiency and characteristics of
repairing agents including the ones prepared with new, sustainable materials in arresting cracks and restoring the
strength of concrete.
Keywords: repair; deterioration; bond; sustainable; cracks.
1. INTRODUCTION The bond strength mainly depends on adhesion

in interface, friction, aggregate interlock, and time-
Concrete is the structural material that is dependent factors. Each of these main factors
extensively used globally. Generally, plain depends on other variables. Adhesion to interface
concrete system does not have the ability to carry depends on bonding agent, material compaction,
load in tension. To improve the tensile cleanness and moisture content of repair surface,
characteristics and prevent concrete failure, steel specimen age, and roughness of interface surface
reinforcement bars are provided within the (Momayez et al. 2003).
concrete mass. Thermo Mechanically Treated Friction and aggregate interlock on interface
(TMT) bars are extensively used as reinforcement depend on parameters, such as aggregate size,
bars. Due to the use, the bond strength between aggregate shape, and surface preparation. In
reinforcements and concrete enhances. This bond addition to the above factors, the measured bond
strength is proportional to the contact surface of strength is highly dependent on the test method
the steel to the concrete. The bond strength used. Size and geometry of specimen and the
greatly varies with changes in mix design and state of stress on the contact surface are quite
grade of cement used. By providing intensive heat dependent on the chosen test method. It is noted
curing, high early bond strength can be achieved that certain standard tests have been developed
(Castel and Foster 2015). There is strong for specific applications and state of stress. For
influence of various types of surface preparation example, the slant shear is used to evaluate the
such as wire brushed, acid etched, grooved, bond strength of resinous materials, epoxy
grooved-wire brushed and grooved-acid etched on bonding agents, and latex bonding agents under a
bond strength (Mirmoghtadaei et al. 2015). combined state of stress of compression and
Moreover, compressive strength of concrete, bar shear (Momayez et al. 2003).
diameter, concrete cover, embedded length, and Repair materials can be divided into three main
pre-flexural crack length also affect the bond groups: cement based, modified cement based,
strength (Diab et al. 2014). There are 3 ways in and resin based. In recent years, with the
which cement concrete is bonded to a steel popularity of resin-based materials, slant shear
reinforcement: (i) adhesion between concrete and test became a widely accepted test. However,
steel bars, (ii) mechanical interlock through ribs of considering the cost and behavior of resin-based
steel bar and (iii) chemical reaction between steel materials, the use of modified cementitious
and concrete (Fu and Chung 1997). There are materials has been on the increase in developing
several other factors that directly or indirectly countries. In light of the weak bond strength of
influence the bond strength. A comparative study cement based materials, modified cementitious
of the bond strength of reinforcing steel between a materials offer a good compromise in terms of cost
high-volume fly ash concrete (HVFAC) and and behavior. As a result, there is renewed
Portland cement concrete (PCC) has revealed that interest in developing tests to measure the bond of
HVFAC possesses comparable bond strength as concrete substrates to modified cement-based or
PCC (Arezoumandia et al. 2013). enriched cement-based repair materials
(Momayez et al. 2003).
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2. RESEARCH BACKGROUND
2.1 Existing Methods
The existing tests to determine the bond between

concrete substrate and repair material can be
divided into several categories. The first category
of tests measures the bond under tension stress.
Pull-off (Peterson C.G. 1990) (Fig. 1a), direct
tension (Li et al. 1997) and splitting (Geissert et al. Figure1: Dimensions of test specimen in mm
1999) (Fig. 1b) are the main tests under this (Momayez et al. 2003)
category. In the splitting test, a prism with circular
or square cross-section is placed under In the direct tension test, the tensile force is
longitudinal compressive loading (Fig. 1b). transmitted to the concrete specimen either by
Tension stresses cause failure in a plane passing glued metal or by special grips. A very careful
through upper and lower axes of loading and split alignment of the specimen in the axis of loading is
the specimen into two halves. essential (Li et al. 1997). Even a very small
The second category tests measures the bond amount of misalignment may introduce
under shear stresses and are called direct shear eccentricities that will cause large scatter in test
methods. Several tests fall under this category, results. Performing a good tension test is difficult
including L-shaped, mono surface shear, etc. and time consuming. However, a recently
(Saucier et al. 1991). In most cases, the bond proposed variation of the direct tension test,
surface for a direct shear test is actually subjected referred to as pull-off test, is easier to carry out
to shear stress and a small bending stress. When and can produce good results (Geissert et al.
a steel plate is used to transmit the shear force 1999). Indirect tension tests include the flexural
along the bond line, some stress concentration at test and the splitting test. The flexural test offers
the edge of the bonding plane is induced. Smaller low efficiency (the area of the bonded surface
stress concentration leads to smaller scatter in test subjected to loading is small compared to the
results (Li et al. 1997). As a part of this specimen volume). For such tests, only a very
investigation, a new direct shear method was small part of the bonded plane is subjected to the
developed which is hereafter referred to as Bi- maximum stresses (Abu-Tair et al. 1996). Splitting
Surface shear. Typical test specimen dimensions test is more efficient in that regard. The splitting
and loading are shown in Fig. 1c and further tensile strength of concrete is regarded as an
information on this test is provided elsewhere indication of its tensile strength. The splitting
(Momayez et al. 2003). tensile test of homogeneous cylindrical specimens
The third category measures the bond strength was first proposed by Japanese researchers.
under a state of stress that combines shear and Further developments were carried out in Brazil
compression. All slant shear tests mentioned and the method was later adopted as a standard
previously fall under this category. The slant shear test ASTM C496. The test method is simple to
test uses a square prism or a cylindrical sample perform and uses the same cylindrical specimen
made of two identical halves bonded at 30̊ and and test machine as a standard compression test.
tested under axial compression, as seen in Fig.
1d. During loading, the interface surface is under 2.2 Bond Strength
compression and shear stresses. The slant shear
test has become the most widely accepted test, Many researchers drew attention towards bond
and has been adopted by a number of strength of concrete. Lee (2004) conducted an
international codes as a test for evaluating the experimental investigation on the relationship
bond of resinous repair materials to concrete between corrosion of reinforcement and bond
substrates (Abu-Tair et al. 1996). However, there strength in pull-out test specimen to establish the
is no general agreement among researchers as to allowable limit of rust of reinforcement in the
the appropriateness of this test for non resinous construction field. The reinforcing bars used were
materials (Li et al. 1997; Abu-Tair et al. 1996; Li et rusted before embedded in pull-out test specimen.
al. 1999). The reinforcing bars were rusted electrically based
on Faraday’s theory to be 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10% of
reinforcing bar weight. Pull-out tests were carried
out according to KS F 2441 and ASTM C 234 to
investigate the effect of the degree of rust on bond
strength. Results show that up to 2% of rust
increases the bond strength regardless of concrete
386
ICID 2018
strength and diameter of reinforcing bar like the Santos et al. (2006) describe a subsequent
existing data. It might result from the roughness study, conducted to investigate the possibility of
due to rust. As expected, the bond strength quantifying the roughness of the substrate surface
increases as compressive strength of concrete and correlate this with the corresponding interface
increases and the diameter of bar decreases. bond strength. Specimens with the substrate
Okelo and Yuan (2005) focuses on the bond surface prepared with different roughening
strength of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) rebars techniques were considered. The roughness
in normal strength concrete. Four different types of profile of the substrate surface was obtained with
rebars were tested using the pullout method: digital image processing. Several roughness
aramid FRP (AFRP); carbon FRP (CFRP); glass parameters were assessed based on this profile
FRP (GFRP) and steel. This involved a total of 151 and were correlated with the corresponding bond
specimens containing 6, 8, 10, 16, and 19 mm strength, both in shear and in tension, measured
rebars embedded in a 203 mm concrete cube. The with slant shear and pull-off tests, respectively.
test embedment lengths were five, seven, and Ahmed K (2007) investigated the slippage of
nine times the rebar diameter. It is observed that steel in RCC. About 24 pullout specimens of
the mode of failure of bond is mainly dependent on normal and high strength concrete were used
the concrete compressive strength, the shape (and along with hot rolled deformed steel bars. The
composition) of the bar’s surface, the cover results showed that effects of compressive
thickness, and embedment length. For shorter strength on bond strength were directly
embedment lengths with low compressive proportional, i.e. bond strength increased with the
strengths, actual pullout of the rebar occurs. For increase in compressive strength.
short embedment lengths with higher compressive Muhammad N.S. Hadi (2008) studied about the
strengths and for longer embedment lengths with bond of high strength concrete with high strength
low compressive strengths, splitting failures may steel. Fourteen pull out tests were carried out to
occur; pullout load increases with increasing determine the bond strength. The concrete
embedment length, but the average bond strength strength was about 70 MPa and the steel was a
decreases, due to the fact that the increase pullout 500 MPa grade. Bar diameters used were 12, 16,
load is not proportional to the increase in 20, 25, 28, 32 and 36 mm. Based on the test
embedment length;as for steel, the average bond results of fourteen pullout specimens, it can be
strength of FRP rebars decreases as the stated that the pullout specimen with the smaller
reinforcing bar diameter increases. bar size has greater bond strength than the
Julio et al. (2005) performed experimental study specimen with the larger diameter bar and the
to evaluate the bond strength between two pullout test results also indicated that the bond
concrete layers, using different techniques for strength and the initial stiffness increased as the
increasing the roughness of the substrate surface amount of concrete surrounding the reinforcing bar
and a commercial epoxy-based bonding agent. A increased.
total of 40 slant shear half specimens and 40 pull-
off half specimens first had the substrate surface
prepared by wire-brushing, sand-blasting, chipping
with a light jackhammer, or were left as-cast
against steel formwork. Three months later, the
bonding agent was applied and the new concrete
was added. Pull-off tests and slant shear tests
were performed to evaluate the bond strength in
tension and in shear. Analysis of the results
indicates that the application of an epoxy-based
bonding agent does not improve the bond strength
since the adopted method for surface preparation Fig 2: Comparison of the bond strength for the 240
adequately increases its roughness. mm specimens (Muhammad N.S. Hadi, 2008)
Kheder G.F (2005) carried out studies to
analyze bond behavior for normal and high Santos and Julio (2008) describes a subsequent
strength concrete. The variables studied are bar study using a laser roughness analyser that was
diameter (10, 16, 19mm) with yield strength (467, specifically developed to characterise the
517, and 532), concrete compressive strength (20, roughness of the concrete substrate. The
45, 60, 75 MPa) and cover (20 and 40 mm). The proposed new method presents four major
test results show that the bond strength increases advantages: (a) increased accuracy; (b) it is
with the increase of compressive strength and/or simple and fast to execute; (c) it implies a really
cover and decreases with the increase of diameter non-destructive procedure; and (d) results can be
and vice versa. assessed in situ.
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Santos and Julio (2011) conducted

experimental study to assess the influence of
differential shrinkage and stiffness on the bond
strength of new-to-old concrete interfaces. Both
parameters were shown to have a significant
influence on the bond strength and failure mode of
concrete-to-concrete interfaces. The slant shear
test appeared to be suitable to predict both the
bond strength and the failure mode of the
Fig 3: Pull out test specimen (Albarwary and
interface. The modified splitting test appears to be
Haido, 2013)
unsuitable for both purposes. Further research is
needed to investigate the assessment of the bond
Al-Zuhairi and Al-Fatlawi (2013) studied the
strength using the splitting test. The bond strength
simple pullout concrete cylinder specimen
of the concrete-to-concrete interface increased
reinforced by a single steel bar to analyse bond-
with the increase of the surface roughness.
slip behavior. Three-dimension nonlinear finite
Loony T.J et al. (2012) carried an experimental
element model using ANSYS program was
investigation to compare the bond strength of
employed to study the behavior of bond between
reinforcing steel in self-consolidating concrete
concrete and plain steel reinforcement. The
(SCC) with conventional concrete (CC). The study
ANSYS model includes eight-noded isoperimetric
investigated two different compressive strengths of
brick element (SOLID65) to model the concrete
SCC as well as CC. The experimental program
cylinder while the steel reinforcing bar was
consisted of 24 pull-out specimens as well as 12
modeled as a truss member (LINK8). Interface
full-scale beams. The CC test results served as a
element (CONTAC52) was used in this analysis to
control and were used to evaluate the results from
model the bond between concrete and steel bar.
the SCC pull-out and beam specimen tests.
Material nonlinearity due to cracking and/or
Furthermore, a comparison was performed
crushing of concrete, and yielding of the steel
between results of the study and a bond database
reinforcing bar were taken into consideration
of CC specimens. The comparisons indicate that
during the analysis. The accuracy of this model is
SCC beams possess comparable or slightly
investigated by comparing the finite element
greater bond strength than CC beams.
numerical behavior with that predicted from
Albarwary and Haido (2013) investigated the
experimental results of three pullout specimens.
bond strength of the oil polluted steel bars with
Good agreement between the finite element
concrete. Tests were conducted on 72 cylindrical
solution and experimental results was obtained.
concrete specimens with compressive strength of
24 MPa at age of 28 days. Two embedded lengths
of steel bars were considered in present tests
3. CONCLUSION
namely 30 cm and 15 cm with four bar diameters.
Based on the current experimental results, it is
In the field of repair and strengthening of concrete
concluded that the pollution of steel bars with oil
structures, there is need to place new concrete
does not affect their bond strength if the
next to old, i.e., existing concrete. Such examples
embedded length of the bars is increased and their
are seen in highway structures where the
diameters are decreased. For these bars the bond
deteriorated concrete must be replaced with new
strength is greater than the tensile strength. It is
concrete. In these applications, the bond between
observed that the embedded length of the bar
the old and new concrete usually presents a weak
inversely affects the deterioration of the bond
link in the repaired structure. Several tests are
strength due to the bar pollution. For the polluted
available to measure the bond strength. However,
and non polluted bars it can be stated that small
little information is available on comparison of
bar sizes has greater bond strength than large bar
these various tests methods and the resulting
sizes if the embedded length is small. The
bond strength values. As demonstrated in this
predominant mode of failure is splitting mode for
paper, the measured bond strength is greatly
all the tested specimens and no slip failure
dependent on the test methods. Therefore, there is
occurred in testing all the polluted and non-
a need to compare different tests for measuring
polluted bars throughout the experiments.
bond strength and to establish a relationship
among the values obtained from each test. The
bond strength also depends on diameter of
reinforcing bars, compressive strength of concrete,
percentage of rust, cover thickness and embedded
length. It is imperative that the bond tests be
selected such that they represent the state of
stress the structure is subjected to in the field.
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389
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Theme E: Hydraulics and Water Resources Engineering
390
Theme E
Hydraulics and Water Resources Engineering
391
ANALYSIS OF FLOW OF GROUNDWATER THROUGH WELLS AND

ASSOCIATED LAND SUBSIDENCE
(ICID2018_E_001)
Othillia N Marak1, Sudip Basack2, Vesalu C Ruho3, Ghritharta Goswami4
2.Professor and Head of the Department of Civil Engineering, School of Engineering and Technology,
Kaziranga University, Assam, India.(Corresponding Author’s E-mail: sudip@kazirangauniversity.in)
1,3,4. Post Graduate student, Department of Civil Engineering, Kaziranga University, Jorhat, Assam,
India.
ABSTRACT
Since Dupuit’s theory does not explain the consolidation of drawdown and decrease in hydraulic conductivity of an
aquifer medium. It also does not consider the neighbouring water of a nonlinear groundwater flow of the well to
obtain a higher amount of discharged. Therefore taking into view the above restriction of Dupuit’s theory, a specified
theory has been developed which includes these two factors. This theory is based on analysis using finite difference
technique and it is applicable for unconfined aquifer only. For linear flow Darcy’s law has been adopted and for
nonlinear flow Forchheimer law is used. User friendly software well is developed to carry out the entire analysis. This
software gives into account of both linear and nonlinear flow and produce affirmatives results. The theoretical results
are compared with those obtained by Dupuit’s theory and excellent agreement is observed.
Keywords: Drawdown curve, Ground water, Hydraulic conductivity, Linear, Non linear
1 INTRODUCTION 2. The land subsidence should not exceed

the yield value.
The fundamentals of groundwater flow were 3. Saline water intrusion should not be
established more than a century ago, it is only allowed.
within recent years that the subject has met with
scientific treatment. As a result of trial-and-error Considering these three criteria, three
history of groundwater flow theory, its literature different discharge values are obtained and the
is replete with empirical relationships for which minimum value is taken as design value. The
exact solution can be and have been obtained. land subsidence may cause severe flooding and
Advocates of empirical approach have long weakens the foundation of buildings and
reasoned that the heterogeneous nature of soils infrastructures. Therefore necessary phase
is such that rigorous analyses are not practical. should be taken to avoid the excessive pumping
Recent developments in science of soil of groundwater.
mechanics coupled with more precise methods
of subsurface soil explorations have provided
engineers with greater insight into the behaviour 2 THEORETICAL ANALYSIS
of earth structures subject to groundwater flow.
Subsequent exploitation of groundwater by Dupuit (1856) has been followed in this
withdrawing water more than the throughput theoretical analysis as a guideline with
amount, results in declination of water levels necessary annexation as suggested by the
closest to the soils nearest to the well. These methodology. Incipiently, it was adopted in a
further causes in unequal changes of the linear flow of ground water within the premises
surface of the water table resulting in bowl like of Darcy’s law of permeability, further extending
depression known as cone of depression of the it to non-linear flow of groundwater. The results
water level, centred about and radiating out from of heavy extractions of groundwater, water table
the pumping well. If pumping of access amount is getting lowered causing consolidation of
of water is continued from the aquifer will result aquifer instructing reduction in its void ratio as
in two problems like soil collapse and drops well as hydraulic conductivity. By the alteration
resulting in land subsidence and saline water of hydraulic conductivity for linear or nonlinear
intrusion euthanize the potable water. Therefore, groundwater flow, a true drawdown curve is
following criteria have been taken to determine obtained.
the water to be pumped out: In this study necessary assumptions have been
made:
1. The discharge from the aquifer should
not exceed the yield value.
392
Theme E
 It is assumed that aquifer is
homogeneous, isotropic and infinite
aerial extent.
 The coefficient of hydraulic conductivity
is assumed to be constant initially at all
places before drawdown.
 The well is assumed water from the
entire thickness of the aquifer.
 The regime of natural ground water is
believed to be affecting the aquifer
remaining constant with time.
 The velocity vector acquire only
horizontal component and any vertical Figure 1: The Problem Identification (D, H and rw
component s neglected. denotes depth of water table, height of the
 Velocity is assumed to be constant at aquifer medium and radius of well
any given vertical. respectively)(modified after Basack and
There is a possibility of occurrence of shear Bhattacharya 2008)
stress on any vertical surface as differential
settlement is not considered. The study depicted
the problem and has been shown in Fig. 1.
Radius ‘rw’ in a vertical well completely
penetrates into the uppermost layer of an
unconfined aquifer in an overlying impervious
rocky stratum. D is the depth of water table and
H is the height of rock surface. Anterior to
drawdown, uniform hydraulic conductivity (k0)
having the aquifer medium, void ratio (e0) and
submerged bulk density (b). It is assumed to be
a dry soil with a dry density, d above the
ground water table. The coefficient of volume
compressibility of the stratum is taken as mv. For
the ground water extracted from the well at A Figure 2:Idealized Model for Numerical
uniform discharge of Q extracted from the well Analysis(modified after Basack and
gave the result drawdown curves which have Bhattacharya 2008)
been shown in Figs. 2 & 3 for linear and
nonlinear groundwater flow respectively, along
with the radius of influence R. The radius of
influence is divided into ‘n’ number of vertical
cylindrical strips within the portion of the aquifer,
the thickness of each strip being R/n. The
cylindrical strips have been numbered serially
from 1 to n1within the boundary. The inter-
granular pressure between the soil particles of
the aquifer below ground water table increases
due to the presence of drawdown curve and the
increment is different at each of these cylindrical Figure 3: Non-linear groundwater flow(modified
boundaries. As a result the void ratio decreases after Basack and Bhattacharya 2008)
along with the hydraulic conductivity of the
medium. At any ith boundary in the distance xi
from the centre line of the well, the residual 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
head of ground water table during drawdown is
assumed to be zi.. The theoretical results have been obtained by
utilizing the theory and software that has been
developed. Acquired results are then compared
to those obtained from existing Dupuit’s theory.
Only unconfined aquifer has been carried out for
analysis and the purpose of an imaginary soil
profile which is arbitrarily assumed which is
shown in Fig.4. The outcome by using the
393
Theme E
software obtained the input and output data which gradually disappears with the distance
results are presented. It is then observed that for from the well. The normalized settlement is 0.12
number of elements 50, a reasonable to 0.4 % at the well surface for various
compromise between accuracy, computational discharges and less than 0.10 % for a distance
time and memory space used which can be beyond 15 % of radius of influence for all
achieved. discharges. The observation shows that the
depression of groundwater table is highest in the
vicinity of the well and gradually diminishes with
distance.
The two wells situated at a clear
distance of 20 m at discharge ratios 1:1 and
1:1.5 along the variation of the normalized
settlement with normalised distance are
presented in Fig 7 and Fig 8. The composite
settlement profiles have been achieved by
superimposition method and the settlement
profiles in both the cases have been found to be
approximately hyperbolic in nature. The
settlement within the two wells is maximum at
well surface and minimum at a certain point. The
Figure 4: Assumed soil profile for nonlinear minimum settlement is observed at the middle
groundwater flow analysis.(modified after distance of the two wells for a discharge ratio
Basack and Bhattacharya 2008) 1.1. However for a discharge of 1:1.5, the point
of minimum settlement is shifted towards the
3.1. Drawdown Curve well yielding minimum discharge.
The present theory and Dupuit’s theory for 3.3. Variation of Radius of Influence and
single well corresponding to three different Settlement with Discharge
discharges with  0.999875 obtaining the
drawdown curve has been shown in Fig.5 and it Fig.9 shows the discharge from the well
has been observed that drawdown curves are influenced by the variation of normalized radius
approximately hyperbolic in nature. The radius for three values of . Similarly Fig.10 shows the
influence from center of the well the present variation of normalized ground settlement at well
drawdown curve deteriorated upto a distance of surface with discharge yielded by the well. Thus
7% considerably as compared to that obtained it is observed that both the parameters increase
by Dupuit’s theory. The two-drawdown curves linearly along the discharge and the discharge
for the remaining distance have been observed has been taken as discharge per unit surface
to almost coincide. The deviation of the residual area of the well.
head at well surface is about 25% as obtained
by the two theories. The aquifer layer is medium 3.4. Determination of Critical Discharge
sand having mv value of 0.00015 m2/ KN so the
deviation is not too high. For sufficiently higher Critical distance equals to zero is considered to
value of mv of the loose sand, the deviation be critical discharge. It can be obtained by
would have been much greater. extrapolating the discharge versus distance
curve. For β = 0.999875 and radius of well = 0.1
3.2 Land Subsidence m, the critical discharge value is 0.007 cumec
which have been shown in Fig.11.
The groundwater table forms a cone of
depression while being extracted from the
groundwater through a well. As a result,
consolidation of the sub-soil layers occurs and
the land subsidence starts occurring around the
well. Fig.6 shows a plot that has the settlement
normalized by the thickness of aquifer layer
versus distance normalized by the radius of
influence from the well surface at three different
discharges with depth factor  0.999875. The
cross-section of the deformed ground surface is
observed to be approximately a parabolic
shape. The well surface settlement is highest
394
Theme E
Figure 9: Variation of radius of influence of the

well with discharge in case of single well
Figure 5: Drawdown curve for single well for
normalized distance of 0.2 m from the well
surface
Figure 10: Variation of ground settlement at the

well surface with discharge in case of single well
Figure 6: Variation of normalized settlement

with normalized distance from the well
Figure 11: Variation of critical distance with

discharge from single well having radius 0.1 m
Figure 7: Variation of normalized settlement with 4. CONCLUSION

normalized distance for two wells situated at a
clear distance of 20 m (Discharge Ratio 1:1) From this study, the outcomes can be concluded
as:
 The two drawdown curves achieved by
present theory and that by Dupuit’s
theory are considered to be hyperbolic
in nature. The radius of influence from
the center of the well considerable
deviation up to a distance of 7% and 4%
between the two-drawdown curves for
linear and nonlinear groundwater flow
respectively and beyond this zone the
Figure 8: Variation of normalized settlement with two curves may coincide. In the surface
normalized distance for two wells situated at a of the well, the deviation is about 25 %
clear distance of 20 m (Discharge Ratio 1:1:5)
395
Theme E
and 15 % for linear and nonlinear REFERENCES

groundwater flow respectively.
 The drawdown curves are hyperbolic in Abbott,M. B.: One-dimensional consolidation of
nature due to the interference of two multi-layered soils, Geotechnique, 1960, Vol.
wells for linear groundwater flow as well 10, pp. 151 – 165.
as nonlinear groundwater flow. Ahmed N and Sunada, D.K. (1969). "Non-linear
 The cross-section of settlement profile Flow In Porous Media". Journal of Hydraulic
for a single well is considered to be Division, ASCE, Vol. 97, No.6, pp.1847.
parabolic in shape. The settlement is Ahmed N and Sunada, D.K. (1969). "Non-linear
highest at well surface and eventually Flow In Porous Media". Journal of Hydraulic
diminishes with the distance from the Division, ASCE, Vol. 99, No.6, pp.1233.
well for both cases. Basack, S. and Bhattacharya, A. K. (2008).
 The settlement profile for the two well “Darcy and Forchheimer flow
interfering is approximately hyperbolic in through wells and land subsidence.” Journal
nature. The hyperbola is symmetric for of River Behaviour and Training, River
the discharge ratio 1:1 whereas for Research Institute, West Bengal, India, 28
different discharge ratios it is (2007-2008), 31-36.
asymmetric with the minimum Bhattachrya, A.K., Basak, S. & Patra, M.N.
settlement shifting towards the well (2004). "Land Subsidence in Calcutta Under
yielding lesser discharge in the both the Effect of Hydrological Conditions and
cases. Over-extraction of Ground Water". Electronic
 At the surface of the well the normalized Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, Vol.9,
ground settlement increases with Bundle-E.
discharge from the well in both of the Darcy, H. (1856). "Les fontaines publiquesdela
cases. ville de Dijon". Victor Dalmont, Paris.
 The radius of influence increases Dupuit, J. (1863). "Etudes theoriques et
linearly with discharge from the well in pratiques sur le mouvement des eaux les
both of the cases. canaux decouverts et a travers les terrains
permeables". Dunod, Paris.
Forchheimer, P. (1901). " Wasserbewegung
Durch Boden". Z Ver Deutsch Ing, Vol.45,
pp.1782-1788.
396
ANALYSIS AND CONTROL OF FLOW PARAMETERS THROUGH

SLUICE GATE IN DAM: A CASE STUDY IN INDIA.
(ICID2018_E_002)
Ghritartha Goswami1, Sudip Basack2,
1Post Graduate student, Department of Civil Engineering, Kaziranga University, Jorhat, Assam, India.
2.Professor and Head of the Department of Civil Engineering, School of Engineering and Technology,
Kaziranga University, Assam, India.(Corresponding Author’s E-mail: sudip@kazirangauniversity.in)
ABSTRACT
Controlling the discharge through a gravity dam by means of sluice gate is quite common technique. Although
extensive theoretical and experimental studies on discharge parameters are available, most of these studies reported
sedimentation and river bed conditions resulting in reduced discharge through dam. A limited research has focussed
on controlling and adjusting the discharge considering practical scenario. This paper presents a simplified analytical
modelling applied to a typical case study on Kawlewada dam in India which used the lift irrigation technique for
improved discharge. The approach focuses on the parametric studies for predicting the variations in discharge ratio
employing a range of geometrical parameters such as area and aspect ratio of the individual sluice gates and their
total number of sluice gates. It was found that the discharge is largely affected by minor alteration small changes in
these parameters. A set of important conclusions was drawn from the entire study.
Keywords: Analytical modeling,dam, discharge, flow, opening, ratio, sluice gates.
1. INTRODUCTION combined flow over weirs and below sluice gates

of equal contraction are discussed by Abdel-
Hydraulic structures have various derived Azimet al. (2002) using various geometrical
functions such as flood control, distribution of combination. The flow through rivers and resulting
stored water and most importantly providing scouring was studied by Bhattacharya et al
constructive ecological conditions, for which the (2003). The discharge characteristics of combined
analytical aids available in daily operation are weirs and gate structure were studied as well. The
rare. A better prediction of the flow near dam study revealed a major influence of flow
structures would be beneficial to resilient parameters and geometrical parameters on the
performance of all the tasks for which the dam is discharge. The air-water interface in the channel
constructed. was referred to as the free surface (Binder et al.
Flow through a side sluice gate is governed by 2009). Spulveda (2009) proposed various
the equation of spatially varied flow with calibration methods for discharge coefficient of
decreasing discharge. Sluice-gate discharges for submerged sluice gates; a value of contraction
various gate openings have been studied by coefficient as 0.611 was found to yield satisfactory
numerous researchers. Henry (1950) studied the results. Daneshmand et al. (2010) performed
diffusion of submerged jet downstream to a classical hydrodynamic analysis to arrive at
normal sluice gate and developed a useful specific solutions relevant to free surface flow.
correlation for discharge coefficient under free and Water surface is typically smooth for a freely
submerged flow conditions. This was later emerging jet of water from a sluice gate, and for
confirmed by Rajaratnam and Subramanya submerged flow, the surface profile is usually
(1967). Panda (1981) and Tanwar (1984) related quite rough. (Goel et al. 2010). Mansoor (2014)
the discharge coefficient to the Froude number, classified sluice gates as normal, side and skew,
the ratio of flow depth to the side sluice gate depending on its alignment with channel axis. A
opening, and the ratio of tail water depth to the sluice gate placed oblique to the flow direction
gate opening. In case of a normal sluice gate, the was found to be more efficient. However typical
elementary discharge coefficient has been found hydrological case studies conducted in India
to be a function of channel flow depth for free-flow rather limited (Basack et al. 2014).
conditions, while for the submerged flow condition, The study focussed in this paper is based on
the ratio of crest width to gate opening is the Kawlewada dam located in Gondia district of
important. The latter is also applicable to a broad- Maharashtra and is a part of Dhapewada lift
crested sluice gate (Swameeet al.1993).Swamee irrigation project, India. A sketch of the study area
(1992) proposed relevant equations for both free is portrayed in Fig.1. It is pragmatic that the
and submerged flows as well as criteria for Dhapewada lift irrigation project was not efficient
submergence. The characteristics of the due to reduction in the flow of the Wainganga
397
Theme E
River during the summer season (Goswami et al.

2017). In order to investigate the effectiveness of
Dhapewada lift irrigation project in terms of
discharge with the reduced flow and to maintain
the ecological balance at the downstream side of
the dam, the present study deals with a simplified
analytical modelling approach, with relevant
computation and interpretation.
The discharge through the dam was allowed (b)
through a series of rectangular sluice gates shown Figure 2: The Kawlewada dam (a) Front view (b)
in Figures 2 and 3. The area aspect ratio and Isometric view
number of gates have been varied and the
resulting variations in the total downstream
discharges are studied in details. 2. ANALYSIS
First of all, the net discharge through the sluice

gates is calculated using the following correlation:
𝑄𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 = (a × b × N) × V (1)
where, a and b are lengths and width of the one

gate opening and N is the number of gates. This is
illustrated in Fig. 3. The parameter V is defined as
(Rouse 1967):
𝑉 = 𝐶 𝑑 √2𝑔𝑦 (2)
where, Cdis the coefficient of discharge, g is the

gravitational acceleration and y is the gate
opening. The parameter Cd is given by (Rouse
1967):
𝐶𝑐
𝐶𝑑 = 𝑦
(3)
√[1+𝐶𝑐× ]
𝑎
Figure 1: Site location of study area for

Kawlewada dam, Dhapewada Lift Irrigation
Project, Gondia, Maharashtra. (21o26’28.24”N, where, y is the gate opening and Cc is the
79o52’52.02”E). contraction coefficient.
(a)
Figure 3: Illustration of sluice gate geometric

parameter.
398
Theme E
varies from 0.35 to 2.6. It has also been observed

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION that with an increase in aspect ratio, the
parameter RQ increases linearly till a peak value is
The variation of the discharge ratio RQ is studied attained following a stabilizing trend. The peak
with respect to the area ratio RA, the aspect ratio value is observed to attain an aspect ratio of a/b =
a/b and the number of gates N. The range of 0.5. Such observation may be justified by the fact
variation of the input parameters has been that an optimization of the discharge yielded at
presented in Table 1. The discharge ratio RQ and this particular value of aspect ratio resulting from
the area ratio RA are defined as: Equations (1), (2) and (3).
𝑄𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑅𝑄 = (4)
𝑄0
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑅𝐴 = (5)
𝐴𝑑𝑎𝑚
where,
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 = (a × b × N) (6)
Figure 5: Variation of discharge ratio with area
ratio for different values of aspect ratio1.50
𝐴𝑑𝑎𝑚 = (L × H) (7) The variation of the discharge ratio RQ versus
the area ratio RA for different values of a/b and N
is shown in Figure 5. As observed, a linear trend
For the particular case, of variation took place. A slight non linear variation
L = Length of dam = 420 m.H = Height of dam = was also noted when the area ratio RAexceeds a
30 m. value of 3, specifically for N= 10 and 12. The lines
Q0 = Net upstream discharge through the river were observed to originate from origin and
without dam = 40.19×103m3/sec (Goswami et al. progressively diverged. Such pattern of variation
2017) may be justified by the fact that a progressively
Considering value of Cc to be 0.611, a to be 10 increasing area has initiated a linearly increasing
meter and yto be 0.4 meter (Goswami et al. 2017), discharge through the gate, as per Equation (1).
value of Cd is calculated and found as 0.6 using
Eq. (3).Thus the velocity V is found 8.40 m/s.
Figure 7: Variation of discharge ratio with aspect

ratio for different values of area ratio0.05.
Figure 4: Variation of discharge ratio with aspect
ratio for numbers of gate18. The variation of parameter RQ with respect to N
for different values of a/b and RA are shown in
The variation of discharge ratio RQ with respect Figure 6. As observed the variation is linearly
to aspect ratio a/b for different values of RA and N increasing commencing from the origin variation in
has been depicted in Figure 4. As observed that the value of a/b did notinfluence the divergence of
when the aspect ratio, area ratio and number of the line significantly. Such trend is justified with
gates varies it ranges of 0 ≤ a/b ≤ 1.5, 1 ≤ RA ≤5 the fact that increasing number of gates produced
and 10 ≤ N ≤ 18 respectively, the discharge ratio
399
Theme E
a proportionate rise in the discharge as per and Tembhre, S. (2017).“Assessment of

Equation (1). Environmental Flow”, BE thesis, Manoharbhai
Patel Institute of Engineering and Technology,
R.T.M. Nagpur University, Maharashtra, India.
4. CONCLUSION Henry, H. R. (1950).“Discussion of Diffusion of
submerged jets”, Trans. Proc. ASCE.115, 687-
The effectivity of sluice gates in controlling the 697.
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investigated in this paper by means of simplified (2014).“Experimental Investigation for Flow
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Negm, A.M., (2000). Characteristics of
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Vidwans., Asati, M., Chaudhari, S., Dharkar A.,
400
HYDROLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF THE TRANSBOUNDARY

BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER BASIN USING SWAT
(ICID2018_E_003)
Pulendra Dutta1and Arup Kr. Sarma2
(1. Ph.D. Scholar; 2. Professor) of Civil Engineering Department, IIT Guwahati,Assam.
ABSTRACT
Modeling different hydrological processes within a watershed boundary is a vital aspect of water resource planning
and management practices. For understanding the impact of natural and man-made activities on hydrologic
behaviour, Hydrologists across the globe use different hydrologic models to capture information regarding the
watershed response. In this study, Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) is used to understand the hydrological
behaviour of the Brahmaputra Basin. Because of limited availability of locally measured weather data for the
transboundary Brahmaputra river basin, 35 global weather stations' data are used in conjunction with locally
observed stations' data. Based on Digital Elevation Model (DEM), the watershed is delineated using ArcSWAT2012,
which is further subdivided into 1578 nos. of Hydrological Response Units (HRU) through the use of global land use
as well as soil data. A sensitivity analysis of the SWAT model parameters is carried out in SWAT-CUP platform
during calibration and validation process. The model performance is evaluated by the well-established statistical
approach. The results of model output exhibit a reasonably acceptable estimation of monthly discharge at an outlet
(viz. Pancharatna) in India.
Key Words: Watershed, hydrologic model, SWAT, sensitivity, SWAT-CUP
1. INTRODUCTION small river basins. In a study, Bracmort et al.

(2006) reported SWAT and VIC models for a
Hydrologists worldwide use several models for watershed of only 50 km 2 area for which the soil
simulating watershed, for the purpose of type and land cover were completely known. In
investigating the water related issues, and for this, another approach, Harmel et al. (2006) attempted
they incorporate several aspects like land use and to cumulate uncertainty issues related to stream
climate change impacts, pollutant load flow and water quality for a small watershed of an
assessment and best management practices area less than 10,000 ha. Even, the studies
(Stone et al.2001; Kannan et al.2005; Tuppadet relating to economic benefits including aquatic life
al.2010; Jha and Gassman2014). Presently, there and recreational activities can also be better
are various tools available to establish hydrologic understood for the small area (Lee et al. 2011)
and water quality models, and therefore the with known physical and chemical parameters.
researchers need to choose the appropriate one, However, establishing a hydrologic model for a
keeping in mind the study objectives. As such, the watershed with unknown characteristics often
comparative analysis among 22 different becomes challenging and the model practitioners
hydrologic and water quality models by Moriasiet need to acquire wide knowledge about the
al.(2012),may be referred as a basis to select a physical processes prior to model development,
suitable model. Wherein, they highlighted the key parameterization, calibration, and validation. So, it
issues of model parameters, strength, and is the responsibility of the model developer to
limitations including calibration and validation handle the data scarcity situations, and make the
processes. Indeed, a watershed model should be model capable to better representing the
made capable to capture a number of hydrologic watershed characteristics spatially and temporally.
processes, spatially or temporally (Yen et As such, the present study is attempted to model
al.2014). It is, therefore, important on the part of the transboundary Brahmaputra River basin which
the model practitioners to understand the faces acute data scarcity.
watershed characteristics as well as the different Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT)
processes simulated in a hydrologic model is used in this study, to build a model for the
(Daggupatiet al.2015), prior to proceeding for transboundary Brahmaputra River basin, and
modeling. calibration and validation of the model results are
In case of a small watershed, the done using SWAT-CUP. SWAT is a
information regarding land use, soil, management comprehensive, semi-distributed process-based
practices etc. can be obtained, and as such, it river basin model that requires several input
becomes easier to develop and calibrate parameters, which complicates model
hydrologic models. There have been many region- parameterization and calibration (Arnold et
specific studies for hydrologic assessment for the al.2012).It describes interactions between
401
Theme E
Fig.1 Map of the study area showing stream network
various hydrological processes and considers measured river discharge at Pancharatna

spatial variations of input parameters (Lempert (26.201282N; 90.575692E) have been used for
and Ostrowski 2002). It is semi-physically based the calibration (1999-2008) and validation (2009-
and allows simulation by dividing the watershed 2012) to determine the model performance, based
into a large number of sub-watersheds on some calibration statistics as per "SWAT user
(Abbaspour et al.2007). The SWAT model manual".
incorporates a series of modules viz. water flow,
water balance, sediment transport, vegetation
growth, nutrient cycling, and a weather generator 2. STUDY AREA
(Lee et al.2011). While compared with several
other hydrologic and water quality models, SWAT The present study is carried out for the
was found to be very efficient in simulating the transboundary Brahmaputra river (Fig.1), which
monthly and annual flow (Borah and Bera 2004), originates in Tibet at an elevation of 5300 m. Out
and an estimation of phosphorous loss (Shepherd of its total length of 2,880 km, the Brahmaputra
et al.1999) from a watershed. (also popularly known as ‘Tsangpo’ or
The SWAT model in this study is ‘YarlungZangbo’ in China)flows 1625 km in Tibet,
established using ArcSWAT2012 to assess the parallel to the main range of Himalayas before
hydrologic behaviour of the Brahmaputra River entering India through Arunachal Pradesh. It
basin. A Watershed model requires adequately travels a distance of about 755 km through India
accurate input information, without which before entering into Bangladesh as ‘Jamuna’, and
expectation of good simulation results become finally merges into the Bay of Bengal to end its
oblivion. While SWAT uses various input journey. The Brahmaputra basin expands over
information like land use, soil, topography and four different countries (Fig.2b): China, India,
weather data to produce output. In context of the Bhutan and Bangladesh, and covers an area of
present study basin, which is transboundary in 5.42 Lacs square kilometre. It yields the world's
nature, global data are utilized for land use, soil second highest sediment discharge per unit
and weather input information. However, a few catchment area (Goswami 1985) and is
observed available values for weather variables characterized by very high stream flow during
are added to the global weather datasets for monsoon season (Maheswari and Sarma2005;
better spatial representation in the model input. Derry et al.2007).
Calibration and validation of the SWAT model
are done using SWAT-CUP platform. As there is
no universally accepted procedures or guidelines 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS
for calibration (Moriasi et al.2012), experiences
shared by different researchers (Refsgaard and
Storm 1996; Jakeman et al.2006; Bennett et In this study, a SWAT model is established in
al.2013) were utilised for calibration and validation ArcSWAT2012. The ArcSWAT ArcGIS extension
of the hydrologic models. Eight different is a graphical user interface for the SWAT, which
parameters were identified during is a watershed simulator operating on a daily time
parameterization and sensitivity analysis and step (Arnold et al.1998). Based on the Shuttle
these were optimized using SUFI2 algorithm. The Radar Transmission Mission (SRTM) Digital
402
Theme E
(a) (b)
Fig.2 Brahmaputra Basin map showing: (a) weather stations, (b) countries under the Basin
between Asian International Rivers Centre,

Elevation Model (DEM) with 90m spatial Yunnan University and HSS & Civil Engg.Dept, IIT
resolution, the flow direction and stream network Guwahati. As these data sets have no missing
(Fig.2b) are generated and subsequently the values, no gap filling was needed in this study.
Brahmaputra basin is delineated. SWAT utilizes The SWAT model is developed by using 22 years
landuse and soil data to divide the watershed into weather data (1991-2012) on a daily time step
multiple Hydrologic Response Unit (HRU) that basis and then run to have output during 1999-
represents an area consisting of unique land use, 2012. The monthly SWAT model is calibrated
soil characteristics, topography, and management (1999-2008) and validated (2009-2012) for stream
practices. The present study uses 0.5km MODIS- flow values at Pancharatna by using SWAT-CUP,
based global landuse (https://landcover.usgs.gov) which is an interface developed for SWAT. Here,
and 0.9km resolution soil map that is provided by the observed discharge data at Pancharatna are
Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). 36 collected from the Central Water Commission
watersheds are further sub-divided into 1578 (CWC). Moreover, the present study incorporates
HRUs based on the DEM, land use, soil and parameter uncertainty during iteration (SUFI2)
slope. approach, and then the performance of the
The hydrologic cycle is influenced by weather SWAT-CUP model is evaluated on the basis of
variables (viz. rainfall, air temperature, solar statistical parameters "(SWAT-CUP user
radiation, wind speed, and relative humidity), manual)". Here, the parameters like coefficient of
which eventually controls the water balance of a determination (R2), Nash-Sutcliffe coefficient (NS),
watershed. The present study uses three sources Present bias (PBIAS), P-factor and R-factor are
of climate data (Fig.2a): (i) 35 sets of Climate used in this study to decide the model strength.
Forecast System Reanalysis (CFSR) data,
provided by Texas A &M University (TAMU) as
gridded high resolution weather data. Each of 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
these weather datasets consist of six variables:
precipitation, maximum/minimum temperature, In SWAT-CUP, manual adjustment of parameters
relative humidity, solar and wind speed; (ii) 6 sets is possible between auto-calibration runs, for
(station data) of observed data collected from performing sensitivity and uncertainty analysis.
Indian Meteorological Department (IMD). As the While the sensitivity analysis helps to focus on
solar and relative humidity data were not available calibration, uncertainty analysis is carried out to
with us, we have taken from the corresponding obtaining the statistics for goodness-of-fit. The
global stations in close proximity, including the time series plot (Fig.3a) shows that the SWAT
missing values of precipitation, temperature and model is capable in simulating the monthly
wind; and (iii) 8 sets of observed weather data discharges in a similar trend to the observed
over China, obtained through Collaborative project discharges at Pancharatna. SWAT-CUP produces
403
Theme E
120000
Observed Simulated
Flow (Cumec)
100000
80000
60000
40000
20000
0
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
Jan'99
Jan'00
Jan'01
Jan'02
Jan'03
Jan'04
Jan'05
Jan'06
Jan'07
Jan'08
Jan'09
Jan'10
Jan'11
Jan'12
Time (Months)
Fig: Simulation at Pancharatna , 1999-2012
80000 R² = 0.81 NS = 0.75 RPBIAS= 9.4 Observed

Flow (Cumec)
60000
40000 Calibrated
20000 p-factor = 0.74
0
r-factor = 1.07
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
Jan'99
Jan'00
Jan'01
Jan'02
Jan'03
Jan'04
Jan'05
Jan'06
Jan'07
Jan'08
Time (Months)
Fig: Calibration at Pancharatna , 1999-2008
80000
observed
Flow (Cumec)
60000
simulated
R² = 0.79 40000
p-factor = 0.83 NS = 0.66 20000
r-factor = 1.27 RPBIAS= 1.6 0
July
July
July
July
Jan'09
Jan'10
Jan'11
Jan'12
Time (Months)
Fig: Validation at Pancharatna , 2009-2012
Fig.3: Model results: (a) Simulation, (b) calibration and (c) validation; all at Pancharatna
output results as 95PPU (i.e. 95% prediction shows how well the observed values fit the
uncertainty) as well as the best fit. SWAT-CUP calibrated values. The model can be termed as
tries to capture most of the measured data within only 9.4% biased during calibration; which,
95% prediction uncertainty (95PPU) during however, improved during validation showing only
iteration. Here, two indices are used for goodness- 1.6% bias.
of-fit: (i) P-factor to represent the fraction of
observed data bracketed by 95PPU band and
varies from 0 to 1, where 1 indicates cent percent 5. CONCLUSION
bracketing by 95PPU, and (ii) R-factor to
represent the thickness of 95PPU and a value of The present study uses a well-established SWAT
less than 1.5 is acceptable (Abbaspour et al. program for hydrologic assessment of the
2007). The time series plot for calibration (Fig.3b) transboundary Brahmaputra River basin. In the
and validation (Fig.3c) clearly indicates an event of non-availability of observed data,
acceptable value of the statistical parameters, especially for the present transboundary river
which defines the strength of the present model. basin, we used input information from the global
The higher value in R2 during both calibration sources. However, a few datasets for actually
(0.81) and validation (0.79) indicates a strength of observed weather variables could only be possible
the relationship between the observed and to incorporate in this study due to its spatial and
simulated flow values, whereas higher NS value temporal scarcity. The results show a good
404
Theme E
agreement between the simulated and observed Derry, L.A., Stedinger, J.R., Duncan, C.C.2007.A
flow values with R2 as 0.81 (calibration) and 0.79 Simple Predictive Tool for Lower Brahmaputra
(validation). The higher values of P-factor during River Basin Monsoon Flooding.Earth
calibration (0.74) as well as validation (0.83) Interactions, Volume 11, No. 21, pp-1, 2007.
indicate good strength of the present model. So, it Goswami, D.C.1985. Brahmaputra River, Assam,
is evident that the model provides reasonable India: Physiography, Basin Denudation and
output results of stream flow at Pancharatna, and Channel Aggradation.J.Water Resources
can also be applied for the other hydrologic Research, VOL. 21, NO. 7, Pg 959-978, JULY
assessment. The capability of the model to 1985.
estimate flow at other locations are going on as an Harmel, R.D., Cooper, R.J., Slade, R.M., Haney,
extension of this study. R.L., Arnold, J.G. 2006. Cumulative uncertainty
in measured stream flow and water quality
data for small watersheds. J. American Society
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stations located in China (Tibet).
406
A LABORATORY STUDY ON THE EFFECTIVENESS OF SUBMERGED

VANES IN RIVER TRAINING WORK
(ICID2018_E_004)
Anupal J Baruah1
Ph.D research scholar,IITGuwahati,Guwahati,Assam,India
ABSTRACT
Sediment control in rivers may be required to provide greater channel capacity, maintain a certain optimum flow
depth, improve non regime channels, prevent bed and bank erosion, or divert flow from one channel to another, or to
a water intake. Many different techniques are available for that. In the majority of cases, the effects of structures like
groynes, dykes, deflectors, etc. on bed morphology can be considered to be local to the engineered reach. A major
difficulty with these techniques is the lack of analytical tools for predicting their effectiveness and impact on the
channel. Cost is a major design factor. Many of the standard control structures are expensive and often cannot be
justified economically. The technique explored in this study, the submerged-vane technique, appears to be a viable
alternative to the traditional techniques. The vanes are small flow training structure designed to modify the near bed
flow pattern and redistribute flow and sediment transport within the channel cross section. The structures are
installed at an angle of attack 15-25° .with the flow and their initial height is 0.2-0.4 times local water depth at design
stage. The vanes function by generating secondary circulation in the flow. As a result the river bed aggrades in one
portion of the channel anddegrades in another. Laboratory experiments have been conducted in a straight channel at
the hydraulics laboratory of Assam Engineering College. Three different shape of vanes have been used at different
flow condition at an angle 25⁰ to the flow direction and the results have been compared.
Keywords: Submerged Vane, Angle of Attack, Secondary current, Sedimentation.
1 INTRODUCTION design stage. The vanes function by generating

secondary circulation in the flow. The circulation
Sediment control in rivers may be required to alters magnitude and direction of the bed shear
provide greater channel capacity, maintain a stress and cause a change in the distribution of
certain optimum flow depth, improve non regime velocity, depth and sediment transport in the area
channels, prevent bed and bank erosion, or divert affected by vane. As a result the river bed
flow from one channel to another, or to a water aggrades in one portion of the channel and
intake. Many different techniques are available for degrades in another.
that. Sediment transport, particularly of bed
material load, is key to the development and
maintenance of natural alluvial channels. In the 2 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
majority of cases, the effects of structures like
groynes, dykes, deflectors, etc., on bed According to Zimmerman and Kennedy (1978)
morphology can be considered to be local to the when the centrifugal force per unit mass exerted
engineered reach. However, if sediment transport on the fluid, the streamline curvature increases
patterns are significantly modified their influence upward from bed as the square of the tangential
may extend further downstream. Field component of the local fluid velocity and is
experiences with restored or rehabilitated rivers greatest at or near the water surface. The fluid at
indicate that this can occur. Consequently, a the upper portion of the channel is driven outward
proper understanding of the effects induced by to concave bank and as a result of continuity
hydraulic structures on velocity distribution, requirement the fluid at the lower level moves to
sediment transport, and bed evolution are the inner bank. Hence a secondary or a spiral
necessary in order to achieve desired goals motion is created in the fluid as it moves around a
without any unwanted impacts. This is especially channel bed. Near the bed concentration of
true in the case of meandering channels where a deposited sediment is higher and the secondary
complex flow pattern already exists. current moves this sediment and deposits them
The vanes are small flow training structure near the bend where as the concave bank is
designed to modify the near bed flow pattern and subjected to erosive attack of sediment deficient
redistribute flow and sediment transport within the fluid from the upper layers of stream and the bed
channel cross section. The structures are installed near the outside bank is scoured.
at an angle of attack 15-25° with the flow and their Oddgard and Spoljaric (1986) concluded that
initial height is 0.2-0.4 times local water depth at the change in flow depth induced by vane is
407
Theme E
proportional to vane induced transverse velocity vanes, 6 number of trapizoidal vane and 6 number
component near the bed. They found change in of curved vane. A grid area of 1mx1m has been
flow depth by transporting sediment sideward taken The vanes were made of mild steel.
rather than the downstream. They also suggested The experimental programme is organised in
that vane height H be so chosen that the ratio H/d two phases. In the first phase, the submerged
lies within 0.2<H/d<0.5 at all erosion causing flow vanes were placed parallel to each other with an
rates and the vane length L should be of the order angle of attack of 250
of 3-4 times vane height. In the second phase, the submerged vanes
Based on the field data Odgaard and Marconi were placed in a zig zag way with angle of attack
(1987) concluded that submerged vane technique of 250
is feasible and realistic alternative to the traditional
techniques e.g. rock rip-rap and spur dikes.
Oddgard and Wang (1991) used the shape of
submerged vane as double curved foils with slight
twist in their experimental study. The curves were
like J shape vane with slight twist at the leading
edge on its top horizontal plane
Barkdoll et al (1999) used the double vane with
the aim to enhance its effect. It consists of an
upper vane, set at opposite angle of attack, with
the same dimension and placed just under the
water surface. They concluded that double vane
increased the amount of turbulence at the
diversion entrance and thereby increased
sediment movement than that of a single vane.
According to Oddgard and Kennedy (1983)
suggested that optimal angle of attack for which
the vanes are still effective in reducing secondary
current without producing any scour hole must lie
between 10° − 17°. Fig 1- Dimension of the vanes.
Again Odgaard and Spolgeric (1986)
concluded that angle of attack is 15°. If the angle
exceeds 15° scour may occur due to flow
separation, but for bend channel Odgaard and
Mosconi (1987) suggested that angle is nearly
equal to 20°.
For the first time, Marelius and Sinha
(1998) concluded that optimal angle of attack is
very close to 40° where the vane produces the
strongest circulation.
According to Alireza Maszedi, Behran
Morratab and Ali Saveri (2011) from Iran have
studied the effect of the angle on submerged
vane. They have performed the laboratory
experiment on a flume at angles 15°, 20°, 25°and
30° with Froude numbers 0.236, 0.252, 0.269 and Fig 2- Layout of the vanes in parallel pattern
0.286. They found that for 15° scour hole
decreases and for 30°it increases so it is clear that In second phase (Fig3) of the experiment, the
angle of the submerged vane decreases with the pattern of installation of vane has been changed.
flow, the scour hole decreases. In phase 1 experiments vanes were installed in
parallel pattern whereas in this case vanes were
installed in zigzag manner. Total number of
3 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME different shaped vanes with two vane each row
has been installed. Initially for the first row, vane
Extensive experimental work for the present study
to right bank distance was maintained at 30cm
is planned and carried out in the Hydraulics
and for the second row vane, right bank distance
Laboratory of Department of Civil Engineering,
was maintained at 45cm. The third row of vanes
Assam Engineering College, Guwahati..All the
were placed parallel to the first row. All vanes
experiments were performed in a 1 m wide flume
were installed at angle of 25⁰ to the flow direction.
of 20 m length using 6 (six) number of rectangular
408
Theme E
Fig 4: Deposition of sediments around the 2

Fig3: Layout of the vane in zigzag pattern
numbers of vane and 3 numbers of vane in one
row
ii) Different shape of vanes like rectangular,

Table-1
trapezoidal and curved vane have been used in
the experiment and deposition or scouring pattern
Depth Velocity Discharge Froude’s Type Angle around different shaped vanes have been studied
of no of of .It is found that at almost all the sections
flow flow attack rectangular vanes gives satisfactory results than
0.14m 0.11m/s 0.02 0.09<1 Sub- 25⁰
other shaped vanes.
cum/sec critical
iii) In parallel pattern vanes are placed parallel to
0.10m 0.18 0.016 0.18<1 Sub- 25⁰ each other where as in zigzag pattern alternate
m/sec cum/sec critical rows are placed parallel to each other.. It is found
that parallel placing of vane is more effective than
the zigzag pattern.
4 RESULT AND ANALYSIS
i) After plotting the results at different sections in

the grid area, it can be shown that three vane in
one row covers a larger area for deposition of
sediment particle as compared to two vane row
and deposition is more .Since from the
experimental run it is found that at almost all the
section three vanes in a row is more effective than
two vane in one row.
409
Theme E
AmiriSajjad, Shoushtari Mohammad Mahmoudian

,ZadehHoushangHasouni, “Laboratory
investigation effect of submerged vanes angle
Fig-5-Sedimentation around different

shape of vanes
5 CONCLUSION
Based on the present experimental study,

following conclusions can be drawn
1) Rectangular vanes are more effective in
creating sediment deposition as compared to the
other shaped vanes. It is found that maximum
deposition takes place within the vane controlled
area with less local scour hole.
2) Trapezoidal and curved vane produces large

local scour hole around the vane so that it reduces
the effectiveness of the vane in sediment
deposition within the vane controlled area.
3) By increasing the number of vane in each row,

amount of deposition can be increased.
4) It is also noticed that placing of vanes in parallel

rows is more effective and beneficial than the zig -
zag pattern because in zig-zag pattern the
deposition is not uniform and hence the bank line
will not be aggraded properly whereas in parallel
pattern approximately uniform deposition has
been noticed during the experimental run.
REFERENCES
AlirezaMasjedi, BehmanMortab and Ali Saveri, “

Study of effect of submerged vane on scour
hole.”(2011)World applied science journal13(9)
:2047-2051,2011 ISSN-1818-4952
410
THE EFFECT OF VARIATION OF SEISMIC COEFFICIENTS AND

LOCATION OF DRAINAGE GALLERY ON THE BASE WIDTH OF A
CONCRETE GRAVITY DAM
(ICID2018_E_005)
Sukanya Talukdar1, Dr. Prasanna Kumar Khaund2
1 Assam Public Health Engineering Department, Jorhat, Assam, India

2 Professor &HOD,Civil, Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India
ABSTRACT
The earthquake force and uplift pressure contribute to the major forces acting on a concrete gravity dam. In this
study,the design base width of a dam under both tail water and no tail water condition was obtained for different
seismic conditions by varying the earthquake coefficients in both vertical and horizontal directions, by equating the
different factors of safety for a dam with their limiting conditions. The shape of the Mettur dam in India was
considered and the design base width was calculated using Newton Raphson method in C++ and their variation
plotted. Static analysis was carried out for different seismic coefficients. A study on the variation of base width, with
change in the position of drainage gallery was conducted. A comparison was done in the design base width obtained
for a particular case of earthquake without drainage gallery, to the design base width obtained with drainage gallery,
in different locations for that earthquake condition. The optimum location of the drainage gallery was found to be lying
within the range of 0.25-0.5 times the base width from the heel of the dam from practical point of view.
Keywords: Base Width; Drainage Gallery; Horizontal Earthquake Coefficient; Uplift; Vertical Earthquake Coefficient.
1 INTRODUCTION concrete gravity dam was conducted using

ANSYS where vertical, principal and shear
Dams are major hydraulic structures which restrict stresses were obtained using earthquake
the flow of water or underground streams thereby intensities in the range of 0.1g-0.3g in an
creating reservoirs. The water which is stored by increment of 0.05g, it was found that the dam
reservoirs can be used for different purposes like could be made safer by flattening the upstream
human consumption, irrigation, hydropower, face of the dam. Also it could not be possible to
industrial use, aquaculture, and navigability. The achieve the required factor of safety with smaller
water retained from the dam can be evenly dam section and thus huger sections are required.
distributed in between locations. A concrete According to Arun and Raghuraman (2016),
gravity dam is a structure whose own weight after a study on the response of the Koyna Dam
resists the external forces like water pressure, under different earthquake accelerations using
uplift pressure, pressure due to earthquake forces, ANSYS, it was found that the actual section of the
silt pressure, ice pressure, wind pressure and Koyna Dam was safe in compression but failure
wave pressure etc, and makes it stable. occurred due to tension at the downstream side
Depending on the location where the dam is where change of slope occurs and hence the dam
constructed, the earthquake forces acting on the was remodeled and the modified section was
dam in that zone are assessed using IS-1893, analyzed for different stresses. The study involved
Part I, 2002. Various soil characteristics, ground the finite element modelling of gravity dam
water level, provision of drainage galleries, subjected to earthquake acceleration having
contribute to the variation in the uplift pressure in maximum amplitude of 0.5g in ANSYS 12.0.
the dam. According to Chawla et al. (1990) for the study
The consequences of a large dam failure can of optimum location of drains, it was found that if a
be disastrous, which makes the consideration of number of drainage galleries are constructed in a
seismic stability of a dam of great importance. dam, then the optimum location of drains shifts
Many researches have been done in this field and towards downstream with the increase of spacing
several sites have been studied because of the of the drains and the decrease in diameter of the
risk posed to the population downstream of the drains. This study concluded that the uplift
dam lest any failure should occur, as the seismic pressure in a dam is dependent on the size,
design concepts used at the time most existing depth, location, spacing of drains porosity of the
dams were built were inadequate. soil, jointing, faulting and the grout curtain.
According to Ali et al. (2012),after a According to El-Razek and Elela (2001) it was
comparative study in the design and analysis of found that the optimum location of the drainage
411
Theme E
gallery underneath a gravity dam was 0.5B from Figure 2. Model of the dam with drainage gallery
the heel of the dam of base width, B, after a study and uplift pressure acting on the dam
was done experimentally. On the other hand
according to Uday and Hasan (2016) the optimum 3 METHODOLOGY USED
location of drainage gallery under gravity dam was
studied using a computer program package The study has been conducted in two stages,
“SLIDE V.5.005” and found to be 0.167B from the firstly to find the design base width of the dam for
heel of the dam. different earthquake coefficients, taking an
arbitrary value of uplift for all cases, for both tail
water and no tail water condition of the dam, and
2 MODEL OF THE DAM secondly to find the optimum location of drains, for
different values of earthquake.
In the present study, the shape of the Mettur dam
has been considered for the analysis purpose. 3.1 Earthquake forces
Mettur dam is situated over the River Kaveri.
Located in the Salem district of Tamil Nadu it is it A constant height of dam of 50m is considered for
is one of the oldest concrete gravity dam of the the analysis with a freeboard of 4.0m and a tail
country. The height of a dam is taken as 50m, and water level of 10.0m. The coefficient of friction is
its base is assumed to be divided in proportions of taken as 0.75 and the shear strength of concrete
the base width, B, as 0.24B, 0.12B and 0.64B. is taken as 1400 N/mm 2. Uplift coefficient is
Also drainage galleries are introduced at arbitrarily taken as 2/3. These parameters are
distances ranging from 0.1-0.9B. Figure 1 user defined and these may vary as per
represents the model of the dam taken for the convenience and location of the dam. The base of
study and Figure 2 is the model of the dam with the dam is divided into three sections which are in
drainage gallery and the representation of the proportion to B. The forces considered are the
uplift pressure acting on the dam. weight of the dam, which gives the resisting
moment and water pressure, uplift of water,
hydrodynamic pressure and earthquake pressure
which contributes to the overturning pressure in
the dam.
According to Zangler, total hydrodynamic
pressure,
Pe= 0.726 peyH [1]
where, H is the height of the full reservoir level

pey is the hydrodynamic force given as
pey = CmαhγwH [2]
Cm= 0.735Ө/90˚ [3]
where Ө = Inclination of upstream face with

horizontal, γw = Unit weight of water, αh =
Figure 1. Dam model taken for the study. Horizontal earthquake acceleration.
Then the moment due to hydrodynamic force,
Me = 0.412PeH [4]
The net vertical and horizontal forces are

calculated and hence the resisting moments, MR,
and the total overturning moments, MO, are
computed. Equating the factor of safety against
overturning = 1.5, sliding = 1, shear friction factor
= 4, and accepting the values of αv and αh from
the user, equations are obtained in terms of the
variable B, i.e. the base width of the dam. These
equations are solved by Newton Raphson method
in C++ to arrive at a particular value of base width,
B. Earthquake coefficients within the range of αh =
0-0.10g and αv = 0-0.10g are chosen with an
increment of 0.01g. IS-1893, Part 1, 2002
recommends a value of 0.1g as the maximum
412
Theme E
earthquake coefficient, however for severe cases

a value up to 0.3g may be considered.
3.2 Consideration of Uplift Parameters
At first the full reservoir level of water is taken as

50m and tail water is taken as 10m, and drainage
galleries are considered at different locations and
equations are obtained by equating the factor of
safety for sliding, factor of safety for overturning,
factor of safety for shear friction with their
respective limiting values, using a fixed value of
earthquake coefficient, say αv = 0.03 in this study.
αh is varied from 0-0.1g. Hence different values of
uplift forces are obtained for each case and these
equations are solved by programs in C++ using
Newton Raphson method to get the value of the
variable B. The effect of uplift is seen and the
value of the design base width for a particular
case of factor of safety, for αv = 0.03, obtained for
the dam with drainage gallery at different locations
is compared to the value of design base width for
the same conditions of the dam but without
drainage gallery.
Figure 3. Variation of base width with different
values of αv and αh for sliding effect (No tail water
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS condition)
The variation of base width for both tail water and

no tail water condition are obtained for different
seismic coefficients and are plotted as seen in
Figures 3 to 8 for the factor of safety of sliding,
overturning and shear friction. Comparison is
done on the variation of base width for both
drainage gallery and no drainage gallery
conditions. Figures 9 to 11 represent the
comparison of the dam base width when the
drainage gallery is present within the range of
X1/B = 0.1 - 0.9 to the no drainage gallery
condition. Here X1 is the position of drainage
gallery from the heel of the dam of base width, B.
4.1 Effect of Static Seismic Load on the Base

Width of the dam
Figure 4. Variation of base width with different

values of αv and αh for overturning (No tail water
condition)
413
Theme E
Figure 5. Variation of base width with different Figure 7. Variation of base width with different
values of αv and αh for shear friction effect (No tail values of αv and αh for overturning (Tail water
water condition) condition)
Figure 6.Variation of base width with different

values of αv and αh for sliding (Tail water
condition) Figure 8. Variation of base width with different
values of αv and αh for shear friction (Tail water
condition)
414
Theme E
4.2 Effect of Drainage Gallery on the Base

Width of the dam
Figure 11. Comparison of base width for different

drainage gallery conditions, for factor of safety for
shear friction
5. CONCLUSION
The variation of base width of the dam with the

Figure 9. Comparison of base width for different variation of seismic coefficients were observed.
drainage gallery conditions, for factor of safety for From the study it was seen that the variation in
base width, B, is almost linear up to a value of αh
sliding
= 0.05, after which the value is seen to vary
rapidly up to αh = 0.10. For the design purpose of
a dam the maximum value of B shall be
considered amongst all the three factors of safety
for a particular case of tail water condition. It has
been observed that amongst all the three factor of
safety considered, the base width for shear friction
criteria is the least, while it is maximum for the
sliding criteria only when the αv and αh are less.
The base width gradually increases and becomes
maximum in the case of factor of safety for
overturning, as αv and αh increases to 0.1g. Such
a trend is not followed in the case of factor of
safety for shear friction factor, because a constant
value of shear strength of concrete is considered.
It was also seen that the value of base width,
B, is more in case of reservoir with tail water than
in the no tail water condition because of the
presence of uplift pressure in the tail water
condition which increases the overturning moment
Figure 10. Comparison of base width for different in the dam structure.
drainage gallery conditions, for factor of safety for The pressure due to uplift may be reduced by
Overturning provision of drainage galleries in a dam section. It
was observed from the study that when the
drainage galleries are present till X1/B = 0.5, the
uplift was reduced and hence the value of base
width also decreased. BeyondX1/B = 0.5 however,
the reduction in uplift was not significant due to
the presence of drainage gallery. Hence from this
415
Theme E
study it may be concluded that the location of the

drainage gallery may be optimized to be lying
within the range of X1/B = 0.25-0.5 from the
practical point of view.
The present study has been done for the
Mettur dam, but it can be applied for any gravity
dam at any sites by changing the height of the
dam, uplift parameters and earthquake
coefficients that may be applicable for a given site
condition in which the dam is located.
REFERENCES
Ali, M.H., Alam, M.R., Haque, M.N. and Alam,

M.H. 2012. Comparison of Design and
Analysis of Concrete Gravity Dam, Natural
Resources, 3: 18-28.
Arun, K.S. and Raghuraman, S. 2016. Study of
response of gravity dam under earthquake
acceleration, IJSTE - International Journal of
Science Technology & Engineering, 2(12):
461-465.
Chawla, A.S., Thakur, R.K. and Kumar, A. 1990.
Optimum location of drains in concrete dams,
Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE,
116(7): 930-943.
El-Razek, M.A. and. Elela, M.M.A. 2001. Optimal
position of drainage gallery underneath gravity
dam, Sixth International Water Technology
Conference, Alexandria, Egypt, 181-192.
IS: 1893 (Part I), 2002.Indian Standard on Criteria
for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures:
General Provisions and Buildings, Bureau of
Uday, A.M., and Hasan, H.M. 2016. Optimal
location of drainage gallery under gravity dam
by using finite element method, International
Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and
Modern, 2(1): 611-622.
416
A STUDY ON THE SEDIMENT TRAPPING EFFICIENCY OF

PERMEABLE SPUR (PORCUPINE) MODELS IN A MEANDERING
REACH OF A FIELD CHANNEL MODEL
(ICID2018_E_006)
Biplob Gowala1, Bhargov Phukan2, Rituparna Goswami3
Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam
ABSTRACT
Riverbank and in-stream protection is becoming a necessity in many major rivers of India where scouring of the river
bed and bank materials leads to change the river course and thereby flooding and causing losses to lives and
properties in the nearby areas. Protection measures like dykes, impermeable spur embankments etc. associates
with high labor and material cost. Due to the increase in the demand of such economic measures many researchers
have been studying different types of structures to reduce the problem of bed and bank erosion. Nowadays
Porcupines have been also installed in many reaches of the big Indian rivers like Brahmaputra, kosi etc. and have
yielded fairly good performance in erosion control. Studies also proved that porcupines can also be used as
protection work for bridge piers as against scouring. To explore the effectiveness of RCC porcupines as erosion
control measure, detailed investigations were carried out on sediment transport mechanism influenced by the
porcupine structures. In this paper a similar attempt has been made to study the sediment trapping efficiency of RCC
porcupines.
Keywords: Permeable spur; sediment; meandering
1 INTRODUCTION such devices were made of timber or bamboo, but

these have a limited lifespan. Porcupines can be
River training refers to the structural measures used as a pro-siltation protection device for a
which are taken to improve a river and its banks. natural river bank or an embankment. The
River training is an important component in the structures are flexible, which ensures stability
prevention and mitigation of flash floods and against extreme water forces and even
general flood control. River training measures also earthquakes. Porcupines reduce the flow velocity,
reduce sediment transportation and thus minimize intercept and break eddies formed by floodwater,
bed and bank erosion. The three main objectives and fill up scour holes with silt.
of river control may be put as: The ultimate objective of the proposed study is
 To provide minimum required depth for to make critical comparisons between the
allowing uninterrupted navigation. performance of various models of porcupine fields
 To prevent the river from changing its (defined on the basis of some dimensionless
course. When a river changes its course parameters), in terms of their sediment trapping
surrounding valuable property falls in the efficiency.
river course. Thus, the useful land is
turned useless. 2 MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
 To prevent flooding of surrounding area. It
is needless to say that the floods damage 2.1 Porcupine (RCC Porcupine)
crops, villages, towns, etc.
Some Types of river training works are Guide An RCC porcupine consists of six members
Banks, Spurs or Groynes, Levees or made-up of RCC, which are joined with the help of
embankments, Pitched islands, Bank protection the iron nuts and bolts. Depending upon the field
etc. requirements the length of each members may
Porcupines are a form of permeable structure vary from 2m to 3m and cross section is
designed to reduce flow and trap sediment. They 15cm×15cm or 10cm x 10cm. Reinforcement is
have pole-like projections in all directions, usually given using 4 numbers of MS bars of 6
resembling a porcupine with its quills sticking into mm diameter, with stirrups at 15 cm c/c.
the air. They are used as flood control structures,
and for riverbank and bed protection. Porcupines 2.2 Model
can be used in a line forming a spur into a river,
as silting aprons for larger spurs, and in a The porcupine models used in this study are
longitudinal line along an embankment. Originally prepared in reducing scale(Figure1) to match the
417
Theme E
dimensions of the field channel as per the collected bed materials and considering a free
guidelines of CWC manual 2012 (Cl. 2.2.1). The board of 0.05m. The channel profile is made up of
modals are prepared by bamboo sticks of size two distinct shapes, one straight portion and one
5cm in length and 0.5 cm in thickness which were meandering section; so as to facilitate
glued together. Extended lengths of 3cm for each observations under different shapes of reaches.
member of the model are kept for embedding Two 15 HP pumps were installed nearby to collect
them into the simulated river bed in the field water from the JEC lake and feed the same into
channel. Photographs of such typical model are the experimental channel. The water from the
shown in the figure below. pumps was first collected into a chamber (Figure
3). The water released from the collecting
chamber then goes through some energy
dissipaters (steps) for reducing the turbulence of
the flow before entering the main channel. A foot
valve was installed at the bottom of the channel
near its u/s face to regulate the quantity of water
to be fed to the channel in order to maintain
different depths of flow inside it. The d/s of the
channel is again fed to the JEC lake to complete
the circle of flow after it negotiates both the
straight portion and the meander. A steel trolley
was installed to support the point gauge above the
channel on the side walls (with rails on their tops)
that were constructed on both the sides of the
channel. A view of the prepared field channel is
Figure1. Prepared porcupine models
2.3 Bed material
The bed material was collected from river

Bhogdoi, Jorhat. After collecting the river bed
material sample, they were air dried for evaluating
the particle size distribution. The bed of the field
channel was filled with this collected sample up to
a depth of 15 cm from the cut surface. This depth
has been selected on the basis of trial runs in the
channel without porcupine modals with different
discharges (that are to be used for various
observations later on) and observing the scouring also shown in Figure 2.
level for such runs. A channel bed with a minimum Figure 2.The prepared field channel with support
thickness of 15 cm has been found to withstand
significant scouring and subsequent exposure of
the cut surface of the channel under any trial run.
2.4 The Field Channel
All the experiments for this study were carried out

in a field channel that was developed inside the
campus of Jorhat Engineering College, Assam.
The field channel that was developed for the study
is about 27.0 m long, 1.0 m wide and about 0.4m
deep. Out of this 0.4m total depth of the channel,
0.2 m were kept available for flow ,after preparing
he channel bed by filling up the bottom 0.15m with
418
Theme E
Figure 3.The collecting chamber that receives the of the screen modal to the height of the
water from the pump porcupines in the screen. This was achieved by
varying different combinations of pump and foot
valve positions.
3 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The pumps were shut down and water was
again allowed to discharge completely out of the
Before every experimental run, the channel bed channel. Then the ripple heights on the bed were
was levelled and flow was introduced for a again measured at the same nodal points to
particular depth of flow. The required depth of flow observe the sediment deposition in the bed, due
for maintaining different submergence ratios was to the installation of the porcupines. In this
achieved by trying out different pump and valve manner several trials were conducted using
combinations. For example by running both the 15 porcupine screens comprising of 3, 4 and 5 nos of
HP pumps and keeping the foot valve closed, an spurs spaced apart c/c by 3, 4 and 5 times their
average depth of about 12.5 cm was achieved, length. Submergence ratios of 1.5, 2.0 and 2.5 for
which represented a submergence ratio of 2.5. each of the screen modals were found to be
Similarly, by running both the pumps and keeping achievable with the available set-up of feeding
the foot valve open, a submergence ratio of 2.0 pumps and foot valve combinations.
was achieved and by running only one pump- at a
time and keeping the foot valve closed, a 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
submergence ratio of 1.5 was achieved. Before
installing the porcupine models into the channel, 4.1 Results on Experimentations with
free run was conducted for about 20 minutes and Porcupine Field Models
the water was allowed to discharge completely
after closure of the feed. After this the ripple Relevant observations were made to study the
heights of the channel bed to be covered by the relative sediment trapping efficiencies of various
respective field of proposed porcupine modal was trial screen models as per the methodology laid
measured by means of a point gauge. The down and described in the third chapter of this
porcupine field for different porcupine models was report.
considered to cover the length and breadth of the Some indices were coined in this study with
proposed screen modal plus an additional area the intention of comparing the efficiencies
towards its u/s of length equal to the spacing between different screen models with the help of
between spurs and width equal to that of the these dimensionless parameters as per Figure 5.
screen; as shown below in Figure 4. The logic These indices are defined as under:
behind including the additional portion of the bed a) Porcupine Field Density Index (PFDI)
at the u/s face of the screen within the field is = Length of one spur / Spacing between
based on the presumption that some of the the two retards = L/ S
sediment load would be deposited on this area as b) Porcupine Compartment Density Index
the flow gets obstructed by the screen modal. (PCDI)
= Length of spur / Total Length of
Compartment = L/ C
c) Porcupine Field Length Factor (PFLF)
= Length of one compartment of
porcupine field / Total length of
compartments = S/C
Submergence ratio = Av. Depth of flow within the
field / height of the porcupines in the screen
modal
Figure 4.Porcupine field layout for sedimentation

data (Not to scale)
After this free run; the porcupine models of
required combinations were installed and flow was
again introduced by maintaining the depths
required to achieve the desired submergence
ratios. The term Submergence Ratio is defined by Figure 5.Porcupine field dimensions
the ratio between the depth of flow within the field where,
419
Theme E
L= Length of spur 15 3L 0.25 0.11 0.33 2.5 0

C= Edge to edge distance between the 1st spur 16 4S 0.5 0.08 0.33 1.5 2
and last spur (length of compartment)
W= Width of the channel and S = C/C Spacing 17 X 0.33 0.08 0.33 2 0
between the spurs. 18 4L 0.25 0.08 0.33 2.5 -2
The various screen modal combinations and 19 5S 0.5 0.125 0.25 1.5 14
their representative dimensionless indices that 20 X 0.33 0.125 0.25 2 8
were installed in the field channel for the 21 2L 0.25 0.125 0.25 2.5 5
performance study in the project work are
tabulated as under in Table 1. 22 5S 0.5 0.08 0.25 1.5 10
23 X 0.33 0.08 0.25 2 7
Table 1Combinations of spurs and spacing used 24 3L 0.25 0.08 0.25 2.5 6
for the trial screen models 25 5S 0.5 0.06 0.25 1.5 5
Representative 26 X 0.33 0.06 0.25 2 1
Sl no Combination dimensionless 27 4L 0.25 0.06 0.25 2.5 1
indices 1
CD: Cumulative Deposition
PFDI PCDI PFLF The cumulative ripple height entrapped by
1 3spur 2L 0.50 0.250 0.50 different porcupine screen are represented
according to the submergence ratio in (Figure 5)
2 3spur 3L 0.33 0.170 0.50
for SR 1.5, (Figure 6) for SR 2 and (Figure 7) for
3 3spur 4L 0.25 0.125 0.50 SR 2.5
4 4spur 2L 0.50 0.170 0.33
5 4spur 3L 0.33 0.110 0.33
6 4spur 4L 0.25 0.080 0.33
7 5spur 2L 0.50 0.125 0.25
8 5spur 3L 0.33 0.083 0.25
9 5spur 4L 0.22 0.062 0.25
5 OBSERVATIONS ON AMOUNT OF
SEDIMENT TRAPPED BY DIFFERENT
Figure 5.Ripple Heights in SR 1.5
PORCUPINE SCREEN MODELS
All data of the ripple height of sedimentation

trapping by different trial models are tabulated in
Table 2.
Table2
Sl CD(m)
Trial PFDI PCDI PFLF SR
No x10-3
1 3S 0.5 0.25 0.5 1.5 1
2 X 0.33 0.25 0.5 2 0
3 2L 0.25 0.25 0.5 2.5 -2 Figure 6.Ripple Heights in SR 2.0
4 3S 0.5 0.17 0.5 1.5 0
5 X 0.33 0.17 0.5 2 -1
6 3L 0.25 0.17 0.5 2.5 -3
7 3S 0.5 0.125 0.5 1.5 -2
8 X 0.33 0.125 0.5 2 -2
9 4L 0.25 0.125 0.5 2.5 -4
10 4S 0.5 0.17 0.33 1.5 6
11 X 0.33 0.17 0.33 2 4
12 2L 0.25 0.17 0.33 2.5 2
13 4S 0.5 0.11 0.33 1.5 4 Figure 7.Ripple Heights in SR 2.5
14 X 0.33 0.11 0.33 2 2
420
Theme E
Burele S. A., Gupta I. D., Singh M., Sharma N.,

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for different screen models tested in the channel Performances of Spurs,ISH Journal of
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3. For submergence ratio of 1.5 the Division of ASAE , (2000).
sediment trapping increases with Khaund Prasanna Kr., Goswami Rituparna, Das
decreasing PCDI for any given PFDI and Gohin A study on the effect of porcupine on
PFLF. This refers to the fact that sediment the flow velocity in a laboratory tilting type
trapping is directly proportional to the channel using physical modal,4th IRF
lateral extend of the screen into the International Conference, Cochin, India, ISBN:
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more will be the sediment trapping (Portugal), Volume: 1 (2006).
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6 CONCLUSIONS DRAWN Vegetation,Sixteenth International Water
Technology Conference, IWTC 16 2012,
The compilations of all the observations made Istanbul, Turkey (2012).
during experimenting with different trial screen Rahman Md. Lutfor and Osman Md. Showkat:
modals have revealed that for different criteria of “River Bank Erosion Protection Using Bamboo
requirement, different dimensional arrangement of Bandalling Structure: A Case Study, Journal of
modal screens perform best. Civil Engineering (IEB), (2015).
Rominger Jeffrey T., M. ASCE S; Lightbody Anne
Sl Criteria Best Dimensionless F., A.M. ASCE; and Nepf Heidi M.,
no performing representation
A.M.ASCE3, Effects of Added Vegetation on
spur modal of the modal
1 Sedimentation 5 spurs with 2 PFDI = 0.5,
Sand Bar Stability and Stream
within the spacing and a PCDI=0.125 & Hydrodynamics,Journal of Hydraulic
porcupine submergence PFLF=0.25 with Engineering, Vol. 136, No. 12, (2010).
field ratio of 1.5 a submergence Sharpe R. G. and James C.S., Deposition Of
ratio of 1.5 Sediment From Suspension In Emergent
Vegetation, ISSN 0378-4738 Water SA Vol. 32
( 2006 ).
REFERENCES Tal Michal, Gran Karen, Murray A. Brad, Paola
Chris, and Hicks D. Murray: Riparian
B. F. Pramod, Oak R. A.: Relation between spur Vegetation as a Primary Control on Channel
spacing and safety margin of protected bank: a Characteristics in Multi-thread Rivers,American
field verification, International Journal of Geophysical Union, (2013).
Advanced Engineering Research and Studies,
E-ISSN2249–8974 (2012).
421
Theme E
Tambe Rahul Kumar, Kulkarni Deepali : Studies

Of Effect Of Length Of The Permeable Spur
On Various Hydraulic Parameters,International
Journal of Innovative Research in Science,
Engineering and Technology, Vol. 6, Issue 2,
(2017).
Tambe Rahul Kumar, Kulkarni Deepali and
Talegaonkar S.D. Studies of Spacing of
Permeable Spurs In Series,International
Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology
(IJCIET) Volume 8, Issue 5, (2017).
Zhang Hao and Nakagawa Hajime,
Characteristics Of Local Flow And Bed
Deformation At Impermeable And Permeable
Spur Dykes,Annual Journal of Hydraulic
Engineering, JSCE, Vol.53, (2009).
Zhang Hao, Nakagawa Hajime, Kawaike Kenji
and Nishio Kei, Investigation of Suspended
Sediment Transport and Bed Deposition
around Bandal-like Structures,12th
International Conference on Hydro science &
Engineering Hydro-Science & Engineering for
Environmental Resilience, Tainan, (2016).
422
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
A STUDY ON THE EFFECT OF PERMEABLE SPUR IN FLOW DIVERSION
FROM NEAR BANK WITHIN THE STRAIGHT REACH OF AN
EXPERIMENTAL FIELD CHANNEL
(ICID2018_E_008)
Shekhar Jyoti Baruah1, Mr Rituparna Goswami 2 and Dr Prasanna Kumar Khaund3
1 Lecturer, Civil Engineering, Dibrugarh Polytechnic, Lahowal, Dibrugarh-10, Assam

2 Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering, Jorhat Engineering College, , Assam
3 Professor, Civil Engineering, Jorhat Engineering College, Assam
ABSTRACT
Most of the rivers of The north-eastern region of India originate from the foothills of the Himalayas and they usually carry
huge sediment load during most of the time of the year. As these rivers enter the Assam valley, due to drastic reduction
in bed slope, their velocities decrease rapidly and as a result they deposit these sediments on their respective beds,
causing them to rise, reducing the waterway for the flow and form sandbars at the middle of the channels. During
monsoon, when these rivers run in full discharge, the current hits the banks and erode them. Hence the use of effective
river training works is a must in these rivers to counteract the problem of erosion. Different agencies are continuously
applying mitigating measures for controlling riverbank erosion, by laying of porcupine screens. However, the success
rates of such installations are very limited, which may be a result of lack of proper design procedure & specification and
for the fact that the existing layout patterns of such structures are not dependent anyway on the factors like
characteristics of flow and channel geometry etc of the sites where they are intended to be installed. In the present
study, it was planned to critically compare the performance of different porcupine models on the basis of their capacity
to divert the flow from the near bank. During the study scaled down porcupine models were prepared based on
characteristics like channel dimension and discharge. The models were installed in an experimental field channel and
the flow diversion datas from the near bank towards the middle of the channel were collected using Acoustic Doppler
Velocimeter to find out the best performing porcupine models under different submergence ratios.
Keywords: Porcupine, Erosion Control, Permeable spur, flow diversion, Bank protection
1. INTRODUCTION big Indian rivers it becomes necessary to

employ some cost effective measures which
Riverbank and in-stream protection is are reliable as well as economical. Due to the
becoming a necessity in many major rivers of increase in the demand of such economic
India where scouring of the river bed and bank measures many researchers have been
materials leads to change the river course and studying different types of structures to reduce
thereby flooding and causing losses to lives the problem of bed and bank erosion.
and properties in the nearby areas. Protection Nowadays Porcupines have been also
measures like dykes, impermeable spur installed in many reaches of the big Indian
embankments etc. associates with high labor rivers like Brahmaputra, kosi etc. and have
and material cost. Thus in such reaches of the yielded fairly good performance in erosion
control
2. MATERIALS USED AND THE

METHODOLOGY ADOPTED
1
423
2.1 Materials description
2.1.1 Porcupine
i) Prototype (RCC Porcupine)
RCC porcupines (Fig 1) consists of six

members made-up of RCC, which are joined
with the help of the iron nuts and bolts.
Depending upon the field requirements the Fig 2: Prepared porcupine models
length of each members may vary from 2m to
3m and cross section is 15cm×15cm or 10cm
x 10cm. Reinforcement is usually given using 2.1.2 Bed material
4 numbers of MS bars of 6 mm diameter, with
stirrups at 15 cm c/c. The bed material was collected from river
Bhogdoi, Jorhat. After collecting the river bed
material sample, they were air dried for
evaluating the particle size distribution and the
material was found to be poorly graded fine
sand. The bed of the field channel was filled
with this collected sample up to a depth of 15
cm from the cut surface. This depth has been
selected on the basis of trial runs in the
channel without porcupine models with
different discharges and observing the
scouring level for such runs. A channel bed
with a minimum thickness of 15 cm has been
found to withstand significant scouring and
subsequent exposure of the cut surface of the
channel under any trial run.
Fig 1: RCC Porcupines laid in Majuli,Assam
2.2 The field channel
ii) Model
The porcupine models used in this study are

prepared in reducing scale (Fig 2) to match the All the experiments for this study were carried
dimensions of the field channel as per the out in a field channel that was developed
guidelines of CWC manual 2012. The models inside the campus of Jorhat Engineering
are prepared by bamboo sticks of size 5cm in College, Assam. The field channel that was
length and 0.5 cm in thickness which were developed for the study is about 27.0 m long,
glued together. Extended lengths of 3cm for 1.0 m wide and about 0.4m deep. Out of this
each member of the model are kept for 0.4m total depth of the channel, 0.2 m were
embedding them into the simulated river bed kept available for flow ,after preparing he
in the field channel. Photograph of the model channel bed by filling up the bottom 0.15m
is shown below. with collected bed materials and considering a
free board of 0.05m. Two 15 HP pumps were
installed nearby to collect water from the JEC
lake and feed the same into the experimental
channel. The water from the pumps was first
collected into a chamber (Fig 4). The water
released from the collecting chamber then
goes through some energy dissipaters (steps)
for reducing the turbulence of the flow before
entering the main channel. A foot valve was
2
424
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
installed at the bottom of the channel near its Fig 5:The ADV with probe over the steel trolley
u/s face to regulate the quantity of water to be installed in the channel
fed to the channel in order to maintain different
depths of flow inside it. The d/s of the channel 2.3 Acoustic Doppler velocimeter
is again fed to the JEC lake to complete the
circle of flow .A steel trolley was installed to
support the ADV; above the channel on the
side walls (with rails on their tops) that were
constructed on both the sides of the
channel,as shown in Fig 5. A view of the
prepared field channel is also shown in Fig 3.
Fig 6: ADV probe orientation to stream flow
An Acoustics Doppler Velocimeter

works on the principle of capturing change in
frequency in acoustic waves .The ADV sends
out a beam of acoustic waves at a fixed
frequency from a transmitter probe. These
Fig 3: The prepared field channel with the waves bounce off a moving particulate matter
installed porcupine models in water and the three receiving probes listen
to change in frequency of the returned waves.
The ADV then calculates velocities in x,y and
z direction.
2.4 Experimental procedure

Before every experimental run, the channel
bed was levelled and flow was introduced for
a particular depth of flow. The required depth
of flow for maintaining different submergence
ratios was achieved by trying out different
pump and valve combinations. Before
installing the porcupine models into the
channel, free run was conducted for about 20
minutes and the water was allowed to
Fig 4: The collecting chamber that receives the discharge completely after closure of the feed.
water from the pump After this free run; the porcupine models of
required combinations were installed and flow
was again introduced by maintaining the
depths required to achieve the desired
submergence Ratios. As the flow would get
diverted from the near bank towards the
middle of the channel by the spurs, the flow
velocity datas were taken at the middle of the
channel using the ADV, at upstream and
downstream of every porcupine spur installed
within the screen and the change in velocity is
calculated after the flow crosses each
screen.In case of a diversion of flow an
3
425
increase in velocity will be seen in the mid 9 5spur with 5L spacing 1.7
channel as more quantity of water will pass 5spur with 5L spacing 2.0
through the same cross section. 5spur with 5L spacing 2.5
After taking the flow velocity observations, the

pumps were shut down and water was again Where,L=Length of spur
allowed to discharge completely out of the
channel. In this manner several trials were 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
conducted using porcupine screens
comprising of 3, 4 and 5 no.s of spurs spaced 3.1 Effect of submergence ratio on flow diversion:
apart c/c by 3, 4 and 5 times their length.
Submergence ratios of 1.7, 2.0 and 2.5 for From the collected velocity datas from the
each of the screen models were found to be ADV, the percent reduction in velocity after the
achievable with the available set-up of feeding flow crosses each spur in the middle of the
pumps and foot valve combinations. channel is calculated and plotted against the
respective submergence ratios for all the
The models used are listed below: models as shown in the figures below.
Model Combinations Submergence Ratio
1 3 spur with 3L spacing 1.7

3 spur with 3L spacing 2.0


Fig 7: Change in velocity in mid channel due to
4 4spur with 3L spacing 1.7 installation of Model 1 against different
4spur with 3L spacing 2.0 submergence ratios
4spur with 3L spacing 2.5

6 4spur with 5L spacing 1.7

7 5spur with 3L spacing 1.7


426
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
installation of Model 2 against different
submergence ratios

submergence ratios
submergence ratios

submergence ratios
submergence ratios
Fig 14 Change in velocity in mid channel due to

submergence ratios

submergence ratios
427
3) Flow diversion does not seem to be very
prominent beyond the third spur of the
models.
4) The best performing model is found to be the

one with 3 nos of spurs with 3L spacing and
with a submergence ratio of 1.70.
Where L=Length of spur
REFERENCES
Devmurari. R.K , Gandhi H.M , Ramanuj P.S ,

.Dingorkar N.A ,Kulkarni D, Hirave P (2017) “Study of
river training works on permeable groynes”.
Fig 15: Change in velocity in mid channel due to International Journal of Civil Engineering and
installation of Model 9 against different Technology (IJCIET)Volume 8, Issue 6, June 2017
submergence ratios
Khaund P.K , Goswami R, Das G (2015) “A study
It is seen from the above figures that in on the effect of Porcupine on the flow velocity in a
cases of model 1,2,3,6,7 ,8 and 9 ( Figures laboratory tilting type channel using physical
7,8,9,12,13,14 and 15) there has been an model”.Proceedings of 4th IRF International
increase in velocity in the mid channel, which is an Conference on 19th April 2015, Cochin, India
indication of the flow getting diverted from the near
bank towards the middle of the channel. It is Kulkarni D, Oak R.A , Nimbalkar P.T (2013).”
observed that more flow diversion is taking place Verification Studies for Effect of Blockage in
with lesser submergence ratios and the best Permeable Structures. INDIAN JOURNAL OF
performing ratio was found to be 1.70. APPLIED RESEARCH Volume : 3 | Issue : 8 | Aug
2013.
3.2 Effect of spur spacing on flow diversion:
Lee J.T , Chan H.C , Huang C.K , Wang Y.M and
It can be observed from the above cases that Huang W.C (2011) “A depth-averaged two-
more flow diversion is seen with lesser spacing dimensional model for flow around permeable pile
and with a spacing of 3L( where L= Length of groins”. International Journal of the Physical
spur),maximum flow diversion is achieved. Sciences Vol. 6(6), pp. 1379-1387, 18 March, 2011
3.3 Effect of no of spurs on flow diversion: Mohammed Alauddin. M, Tashiro. and Tsujimoto .
T(2011) “Design of groynes modified with both
It is also observed from all of the above cases that alignment and permeability for lowland river
flow diversion is not very prominent beyond the 3rd problems”.AnnualJournalHydraul.Engg.JSCE.
spur of the models. Hence providing more no of spurs
beyond the 3rd spur does not sound very logical from
flow diversion point of view.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions have been drawn

from the present study:
1) Flow diversion towards the mid channel

increases with reduction in submergence
ratio.
2) Reduction in spur spacing within the
porcupine screen also results in better
diversion of flow from the near bank.
6 428
21-22 DECEMBER 2018
7 429
EFFECT OF URBAN SETTLEMENT ON WATERSHED HYDROLOGY OF

FATASIL HILL OF GUWAHATI CITY
(ICID2018_E_009)
Sagarika Patowary1, Arup K Sarma2
1
Associate Project Engineer, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Guwahati, Guwahati-781039, Email:
sagarika.patowary@iitg.ac.in
2
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Guwahati, Guwahati-781039, Email: aks@iitg.ac.in
ABSTRACT
Urban flash floods caused due to sediment and runoff brought down from inhabited hilly areas of Guwahati city is a
serious urban-issue. For planning sustainable watershed management schemes, it is essential to understand the
hydrological alterations resulting from urban development in hilly areas. Fatasil, the largest hill in the Guwahati
Municipal Corporation Area, is having a high rate of urban settlement in recent years. This study determines the
sediment and peak runoff values from 64 watersheds of Fatasil hill for two land use land cover scenarios derived
from LISS-IV satellite images of 2011 and 2015. For the calculation of peak discharge, Rational and NRCS TR-55
methods have been used. Similarly, soil loss is calculated using the Hf-incorporated RUSLE model. Results show
that from 2011 to 2015, peak runoff and soil loss increased by 2.26 and 7.5%, respectively due to the increase in
urban coverage by 3% of the hilly area. That means urban coverage affects the soil loss more severely than peak
runoff. Finally, for the potential uncertainties associated with R and K factors of RUSLE, a sensitivity analysis was
performed revealing that soil loss is more sensitive to the variation of R factor than that of the K factor.
Keywords: Urban settlement, Soil loss, Peak discharge, Hill cut factor
1 INTRODUCTION available for soil loss estimation. WEPP

(Nearing et al. 1989), EUROSEM (Morgan et al.,
Urbanization is growing at a very disquieting rate 1998) etc. are some of those. However, these are
across the world. As given by Cohen (2006),about not applicable to watersheds having no observed
60% of the total population of developing data. In spite of all these, empirical models are
countries will be living in city areas by 2030. It is simple and can be used without observed data.
apparent that urbanization is beneficial for the Rational Method (Kuichling 1889) and NRCS TR-
improvement of economic, cultural and social 55 graphical peak discharge method (SCS 1986)
status of the living population. However, it is are such methods of peak runoff estimation.
equally bringing risk to the natural environment. Similarly, for soil loss estimation, Universal Soil
Increased soil erosion and runoff water are two Loss Equation (USLE, Wischmeier and Smith
such concerns related to rapid and unplanned 1961), MUSLE (Modified Universal Soil Loss
urbanization (Kang et al. 1998; Aswathy and Equation; Williams 1975) and RUSLE (Revised
Sindhu 2013). Universal Soil Loss Equation; Renard et al. 1991)
With the increase of urban cover in an area, are quite widely applied empirical models. Remote
the groundwater recharge, stream base flow, sensing and GIS techniques are enhancing the
evapotranspiration decreases, and the surface applicability of USLE and its upgraded versions by
runoff increases. Similarly, due to the direct providing spatially distributed information of soil
impact of high-intensity raindrops and the energy loss (Fistikoglu and Harmancioglu 2002; Gelagay
transmitted by the surface runoff, soil particles and Minale 2016).
from bare land surfaces easily get eroded (Singh Guwahati, the largest city of Assam, India, is
and Phadke, 2006). All these impacts are having a high rate of urban development in its hilly
amplified in a hilly catchment due to its steep areas. Water and sediment yield from these
slopes. Though the adverse effects of deforested hilly areas are elevating the urban
urbanization on watershed hydrology can be flash flood problem day by day. For planning
measured by direct observation, those are quite sustainable watershed management schemes, it
time-consuming and labour intensive. In past is essential to understand the hydrological
studies, various process-based hydrological alterations resulting from urban development in
models like HSPF (Brun and Band 2000), DORS hilly areas. Fatasil is the largest hill in the
(Zhou et al. 2014), SWAT (Goetz et al. 2011), Guwahati Municipal Corporation Area. In this
MODHMS (Barron et al. 2013)etc. were applied to study, to determine the effect of urban settlements
analyze the impact of urbanization on watershed on watershed hydrology, sediment and peak
hydrology. Similarly, physical models are also runoff values coming from all watersheds of
430
Theme E
Fatasil hill have been calculated for land use land watershed area up to 2.59 sq. km (San Diego
cover scenarios of the years 2011 and 2015. County 2003). Again, the area of the watershed
with ID 53 is6.32 sq. km. Peak runoffs from this
watershed have been calculated by using the
2 MATERIALS AND METHOD NRCS TR-55 graphical peak discharge method
(SCS 1986).
2.1 Study area In Rational Method, peak runoff is given by, Q=
CciAw. Here, a composite value of runoff
The location of the Fatasil hill is shown in Figure coefficient Cc is determined for every watershed
1. It is containing 64 watersheds of variable sizes based on amount of areas shared by LULCs in the
(Watershed IDs are mentioned in the figure). watershed area Aw. In the settlement area of the
Watershed delineation has been performed in hill, the maximum impervious area including the
ArcSWAT by using an SRTM DEM (Shuttle area for infrastructural facilities is taken as 60% as
Radar Topography Mission Digital Elevation given by GMDA (2006). The rest 40% of the
Model) of a resolution of 30 m approximately. The settlement area is taken as bare. The runoff
LULC maps for the hill have been prepared by coefficient for the impervious area is 0.9 (San
using LISS IV satellite images of11 November Diego County 2003; ODOT Highway Division
2011 and 4 December 2015, respectively. 2014). The runoff coefficient values for different
LULCs are shown in Table 1. Again, the time of
concentration needed to determine the rainfall
intensity i from intensity duration frequency (IDF)
curve, has been calculated by using the Bransby
Williamsequation (Williams 1922). To develop the
IDF curve, daily rainfall has been collected from
Regional Meteorological Centre (RMC), Barjhar
for the period from 1969 to 2011. The short
duration rainfall data required has been derived by
using IMD empirical reduction formula
(Chowdhury et al. 2007; Patowary et al. 2016).
The IDF relation for 5 year return period is given
byI (mm/hr) = 40.97 (td)–0.66, where tdis rainfall
duration (hour) equal to the time of concentration.
Table 1. Runoff coefficient values for LULC

LULC Runoff coefficient C
Bare soil 0.5 (Sarma 2011)
Forest 0.2 (Sarma et al.
2005; Sarma 2011)
Scrub land 0.3 (Sarma 2011)
Marshy land 0
Water bodies 0 (Sarma 2011)
Urban settlement (60% 0.74
impervious, 40% bare) (=0.9x0.60+0.5x0.4)
Again, in NRCS TR-55 method, the peak

discharge Q (in English system of units) is given
by-Q=qu×A×Qd×Fp, where, qu is the unit peak
discharge (csm/in), A is the watershed area (sq.
Figure1. Location of the study area mile), Qd = runoff depth (in) and Fp is the pond
and swamp adjustment factor. The step by step
2.2 Calculation of peak discharge procedure of the peak discharge calculation by
this methodis referred from SCS (1986). The Soil
For Fatasil hill, no runoff records are available. texture class of the study area is found as Clay
Therefore, in order to study the impact of urban loam as given in Das (1992). Accordingly, the
settlements on peak runoff generation from the Hydrologic Soil Group (HSG) is 'C' (Subramanya
watersheds, Rational Method has been used. 2011). CN values for LULCs, found in the
However, this method is suitable for the watersheds, are taken from Subramanya (2011)
431
Theme E
corresponding to the average moisture condition Information regarding the present surface
(AMC-II) and HSG-C. To convert the peak cover condition of the steep hill cuts (i.e. retaining
discharge value from cfs to cumec, those have wall= 1%, grass/creepers= 39% & bare= 60%)
been multiplied by a factor of 0.0283. and the average hill cut angle (β= 700) is taken as
Finally, peak runoff values were calculated for per the field survey, done by Patowary and Sarma
all the watersheds of Fatasil hill. (2018). The values of Hf and Chu for the hill are
obtained as 0.2674 and 0.5615, respectively.
2.3 Calculation of soil loss Finally, the soil loss maps are prepared for all the
watersheds for the LULCs of the years 2011 and
Here, the study area has no observed soil loss 2015 by multiplying maps of all the factors of
data. So the soli loss from the watersheds has RUSLE in ArcGIS.
been calculated by using RUSLE in GIS-platform
with the incorporation of Hf into cover
management factor. In ortho-rectified satellite 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
images, the standing hill cuts are not projected
horizontally. So, in order to take account of the Table 2 shows the peak runoffs with 5 year return
soil loss from those steep hill cuts, Patowary and period and the annual soil losses for all the
Sarma (2018) mentioned about the hill cut factor watersheds. From 2011 to 2015, urban coverage
(Hf). In RUSLE, the average annual soil loss per increases by 3% of the hill area. Due to this, the
unit area (tons ha-1year-1), A=RKLSCP. For the total peak runoff and annual soil loss from the hill
study area, the rainfall erosivity factor Ris equal to increase by 2.26 and 7.5%, respectively. This
9259 MJ mm ha-1 h-1 year-1(Sarma et al. 2005). indicates that urban coverage affects the soil loss
The hill is having clay loam type of soil (Das more severely than peak runoff. In 2011, the total
1992). So, the soil erodibility factor (K) is taken as peak runoff coming from the hill was 116.16
0.032925 t h MJ-1mm-1as given by Stewart et al. cumec, whereas, in 2015, it became 118.79
(1975). The slope length and slope steepness cumec. The total annual soil loss increased from
factor (LS) has been calculated in ArcGIS by 529032.66 t/yr to 568722.21 t/yr.
using the equation given by Moore and Burch In this study, despite the use of distributed
(1986). Having no support practices in Fatasil hill, values of the C and LS factor, a single R factor
P is taken as 1. The cover management factors equal to 9259 MJ mm ha-1h-1year-1 has been
for different LULCs are taken from previous used. Sarma et al. (2005) calculated this R factor
literature (Patowary and Sarma 2018). value by using rainfall data of core city area
Watersheds of Fatasil hill contain both plain (Hatigarh Chariali) of Guwahati. On the other
and hilly area. Due to the inclusion of Hf, the C- hand, Das (2017) obtained the R factor as 7924
factor for the settlement area in the hilly portion MJ mm ha-1 h-1 year-1 by using rainfall data of
will be higher than that lying in the plain area of RMC Barjhar. Again, as per Das (1992) and soil
the watershed. Mathematically, Hf is expressed by maps of Guwahati city collected from Assam
Eq. 1 and after the inclusion of Hf; the resulting C- Remote Sensing Application Centre (ARSAC),
factor for settlement area in the hilly area of the soils like sandy loam, silty clay etc. are also found
watersheds is given by Eq. 2. The detail derivation in some other hills of Guwahati city. For sandy
of Hf and Chuis available in Patowary and loam and silty clay, K factor values are 0.031608
Sarma(2018). and 0.030291t h MJ-1mm-1, respectively (Stewart
et al. 1975). Therefore, in reality, some variation in
sin𝜃
Hf=sin⁡(𝛽−𝜃) [1] soil texture may be there in the study area. This
indicates that uncertainties are associated with the
parameters- R and K factors. To have an
Chu = (∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖 𝐶𝑖 ) ×⁡ 𝐻𝑓 +Cg [2] understanding about the influence of variation of
these two parameters on the soil loss
where, i = 1, 2, 3,........, n be types of surface computation, a sensitivity analysis has been
covers in steep hill cuts carried out. Sensitivity analyses of R and K have
ai= Fraction of the total steep hill cut area been performed within the range (7924, 9259) MJ
covered by the ith type of surface cover. mm ha-1 h-1 year-1and (0.030291, 0.032925) t h
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖 = 1
MJ-1mm-1, respectively (Fig. 2). Since, RUSLE is a
Ci= Cover management factor of the ith multiplicative equation, the soil loss from Fatasil
type of surface cover. hill is found to change linearly with the change in
θ= Natural slope of the hill. Here, θis the parameter values. It is observed that the soil
taken from the slope map of Fatasil hill prepared loss value is more sensitive to the variation of R
from the DEM in ArcGIS. factor than that of the K factor. Within the
β= Average steep hill cut angle in the hill. considered range, the percentage change in soil
loss is 14.42 for unit percent change in R factor;
432
Theme E
whereas, the same for K factor is only 8. Based on IMD and USWB method, Journal of the Indian Water
the degree of sensitivity, it is recommended that Works Association, 39(4):285-292.
paramount care should be taken for determining Cohen, B. 2006. Urbanization in developing countries:
the R factor. Current trends, future projections, and key
challenges for sustainability, Technology in
society, 28(1-2):63-80.
Das, N. 1992. An investigation of soil characteristics of
4 CONCLUSIONS the Greater Guwahati landslide areas, M.E.
Dissertation, Department of Civil Engineering,
This study determines the effect of urban Assam Engineering College, Guwahati.
settlement on watershed hydrology of the largest Das, T. 2017. Catchment degradation due to overland
hill Fatasil in GMCA. For estimation of soil loss water erosion, M. Tech. dissertation, IIT Guwahati,
GIS-based RUSLE has been used incorporating India.
the hill cut factor. Again, for calculation of peak Gelagay, H. S., & Minale, A. S. 2016. Soil loss
runoff, Rational Method and NRCS TR-55 estimation using GIS and Remote sensing
methods have been used. The analysis depicts techniques: A case of Koga watershed,
Northwestern Ethiopia, InternationalSoil and Water
that the soil loss from the hill is getting more Conservation Research, 4(2): 126-136.
severely affected than the peak runoff. Peak GMDA 2006. Building By-Laws for Guwahati
runoff and sediment yield are two basic Metropolitan Area, Guwahati Metropolitan
parameters of drainage system design. Therefore, Development Authority, Guwahati.
the information derived from such analysis can Goetz, S. J., Jantz, C. A., & Sun, M. 2011. Forecasting
provide an insight into the efficient urban flood future land use and its hydrologic implications: A
management. case study of the Upper Delaware River
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Change in soil loss (%)
0 M. E. 1998. The European Soil Erosion Model

(EUROSEM): a dynamic approach for predicting
-4 sediment transport from fields and small
catchments, Earth surface processes and
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Department of Transportation, Geo-Environmental
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from a hilly urban system within sustainable limit, 66.
Doctoral dissertation, IIT Guwahati, India. Zhou, Y., Wang, Y., Gold, A. J., August, P. V., &
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Table 2. Results of peak runoff and soil loss calculations for the watersheds of Fatasil hill.
434
Basin Q Q Annual Annual Basin Q Q Annual soil Annual soil

ID (m3/s) (m3/s) soil loss (t soil loss (t ID (m3/s) (m3/s) loss (t yr-1) loss (t yr-1)
2011 2015 yr-1) 2011 yr-1) 2015 2011 2015 2011 2015
1 3.14 3.19 17318.19 18069.72 33 2.91 3.09 18271.75 21288.79
2 0.30 0.30 190.40 190.40 34 1.39 1.39 2077.29 2155.44
3 0.30 0.30 76.92 76.92 35 2.13 2.13 2969.84 2993.07
4 0.84 0.84 4261.06 4261.06 36 3.15 3.23 23985.74 24171.82
5 0.36 0.37 1443.68 1443.68 37 0.83 0.88 1454.05 1606.59
6 0.34 0.34 1646.28 1646.28 38 0.91 0.93 938.21 1213.36
7 0.44 0.45 335.67 335.67 39 1.38 1.39 1227.25 1295.35
8 3.14 3.15 24744.33 25125.64 40 0.42 0.42 60.70 60.70
9 0.55 0.55 3733.27 3629.06 41 0.29 0.30 83.58 83.58
10 0.41 0.41 390.66 390.66 42 3.71 3.94 19576.50 21917.83
11 2.66 2.66 5325.90 5344.42 43 0.52 0.52 134.50 134.50
12 0.81 0.82 3155.36 3275.00 44 2.84 2.94 17569.07 16981.31
13 0.33 0.36 258.10 281.98 45 0.42 0.42 768.71 819.02
14 0.38 0.44 426.70 500.84 46 0.58 0.67 1651.17 1425.10
15 4.44 4.49 29523.66 30917.12 47 0.69 0.69 458.63 458.63
16 3.06 3.10 15888.97 16314.56 48 1.55 1.59 5990.54 6184.31
17 0.93 0.93 328.69 328.69 49 0.50 0.50 1032.75 1164.64
18 1.25 1.25 4146.64 4146.64 50 0.90 0.90 529.93 529.93
19 2.62 2.67 14422.95 16067.49 51 1.65 1.68 7125.02 7355.40
20 6.78 6.84 40164.54 41113.11 52 0.66 0.70 2135.48 2198.80
21 1.82 1.84 11839.52 11956.27 53 18.18 18.77 116073.86 134638.5
22 2.48 2.54 8217.31 8923.06 54 0.60 0.61 264.17 264.17
23 4.03 4.11 33041.92 36172.36 55 2.29 2.34 10619.04 11102.32
24 3.30 3.32 9075.01 9328.84 56 0.36 0.37 69.63 69.63
25 1.28 1.28 1765.27 1765.27 57 1.82 1.82 2215.02 2272.91
26 2.85 2.87 11307.30 11768.33 58 4.77 4.92 16061.43 19553.39
27 1.17 1.18 375.69 375.69 59 2.00 2.10 13721.55 13542.89
28 0.58 0.60 2033.00 2093.95 60 1.62 1.67 2703.32 2825.44
29 1.65 1.70 6483.98 7258.34 61 0.20 0.21 44.69 44.69
30 0.63 0.63 144.56 144.56 62 1.73 1.77 2599.57 2703.55
31 0.63 0.66 1301.35 1347.38 63 0.35 0.35 347.55 347.55
32 0.53 0.53 110.37 114.47 64 0.76 0.83 2794.86 2611.52
435
A STUDY ON CHANGE IN MORPHOLOGY OF RIVER BRAHMAPUTRA

DUE TO POST CONSTRUCTION EFFECT OF KOLIABHOMORA AND
NARANARAYANA SETU BRIDGE
(ICID2018_E_010)
Nayani Deka1, Dr.Pankaj Goswami2
1
Assistant Professor, Regional Institute of Science and Technology, Meghalaya nayanideka2@gmail.com,
2
Assistant Professor, Assam Engineering College, Guwahati, Assam, India
ABSTRACT
The purpose of bridge construction is to ensure and facilitate the communication over the flow of waterways
conveniently. However, these structures have detrimental effects on the hydrology and morphology of the adjacent
area of the streams as the waterways is constricted. In this study, the effect of construction of bridges on river
morphology is the major consideration. A significant area of the waterways is occupied by bridge piers and there are
different methods to find out the sufficient waterway or opening of bridge depending on the shapes. Considering the
aesthetic point of view pier may occupy more waterways and it’s the engineers challenge to suggest suitable and
substantial remedial measures for making the construction possible with nominal adverse effect on river morphology.
In this report Brahmaputra River and its two bridges namely as Koliabhomora and Naranarayan bridge is taken as
the study area. Bridge pier construction has already been completed before the present study and some severe
morphological response has been observed. This study is carried out to determine the section on downstream of the
bridge where erosion may be maximum after the construction of bridge and thus bank erosion protective measures to
be adopted simultaneously during the time of construction of the bridge. A mathematical model is developed to study
the relationship between river bank erosion, corresponding distance from the bridges site, velocity of river at the
bridge site and diameter of piles. In this study the simulated result was analyzed with Arc GIS. The result may vary
with the river but approach would be the same to resolve this type of difficulties in all rivers and water way.
Keywords: Bridge Construction, Morphology, Brahmaputra River, Mathematical Model, Arc GIS.
1. INTRODUCTION
Understanding of river behaviour on downstream 2. METHODOLOGY AND EXPERIMENTATION

of bridges help in their proper planning, design
and maintenance. Morphology of the Brahmaputra The bank erosion observed to attain a new
River and its aggradation/degradation process has dimension after construction of bridges. The
been discussed with reference to flow of water erosion was found to be high at some downstream
and sediments in the river. Hydraulic analysis is section after such construction. This phenomenon
made of the river behaviour downstream of leads to this study. The study consists of two
bridges as a result of sediment deposition parts: the laboratory investigation and the field
upstream and inadequate energy dissipation due data analysis. For the project work, the river
to skewed hydraulic jump downstream. Proper morphology before and after bridge construction
understanding of river behaviour in the vicinity of was studied by analyzing with arc GIS. Satellite
the bridges is extremely important in their images of the Brahmaputra river corridor were
planning, design and maintenance apart from the identified and selected for the study. The images
safety of the structures. They obstruct the normal selected were taken during the dry season
waterway. On the downstream side of the (November-December) when cloud-free imagery
structures, there is degradation due to release of was available and when water level,vegetation
water with less sediment load and residual kinetic cover and other ground conditions were relatively
energy flow with higher turbulence. Depending consistent. The focused extent of the area for this
upon the extent of constriction and location of the analysis covered the entire Brahmaputra River
structure in the flood plain, the approaching river from Dhubri to Tezpur which is approximately 293
may often be unstable and asymmetric. In such km as shown in Figure1.
case the river may shift its location and wander Firstly, the maps for river Brahmaputra
anywhere within the flood plain resulting in erosion were downloaded for each bridge sites using
of bed and banks. Costly training works are Google Earth, right from 1985 to 2016. The bank
required to prevent the possible shift in the line of the Brahmaputra river is demarcated from
existing river course and outflanking of the each set of imageries and the channel patterns
structures. are digitized using Arc GIS software and the
436
Theme E
change in bank pattern at intervals of 10 years Firstly, the flow was allowed with no bridge
each were studied. Using the maps from ArcGIS, condition. One pump of capacity 10 HP was used
the erosion was calculated and thecorresponding which is supplying water at a velocity of 0.38
distance from the bridge atwhich the erosion m/sec on the channel and water was pumped
occurred. The process was repeated for all the continuously for 3 hours; readings for erosion and
bridge sites at intervals on 10 years each. distance were being taken at an interval of 1 hr.
The same process was repeated with increase in
velocity by using two pumps of capacity 10 HP
and 7.5 HP which is delivering water at a velocity
of 0.5846 m/sec .The water was pumped for 3
hours continuously, readings taken at one hour
interval at the corresponding sections. Now the
flow was observed after constructing a bridge with
two numbers of pier of diameter 1.5 cm and
reading were taken for one pump and two pump
system respectively at an interval of one hour upto
Fig 1-Brahamputra River- from Dhubri to Kobo
(Source-SlideShare.com)
three hour. The same procedure was repeated for
pier of diameter 2.5 cm and readings were taken
To study the relation between bank erosion, at corresponding sections. Using the experimental
corresponding distance from bridge site,velocity of data obtained from the laboratory work, an
river at bridge site and diameter of pier, a model equation was formulated between distance of
study were conducted on a flume of hydraulics erosion from bridge site, corresponding erosion,
laboratory at Assam engineering college. The diameter of the piers and velocity of flow of water.
model of river along with adjacent embankment The data obtained from ArcGIS was then used to
was constructed with erodible river sand of 96 cm validate the equation obtained from the laboratory
wide and modeling the bridge site conditions on it. work.
The banks were made 25cm wide on each side,
hence leaving 46 cm for the flow of water. The
length was fixed at 1000 cm. The model bridge 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
was set up at 200 cm from thestart of the channel.
Now, seven sections at a distance of 20 cm, 140 The study area for Koliabhomora bridge and
cm, 260 cm, 380 cm, 500 cm, 620 cm, and 740 Naranarayan Setu comprising of bridge site along
cm from bridge site were considered at which with a distance of upto8.707 km and 5.154 km
readings were taken. respectively from bridge site in downstream end.
The bank lines were overlapped for 1985 and
1000 2016 to check the probable places of erosion and
mmc
the corresponding distance from the site. This
m
data has been tabulated as below. The following
map show the erosion measured from the bridge
site at different locations. The data, like velocity at
25cm
the bridge sites, diameter of pier, number of pier
96cm Bridge Site are collected from North-Eastern Frontier Railway
(Bridge section).Section X-X represents the bridge
25cm site, and the sections A-A, B-B and C-C represent
the locations at which erosion is measured from
the site.
140
200cm mm 260
cm 380
500
620
740
Fig 2- Laboratory Channel Setup (Drawing is not
to scale- all dimensions are in cm)
437
Theme E
2 0.38 0.025 1.4 0.11

2 0.5846 0 1.4 0.1
2 0.5846 0.015 1.4 0.115
2 0.5846 0.025 1.4 0.12
2 0.38 0 2.6 0.08
2 0.38 0.015 2.6 0.095
2 0.38 0.025 2.6 0.1
2 0.5846 0 2.6 0.09
2 0.5846 0.015 2.6 0.105
2 0.5846 0.025 2.6 0.11
2 0.38 0 3.8 0.075
Fig.3-Brahmaputra River near Koliabhomora Bridge
2 0.38 0.015 3.8 0.09
2 0.38 0.025 3.8 0.095
2 0.5846 0 3.8 0.085
2 0.5846 0.015 3.8 0.1
2 0.5846 0.025 3.8 0.105
2 0.38 0 5 0.07
2 0.38 0.015 5 0.085
2 0.38 0.025 5 0.09
2 0.5846 0 5 0.08
2 0.5846 0.015 5 0.095
2 0.5846 0.025 5 0.1
2 0.38 0 6.2 0.065
2 0.38 0.015 6.2 0.08
Fig.4-Brahmaputra River near Naranarayan Setu 2 0.38 0.025 6.2 0.085
2 0.5846 0 6.2 0.075
The experimental setup consists of
modeling the real situation in the laboratory. The 2 0.5846 0.015 6.2 0.09
erosion is measured at 7 different locations from 2 0.5846 0.025 6.2 0.095
the site for different situations, once without bridge 2 0.38 0 7.4 0.055
(i.e., before construction of bridge) and once with 2 0.38 0.015 7.4 0.07
bridge (i.e., after bridge construction) of 1.5 cm
diameter and 2.5 cm diameter, all situations being 2 0.38 0.025 7.4 0.075
assessed under two different velocities i.e. 0.38 2 0.5846 0 7.4 0.065
m/sec by using one pump of capacity 10 HP and 2 0.5846 0.015 7.4 0.08
0.5846 m/sec by using two different pumps of 2 0.5846 0.025 7.4 0.085
capacity 7.5 HP and 10 HP.The readings taken for
erosion and distances have been tabulated. Using the data obtained from the laboratory
experiments, an equation was formulated by using
No Pier XLSTAT relating bank erosion, corresponding
of Velocity diameter Distance Erosion
distance from bridge site, velocity of river at the
pier (m/sec) (m) (m) (m)
bridge site and diameter of piers.
2 0.38 0 0.2 0.115
2 0.38 0.015 0.2 0.13
D=19.99-313.19*E+196.58*d+6.81*V+912.43*E2-
2 0.38 0.025 0.2 0.135 3305.03*d2
2 0.5846 0 0.2 0.125
2 0.5846 0.015 0.2 0.14 Where E- bank erosion at the downstream end of
bridge site in m
2 0.5846 0.025 0.2 0.145
D- Corresponding distance of erosion
2 0.38 0 1.4 0.09 from bridge site in m
2 0.38 0.015 1.4 0.105 V- Velocity of river at the bridge site in
m/sec
438
Theme E
d- Diameter of pier in m 4. CONCLUSION

This equation was used to validate the
data obtained from ArcGIS and hence, the utility Bridge is an important construction in the line of
of the equation was checked. This equation is communication but the construction of such
valid when the distance is less than or equal to 2 bridges across a river may lead to reduction in
km. To find the distance of erosion at a greater waterway resulting excessive bank erosion as well
distance more data and further study is required. as scour. From the historical data analysis it was
The erosion data obtained after digitizing observed that at certain section on downstream of
the map from Google earth at the bridge site of the bridges undergoes severe bank erosion
the Brahmaputra river are summarized below- causing shifting of river lines which may also
become danger to the constructed bridges.
Considering that effect this study aims to optimize
No Velo Pier Dista Erosi Distanc Bridge
the section on downstream where maximum bank
of city diam nce on e site
pi (m/s eter (obs (m) (calcula
erosion may occur and the subsequent measures
er ) (m) erve ted) (m) that to be adopted at the construction of bridges.
s d) Thus the effect of construction of bridges on the
(m) bank line erosion has been evaluated and the
Naran erosion pattern studied. With the purview of the
21 5.0 18.0 34.3 arayan study, the following conclusions have been drawn:
1400 5 1432.91 setu 1. From the morphological study during
Koliab 1985- 2016 in the constructed two bridges
homor observed that there has been a
22.9 a
considerable change in the morphology of
27 4.0 12.0 900 4 557.59 bridge
Koliab
the river Brahmaputra due to the
homor construction of the bridges.
22.9 a 2. The bank line erosion has shown
27 4.0 12.0 1500 1 1803.20 bridge considerable change due to the
construction of the bridges on the river
Brahmaputra, in some cases several
kilometers from the original position.
2000 3. The equation has been formulated to
1800 study the erosion on the banks at different
1600 R² = 0.981 distances and can be helpful in studying
the erosion pattern on the banks of river
1400 Brahmaputra at the two bridge sites, i.e,
1200 Naranarayana Setu and Kaliabhomora
Bridge.
1000 Series1 4. Once it is possible to locate the maximum
800 vulnerable section the protective
600 measures to be adopted at such section
simultaneously with the construction of
400 bridges to reduce the possibility of bank
200 line shifting.
5. The bank line erosion due to construction
0 of bridges is observed to be maximum in
0 1000 2000 north bank (Refer fig 5 & 6)
From the above analysis and graph a good

agreement was observed between calculated and
observed data up to a distance of 2 km on
downstream of bridge site. Hence the equation
can be utilized for gathering information regarding
distance where the extra precautionary measures
to be adopt in the event of construction of bridge
on river Brahmaputra. However before adopting
the suggested equation a detailed investigation is
recommended.
439
Theme E
40 Chitale, S.V. (2000) “Future of the Kosi River and

KosiProject’J. of Institution of Engineers
35 (I) Vol. 81, Dec, 99 109-114
30
25 Diplas, P. (1990), “Characteristics of Self Formed
Straight Channels” J. of Hyd.Engg.,
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ASCE, Vol. 116, No. 5.
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10 Goswami, D. C., 1998. In Flood Studies in India,
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0
J. D. Das and A. K. Saraf, “Remote Sensing in the
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Map-ping of the Brahmaputra/Jamuna
1.5 cm dia pier with vel 0.5846 m/sec River Channel Patterns and Its Relation to
(North bank) Various Landforms and Tectonic
1.5 cm dia pier with vel 0.5846 m/sec Environment,” International Journal of
(South bank) Remote Sensing, Vol. 28, No. 16, 2007,
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pp. 3619-3631.
(North bank)
1.5 cm dia pier with vel 0.38 m/sec doi:10.1080/01431160601009664.
(South bank) Mazumder, S.K. (1993) “River Erosion
Downstream of a Barrage” Proc. on “River
Scour” org. by CBI & P at Varanasi, 28-29
April
Fig 5- Shifting of bank line in north and south Mazumder, S.K. (1993), “Stability of River
bank for 1.5 cm dia of pier Downstream of Hydraulic Structures”
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org by CW&PRS Pune, Oct. 20-23, pp
50
273-282
40 Mazumder, S.K. and Praveen Kumar (1995)
“Local Scour Downstream of a Level
30 Apron with and without Hydraulic
20 Jump” Proc. 6th International
Symposium on River Sediments and
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0 Mazumder, S.K. (2000) “Role of Farakka
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Barrage on the Disastrous Flood at
Malda (West Bengal) in 1998” Proc.
2.5 cm pier dia with vel 0.5846 m/sec 8th ICID Intl. Drainage Workshop ‘Role
(North bank) of Drainage and Challenges of 21st
2.5 cm pier dia with vel 0.5846 m/sec Century Vol. III, sponsored by ICID –
(South bank) CIID &Min. of Water Resources and
org. by ICD & WAPCOS, New Delhi
2.5 cm pier dia with vel 0.38 m/sec
Jan 31 – Feb4, New Delhi
(North bank)
Mazumder, S.K. (2001) “Training of River
Ganga NearFarakka Barrage: Proc. Of
National conference on Hydraulics and
Fig 6- Shifting of bank line in north and south bank
for 2.5 cm dia of pier
Water Resources HYDRO –2001, org
by Indian Soc. for Hydraulics (ISH) &
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Mazumder, S.K., Rastogi, S.P. and Hmar,
Blench, T. (1957) “Regime Behaviour of Canals Rofel (2002) “Restriction of Waterway
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P. Kotoky, D. Bezbaruah, J. Baruah and J. N.

Sarma, “Nature of Bank Erosion along
the Brahmaputra River Channel,
Assam, India,” Current Science, Vol.
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Singh L., 2003. M. Tech. Dissertation:
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River Using Satellite Data and GIS”,
WRDTC, IIT, Roorkee, India.
441
COMPARISON OF QUADRATIC POLYNOMIAL REGRESSION AND

CUBIC POLYNOMIAL REGRESSION FOR PREDICTION OF RAINFALL
RUNOFF MODEL AT BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER BASIN AT PANDU
LOCATION, ASSAM
(ICID2018_E_011)
Pranami Borah1, Dr. Triptimoni Borah2,
1. M.E. 4thSemester, Civil Engineering (Water Resources Engineering), Assam Engineering College,
Guwahati, Assam, India.
2. Associate Professor, Civil Engineering Department, Assam Engineering College, Guwahati, Assam,
India
ABSTRACT
This study presents the comparison of quadratic polynomial regression and cubic Polynomial regression for
prediction of rainfall-runoff model at Brahmaputra river basin at Pandu Area (42000 km 2) Guwahati, Assam. The
objective of such models is to estimate the amount of runoff from the catchment with the help of regression analysis
and to studied comparison of predicted runoff of quadratic and cubic polynomial regression model with observed data
to help in flood forecasting and watershed planning and management. All calculations and graphs are prepared by
using, NCSS 12 (64 bit) data analysis and M.S. Excel. In this study the average monthly rainfall data of 1993 to 2002
is considered as an input and on the basis of that, comparison is made for the observed discharged data which are
used in two types of Polynomial regression analysis. The values of co-efficient of determination (R2) in cubic
Polynomial regression for 10 years are 0.76, 0.85, 0.81, 0.86, 0.68, 0.53, 0.85, 0.85, 0.66 and 0.605. It is observed
that Cubic Polynomial regression provides good co-efficient of determination (R2) than quadratic Polynomial
regression analysis for simulating monthly runoff.
Keywords: Regression analysis; Quadratic polynomial regression; Cubic polynomial regression; Co-efficient of
determination.
1 INTRODUCTION only runoff is modified by introduction of a time lag

parameter. The nonlinear reservoir model is made
A common hydrologic analysis is the estimation of of a linear term represented by the traditional
surface runoff from a watershed given a convolution integral and a correction term (Basha,
distribution of rainfall (Basha, 2000). Runoff from 2000). Non-linear regression is a powerful
rainwater or snowmelt can contribute significant technique for standardizing data analysis (Brown,
amounts of pollution into the lake or river. 2000). The R2 value is designed to give the user
Watershed management helps to control pollution an estimate of goodness of fit of the function to
of the water and other natural resources in the the data.
watershed transported, and recommending ways
to reduce or eliminate those pollution sources.
Watershed management is also important 2 STUDY AREA
because the planning process results in a
partnership among all affected parties in the Brahmaputra is the one among the mightiest
watershed. That partnership is essential to the rivers of Asia. It is a transboundary river. River
successful management of the land and water Brahmaputra is called Yarlung Transpo in Tibet.
resources in the watershed since all partners have The Brahmaputra Valley has an average width of
a stake in the health of the watershed. It is also an about 80 km. The main river of the valley,
efficient way to prioritize the implementation of Brahmaputra is one of the largest rivers in the
watershed management plans in times when world and rank fifth with respect to its average
resources may be limited. Polynomial models are discharge. The river originates from the Kailash
an effective and flexible curve fitting technique ranges of Himalayas at an elevation of 5300 m
(Ostertagova, 2012).Polynomial regression model after flowing through Tibet it enters India through
is consisting of successive power terms. Arunachal Pradesh and flows through Assam and
A rainfall-runoff simulation model, based on a Bangladesh before it joins Bay of Bengal. The
modified non-linear reservoir (Bhunya, et al., catchments area of Brahmaputra in Tibet is
2015). The existing dynamic equation where 2,93,000 Sq. Km. in India and Bhutan is 2,40,000
storage in a catchment is defined as a function of Sq. Km. and in Bangladesh is 47000 Sq. Km. The
442
Theme E
Brahmaputra basin extends over an area of A polynomial quadratic (squared) term turns a
5,80,000 Sq. Km. up to its confluence within linear regression model into a curve. But because
Bangladesh. The maximum discharge of it is X that is squared, not the Beta coefficient, it
Brahmaputra at Pandu near Guwahati was still as a linear model. This makes it a nice,
recorded as 72,779 cumec on 23.08.62 and straightforward way to model curves without
minimum discharge was recorded as 1757 cumec having to model complicated non-linear models. A
on 22.02.63. The average annual discharge is quadratic term creates a curve with one “hump” a
about 20,000 cumec and average dry season U or inverted U shape. The curve does not need
discharge is 4,420 cumec. The Water resources to contain both sides of the U. It can contain just
Department, Government of Assam established part of it. A second order or quadratic polynomial
two gauge and discharge observation sites one at regression model is
Pandu (near Guwahati, continuing) and the other
at Bechamara (now discontinued). The chainage y = β0 + β1x + β2x2 + ε (1)
from Indo Bangladesh Border is 205 km at Pandu,
near Guwahati. In this study, Pandu site has taken Equation (1) shows a quadratic polynomial
as a gauge and observation site. The watershed regression model. Where the coefficients β1 and
area extends from 250 N to 270 N latitude and β2 are called the linear effect parameter and
920E to 940E longitude and covers an area of quadratic effect parameter respectively. ε is the
42000 km2. error term.
5.2 Cubic Polynomial Regression

3 POLYNOMIAL REGRESSION
A cubic polynomial is a polynomial of degree 3. A
In statistics, polynomial regression is a form of univariate cubic polynomial has the form
linear regression in which the relationship
between the independent variable x and the y = β0 + β1x + β2x2+ β3x3 + ε (2)
dependent variable y is modeled as an nth order
polynomial. Polynomial regression fits a nonlinear An equation (2) involving a cubic polynomial is
relationship between the value of x and the called a cubic equation. A closed-form solution
corresponding conditional mean of y, denoted Known as the cubic formula exists for the
E(y|x), and has been used to describe nonlinear solutions of an arbitrary cubic equation. Cubic
phenomena such as the growth rate of tissues, regression is useful when the line through plotted
the distribution of carbon isotopes in lake data which curves one way and then the other.
sediments, and the progression of disease However, one problem with using cubic regression
epidemics. Although polynomial regression fits a with assay analysis is that the determined curve
nonlinear model to the data, as a statistical might feature a turning point inside the range of
estimation problem it is linear, in the sense that the standards rendering parts of the curve
the regression function E(y|x) is linear in the unusable for concentration calculations.
unknown parameters that are estimated from the
data. For this reason, polynomial regression is
considered to be a special case of multiple linear 6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
regression.
In this study, the goodness of fit was evaluated by
one evaluation statistics, which is known as Co-
4 DATA COLLECTION efficient of Determination. It is denoted R2 or r2, a
number that indicates the proportion of the
I. Monthly Rainfall data. variance in the dependent variable that is
II. Monthly Runoff data. predictable from the independent variable. It is a
Monthly rainfall and runoff data records of river statistic used in the context of statistical models
Brahmaputra are available for 10 years from 1993 whose main purpose is either the prediction of
to 2002, gauged at Pandu, Guwahati. Data has future outcomes or the testing of hypotheses, on
been collected from the Water Resource the basis of other related information. It provides a
Department, Basistha Charali, Guwahati. measure of how well observed outcomes are
replicated by the model, based on the proportion
of total variation of outcomes explained by the
5 METHODOLOGY model. The most general definition of the co-
efficient of determination is:
5.1 Quadratic Polynomial Regression.
𝑆𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑠
R2 = 1- (3)
𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑡
443
Theme E
6.1 Quadratic Polynomial Regression

SSres = Residual sum of squares =∑i (yi-f i)2 = ∑ei2
SStot =Total sum of squares = ∑ (yi-y)2 In this study, independent variable (X-axis) is
Where, rainfall (C3) and dependent variable (Y-axis)
Observed data set = yi = y1, y2, y3…...yn runoff (C4) in NCSS. When NCSS software run, it
Predicted data set = fi= f1, f2, f3……fn accepts only column wise data. Rainfall and runoff
Mean of the observed data = y = 1/n ∑ yi data are plotted in C3 and C4 column in the data
Residuals = ei = yi-fi sheet of NCSS. A plot between runoff (C4) versus
R2 gives the proportion of the variance in rainfall (C3) with 95% reference interval for the
measured data explained by the model. R2 ranges years of 1993 to 2002 are done in NCSS. But from
from 0 to 1, with higher values indicating less error 1993 to 1996 are shown in figure 6.1, 6.2,6.3
variance, and normally values greater than 0.5 are and6.4 respectively.
considered acceptable. (Santhi et al., 2001; Van
Liew and Garbrecht, 2003)
Table 1Coefficient Estimation Report for

1993, 1994, 1995 and 1996
Model: y = A0+A1*x+A2*x²
Year Term Coefficient R2
A0 684.856
1993 A1*x 2.141 0.76
A2*x² 0.000
A0 942.034
Figure 6.1 Quadratic Polynomial 1993
1994 A1*x 0.916 0.71
A2*x² 0.002
A0 830.258
1995 A1*x 2.754 0.74
A2*x² -0.002
A0 838.290
1996 A1*x 3.205 0.68
A2*x² -0.002
Figure 6.1, 6.2, 6.3 and 6.4 shows the quadratic

polynomial regression graphs for the year of 1993,
1994, 1995 and 1996. The polynomial model is y
equal to A0+A1*x+A2*x². This model is in one
variable and is called as second order model or
quadratic model. The coefficients A1 and A2 are
called the linear effect parameter and quadratic
effect parameter respectively. In table 1 shows the
all estimated parameters of 1993,1994, 1995 and
1996. The R2 values are 0.76, 0.71, 0.74 and 0.68
in 1993, 1994, 1995 and1996 respectively, shown
in table 1. But R2 values are 0.67, 0.52, 0.71,
0.76, 0.604 and 0.601 for the year of
1997,1998,1999, 2000, 2001 and 2002
respectively, which are not shown in the figure. All
ten years value of R2 are greater than 0.50 so ten
years model are used as a non-linear model.
6.2 Cubic Polynomial Regression
Polynomial regression is done in M.S. Excel in

cubic form of model. In figure 6.5, 6.6, 6.7 and
6.8, shows the third order polynomial regression
Figure 6.4 Quadratic Polynomial 1996 scatter plot graphs. In this study, rainfall is
independent variable and runoff is dependent
variable in X-axis and Y-axis respectively. Third
444
Theme E
order polynomial regression forms a cubic and its environment should be considered. It is
expression is y equal to β0 + β1 x + β2 x2 + β3 x3. always possible for a polynomial of order (n – 1)
From this equation, we have estimated the β0, β1, to pass through n points so that a polynomial of
β2and β3 values which are show in figure 6.5, 6.6, sufficiently high degree can always be found that
6.7 and 6.8. Coefficient of determination (R2) provides a “good” fit to the data. The R2 values
values are calculated for the year of are 0.76, 0.85,
1993,1994,1995 and 1996 in figure 6.5, 6.6, 6.7
and 6.8. In cubic form of polynomial regression, 0.81 and 0.86 in 1993, 1994, 1995 and1996
the R2 values are more than the second order respectively, shown in figure 6.5 to 6.8
quadratic form of polynomial regression. In respectively. But R2 values are 0.68, 0.53, 0.85,
second order polynomial regression the shape of 0.85, 0.66 and 0.60 for the year of
trend line is parabolic but in third order polynomial 1997,1998,1999, 2000, 2001 and 2002
regression trend line shape is changed. A model respectively, which are not shown in the figure. All
which is consistent with the knowledge of data the R2 values are acceptable as a good non-linear
regression model.
y = -3E-06x3 + 0.0042x2 +
0.398x + 762.38
R² = 0.7693
4000 7 COMPARISON OF THE QUADRATIC
3000 POLYNOMIAL REGRESSION AND CUBIC
Runoff
2000 Series1 POLYNOMIAL REGRESSION MODEL.

1000 An approximate comparison was made between
0 the observed data and the predicted data of the
0 1000 2000
quadratic polynomial (second order) and cubic
Rainfall polynomial (third order) regression models. Figure
Figure 6.5. Cubic Polynomial 1993 7.1, 7.2, 7.3 and 7.4, show the comparison graphs
between observed runoff and predicted runoff of
y = 2E-05x3 - 0.0236x2 + the quadratic polynomial and cubic polynomial
7.3998x + 725.7 third order models for the year of 1993, 1994,
R² = 0.8502 1995 and 1996 respectively. Another six years
4000
3000 which are the 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001 and
2002 are also make comparison graphs between
Runoff
2000 Series1
observed data and predicted data but not shown
1000 in the figure. As it can be seen from figure 7.1 to
0 7.4 and another six years graphs, the quadratic
0 500 1000 polynomial monthly average results are
Rainfall inadequate as compared to that of cubic
Figure 6.6. Cubic Polynomial 1994 polynomial results. The quadratic polynomial
predicted values show the lack of consistency
overall throughout the period. However, the cubic
y = 9E-06x3 - 0.0134x2 + polynomial predictions are quite superior and they
6.5864x + 684.64 can effectively be used for the modelling
2500 R² = 0.8136
2000 applications. Issac, O. Ajao, Adedeji, A. Abdullahi
Runoff
1500 Series1
(2012) carried out a similar study in mixed cost
1000 analysis where the performance criteria showed
500 that cubic polynomial regression was a better
0 prediction model with a very high coefficient of
0 500 1000 determination than the quadratic polynomial
Rainfall regression model.
Figure 6.7. Cubic Polynomial 1995
y = 2E-05x3 - 0.0211x2 +
8.4884x + 667.94 8 CONCLUSION
2500 R² = 0.8628
Regression analysis of rainfall runoff data is a very
2000
important aspect of Watershed Management and
Runoff
1500
1000 Series
the demand for accuracy of the runoff predictions
500 1 has been on an upward trend ever since. More
0 specifically, regression analysis helps one
0 500 1000 understand how the typical value of the dependent
Rainfall variable changes when any one of the
Figure 6.8. Cubic Polynomial 1996
445
Theme E
independent variables are held fixed. Regression

4000.00 analysis is widely used for prediction and
forecasting, where its use has substantial overlap
3000.00 with the field of machine learning. The purpose of
2000.00 this paper is to begin to test hypothesis by
developing and testing the capability of quadratic
1000.00 polynomial and cubic polynomial regression
0.00
models, in application to a data set from
Brahmaputra watershed, Pandu observation site,
Guwahati Assam. Ten years average monthly
stream flow data from 1993 to 2002 were used for
OBSERVED QUADRATIC POLYNOMIAL CUBIC POLYNOMIAL
quadratic polynomial and cubic polynomial
regression analysis. In this study, R2 is considered
as a goodness of fit in quadratic polynomial and
Figure 7.1 Comparison 1993 cubic polynomial regression model. Based on the
results of the analyses it can be concluded that
4000 cubic polynomial regression model is better than
3000 the quadratic polynomial regression model,
especially when analysing data relating to rainfall
2000
and runoff functions. It is obvious that quadratic
1000 polynomial models are not too bad for prediction
0 with respect to the data used in this research
paper, but the cubic polynomial regression model
is better.
REFERENCES
Basha, H.A.2000.Simple Non-linear Rainfall -
runoff model, J. Hydrol. Eng., 2000, 5(1): 25-
Figure 7.2 Comparison 1994 32.
3000 Brown, A.M.2001.A step by step to non-linear

regression analysis of experimental data using
2000 a Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet. Department of
Neurology, Box 356465, University of
1000 Washington school of Medicine Scallte, W.A.
0 98195-6465, USA.
McIntyte, N., Qurashi, Al.A. and Wheater, H.
2007.Regression analysis of rainfall runoff data
from an arid catchment in Oman. Hydrol. Sci.-
Journal 52(6) Dec.2007
Figure 7.3 Comparison 1995 Ostertagova, E. 2012.Modelling using polynomial

regression. Procedia Engineering 48 (2012)
6000 500-506. Faculty of Electrical Engineering and
5000 Informatic, Department of Mathematics and
4000 theoretical informatics 32. 04200, Slovak
3000 Republic.
2000
Patel, S., Hardaha, M.K., Mukesh, K., Seetpal and
1000
Madankar, K.K.2016.Multiple linear regression
0 model for stream flow estimation of Wainganga
river. American Journal of Water Science and
Engineering, Volume 2, Issue1, January 2016,
pages: 1-5
OBSERVED QUADRATIC POLYNOMIAL CUBIC POLYNOMIAL Peddada,S. D. and Haseman, J.k. 2005.Analysis
of nonlinear regression models: A cautionary
note. Dose-response: An international journal:
Figure 7.4 Comparison 1996
vol 3: ISS. 4, Article 7.
independent variables is varied, while the other
446
DEVELOPMENT OF VULNERABILITY INDEX FOR RIVER BANK

EROSION
(ICID2018_E_015)
TapasranjanDas1, Tina Sultana2, Dr. Arup Kumar Sarma3
1. ResearchScholar, Civil Engineering Department, IIT Guwahati, Assam, India

2. JuniorResearchFellow, Civil Engineering Department, IIT Guwahati,Assam, India
3. Professor, Civil Engineering Department, IIT Guwahati,Assam, India
ABSTRACT
Riverine areas of Northeastern regions of India are facing problems of riverbank erosion and this erosion has led to
loss of land, livelihood and properties. This necessitates the implementation of proper erosion mitigation practices by
the state. However, due to large area of basin and the unavailability of sufficient funds in a developing country,
implementation of erosion control practices throughout the basin is a difficult task. Thus, it is required to determine
areas, which are more vulnerable to riverbank erosion so that mitigation efforts can be concentrated on those
regions. In this study, a generalized vulnerability index have been developed to determine such vulnerable river
reaches, and the index includes twenty-four different parameters, which were finalized based on various literature
survey and physical visit to the eroded sites. This index have been calculated in some already eroded river reaches
of Dhansiri River (south bank) and vulnerability index was found to be high for all the reaches. The vulnerability index
will help in prioritizing the river reaches in terms of erosion vulnerability and will give a preliminary idea of overall
riverbank erosion scenario of a river.
Keywords: River bank erosion, Vulnerability index
1 INTRODUCTION unavailability of sufficient funds in a developing

country, implementation of erosion control
River bank erosion is a dynamic fluvial process practices throughout the basin is a difficult task.
that occurs rapidly during and after floods Thus, it is required to determine areas that are
resulting in widening of rivers as well as change of more vulnerable to riverbank erosion so that
channel course. The discomfort associated with mitigation efforts can be concentrated on those
loss of land due to riverbank erosion is permanent regions. Pfankuch (1978) developed a method of
and has a prolong effect on the economy of the rating stream stability for mountainous rivers in
region and its people. The degradation of well- the northwestern United States. He took 15
developed land (agricultural, industrial or parameters and divided them into three classes
residential) caused by river bank erosion can namely Upper bank, lower bank and stream bed
never be replaced. The two major mechanisms of parameters and for each parameter rated the river
riverbank erosion are fluvial erosion, which is the reach as Excellent, Good, Fair and Poor.Simon
direct removal of bank material by flowing water, and Downs (1995) developed a method for
and Mass failure, which is the collapsing of bank, assessing stability of channels. In that method, a
happens when the weight of the riverbank is field form was prepared for data collection. The
greater than the strength of the soil. Some other data were accumulate in a ranking sheet, and for
mechanisms of riverbank erosion are alternate each category on the ranking sheet, a weight has
wetting and drying of the bank material and assigned. The value of the weights was given
seepage erosion happens due to lateral flow of based on the experience of Simon and Down.
water. River bank erosion depends on various Bank Erosion Hazard Index (BEHI) proposed by
factors such as characteristics of flow, type of Rosgen et al. (2001) assigns scores to several
bank materials, characteristics of sediment aspects of bank condition to present quantitative
deposition, channel morphology, vegetation cover prediction of stream bank erosion rate.Das (2016)
in the bank area, extraction of river resources like applied BEHI to perform bank stability
sand, gravel etc. and many more. The state of assessment and prediction of erosion potential on
Assam of North East India faces the problem of the left bank of Ganga, near Panchanandapur.
flooding and riverbank erosion every year. The Various indices that have been reviewed so far
person living on the bank of the river need to be are lacking some important parameters, so in our
displaced every year, which is a major issue in study, we have introduced some new parameters
Assam at present. It is very necessary to apply and along with the other parameters, a
erosion mitigation practices in such erosion prone generalized vulnerability index has been
areas, but due to large area of basin and the developed to determine vulnerable river reaches.
447
Theme E
The index includes twenty four different from the water level. Banks with slope
parameters out of which eighteen parameters more than 60% are more vulnerable to
were taken from literature and rest of the riverbank erosion.
parameters were introduced after visiting various 3. Bank cutting: Bank cutting may be defined
erosion prone sites. as the phenomena when a portion of the
riverbank is constantly undergoing
erosion. It can be studied by observing
2 STUDY AREA the raw bank height i.e the vertical height
of the cut portion. Cuts more than 60 cm
The Dhansiri River Basin lies between 26.71 N to high, undercutting and overhang
25.36 N latitudes and 93.19 E to 94.55 E riverbanks are more vulnerable to erosion.
longitudes. The catchment area of the basin is 4. Mass failure: It is the failure when a
approximately 10,187 km 2, lying partly in the state section of a bank slides or falls into the
of Assam and partly in Nagaland. It is bounded by river. Exposed bank sides, presence of
the Naga Hills to the east and the Mikir Hills to the undercutting of bank are the main causes
west. Its northern limit is marked by the Jorhat of mass failure.
fault and the southern limit by the Dauki fault. 5. Bank height/ bankfull height: Bank height
is the vertical height of a riverbank
measured from the highest point to the
3 MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY toe. The maximum of height of water level
any stream attains is the bankfull height. If
For the calculation of Vulnerability Index for the ratio is greater than 2.8 then the bank
riverbank erosion, a Vulnerability Assessment is vulnerable to erosion. It is not
Matrix was prepared. In the Vulnerability applicable for rocky formation.
Assessment Matrix the state of the parameters 6. Bar development: It is an elevated region
were divided into four parts namely Excellent, formed by deposition of sediment. The
Good, Fair and poor and assigned scores to each development of a bar can change the
of the part from 1 to 12 as shown in Table 1. Brief direction of flow. As the width of the bar
descriptions of all the 24 parameters are given in increases the erosion vulnerability of the
section 3.1. river reach also increases.
7. Debris jam potential: This parameter
Table 1: Vulnerability Assessment Matrix signifies the potential threat of presence
Sl Vulnerabilit Score (out of 12 ) of accumulation of debris in riverbank. If
N y heavy accumulation of various sizes of
Excelle Good Fair Poor
o. parameter nt (1-3) (4-6) (7-9) (10- debris is present then it constricts the
s width of the flow and leading to erosion of
12)
the river bank.
8. Obstructions, flow deflectors and
3.1 Vulnerability parameters sediment traps: Flow defectors like spurs,
dykes etc. are used for deflecting or
1. Soil characteristics: For the study of this attracting the flow of river. A frequent and
parameter soil samples were collected often unstable sediment trap or
from the river bank in three parts, first obstruction causes a continual shift of
sample was collected from the top part of sediment and flow. They are easily filled
the river bank, second sample was with sediments causing the channel to
collected from the mid part of the river migrate and/or widen.
bank and third sample was collected from 9. Angle of attack: Angle of attack is the
the near water part of the river bank. All acute made by the flow of water before
the samples were tested in the laboratory hitting the point of inspection with the
to find out the percentage of sand, silt and tangent drawn at the point of intersection.
clay. In the analysis the average In general, the erosion vulnerability of the
percentage of the three parts were used. point increases with the increase of the
During rising of the water level non value of angle of attack.
cohesive material, such as Loamy sand, 10. Shear stress ratio: Shear stress ratio is
sand are more vulnerable and during the ration between average boundary
recession cohesive materials such as shear stress to the critical shear stress for
clay, silty clay are more vulnerable to river entrainment of bed material load. If the
bank erosion. ratio is greater than 2.5 then the bank is
2. Bank slope angle: It is the slope of the more vulnerable to erosion.
bank, generally measured in lean period
448
Theme E
11. Bridge and culvert distance from impact 19. Existence of raincut: Raincut includes
point (Dm): The distance from bridge or sheet, rill and gully erosion. When the
culvert should be considered as a rainfall rate is more than rate of
parameter to study erosion as near the infiltration into the soil, surface runoff
bridge the width of the river is constrained occurs. If the runoff has sufficient flow
and the flow is affected. If this distance is energy, then it will transport the loose soil
less than one-fourth of the width of river particles and thus raincut will occur. Due
then the site is more prone to erosion. to the occurrence of raincuts the top soil is
12. Existence of guide bunds in bridge removed and thus makes the area more
location: Guide bunds are provided for vulnerable to erosion.
guiding the river flow past a diversion 20. Existence of water body: In this
structure without causing damage to it. parameter, the effect of presence of water
Absence of guide bunds in bridge body near the river reach on erosion of
locations may lead to riverbank erosion vulnerability of riverbank is assessed.
due to sudden contraction and expansion Presence of water body near the
of the channel around the bridge. riverbank causes seepage flow.
13. High flow angle of approach to bridge or Occurrence of seepage flow may cause
culvert (α): It is the angle made by the seepage failure in the riverbank.
direction flow near the bridge with the 21. Existence of river mining: River mining
earlier direction before the channel started can be a major cause of riverbank
constricted. Sites that have high flow erosion. Due to the river mining perform in
angle greater than 30° are vulnerable to the bars of braided river the width of the
riverbank erosion. channel increases and hence the velocity
14. Root Density (%): Root density below the of flow reduces and sediment deposition
ground plays a significant role in bank is started. Now, in the downstream of that
stabilization. If root density is more, then it point quantity of sediment will be less in
binds the soil particle well, increases the the water. Such kind of water is often known
strength of soil, and reduces the chance as “Hungry water” and characterized by high
of being eroded. Generally, riverbank with velocity and erosive nature.
root density less than 5 % is extremely 22. Tension crack depth: An extension fracture
vulnerable to erosion. in the height of a riverbank caused by the
15. Root Depth/Bank height (% of BFH): Root tensile stresses is known as tension crack
depth/bank height is the ratio of the depth. Tension cracks reduce the structural
average plant root depth to the bank strength of the stream banks. These cracks
height. Less value of BFH implies more increase soil permeability and may create
higher pore water pressures which reduce
erosion vulnerability.
bank stability.
16. Vegetative bank protection and effect of
23. Entrenchment ratio: It is the ratio of the
creep: Vegetation plays a major role in width of the flood prone area to the bankfull
reducing riverbank erosion. A bank side width of the channel. Flood prone width is
containing many trees, ferns, can form an twice of maximum bankfull depth. Lower
interlocking network that can strengthen entrenchment ratio indicates channel
unconsolidated material. They also help in incision and large entrenchment ratio means
absorbing the excess water in the soil to there is a well-developed floodplain.
keep the slope stable. The rate of soil 24. Flow variation: Here Flow variation means
creep depends on the steepness the vertical temporal variation of water level
(gradient) of the slope, water absorption of a river or stream. Generally, if the
and content, type of sediment and variation is more and quick then it will cause
material and vegetation. more erosion and if the variation is less and
17. Surface protection: This parameter slow than it will cause less erosion.
signifies the protection of bank by
vegetation. Existence of vegetation helps Since different parameters may have different
the soil to bind together thus preventing affects on the vulnerability of river reaches to
from erosion. erosion. So based on the intensity of the
18. Existence of curve: In this parameter, the parameters to cause riverbank erosion, weightage
effect of existence of curve on the erosion has been assigned to each parameter between 0
vulnerability of a riverbank is assessed. In and 1. To finalize the weightage of the parameters
general, presence of outward curve various literature survey was done and expert
indicates more vulnerability to erosion of a judgments were collected.The weightage of all the
riverbank and presence of inward curve parameters are shown in Table 2.
indicates deposition of sediments.
449
Theme E
Table 2: Weightage of different Vulnerability 22 Existence of river mining 0.4 Expert

parameters Judgment
Sl Vulnerability parameters W Referenc 23 Tension crack depth 0.4 Expert
N eig e Judgment
o. hta
24 Entrenchment Ratio 0.2 Expert
ge
Judgment
1 Soil Type, if failure during 0.6 Johnson
rising et.al
Soil Type, if failure during 0.2 Finally, the Vulnerability index is calculated as
recession shown below,
2 Average bank slope 0.6 Johnson Vulnerability Index (V.I.) = (ScoreP1 X WeightageP1)
angle et.al + (ScoreP2 X WeightageP2) +… + (ScoreP24
3 Vegetative bank 0.8 Johnson X WeightageP24)
protection and effect of et.al
creep Where
4 Bank Cutting 0.4 Johnson P1 = Vulnerability Parameter 1
et.al P2 = Vulnerability Parameter 2 and so on.
5 Mass wasting or bank 0.8 Johnson A river reach having higher value of Vulnerability
failure et.al index is more vulnerable to riverbank erosion. The
overall rating ranges of Vulnerability Index are
6 Bar development 0.6 Johnson
shown in Table 3
et.al
7 Debris jam potential 0.2 Johnson Table 3: Overall rating ranges
et.al Description Rating
8 Obstructions, flow 0.2 Johnson
Excellent V.I <40.2
deflectors and sediment et.al
traps Good 40.2 ≤V.I<80.4
9 Flow variation 0.4 Expert
Fair 80.4≤V.I.<120.6
Judgment
10 Angle of attack(β) 0.6 Expert Poor V.I.≥120.6
Judgment
11 Bridge and culvert 0.8 Johnson
distance from et.al 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
impact point(Dm)
12 Existence of guide 0.8 Expert The Vulnerability Index so developed was applied
bunds in bridge location Judgment in four already eroded river reaches of Dhansiri
13 High flow angle of 0.8 Johnson river to see whether they yield higher value of
approach to bridge or Vulnerability index or not. Because of this
et.al application, three river reaches were found to be in
culvert(α)
14 Bank Height /Bankfull 0.6 Expert fair condition and one river reach was found to be
in good condition. The details of the assessment in
Height Judgment these locations are described below.
15 Root Depth/Bank height 0.6 Expert
(% of BFH) Judgment 4.1 Location 1: Marangi tea estate (Dhansiri River)
16 Root Density (%) 0.6 Expert
Judgment Marangi tea estate is located at Golaghat district of
17 Surface Protection 0.6 Expert Assam near Dhansiri River. The soil present at the
(Avg. %) site was found to have 37.17% sand, 21.76% silt and
Judgment 41.04% clay and erosion occurs both during rising
18 Shear stress ratio 1.0 Johnson and recession of water level in the river. The average
et.al bank slope angle is almost 90° and the ratio of bank
19 Existence of curve 0.6 Expert height/bankfull height is approximately 3.6. The
vegetation density is less than 50% and root density
Judgment
is much less of 5%. The bankfull width is found to be
20 Existence of water body 0.2 Expert approximately 50.82m and flood prone width 100.5
Judgment m. the ER ratio is approximately 1.97, which is in
21 Existence of raincut 0.4 Expert good condition. The angle of attack is between 30°-
Judgment 40°. The amount of flow variation is 5m, which is
450
Theme E
taken for 30days, and the rate is 0.167 m/day. Ratio occurs both during rising and recession of water
of shear stress τo/τc= 6.43. The site has mass level in riverbank. The average bank slope angle is
wasting due to undercutting and vertical cuts. The almost 90° and the ratio of bank height/bankfull
vulnerability index of this site is 91.2, i.e in fair height is approximately 1.16. Various types of trees
condition. and bamboo are present near the riverside.
Vertical cuts are frequent and point bars of fine
4.2 Location 2: Marangi tea estate sand are present. The bankfull width is found to be
(Doigrung River) approximately 38.196m and flood prone width
78.576m. The ER ratio is approximately 2.057,
Location 2 is situated in the Marangi tea estate of which is in fair condition. The angle of attack is
Golaghat district on the bank of DoigrungRiver between 80°, which is very high. The flow
which is a tributary of Dhansiri River. The soil variation rate is 0.1 m/day. The site has mass
present at the site was found to have 38.3% sand, wasting during high floods and bridge piers are
15.14% silt and 46.56% clay and erosion occurs present, which causes cross currents and leads to
both during rising and recession of water level in bank erosion. The vulnerability index of this site is
the river. The average bank slope angle is almost 97.4, i.e. in fair condition.
30° and the ratio of bank height/bankfull height is
approximately 1.61. The vegetation density is less Table 4: Vulnerability Index of the eroded river
than 50% and root density is much less of 5%. The reaches of Dhansiri River
bankfull width is found to be approximately 13.63m Sl Location Vulnerabilit
and flood prone width 25.84m. The ER ratio is No. y Index
approximately 1.89, which is in fair condition. The
angle of attack is about 65°. The amount of flow 1 Marangi (Dhansiri River) 91.2
variation is 1.5m, which is taken for 20days, and 2 Marangi (Doigrung River) 77.6
the rate is 0.075 m/day. Ratio of shear stress τ o/τc= 3 HolukhuaGaonKarbiAnglong 97.2
0.95. The site has mass wasting during high floods
4 Barpathar Tea Estate 97.4
and point bars were present on the opposite bank
of visited site. The vulnerability index of this site is
s 77.6, i.e in good condition.
5 CONCLUSION
4.3 Location 3 :HolukhuaGaon(KarbiAnglong)
Twenty-four different vulnerability parameters are
HolukhuaGaon is located at KarbiAnglong district rated, weighted and summed to produce a
of Assam near Dhansiri River. The soil present at riverbank erosion vulnerability index. Most of the
the site was found to have 44.02% sand, 43.08% parameters used in the calculation of vulnerability
silt and 12.87% clay and erosion occurs both index were taken from prior assessment methods
during rising and recession of water level in the (Pfankuch, 1978, Rosgen et al., 2001). Six new
river. The average bank slope angle is almost 75° parameters were introduced after doing extensive
and the ratio of bank height/bankfull height is field visit in the vicinity ofDhansiri River, which is
approximately 1.16. Various types of trees and known for its erosive nature. The vulnerability
bamboo are present near the riverside. Vertical index was tested in four already eroded sites of
cuts are frequent and point bars of fine sand are Dhansiri River and obtained decent results. This
present. The bankfull width is found to be economic way of prioritizing erosive riverbank will
approximately 31.13m and flood prone width definitely help in optimizing the cost of erosion
77.16m. The ER ratio is approximately 2.46, which mitigation practices in developing countries.
is in good condition. The angle of attack is
between 30°-40°. The flow variation rate is 0.067
m/day. The site has mass wasting during high REFERENCES
floods and bridge piers are present, which causes
Collier Kevin, October 1992, Science & research
cross currents and leads to bank erosion. The
vulnerability index of this site is 97.2, i.e in fair internal report no.131, assessing river
condition. stability:use of the pfankuch method,
Department of Conservation, Wellington,
4.4 Location 4:Barpathar Tea Estate New Zealand
(KarbiAnglong) Das T. R., (2016), “Assessment of Channel Bank
Susceptibility and Bank Stability of A
Barpathar Tea Estate is located at KarbiAnglong Braided Reach of River Ganga
district of Assam near Dhansiri River. The soil NearPanchanandapur, Malda”,
present at the site was found to have 13.24%
sand, 49.65% silt and 7.08% clay and erosion
451
Theme E
International Research Journal of Earth

Sciences, Vol. 4(3), 11-23
Pfankuch, D.J. 1975. Stream reach inventory and

channel stability evaluation. U.S.D.A.
Forest Service, Region 1, Missoula,
Montana, U.S.A.
Rathbun Joe, 2015, Standard operating

procedure, assessing bank erosion
potential using rosgen’s bank erosion
hazard index (BEHI), Michigan
Department of Environmental Quality –
Water Bureau – Nonpoint Source Unit
(517) 373-8868
Rosgen, D.L. 2001. A Practical Method of
Computing Streambank Erosion Rate.
Proceedings of the Seventh Federal
Interagency Sedimentation Conference,
Vol. 2, pp. II - 9-15, March 25-29, 2001,
Reno, NV
Simon, A., and Downs, P. W. 1995. An
interdisciplinary approach to evaluation of
potential instability in alluvial channels,
Geomorphology, Volume 12, Issue 3,
215–232.
http://docplayer.net/33870041-River-bank erosion-
case-study-the-trans-canada-highway
bridge-at-beaver-river-glacier-national-
park.html.
452
TREND-STATIONARITY IN RAINFALL DATA AND EFFECT OF

SPATIAL SCALE ON AREAL MEAN OF THE RAINFALL DATA: A
CASE STUDY ON CHIKMAGALUR DISTRICT IN SOUTH INDIA
(ICID2018_E_016)
Yogendra B E1, Chinmayi.B.Y2
1) Professor in Civil Engineering, Malnad College of Engineering, Hassan, Karnataka, India

2) Research Scholar, National Institute of Technology Surathkal, Karnataka, India
ABSTRACT
Statistical analysis of rainfall time series is essential for agricultural activities so that accurate information is made
available for water resource planning. Trend and stationarity of the rainfall time series for 60 automatic raingauge
stations in Chikmagalur district are estimated. Rainfall data is collected from the department of Economics and
Statistics, government of Karnataka. Mann-Kendall (MK) test for trend analysis and Kwiatkowski Phillips Schmidt
Shin (KPSS) test for stationarity analysis are used for rainfall time series. The study indicates that the trend and
stationary of the rainfall time series are sensitive to the geographical location of raingauge station and length of the
rainfall time series. Watershed boundary are demarcated within the administrative boundary of the study area by
using Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of 30m resolution from Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) on GIS
platform. Watershed boundary extracted from the topographic map of Survey of India (SOI) is considered for
validation. Ordinary Kriging (OK) interpolation method is used to estimate the mean rainfall over the study area.
Effect of raingauge density on mean rainfall estimation over the area is analyzed by considering the change in
density of the raingauge network. Mean rainfall over the Chikmagalur district, taluks and river basins of study area
are estimated and presented in the paper.
Keywords: KPSS test; Mann-Kendall test; rainfall time series; trend; ordinary kriging.
error, whereas Ordinary Kriging (OK) produced

1. INTRODUCTION
the lowest error. Temporal trends were analysed
using Mann-Kendall (MK) and linear regression
methods on temporal characteristics of rainfall in
Some of the atmospheric phenomena have drawn Malawi (Ngongondo, et al; 2011). Taxak et al.,
the special interest of the scientific community to (2014) applied MK test to non-auto correlated
analyse the meteorological variables. Rainfall is series to detect the trends in rainfall data of
the major factor in agriculture sector, which central India; results indicate change in trend and
requires systematic study on its past and present. overall increase of rainfall by 8.5%.
In recent years interest has increased in learning Changes in seasonal and monthly rainfall trend
the spatial and temporal variation of precipitation. in different regions of India for 141 years were
The present study devoted to assess the variation investigated to see the effect of climate change in
of rainfall in watersheds lies within administrative different parts of the country; MK tests were
regions of Chikmagalur district. Archer & Fowler performed to see the trend. The result indicates
(2004) investigated the effect of change in climate decreasing trend in annual and monsoon rainfall
on summer stream flow in river Indus and results of India in most of the sub-divisions (Mondal et al.,
of analysis on long annual rainfall time series 2015).
showed no significant trend but there is increasing
trend, significantly in, winters and summer rainfall
time series.
In a study (Buytaert et al; 2006) the uncertainty 2. STUDY AREA
involved in the measured point rainfall data was
analysed by considering 14 raingauge station data
and significant correlations were found between Chikmagalur district is located between 12°11”
average daily rainfall and geographical location, 31.2’ and 13°53”56.4’ latitudes, 75°4”44.4’ and
as well as the topographical parameters. In the 76°21”46.8’ longitudes given in Figure 1. Nearly
study by Mair& Fares (2011) on 21 gauges across half of the area located on eastern part of Western
the mountainous leeward portion of the island of Ghats receiving heavy rain and reaming area lies
Hawaiʻi, Thiessen method produced the highest in the dry zone receiving low rainfall. Tunga
453
Theme E
River, Bhadra River, Vedavathi River (Tributaries Yangtze basin in China (Huang et al., 2011; Zong
of Krishna River), Yagachi River, Hemavathi River et al., 2008); Ethiopia (Wagesho et al., 2013);
(Tributaries of Cauvery River) and Netravathi Yellow River basin in China (She & Xia, 2013);
River (West flowing river) originates from Lancang River basin in China (Shi et al., 2013);
Chikmagalur district. Wainganga basin in Central India (Mondal et al.,
2015); State of Odisha in India (Taxak et al.,
2014); test on stream flow data of gauging
Stations in Slovakia (Zelenáková, 2016); Tanzania
in Africa (Chang’a et al., 2017); Woleka sub-basin
in North central part of Ethiopia (Asfaw, 2018).
3.3. Kwiatkowski-Phillips-Schmidt-Shin (KPSS)

test
Figure 1. Index map of study area.

KPSS test on annual mean stream flow and
low/high flow discharge data of major rivers in
Western Europe was considered to study the
3. METHODOLOGY stationarity of data by Wang, et al. (2005).
3.1 Ordinary Kriging
4. DATA AND TOOLS
Kriging is a geostatistical interpolation technique
that considers both the distance and the degree of
variation between known data points when In the present study rainfall data from 60
estimating values in unknown areas. A kriged raingauge stations within Chikmagalur district for
estimate is a weighted linear combination of the 109 (1901-2009) years are collected from the
known sample values around the point to be department of economics and statistics,
estimated. government of Karnataka. Chikmagalur district
In the present study OK is used (Xu et al., and taluk boundaries are delineated (Figure 3 and
2018) and it has been widely used to estimate Table 1) from topographic sheet of 1: 50,000
mean rainfall over the geographical area. Many of scale, procured from the Survey of India (SoI).
recent studies used OK method for spatial Watershed boundary and stream network are
analysis of the rainfall over the area. Guadalhorce generated in GIS platform by considering Digital
river basin in Spain (Pardo, 1998), River Ebonyi Elevation Model (DEM) from Shuttle Radar
Headwater in Nigeria (Campling, 2001), Ourthe Topography Mission (SRTM) of 90 m resolution
and Ambleve catchments in Belgium (Ly, 2011), (Figure 4).
on island of Oʻahu in Hawaiʻi by Mair& Fares
(2011) and Chang’a et al., (2017) on Tanzania in
Africa are some of the studies which used OK
method for mean rainfall estimation. 5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.2. Mann Kendell test

Mean rainfall is estimated over the area of whole
district and various taluks of Chikmagalur district
The MK test, a non-parametric trend analysis for and river basins within the district by using
identifying the increasing and decreasing pattern Ordinary Kriging method. Rainfall of Chikmagalur
in data expressed in time series, was formulated is dominated by southwest monsoon. Hence,
by Mann (1945) and the test statistical distribution annual rainfall is found similar to the monsoon
had been given by Kendall (1975) for testing non- rainfall both for taluks and rivers basins in the
linear trend and turning point in time series. It district. The highest rainfall greater than 5100 mm
compares the relative magnitudes of sample data occurs in the western part of the district which lies
rather than the data values themselves (Gilbert in the Western Ghats, while the lowest rainfall less
1987). than 500 mm is observed in the eastern part of the
Non parametric MK test has been conducted Chikmagalur district is shown in Figure 2. The
to assess the trend in the rainfall time series in rainfall variation indicates that rainfall increases
different locations of the world: Study in Western towards the west; this variability is caused due to
Europe (Pueble, 1998; Wang, et al., 2005); the close linkage between water vapor source with
454
Theme E
monsoon intensity along with the effect of

topography as was found in studies by Barros et
al., 2000; Ichiyanagi et al., 2007; Kansakar et al.,
2004.
Tunga River, Bhadra River, Netravathi River
and Hemavathi River originate from Western
Ghats. Other two rivers Yagachi River and
Vedavathi River originate from Mullayanagiri
ranges located at south central part of
Chikmagalur district presented in Table1 and
Figure 4.
Figure 4. River basin boundaries along with the

river network are shown in the map of
Chikmagalur district
Table 1. Details of rivers and their length, area,

perimeter and elevation are given below.
Name of Area within Perimeter Total length
River basin Chikmagalur of Basin of Stream
( km2) (km) (Km)
Tunga River 1243.680 272.238 70.540
Bhadra River 2824.990 375.303 162.528
Netravathi 146.676 118.150 12.1851
River
Hemavathi 350.686 121.888 42.623
Basin
Yagachi Basin 400.672 120.188 36.330
Figure 2. It shown the mean rainfall variation in Vedavathi 2229.430 314.837 84.221
mm during the 25 years (1982-2011) are Basin
superimposed on the elevation map in
background. Trend by MK test and stationarity by KPSS test
of the rainfall data from 60 raingauge stations are
investigated and the results are presented in
Figure 5 and Figure 6. Trend is observed in 13
raingauge stations and non-stationarity is
observed in 6 raingauge stations. Non stationarity
in the rainfall data is observed only in low rainfall
zone in the eastern part of the Chikmagalur
district. But trend in the rainfall data is observed in
western and eastern part of Chikmagalur district of
high and low rainfall regions, whereas the rainfall
data from moderate rainfall regions are not
exhibiting any trend or non-stationarity. Five rain
gauge stations at Bukkambudi, Kadur,
Panchanahalli, Belvadi and Yagati located in the
low rainfall regions in eastern part of district
exhibits both trend as well as non-stationarity.
Spatial analysis of rainfall data in the study
area of Chikmagalur district is conducted by using
OK. Rainfall data for 30 years from 25 raingauge
Figure 3. Taluk boundaries are marked from the
stations and similar 30 years data from 6
topographic sheets on the map of Chikmagalur
raingauge stations (Chikmagalur, Koppa,
district.
Mudigere, Narasimharajapura (N.R), Sringeri and
Tarikere) is considered in the spatial analysis.
Mean rainfall of Chikmagalur district: seven
taluks and six river basins within Chikmagalur
district is estimated from the rainfall data (a) from
25 rain gauge stations for 30 years (b) from 6 rain
455
Theme E
gauge stations for corresponding years (c) from 6 raingauges exhibiting non-stationarity in the data.
rain gauge stations for 111 years. Estimated mean Mean rainfall values estimated for Chikmagalur
rainfall are given in table-2 and plot of estimated district, seven taluks of district and six river basins
mean for Chikmagalur for the two densities of within the district are presented in the Table 2,
raingauge stations are presented in Figure 7. estimated mean rainfall from 30 years of rainfall
2,800
data for 25 rain gauges and 6 rain gauges are
Chikkamagalur District
2,600 Mean of 30 RG Station
compared and percentage of the difference of
Mean Rainfall (mm)
2,400 Mean of 6 RG Station

2,200
2,000
mean rainfall estimates are presented in the last
1,800
1,600
column of Table 2. Mean rainfall estimated with
1,400
1,200
Y = 14.90x + 1630. only six raingauge data for Chikmagalur, N.R,
Y = 6.859x + 1504.
1,000 Kadur and Tarikere taluks are found to be higher
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
Years as theses taluks area located in eastern part of
Figure 7. Mean rainfall of Chikmagalur district, the district.
estimated from the rainfall data 1) from 25 rain
Table 2. Mean rainfall of Chikmagalur district:
gauge stations for 30 years 2) from 6 rain gauge
seven taluks and six river basins estimated from
stations for 30 years.
the rainfall data of a) 25 rain gauge stations for 30
years b) 6 rain gauge stations for 30 years c) 6
Difference in estimated mean rainfall for the
rain gauge stations for 111 years.
data in (a) and (b) is not consistent, but for
Mean of Mean of difference
majority of years (for 20 years) mean estimated 25 Rain 6 Rain in % for
with 6 raingauges is found to be higher. Out of six Gauges of gauges 30 years
rain gauges five are located in the high intensity 30 years 30 years
rainfall zone, it is one of the reason for the Name of Area (1) (2) (4)
estimated mean rainfall values are higher when Chikmagalur
only 6 rain gauges are considered for District 1604.12 1896.84 -18.25
Chikmagalur district. Chikmagalur
taluk 1381.23 1711.81 -23.93
Koppa taluk 3120.41 2750.96 11.84
Sringeri taluk 4403.71 2968.57 32.59
N.R taluk 1693.50 1757.75 -3.79
Kadur taluk 599.48 1962.25 -227.33
Mudigere taluk 3271.44 2131.71 34.84
Tarikere taluk 938.22 1667.61 -77.74
Tunga River 3209.39 2436.37 24.09
Bhadra River 2164.99 1981.01 8.50
Vedavathi River 719.57 1853.76 -157.62
Yagachi River 1265.23 1504.58 -18.92
Hemavathi
River 2834.81 2281.05 19.53
Netravathi
River 3752.80 2133.60 43.15
Estimates of mean rainfall for 6 river basins

Figure 5. MK test result on 25 years of rainfall within Chikmagalur district are presented in the
data of 60 raingauges. Red mark indicates rain last six rows of table-2, Vedavathi River and
gauges exhibiting trend in the data. Yagachi River basins, located in low rainfall zone
exhibit higher mean value by considering rainfall
data from 6 raingauges than by considering data
from 25 raingauges. In the present study only 6
raingauge stations having continuous rainfall data
for 111 years are selected as representative
sample of rainfall data to estimate mean rainfall
over the entire Chikmagalur district. Outcome of
the study strongly indicates that there must be
raingauges evenly spaced in different intensity
rainfall zones.
6. CONCLUSION
Figure 6. KPSS test result on 25 years of rainfall
data of 60 raingauges. Red mark indicates
456
Theme E
Statistical analysis on the rainfall time series Temperature Extreme Indices in Tanzania.
carried out for 60 raingauge stations over the Atmos. Clim. Sci. 07, 525-539.
Chikmagalur district in south India. Trend in the
Ichiyanagi, K., Yamanaka, M.D., Murajic, Y and
rainfall data is detected by using MK test and non-
Vaidyad, B.K. 2007. Precipitation in Nepal
stationarity was detected by using KPSS test.
between 1987 and 1996. Int. J. Climatol. 27:
Trend is found in rainfall data of 13 raingauge
1753-1762
stations, four of which are located in high rainfall
(annual rainfall <2500mm) zone towards Western Kansakar, S.R., Hannah, D.M., Gerrard, J. &
Ghats and nine of them are located in the low Rees, G. 2004. Spatial pattern in the
rainfall (annual rainfall >700mm) zone towards precipitation regime in Nepal. Int. J. Climatol.
eastern side of plane region. Mean rainfall 24, 1645–1659.
estimated considering rainfall data from 6
Mair, A. & Fares, A. 2011. Comparison of Rainfall
raingauge stations are less representative in low
Interpolation Methods in a Mountainous
rainfall regions, it is reflected significantly in the
Region of a Tropical Island. J. Hydrol. Eng. 16,
mean rainfall estimation over the area. Outcome
371-383.
of the study strongly indicates that there must be
raingauges evenly spaced in different intensity Mann, H.B. 1945. Nonparametric Tests Against
rainfall regions. Trend. Econometrica. 13, No. 3, 245-259.
Acknowledgements: Toposheet provided by Mondal, A., Khare, D. & Kundu, S. 2015. Spatial
department of SoI: Government of India. 90m and temporal analysis of rainfall and
DEM of SRTM extracted from Earth Science Data temperature trend of India.Theor Appl Climatol
Interface (ESDI) at the Global Land Cover Facility 5, 143-158.
(GLCF). Rainfall data for Chikmagalur district are
given by department of economics and statistics, Ngongondo, C., Xu, C.Y., Gottschalk, L. &
government of Karnataka. Alemaw, B. 2011. Evaluation of spatial and
temporal characteristics of rainfall in Malawi: A
case of data scarce region. Theor. Appl.
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458
NUMERICAL MODELS FOR RELATIVE SCOUR PARAMETERS

AROUND IMPERMEABLE SPUR DIKES
(ICID2018_E_017)
Dharmendra Nath1, Utpal Kumar Misra2

1Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Assam Down Town University, Guwahati, India
2Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Assam Engineering College, Guwahati, India
ABSTRACT
Spur dikes are hydraulic structures that project from the bank of a stream at some angle to the main flow direction
which diverts the flow of water away from the bank. The present study focuses on effect of flow parameters on the
scour hole depth, length and to develop mathematical modelsfor relative scour parameters around non-submerged
single and multiple spur dikes for various geometric arrangements. In the present study, a series of laboratory
experiments were conducted with three different contraction ratios 18%, 15%, 12% at three different angle of
inclination 60ᵒ, 80ᵒ and 90ᵒ with the flow direction for different flow conditions and two models spur dikes having
length of 17.5 cm placed at spacing of 2L, 2.25L and 2.5L. Based on experimental results several equations were
developed to calculate the relative scour hole depth, relative scour hole length for both upstream and downstream of
spur dike and relative scour hole width. All these equations were developed by the regression analysis, using Excel
Program.
Keywords: Contraction Ratio, Froude Number, Regression Analysis, Spacing, Spur Dike.
1 INTRODUCTION Masjedi et al. (2010) conducted an

experiment to study scour and flow pattern around
Spur dikes are hydraulic structures that project a T-shape spur dike located in a 180 degree
from the bank of a stream at some angle to the channel bend. The study was conducted using in
main flow direction which diverts the flow of water a 180 degree laboratory flume bend. They found
away from the bank. They are used mainly for two that the characteristics of the scour hole have
purposes such as river training and erosion been shown to be affected by the shape of spur
protection of the riverbank. When spur dikes are dike in the bend and Froude number. By
used as river training, its primary function is to increasing the Froude number, the scour
improve the navigability of the river by providing a increases.
sufficient depth of flow and a desirable channel Salamatian et al. (2016) studied the flow
alignment. With respect to erosion protection, spur pattern and stress distribution around three spur
dikes can be designed to protect both straight dike which are placed at 90°angle. The
reaches and channel bends. Compared with other experimental investigation on the flow pattern
methods, such as revetments, spur dikes are around the 3 spur dikes in clear water has been
among the most economical structures that may achieved with 2-D velocimeter. The bed shear
be used for riverbank erosion protection. The stress, vortexes and flow pattern has been
effective length of spur should not exceed 1/5th of surveyed and analyzed and the interaction
width of the channel. between flow pattern and bed variations has been
studied. They found that the flow pattern in first
1.1 Literature review region consist of flow separation and down flow.
Flow pattern in second region consist of vortex
Ezzeldin et al. (2007) conducted a series of flow which tends to first spur dike by increasing
experiment to investigate the characteristics of the the water level.. They observed that by increasing
scour hole around a single spur-dike installed in a the position of spur dikes to the downstream the
straight flume and to investigate the relation shear stress increases.
between the dimensions of the scour hole and Konwar N and Khaund K P (2016)conducted
between non-dimensional parameters describing an experiment to study the variation of flow
the flow ratio, and angle of flow attack. They found parameters at upstream and downstream around
that the all of the scour parameters increase with the spur dike. In this study they observed optimum
the increase of the Froude number with a linear safe distance of the bank for a single spur in terms
trend. of spur length.
459
Theme E
were 17.5 cm, 14.5 cm and 11.5 cm and so the

contraction ratios were namely 18%, 15% and
2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 12%. In the present study the effects of the
contraction ratios on the scour hole depth, length
The main objective of the present study was to investigated for the different flow conditions and
develop mathematical modelsfor relative scour angles of inclination with the flow direction. From
parametersaround non-submerged single and the experimental results for different contraction
multiple spur dikes for various geometric ratios it can be noticed that all the scour
arrangements.Based on experimental results parameters increases as Froude number (Fr)
several equations were developed to calculate the increases.
relative scour hole depth, relative scour hole
length for both upstream and downstream of spur 4.2 Effect of Spur Dike Alignment Angle on
dike and relative scour hole width for single and Scour Pattern
multiple spur dike. All these equations are
developed by the regression analysis, using Excel In the present study experiments were done by
Program. taking deflecting and repelling groyne. The angle
tested in this study were 60ᵒ, 80ᵒ and 90ᵒ with the
flow direction for three different contraction ratios
3 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP namely 18%, 15% and 12% for different flow
conditions. From the results of different
All the experimental works were carried out in the contraction ratios and flow conditions it was
Hydraulics Laboratory of Department of Civil observed that, the spur placed at 60ᵒ angle with
Engineering, Assam Engineering College, flow direction has great effect on reducing scour
Guwahati. A recirculating 20 m long and 0.96 m depth as compared to 80° and 90° angle.
wide concrete channel with sediment bed was
used to carry out the experiments. All the tests 4.3 Effect of Spacing between two Spurs on
were carried out on a horizontal bed consisted of Scour Pattern
non-uniform sandy soil (D50= 0.49 mm). The
channel was provided with three different capacity In the present study the effect of the spacing
pumps of 10 HP, (10+5=15) HP and between two spurs on the scour hole depth and
(10+5+7.5=22.5)HP which were used for varying length has been investigated for different flow
the discharge.In the present study three single conditions and angles of inclination with the flow
spurs of length 17.5 cm, 14.5 cm and 11.5 cm direction. The spacing between two spurs taken in
were used. The experimental studies were carried the present study was 2L, 2.25L and 2.5L i.e., 35
out with three different spacing of 35 cm, 40 cm cm, 40 cm and 44 cm. From the experimental
and 44 cm between the spurs and three different results for both the spurs it can be noticed that all
spur dike alignment angles of 60ᵒ, 80ᵒ and 90ᵒ the scour parameters increase as Froude number
with the flow direction.The scour depth was (Fr) increases for both the spurs. It can also be
measured after experimental runs were carried observed that as spacing between the spurs
out for a period of 3 to 4 hours. Experimental data decreases scour around second spur is less as
for present study have been given in table 1. compared to that around first spur.
Table 1. Different Flow Parameters 4.4 Development of Mathematical Models for

Q(m3s-1 ) V(ms-1 ) y (m) Fr λ = Fr2 Relative Scour Parameters
0.0225 0.45 0.052 0.63 0.3969
Based on experimental results several equations
0.0585 0.82 0.074 0.96 0.9216 were developed to calculate the relative scour
1.66 hole depth, relative scour hole length for both
0.11 1.23 0.093 1.29
upstream and downstream of spur dike and
relative scour hole width. All these equations were
developed by the regression analysis, using Excel
4 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Program.
4.1 Effect of Contraction Ratio on Scour Pattern a) Single Spur Dike
Contraction ratio is defined as the ratio of spur a1. Proposed Equations for relative scour hole
dike length (L) to the width of the channel (B). By depth
changing the contraction ratio, there is a great
change in the scour pattern around the spur dike. hs
In the present study, the lengths of the spur taken = 0.15958λ + 0.10722e + 0.01797θ − 2.1116
y
460
Theme E
3
a2. Proposed Equations for relative scour hole
depth 2.5 R² = 0.981
Lds/y (measured)
2
Lus
= 0.1579λ + 0.1772e + 0.0188θ − 2.3302 1.5
y
1
a3. Proposed Equations for relative scour hole 0.5
length downstream of spur dike 0
0 1 2 3
Lds
= 0.14319λ + 0.1548e + 0.0169θ − 2.1609 Lds/y (predicted)
y
These equations are valid within the following

Figure 3. Comparison between the Predicted and
ranges of involved parameters, hs/y [0.4-1.86], Measured Relative Scour Length Downstream of Spur
Lus/y [1.06-2.97], Lds/y [0.81-2.53], λ [0.3969-1.66], Dike (Lds/y)
e [12%-18%], θ [60ᵒ-90ᵒ]. Figure 1 to figure 3
shows the variation of predicted values of
investigated parameters against measured values b) Multiple Spur Dike
for equation a1 to equation a3.
b1.Proposed Equations for relative scour hole
2 depth
R² = 0.9657 hs
hs/y (measured)
1.5 = 0.17962 λ + 0.0664 s + 0.00751 θ − 1.9897 (S1)

y
1
hs
= 0.31487 λ + 0.04604 s + 0.00691 θ − 1.6293 (S2)
0.5 y
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 b2. Proposed Equations for relative scour hole
hs/y (predicted)
length upstream of spur dike
Lus
= 0.13905 λ + 0.0658 s + 0.00967 θ − 2.5506 (S1)
y
Figure 1. Comparison between the Predicted and
Measured Relative Scour Depth (hs/y)
Lus
= 0.14964 λ + 0.0303 s + 0.006603 θ − 1.3967 (S2)
4 y
3
Lus/y (measured)
R² = 0.9864 b3. Proposed Equations for relative scour hole

2 length downstream of spur dike
1 Lds
= 0.21786 λ + 0.0535 s + 0.01035 θ − 2.0834 (S1)
y
0
Lds
0 1 2 3 4 = 0.22724 λ + 0.05392 s + 0.00923 θ − 2.4515 (S2)
y
Lus/y (predicted)
These equations are valid within the following
Figure 2. Comparison between the Predicted and ranges of involved parameters, hs/y (S1) [0.81-
Measured Relative Scour Length Upstream of 1.88],hs/y (S2) [0.61-1.46],Lus/y (S1) [0.44-1.46],
Spur Dike (Lus/y) Lus/y (S2) [0.16-0.76], Lds/y (S1) [0.53-1.63],Lds/y
(S2) [0.14-1.18], λ [0.3969-1.66], s [35 cm-44 cm],
θ [60ᵒ-90ᵒ]. Figure 4 to figure 9 shows the
variation of predicted values of investigated
parameters against measured values for equation
b1 to equation b3.
461
Theme E
2.5
R² = 0.9777 1
hs/y (measured), S1
Lus/y (measured), S2
0.8 R² = 0.9479
1.5
0.6
1
0.4
0.5
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 0
hs/y (predicted), S1 0 0.5 1
Lus/y (predicted), S2
Figure 4.Comparison between the Predicted and

Measured Relative Scour Depth (hs/y) for S1 Figure 7.Comparison between the Predicted and
Measured Relative Scour Length Upstream of
Spur Dike (Lus/y) for S2
2
hs/y (measured), S2
1.5 R² = 0.9789 Lds/y (measured), S1 2
1 1.5 R² = 0.9771
0.5 1
0 0.5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
0
hs/y (predicted), S2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Lds/y (predicted), S1
Measured Relative Scour Depth (hs/y) for S2
Measured Relative Scour Length Downstream of Spur
Dike (Lds/y)for S1
2
Lus/y (measured), S1
1.5 R² = 0.9724
2
Lds/y (measured), S1
1
1.5 R² = 0.974
0.5
1
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0.5
Lus/y (predicted), S1 0
0 0.5 1 1.5
Lds/y (predicted), S2

Measured Relative Scour Length Upstream of
Spur Dike (Lus/y) for S1 Figure 9.Comparison between the Predicted and
Measured Relative Scour Length Downstream of Spur
Dike (Lds/y)for S2
462
Theme E
NOTATIONS
5 CONCLUSION
Fr Froude Number
The results of several long duration scour hs Maximum Scour Depth
considering different length and spacing around Lus Scour Hole Length U/S the Spur Dike
single and multiple spur dikes, following
Lds Scour Hole Length D/S the Spur Dike
conclusions could be drawn:
θ Angle of Spur Dike Junction with Channel Side
1.The results of proposed regression λ Kinetic Flow Factor
equations are compared to the experimental e Contraction Ratio
measurements and an acceptable agreement has
S1 First Spur
been found.
S2 Second Spur
2. The results showed well agreement L Effective length of spur dike
between experimental and predicted values of hs/y S Spacing Between Two Spur
(R² = 0.9657), Lus/y (R² = 0.9864), Lds/y (R² =
0.981) for single spur dike and hs/y (R² = 0.9777
for S1, R² = 0.9789 for S2), Lus/y (R² = 0.9724 for
S1, R² = 0.9479 for S2), Lds/y (R² = 0.9771 for S1,
R² = 0.974 for S2) for multiple spur dikes.
3. It was observed that spacing between two

spurs taken as best is two times the length of spur
and when angle of inclination is 60°, scour depth
has been found to be minimum.
REFERENCES
Ezzeldin et al. (2007) “Local Scour Around Spur

Dikes” Eleventh International Water
Technology Conference, Sharm El-Sheikh,
Egypt.
I.S 8408:1994, Planning and Design of Groynes in

Alluvial River-Guidelines (First Revision).
Masjedi et al. (2010) “Reduction of Local Scour at

Single T-Shape Spur Dike With Wing Shape in
a 180° Flume Bend” World Applied Sciences
Journal 8 (9): 1122-1128.
Konwar N and Khaund K P (2016) “An

experimental study of variation in flow
parameters due to the effect of spur”
International Conference on Civil Engineering
Sustainable Development-Opportunities and
Challenges, 19-21 December 2016, Assam
Engineering College Guwahati Assam India
Salamatian et al. (2016) “Flow Pattern and Stress

Distribution around Three Spur Dike in Ninety
Degree Bend” International Journal of
Engineering and Technology, Vol. 8, No. 6,
December 2016.
463
CAPACITY-UTILIZATION ANALYSIS OF IRRIGATION PROJECTS: A

CASE STUDY
(ICID2018_E_018)
Ujjal Borgohain1
1
Assistant Executive Engineer, Jorhat Sub Division(Irrigation), Jorhat
ABSTRACT
This paper aims at identification of gap between irrigation potential created (IPC) and irrigation potential utilised
(IPU).As per the information of Ministry of Water Resources Government of India2007, it has been observed that this
difference has been progressive over years. However, it is difficult to conclude that the observed gap between these
two parameter portrays the gap between supply of and demand for irrigation water in reality. The reasons behind the
gap may be due to conceptual factors, lake of appropriate quantitative information, effect of weather and other site
specific reasons. For supply of irrigation water to be meaningful to a farmer, it has to conform to his requirements of
prior assurance about timeliness, the right quantity at an affordable price. But in an development perspective a
supplier cannot ignore the factors determining the economic demand curve for irrigation water. A case study has
been performed in irrigation schemes situated in Jorhat District Assam. The statistics of IPC and IPU has been
collected and analysed for 36 no of irrigation schemes. From this study it seems a lacuna of our existing irrigation
supply system .Limitation of effective interface between the supply side and demand side was observed.
Keywords: IPC, IPU, Irrigation
1 INTRODUCTION In earlier years, the study of land and water

management was recognized as very complex
India has made constant attempts to increase and multilayered task (Prince
food production with the help of assures irrigation. 1971).Anthropological and social case studies
In the last part of 1990, Policy was to increase (Kaplan and Manners1972) related to Irrigation
food production by more than 50% for the next were studied to analysis the gap from a socio-
two decades. To achieve the goal it was very economical prospective . These studies provide
much necessary to have effective and extensive collective analysis of the issues of irrigation
irrigation in India. In order to fulfill the aim management (Conklin 1973, Hunt and Hunt
Government .has decided to give priority on 1974). The influence of physical labour on water
irrigation projects .But more focus on technical control (Conklin 1973) and environmental factors
and infrastructural development than on (Conkling 1973; Netting 1974) on irrigation in
management issues resulted in gap between terms of localized and regular maintenance and
irrigation Potential Created (IPC) and Irrigation fair share of water are considered to determine
Potential Utilized (IPU). IPC is defined as the area the gap of IPC-IPU.
which can be provided irrigation through the Ishikawa (1967) and Bolding (1995) portray the
facilities which have already been created. In case importance of social relation, gender
of surface water projects, irrigation potential is predispositions and social position while they view
said to be created when the whole system is irrigation a part of larger economic development.
capable of supplying water at the outlet through Societies with irrigation facilities can often by
main canal, branch Canal, distributaries and opportunistic grouping and presence of local
minors. Similarly in case of ground water (Deep or organization for control of water.
medium) tube wells schemes potential is said to Uncertainty with the existing system and
be created when whole system is capable of politicization of the irrigation sector promote
supplying water to the last spout chamber in case overuse and illegal usages (Le Marquand 1977).
of underground distribution system or at the tail Wood (2007) notes that electoral motivation,
point in case of canal distribution system.IPU is especially when the distribution innovates different
defined as the total gross area actually irrigated states and political interference in terms of having
during the year under consideration. a majority in the parliament become determining
factors of water distribution. It is also stated that
establishment of tribunal is ineffective because of
2 LITERATURE REVIEW the political necessity of heeding the wishes of
interest groups and voters. Misunderstanding
The views of different authors in respect of gap occurs because of the differential cognitive
between IPC and IPU are fragmented. understanding between the farmers and
464
Theme E
engineers. Already existing folk model and Table-1 Irrigation potential created and utilized
classifications are often incompatible to models data of last 4 years
developed by engineers, which results in Type of IPC IPU
understanding of local factors ( Nadkarni Schemes 2014 2015 2016 2017
1979,1987;George and Raju 1981; Kallur 1988)
DTWS 3660 886 624 642 789
argues the need for complementing the ‘folk’ and
LIS 1270 580 617 505 436
the’ scientific’ models.
FIS 1850 927 930 915 909
Ansari (1968) and Reidinger (1974) show that
difference between levels of water rationing create A case study was performed for Jorhat District
a degree of uncertainty which creates
unsatisfactory performance of the IPU-related
issues in terms of yields and profits. This helps to
explain the sudden increase in groundwater Table2. DTW schemes in Jorhat District
schemes within the major command area farmer’s Sl IPU
responses by use of drought resistant low value no Name of IP
crops like gram ( Gol 1969,Ahmed 1971) that D.T.W.Sch C
201 201 201 201
affects agronomic ,climatic and soil factors. emes
4 5 6 7
Popularization of drip and sprinkler can reduce
conveyance losses and wastage. But this is rare 1 Lahdoigar 30 25 8 8 8
in North Eastern States (Kundu 2003). Wade and h DTWS
Chambers(1980) and Palanisami and Easter 2 Pirakota 21 45 15 20 25
(1983) argue that overemphasis on construction DTWS 0
and ignorance of water management also result in 3 Charaibahi 30 80 55 55 60
existing IPC-IPU gap. Clearly, the problems are DTWS 0
multi-layered and rooted in social, economic, 4 Sarucharai 30 60 70 70 15
political and cognitive domains( Sodal 2004). DTWS 0
Since the gap between IPC and IPU is 5 Arandhara 30 80 36 21 85
increasing day by day, resulting a loss of huge DTW S 0
sum of resources in terms of money, manpower 6 Dolakhoria 30 60 60 50 45
and water .Hence we the technocrats related to DTW S 0
irrigation should think to minimize the gap in every 7 Hollongap 60 0 0 5 20
step in field level. Taking these factors into ara DTW
consideration an attempt has been made to 8 Khongia 21 15 10 10 10
survey the real life situation. A case study has DTW S 0
been performed in the district of Jorhat, Assam. 9 ECPT 12 70 68 70 70
Jorhat District is located in Assam (240 3/N and DTWS 0
280 N and 890 5/ E and 9601/) having total 10 Exten.Cha 90 40 19 12 12
Geographical area is 2859.3 Sq. Km, out of which raibahi
152262 Ha are cropped area. Here only four years DTWS
data are taken in to consideration (2014-2017) for 11 Augmentat 12 25 5 16 8
this study. ion Meleng 0
12 Bhokotua 60 30 17 20 40
Machkhow
a
13 Nowboisa 30 0 0 0 0
DTWS
14 Chowkhat 90 15 15 10 20
DTWS
15 Eporia 30 5 5 5 5
DTWS
16 Chenijan 90 45 15 15 20
DTWS
17 Kolakhowa 60 30 25 25 55
DTWS
18 Bam 60 25 8 25 25
kukuracho
wa DTW
19 Hatigarh 90 5 5 3 0
Fig1. Map of Jorhat District DTWS
20 South 21 15 7 7 7
465
Theme E
Charigaon 0 Beel LIS 0

DTWS 9 Kakodon 12 40 14 12 0
21 Kenduguri 90 0 0 0 62 ga LIS 0
Pathar 10 Upper 30 20 30 20 20
garumor
DTWS
a LIS
22 NizBaligao 60 25 8 6 6 11 Namdeo 30 30 15 15 15
n DTWS ri LIS
23 North 60 0 0 0 0 12 KhutiaPa 30 15 30 15 15
Charigaon tharSaka
DTWS ijan LIS
24 Teok 60 0 0 20 25
MDTWS Table4. Flow Irrigation Scheme in Jorhat District
25 Randhanij 60 20 8 8 8 Sl IPU
an DTWS no Name of IP
26 Thangal 15 55 50 55 50 flow C
201 201 201 201
MDTWS 0 irrigation
4 5 6 7
27 Dhekiajui 90 35 30 30 30 .
DTWS Scheme
28 Puranimati 30 30 30 30 30 s
Phatagaon
DTWS 1 Charaip 40 40 41 40 38
29 Chapani 60 10 15 10 10 ani FIS 0
DTWS 2 Meleng 16 60 60 60 60
30 DihingiaNo 90 8 8 8 10 FIS 0
wboisa 3 Puthino 24 150 149 150 155
DTWS di FIS 0
31 Jankhona 60 21 20 18 19 4 Kokojan 10 20 22 20 20
DTWS FIS 0
32 BezgaonM 90 12 12 10 9 5 Kakodo 50 500 497 488 485
elengial nga FIS 0
DTWS 6 Naginiju 10 100 100 100 100
rijan FIS 0
Table3. Lift irrigation Scheme in Jorhat District 7 Teok 10 30 35 30 30
Sl IPU FIS 0
no Name of IP 8 Kachaja 10 20 20 20 20
lift C n FIS 0
irrigation 201 201 201 201
4 5 6 7 9 Mugroija 50 2 2 2 2
.
n FIS
Scheme
s 10 Chirakh 50 4 4 4 4
ati FIS
1 Nahatia 14 120 90 75 70 11 Na-Juli 50 1 1 1 1
LIS 0 FIS
2 LIS Janji 15 95 110 120 100 .
in 0
Simalug
uriMauz IPC-IPU difference in L.I.S
a
3 LIS from 40 100 90 90 85 1500
Janji in 0
LahingM
ouza
Area in' Ha'
1000
4 Bahguri 60 10 8 8 10
Sawguri
LIS 500
5 Chengali 30 20 30 20 21
ati LIS
6 Bahitia 10 60 90 70 70
LIS 0 0
7 Teok LIS 30 20 20 20 20 2014 2015 2016 2017
8 Jangoni 15 50 90 40 0
466
Theme E
occurs in tube well schemes and comparatively

Fig2. Difference between IPC-IPU in L.I.S good results are in flow irrigation schemes.
Considering all the irrigation schemes in this
district total IPC is 6780Ha and average IPU is
2000 IPC-IPU difference in F.I.S 2192 Ha. Hence overall performance is calculated
1800 as 32.32 %. Hence, more than 67% area are not
covered under irrigation though these areas are
1600 considered during design calculation.
1400 An analysis of data on irrigation potential
Area in 'Ha'
1200 created and utilized in this district under study

points to a combination of factors accountable for
1000
the gap. First of all the data on gap comes from
800 multiple agencies, each follows a different
600 methodology for calculation the irrigated area.
400 Problem at the time of project design is also a
cause .For example; the starting point of
200
assessment of water availability in any project is
0 the average rainfall, estimated from past rainfall
2014 2015 2016 2017 data of 30 years or more. Based on the average
Fig3. Difference between IPC-IPU in F.I.S rainfall dependable yield is arrived at. However
average rainfall does not say anything about
timing and distribution of rainfall. If the timing and
distribution is erratic, despite of high average
IPC-IPC difference in D.T.W.S rainfall, inflow in to head works will be less,
4000 resulting in lower IPC. Moreover utmost
importance should be given during selection of
3500 intake points in case of lift irrigation schemes.
3000 Many a times it is seen that the river course is
changed and makes the intake point abandon i.e.
Area in 'Ha'
2500 IPU is zero.

2000 The gap between irrigation potential created
and utilized, despite actual water availability being
1500 equal to designed data maybe defined as
1000 technical problem. The root causes may be
shortlisted as
500
0 (i) Non availability of required infrastructure: non
2014 2015 2016 2017 maintenance of canal system e.g. growth of
weeds, collapse of side wall and slopes, damage
Fig4.Difference between IPC-IPU in D.T.W.S to side wall and bed linings, leakage and
blockage of PVC pipeline, damage of pump
In this district there are mainly three types of motors, transformers and electrical connection,
irrigation schemes, mainly deep tube well damage of spout chamber in field resulting
schemes (D.T.W.S), lift irrigation Schemes (L.I.S) reduce of waterway and potential.
and flow irrigation schemes (F.I.S). (ii) Regulatory problem, including non-availability
There are eleven flow irrigation schemes of measuring devices.
where potential created (IPC) is 1850 Ha and (iii) Violation of cropping pattern: The entire
average potential utilized is about 921Ha The command area is divided into three parts, namely
percent of irrigation potential utilized by flow initial reach, middle reach and tail reach. The
irrigation schemes is 49.78 %. On the other hand, quantity of water reaching these zones vary on
twelve lift irrigation schemes have created a account of losses and friction in canal system.
potential of 1270 Ha out of which average IPC is Generally farmers of initial and middle reach go
535 Ha for last four years and percent of irrigation for crops based on market signals and consumes
potential utilized is 41.90%. more water. They do not follow the cropping
It is found that the IPC by the D.T.W. schemes pattern recommended by irrigation department.
is near about 3660Ha but IPU in last 4 years are One important reason for the technical coming
886Ha, 624Ha, 642Ha and 789 Ha respectively. in the way of full utilization of potential stated
Hence percent utilized are 24.2%, 17.04%, above is to lack of budgetary support for operation
17.54% and 21.55%. So average potential utilizes and maintenance of irrigation project. Social and
by D.T.W. S. is near about 20.17% only. It is political have also played an important role in the
found that the highest gap between IPC and IPU
467
Theme E
indifferent attitude of users toward optimizing the Conklin, H.1973. Commentary on papers of the
water use. It is clearly a spirit of cooperation symposium ‘Irrigation and Communal
between the adjoining villages, field level workers Organization’, Annual meeting of the
and officials. In small schemes this type of social American Anthropological Association,
and political is negligible. New Orleans.
To minimize the gap between IPC and IPU the George, P.T. and Raju,K.N.1981.Absorption of
following remedial measures may be taken. The Human Labour in Command Area,
information on the expected rainfall and the National Institute of Rural Development,
quantity of inflow has to be estimated well before Hyderabad.
the cropping season. The estimates will be less Gol, Planning Commission.1969. Evaluation study
accurate for kharif season, but highly accurate for of the high yielding varieties programme:
the Rabi season. Irrigation department and report for Rabi 1968-69 Wheat, Paddy
agriculture department should prepare the best and Jowar, Programme Evaluation
possible cropping pattern for the season in order Organisation, New Delhi.
to maximize the potential utilized. Field level staff Hunt, E and Hunt, R. 1974. Irrigation and the
of both the department should inform all the socio-political organization of the
farmers about the cropping pattern before the Cuicateccacicazgos, R.S. MacNeish and
cropping season. In this connection water users F.Johnson(eds.), Prehistory of the
association and elected representative of the local Tehuacan Valley, 4 pp. 162-259,
area may also be engaged for motivation .The University of Texas Press, Austin.
facilities provided by other department such as Ishikawa, S. 1967. ‘Economic Development in
agricultural department in terms of supply of high Asian Perspective’, Economic research
yielding variety seeds, concessional credits, and series No.8, The Institute of Economic
agro processing facilities may create an Research, Hitotsubashi University, Tokyo:
environment among the farmers so that they Kinokuniya.
follow the suggested cropping pattern. Since lack Kallur, M.S.1988.Irrigation and Economic
of maintenance of the irrigation schemes is the Development, Chugh Publication,
main technical reason of the gap between IPC Allahabad.
and IPU, hence budgetary allocation for Kaplan, D. and Manners, R. 1972. Culture Theory,
maintenance work should be enhanced. There are Prentice-Hall, Englewood.
a number of maintenance works pending over the Kundu K.K., Karwasra J.C., Suhag
past few years due to lack of budgetary support. K.S.,Jain,K.2003.’Water resource
Urgent need to create project specific schemes to development with special reference to
clear the entire backlog with dedicated budgetary irrigation in India: some economic
support is required. The water users association in consequences’,Indian Journal of
most of our schemes are not active to collect the Agricultural Economics,
water charge from farmer and farmers in this area Vol.58,No.3,pp.483-484.
are reluctant and unable to pay the dues since Nadkarni, M.V.(eds.).1979. Impact of Irrigation:
most of our farmers are marginal farmers. At last Studies of Canal, Well and Tank Irrigation
every stake holder has a role to play in ensuring in Karnataka, Publishing House, Bombay.
that the water resource of the country are utilised Netting, R. 1974. The System Nobody Knows:
properly for the maximum good of the people of Village irrigation in the Swiss Alps, T
the country. Dowing and G.McGuire(eds.), Irrigation’s
impact on Society, University of Arizona
Press, Tucson.
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Nuclear America, Latin American
Ahmed, F.A.1971.’New dimensions of the green Research Review, Vol.6, No.3, pp.3-60.
revolution, ‘India News, Indian Embassy, Reidinger, R.B.1974. Institutional Rationing of
Washington DC. Canal Water in Northern India: Conflict
Ansari, N. 1968. The economies of Irrigation between Traditional Patterns and Modern
Rates: A study in Punjab and Uttar Needs, Economic Development & Cultural
Pradesh. Asia Publishing House, New change, Vol.23, No.1, pp. 79-104.
Delhi. Sodal,S.V.2004. An initiative towards saving of
Bolding A, Mollinga, P.P and Van Straaten, water and sustainable irrigation
K.1995. ‘Modules for Modernisation: management in Maharashtra state, India.
Colonial Irrigation in India and the Wade, R and Chambers,R.1980.Managing the
Technological Dimension of Agrarian Main System: Canal Irrigation’s Blind
Change’, The journal of Development Spot, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.
Studies, Vol 31 , No. 6, pp. 805-844. 15, No.37,pp. 107-112.
468
Theme E
Wood, J.R.2007. The Politics of Water Resource

Development in India. The Narmada
Dams Controversy, Sage, Los Angels.
469
COMPARISON OF SOIL MOISTURE DERIVED BY USING SWAT

MODEL AND REMOTELY SENSED GLDAS
(ICID2018_E_019)
Dilip Kumar1, Rajib Kumar Bhattacharjya1,

1
Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Guwahati, Assam, India
ABSTRACT
Rainfall, runoff, and infiltration are important components of the water cycle and are interrelated with each other.
Amongst these processes, the soil moisture, a contribution of infiltration is a significant hydrologic process that
checks different land surface phenomena. Indirectly, the soil moisture defines the condition of the field for different
agricultural works and is considered as a tool for drought monitoring. Being an important factor, the soil moisture data
is not generally available on a local scale. The direct soil moisture/ in situ measurements is expensive in nature and
not available continuously for large areas of the country. However, satellite-based remote sensing data on soil
moisture are available across the globe. The Global Land Data Assimilation System (GLDAS) is proficient in
providing global and regional information related with soil moisture at the different depth, based on the different
models of GLDAS. The data is available continuously with free of cost. However, the acceptability of these data in
local scale has to be evaluated before using the global data. As such, in this study, we tried to establish a
relationship between satellite-based soil moisture data of different models of GLDAS with the soil moisture output of
the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) hydrological model for the state of Uttarakhand. The SWAT model is
utilized to produce a series of soil water data at the monthly scale from historical weather data. The SWAT model is
calibrated and validated using discharge data, available at the different outlets. The simulated soil moisture from four
different land surface models, i.e. Mosaic, Noah, Community Land Model and Variable Infiltration Capacity of
GLDAS-2 is compared against soil moisture obtained by using the SWAT model. The results show that the soil
moisture derived by Noah model is relatively close to the results obtained by using the SWAT model.
Keywords: GLDAS; SLMs Model; Soil moisture; SWAT; Uttarakhand.
1 INTRODUCTION areas of India like Uttarakhand. Few notable

contributions in this field can be seen in the work
Soil moisture plays an important role in carried by Palmer (1965), Akinremi and McGinn
understanding the hydrological cycle and also for (1996), Huang et al. (1996). Palmer (1965) used
analyzing the crop-water requirement [1], [2]. As lumped modeling approach for the estimation of
such, the estimation of soil moisture is also an drought index known as Palmer Drought Severity
important process for water resource Index (PDSI) [4], [8]. Akinremi and McGinn (1996)
management and for estimating surface and traced out that this PDSI is not accounting the
groundwater availability [3], [4]. Three general snowmelt parameters and thus they did some
methods are available for the estimation of soil modification in Palmer's method which is known
moisture data. They are (a) in-situ measurement as Versatile Soil Moisture Budget (VB) equation
of soil moisture (b) by using microwave remote [1], [5], [9]. Huang et al. (1996) explained a single
sensing data (c) by using either climatic models or layer soil moisture model to determine the
land surface models (LSM)[1], [5]–[7]. The in-situ historical dataset of soil moisture on monthly basis
measurement of soil moisture data is very over the entire US [10]. Several other models are
expensive and has a spatial limitation. On the also developed and applied in different parts of
other hand, the microwave-based remote sensing the world to determine the soil moisture trend
methods are computationally complex in nature. based on the General circulation model (GCM)
As a result, many researchers have utilized output and historical data. Amongst these various
climatic models or land surface models for hydrologic models, the Soil and Water
estimation of soil moisture data. Assessment Tool (SWAT) (Arnold et al. 1998) is
A reasonable option for getting extended time- accepted widely by researchers [11], [13]. The
related soil moisture data is the utilization of reason behind the acceptability of SWAT model is
climatic or land surface models. In this type of that the model uses easily accessible data related
model, the historical climate data, such as rainfall with the weather, soil, land, and basin topography,
and temperature are used to reproduce the soil provides the significant spatial feature for
moisture. Very less research has been carried in catchment level modeling, and the SWAT is
the past for the analysis of soil moisture by using proficient in managing different land management
different hydrological models, especially in hilly related scenarios. Based on these features and
470
Theme E
capacity of the SWAT model, in the present study, flash flood events occurred in the state of
we used the model for simulating soil moisture Uttarakhand.
content for the state Uttarakhand [11], [14].
The GLDAS, known as The Global Land Data
Assimilation System was developed together by
specialists from Goddard Space Flight Center of
NASA and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration of National Centers for
Environmental Prediction (NCEP), USA [9], [15],
[16]. GLDAS is a worldwide, high-resolution,
offline physical modeling system developed by
combining field and satellite measurements data
[5], [7], [17]. It produces the output related to the
global land surface elements and fluxes in real Figure: 1 The study area for analysis.
time. At present four land surface models (LSMs)
are available in GLDAS. These models are the
Mosaic model, the Noah model, the Community
Land Model (CLM) and the Variable Infiltration
Capacity (VIC) model. All these four models are
capable of producing the total terrestrial water
(TWS), which is the summation of soil moisture at
the different depth (SM), canopy water holding
capacity, snow water equivalent (SWE) and other
hydrological parameters related to flux. In this
paper, we have compared the simulated soil
moisture obtained from these four different LSMs
with the soil moisture obtained by using the SWAT Figure:2 The major cloudburst event locations in
model for the state of Uttarakhand. Two types of Uttarakhand.
GLDAS dataset are available for analysis, i.e.
GLDAS-1 and GLDAS-2. In this study, we used 2.2 GLDAS model definition
GLDAS-2 dataset, which is a combination of
different meteorological forcing data sets [10], As discussed earlier, the GLDAS operates four
[15], [18]. LSMs: Mosaic, CLM, Noah, and VIC. The Noah
The objectives of the present study are (i) model is a 1-D column model which has been
obtaining soil moisture data from the different applied as the land model of the NCEP,
models of Global Land Data Assimilation System considering the local and global weather data
(GLDAS), (ii) estimating the soil moisture using since 1996. The CLM model is formed by a group
SWAT hydrological model and (iii) analyze the of scientists and researchers. The motto behind
correlation between GLDAS soil moisture data the project was to provide a global land surface
and the data obtained using the SWAT model. model for public use. The VIC model is a semi-
distributed large-scale hydrological model
developed by the combined effort of the University
2. METHODOLOGY of Washington, Princeton, and the University of
California. The VIC model analyzes different
2.1 Study Area and Data Used layers of exposed soil and vegetation in a form of
the computational grid. In the grid, the model
The present study is concentrated on the hilly supports both water and surface energy budgets
state Uttarakhand. Uttarakhand, the 27th state of and the changes occurred within the sub-grid are
India, located in the mighty Himalayas. It lies analyzed statistically. In the Mosaic model, the
between 28043’ and 31027’N latitude and 77034’ earth surface has been classified into the mosaic
and 81002’ E longitude (Fig.1). The state spread of tiles. Each tile has a user-defined classification
over an area of about 53,483 sq.km. For which is based on the vegetation type they have.
simulation and validation of discharge, two river Each tile in the model has their own water and
basins are considered, i.e. the Bhagirathi river energy balance. The major problem with GLDAS
basin the Alaknanda river basin. The catchment is models is that each model defines the moisture at
shown in Fig. 1. These two basins are considered different depths. As for example, the Noah model
in this study as the majority of flash flood events has four soil layers at 0–10 cm, 10–40 cm, 40–
have happened in this area and also look at the 100 cm, and 100–200 cm. The Mosaic model has
availability of discharge data. Fig. 2 shows the three different soil layers at 0–2 cm, 2–150 cm,
and 150–350 cm. In the VIC model, there is also
471
Theme E
three layers i.e. 0–10 cm, 10–160 cm, and 160–

190 cm. The CLM model represents a total ten
different layer of soil moisture at 0–1.8 cm, 1.8–
4.5 cm, 4.5–9.1 cm, 9.1–16.6 cm, 16.6–28.9 cm,
28.9–49.3 cm, 49.3–82.9 cm, 82.9–138.3 cm,
138.3–229.6 cm, and 229.6–343.3 cm. There are
two types of data set with GLDAS, the GLDAS
Version 1 (GLDAS-1) and the more up-to-date
GLDAS Version 2 (GLDAS-2). The data are not
available after 2010 in case of GLDAS-2 for Noah
model. In the present study, the monthly 0.25°
resolution GLDAS-2 data set of all LSMs models
are used, except Noah model. Figure:4 The DEM of the study area.
2.3 SWAT model The SWAT model was run by giving all the inputs
as mentioned in flowchart (Fig.3). The DEM of
The SWAT model is used for streamflow modeling study area presented in Fig.4, the land use
in the daily and monthly time span. As discussed map(Fig.5) and the soil map (Fig.6) are the main
earlier, SWAT is a distributed model and the inputs other than the rainfall and temperature data
specified watershed is divided into sub- of area for the SWAT model. The GLDAS data are
watersheds for further streamflow routing. The downloaded for the different models of LSM as
functional unit of the SWAT model is hydrologic discussed earlier. To reduce the environmental
response units (HRU). HRUs are the union of soil error, the data are multiply by the corresponding
types, land use pattern, and slope properties of scale factor as specified by GLDAS.
the particular watershed and are hydrologically
uniform. Each sub-watershed is made up of these
HRUs. In simple words, we can say that HRUs are
neurons of the sub-watershed, which further made
the whole watershed. The hydrological response
is passed through these HRUs to sub-watershed
and from sub-watershed to the main catchment
outlet. It may be mentioned here that the outlet
position, the number of sub-watershed and HRUs
are user specific. The response of HRUs are
based on the soil water balance equation as given
in equation 1.
t
SWt SW  ( Ri  Qi ETi  Pi  QRi ) .....(1)
i 1
Where SWt is total soil moisture content, SW is

the initial soil water content, i is time in days for
the simulation period t, and R, Q, ET, P, and QR
respectively are the daily precipitation, discharge,
evapotranspiration, percolation, and return flow.
Figure:5: The soil and LULC map of Uttarakhand.
The detail methodology is presented in Fig. 3.
Figure:3 The methodology flow chart adopted in

the paper.
472
Theme E
The highest estimation of surface soil moisture (0–

10 cm, in case of Noah model and 0-2 cm in case
of MOSAIC model) agrees with the highest value
of rainfall as shown by the Fig. 7 and 8. For the
rest of the layers, highest soil moisture is before
the peak value of rainfall. The reason behind this
may be due to two or three months of hysteresis.
This lag shows that soil moisture does not
instantly show the real-time dynamic of rainfall.
3.2 SWAT SM Vs GLDAS SM
The graph shown in Fig.9 visualize that the Noah

model soil moisture data are partially verified by
the SWAT model moisture data in comparison
with other models of GLDAS.
Figure:6 The soil and LULC map of Uttarakhand.
3. RESULTS
3.1 Study of variation of Soil moisture with rainfall
Figure:9 The SWAT and GLDAS model SM

comparison.
Figure:7 The graph showing variation of SM with

rainfall
Figure:10 The SWAT and GLDAS model SM

comparison in different seasons.
The season wise comparison of soil moisture

obtained by using the different models is shown in
Fig.10. The figure shows that the soil moisture
given by the GLDAS models, except the MOSAIC
are matching with the SWAT soil moisture data
during the monsoon season. In pre and post-
monsoon, there is a large difference between the
Figure:8 The graph showing variation of SM with SWAT output and GLDAS moisture content data.
rainfall. The methodology assesses the comparison of
different models of GLDAS with the SWAT model.
473
Theme E
As explained earlier, each model in GLDAS gives Hydrol. Sci. J., vol. 60, no. 5, pp. 1–19,
soil moisture at different layer and the layer depth 2015.
is different for different models. On the other hand,
SWAT gives the total soil moisture content. As a B. S. Dhami and A. Pandey, “Comparative Review
result, the statistical correlation between the of Recently Developed Hydrologic
GLDAS and SWAT soil moisture content is not Models,” J. Indian Water Resour. Soc.,
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SWAT moisture data and the data of different D. Kumar and S. K. Himanshu, “Geographical
models of GLDAS are presented in Table:1. Information Based Evaluation System for
Except for the Noah model, the other models are Drought,” vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 62–65, 2017.
not showing a good correlation between the two H. Bi, J. Ma, W. Zheng, and J. Zeng, “Comparison
datasets. of soil moisture in GLDAS model
Table:1 The correlation b/w different soil moisture simulations and in situ observations over
data. the Tibetan Plateau,” J. Geophys. Res.
SWAT MOSAIC Noah VIC CLM Atmos. Res., pp. 2658–2678, 2016.
SM SM data SM SM SM H. KATO et al., “Sensitivity of Land Surface
data data data data Simulations to Model Physics, Land
R2 0.21 0.54 0.33 0.37 Characteristics, and Forcings, at Four
CEOP Sites,” J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan,
vol. 85A, pp. 187–204, 2007.
4. CONCLUSION H. Rui, H. Beaudoing, and C. Loeser, “Global
Land Data Assimilation System (GLDAS-
The extracted soil moisture results of four LSMs in 1) Products README,” 2017.
GLDAS-2 is assessed in Uttarakhand catchment J. Valencia and P. Analysis, “Estimated
at various soil layers and the same was compared Calibration Parameters in SWAT Model
with the soil moisture obtained by using the SWAT for Andean Watersheds,” 2013.
hydrological model. J. G. Arnold et al., “Swat: Model Use, Calibration,
The results, thus obtained are concluded as: and Validation,” Asabe, vol. 55, no. 4, pp.
1. All LSMs model is capable to obtain the 1491–1508, 2012.
temporal change of soil moisture and Noah model K. Verma and Y. B. Katpatal, “Soil moisture
shows fair correlations with the SWAT output variability correlation with remotely
results. sensed GLDAS Data using SWAT model
2. The soil moisture pattern fluctuates with output data for Upper Godavari River
different LSMs at different soil layers. The basin.”
statistical relationship shows that except the M. L. Tan, A. L. Ibrahim, Z. Yusop, V. P. Chua,
MOSAIC model, which has the least correlation and N. W. Chan, “Climate change impacts
with SWAT results, the other three models have under CMIP5 RCP scenarios on water
moderately supported the results of SWAT. resources of the Kelantan River Basin,
3. Since LSMs models have soil moisture data at Malaysia,” Atmos. Res., vol. 189, pp. 1–
different layers and the SWAT gives the total 10, 2017.
moisture storage, the correlation between the M. Ozdogan, M. Rodell, H. K. Beaudoing, and D.
models is not very good. L. Toll, “Simulating the Effects of Irrigation
over the United States in a Land Surface
Model Based on Satellite-Derived
5. NOTATIONS Agricultural Data,” J. Hydrometeorol., vol.
11, no. 1, pp. 171–184, 2010.
SM: soil moisture. M. Rodell et al., “The Global Land Data
GLDAS: Global Land Data Assimilation System. Assimilation System,” Bull. Am. Meteorol.
SWAT: soil and water assessment tool. Soc., vol. 85, no. 3, pp. 381–394, 2004.
LSM: land surface model. P. Yang, J. Xia, C. Zhan, Y. Qiao, and Y. Wang,
CLM: community land model. “Monitoring the spatio-temporal changes
of terrestrial water storage using GRACE
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475
A STUDY ON SOIL HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES IN UNSATURATED

SOIL FOR DIFFERENT LOCATION OF GUWAHATI CITY USING RETC
PROGRAM
(ICID2018_E_020)
Banakshi Bora1 Triptimoni Borah2

1,2 Assam Engineering College, Guwahati, Assam, India
ABSTRACT
The RETC computer code is used for analyzing the soil water retention and hydraulic conductivity functions of
unsaturated soils. Hydraulic properties are key parameters in any quantitative description of water flow into and
through the unsaturated zone of soils. The program uses the parametric models of van Genuchten to represent the
soil water retention curve, and the theoretical pore-size distribution models of Mualem to predict the unsaturated
hydraulic conductivity function from observed soil water retention data.
Keywords: HEC-RAS; water surface elevation; water quality model; dissolved oxygen; Brahmaputra River
1 INTRODUCTION administration, education, commerce and many

other activities of not only the state of Assam but
Interest in the unsaturated (vadose) zone has also the entire north eastern region of India.
dramatically increased in recent years because of Geographically the present Guwahati area or the
growing evidence and public concern that the Greater Guwahati area lies in both the sides of the
quality of the subsurface environment is being mighty Brahmaputra. The area extends
adversely affected by industrial, municipal and latitudinally from 2605/ N to 26012/ N and
agricultural activities. Computer models are now longitudinally from 91024/ E to 910 51/ E. It covers
routinely used in research and management to a geographical area of 358 km 2. Being a part of
predict the movement of water and chemicals into North –East India and moreso of the Brahmaputra
and through the unsaturated zone of soils. Such valley falls under the influence of the region’s
models can be used successfully only if reliable monsoonal climates. While the physiographic
estimates of the flow and transport properties of controls and orographic structures of the region
the medium are available. Current technology of have their macro effects on the climate of the
developing sophisticated numerical models for area, local topographic factors have also impact
water and solute movement in the subsurface on the micro variation in the climate of the area.
seems to be well ahead of our ability to accurately Hengrabari is located in the capital city of
estimate the increasing number of parameters Guwahati of Assam, a state on the north-east of
which appear in those models. This is especially India. It is located in Latitude 26009/06.2// North
true for the unsaturated soil hydraulic properties and Longitude 91047/33.2// East. Hatigaon is a
which by far are the most important parameters locality in the southern part of Guwahati, Assam,
affecting the rate at which water and dissolved India. It is surrounded by the localities of
chemicals move through the vadose zone. While a Ganeshguri, Bhetapara, Sijubari, and Survey. It is
large number of laboratory and field methods have located in Latitude 26008/18.6// North and
been developed over the years to measure the Longitude 91046/40.6// East. Percentage of sand,
soil hydraulic functions, most methods are silt and clay for this area is 2%, 48% and 50%
relatively costly and difficult to implement. respectively and textural class of soil is silty clay.
Accurate in situ measurement of the unsaturated Panjabari area of Guwahati. Panjabari is located
hydraulic conductivity has remained especially south east of Guwahati, it is sparsely populated
cumbersome and time-consuming. Thus, cheaper area of the city.
and more expedient methods for estimating the
hydraulic properties are needed if we are to
implement improved practices for managing water
and chemicals in the unsaturated zone. 3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 RETC
2 STUDY AREA
Guwahati is the premier city of North-East India. It RETC (Retention Curve) computer program is
may be called as the hub of political used to describe the hydraulic properties of
476
Theme E
unsaturated soils. The program may be used to fit ∂Ѳ∕∂t = ∂∕∂z (D.∂Ѳ∕∂Z – K) (2)
several analytical models to observed water
retention and/or unsaturated hydraulic conductivity
data. As before, soil water retention data are Where D is the soil water diffusivity ( L2T-1),
described with the equations of Brooks and Corey defined as
[1964] and van Genuchten [1980], whereas the
pore-size distribution models of Burdine [1953] D= K.dh/dѲ (3)
and Mualem [1976a] are used to predict the
unsaturated hydraulic conductivity function. New The unsaturated soil hydraulic functions in
features in RETC include (1) a direct evaluation of the above equations are the soil water retention
the hydraulic functions when the model curve Ѳ(h), the hydraulic conductivity function
parameters are known, (2) a more flexible choice K(h) or K(Ѳ), and the soil water diffusivity function
of hydraulic parameters to be included in the D(Ѳ). Parametric models of these functions are
parameter optimization process, and (3) the reviewed in detail below.
possibility of evaluating the model parameters
from observed conductivity data rather than only Soil water retention model
from retention data, or simultaneously from
measured retention and hydraulic conductivity Several functions have been proposed to
data. empirically describe the soil water retention curve.
The RETC code provides several options One of the most popular functions has been the
for describing or predicting the hydraulic equation of Brook and Corey [1964], further
properties of unsaturated soils. These properties referred to as the BC-equation:
involve the soil water retention curve, Ѳ(h), the
hydraulic conductivity function, K(h),and the soil Ѳ= Ѳr + (Ѳs - Ѳr) (αh)-λ (αh> 1)
water diffusivity function, D(Ѳ). The soil water
retention function contains 5 independent = Ѳs (αh ≤ 1) (4)
parameters, i.e., the residual water content Ѳr, the
saturated water content Ѳs, and the shape factors Where Ѳr and Ѳs are the residual and saturated
α, n and m. The predictive equations for K and D water contents, respectively; α is an empirical
add two additional unknowns: the pore parameter (L-1) whose inverse is often referred to
connectivity parameter l, and the saturated as the air entry value or bubbling pressure, and λ
hydraulic conductivity, Ks. Hence, the unsaturated is a pore-size distribution parameter affecting the
soil hydraulic functions contain up to 7 potentially slope of the retention function. For notational
unknown parameters. The restrictions n-∞ (i.e., convenience, h and a for the remainder of this
the BC restriction), m = l-l/n and m = 1-2/n will report are taken positive for unsaturated soils (i.e.,
reduce the maximum number of independent h denotes suction).
parameters from 7 to 6. The RETC code may be
used to fit any one, several, or all of the 6 or 7 Following van Genuchten and Nielsen
unknown parameters simultaneously to observed [1985] and Luckner et al. [1989], Ѳr and Ѳs in this
data. study are viewed as being essentially empirical
constants in soil water retention functions of the
3.2 Parametric Models for the Soil Hydraulic type given by (4), and hence without much
function physical meaning.
Equation (4) may be written in a dimensionless
Water flow in unsaturated or partly saturated soils form as follows
is traditionally described with the Richards
Equation (1) [Richards, 1931] as follows Se= { (αh)-λ (αh > 1)
={1 (αh≤ 1) (5)
C.∂h/∂t = ∂∕∂z (K.∂h/∂z – K) (1)
where Se is the effective degree of saturation, also
Where h is the soil water pressure head ( called the reduced water content (0<Se< 1).
with dimension L), t is time (T), z is soil depth (L), Because of their simple form Eqn (4) and (5) have
K is the hydraulic conductivity (LT-1), C is the soil been used in numerous unsaturated flow studies.
water capacity (L-1) approximated by the slope
(∂Ѳ∕∂h) of the soil water retention curve, Ѳ(h), in A related smooth function with attractive
which Ѳ is the volumetric water content(L3 L). properties is the equation of van Genuchten
Equation (2) may also be expressed in terms of [1980], further referred to as the VG-equation in
the water content if the soil profile is Eqn (6) as follows
homogeneous and unsaturated (h≤0).
Se= l/ [l +(αh)n]m (6)
477
Theme E
Where α, n and m are empirical constants K(Se) = Ks Sel [ 1- ( 1- Se1/m)m]2 (m = 1- 1/ n) (16)

affecting the shape of the retention curve.
Or in terms of pressure head:
3.3 Mualem ’s hydraulic conductivity model
K(h) = Ks{ 1-(αh)mn [ 1+ (αh)n]-m}2 / { 1+ (αh)n}ml (m
The model of Mualem [1976a] for predicting the = 1- 1/n) (17)
relative hydraulic conductivity, K, may be written in
the form 3.4 Hydrometer Test
K(Se) = KSSe [f (S)/f (1)]2 (7) Texture in the present experiment is determined
by the hydrometer method. The standard
Where hydrometer with Bouyoucos scale in g/L is used in
an aquous suspension of the pre measured pre
f (Se) = ∫0
𝑆𝑒 1
. 𝑑𝑥 (8) treated soil.
ℎ(𝑥)
in which Se (sometime called effective 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

saturation)is given by Eqn (6), KS is the hydraulic
conductivity at saturation, and e is a pore-
connectivity parameter estimated by Mualem 4.1 Results from Hydrometer Test
[1976a] to be about 0.5 as an average for many
soils. To facilitate the integration in(7), we first Hydrometer test is done for grain size analysis of
take the inverse of (5) as follows fine grained soils. In this study sand, silt and clay
percent for different area of Guwahati. From the
h = 1/ α (Se-1/m – 1)1/n (9) hydrometer test the textural class for Hengrabari,
Hatigaon and Panjabari are silty clay loam, silty
Substituting (10) into (9) and using the substitution clay and clay respectively.
x=ym gives
4.2 Soil water retention curve from RETC
𝑆𝑒 1/𝑚 1 1
f(Se)=αm∫0 𝑦𝑚 − 1 + 𝑛 (1 − 𝑦) − 𝑑𝑦 (10)
𝑛
Figure 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3 shows the key parameters
of silty clay loam, silty clay and clay. It is observed
Several approaches can now be followed to derive
K from Eqn (6) and (9). We first proceed with that saturated water content (Ѳs) increases from
the most general case of variable m and n. The silty caly loam to clay. Air entry values for silty clay
transformations loam, silty clay, Sandy clay and clay are found as
o.3 m, 0,5 m, 0,2m, 0.4m respectively. The
ζ = Se 1/m = 1/ 1+ (ah) (11) residual water content (Ѳr) values are found for
and silty clay loam, silty clay and clay are as 0.12, 0.15
and 0.22 respectively. With the increase in finer
P = m + 1/n q = 1- 1/n particles the saturated water content, air entry
values increases. This finding from the study
(12)
resembles the results from the literature (
Fredlund 2000; Aubertin et al. 2003). That justify
allow Eqn (10) to be rewritten in the form
the result obtained from RETC programme. Li et
f(Se) = αmlζ (p, q) B (p,q) (13) al. (2009) have observed that soil type affects air
entry value (AEV) and slope of SWCC. As the clay
where B(p,q) is the complete Beta function given content increases, the slope of the curve becomes
by gentle. Thus justify our results from RETC .
1
B(p,q) =∫0 𝑦 𝑝−1(1-y)q-1dy (14) 4.3 Prediction of Hydraulic Conductivity
and is the incomplete Beta function Zelen and Figure 4.4,4.5 and 4.6 shows the hydraulic
Severo 1965 conductivity versus pressure head curve for silty
ζ
Iζ (p, q)= 1/ B (p,q)∫0 y p−1(1-y)q-1dy (15) clay loam, silty clay and clay for Hengrabari,
Hatigaon and Panjabari respectively.
The simplest case arises when K = 0, which leads From the figure 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6 it is
to the restriction m = 1-1/n. Equation (10) can now shown that hydraulic conductivity for Silty clay
be readily integrated to yield loam hydraulic conductivity is saturated just after
the pressure head of 0.001m. Saturated hydraulic
conductivity at that point is 0.118 m/days.
Hydraulic conductivity ceases at a pressure head
478
Theme E
of 4m.For silty clay soil is 0.07 m/days at a retention property is highest for soils having high
pressure head of0.001 m. With the increase in percentage of fine particles. In VG - Mualem
suction head there is a linear reduction of model it holds water upto a pressure head of 0.01
hydraulic conductivity up to 0.02 m/days at suction m. For hydraulic conductivity it is found that
head of 0.016m. when suction head increases hydraulic conductivity is highest for soils having
beyond 0.016m a nonlinear variation of hydraulic higher sand particles.
conductivity is observed from the study. The
hydraulic conductivity cease at suction head of
0.9m. the hydraulic conductivity vs. pressure head
curves for clay soil in Panjabari area. Maximum
hydraulic conductivity is estimated as 0.09 m/days
at suction head of 0.001m. With the increase in
suction head there is a linear reduction of
hydraulic conductivity upto 0.02 m/days at suction
head of 0.016m. when suction head increases
beyond 0.016m a nonlinear variation of hydraulic
conductivity is observed from the study. The
hydraulic conductivity cease at suction head of
0.9m.
From the figure it is seen that saturated
hydraulic conductivity is highest for coarse grained
soil compared to fine grained soil which resembles
the literature Sarki et al.Thus justify our result. Figure 4.4 Hydraulic conductivity vs Pressure
head curve for Hengrabari area in VG – Mualem
model
Figure 4.1 water content vs pressure head for

Hengrabari area
Figure 4.5 Hydraulic conductivity vs. Pressure

head curve for Hatigaon area in VG- Mualem
model
5. Conclusions
Soil hydraulic properties constitute the basis for
understanding flow and transport processes and
are of important input properties in any
simulations
Figure 4.2 of vadose
water zone
content properties.
vs pressure In for
head this
focus methods
Hatigaon area are presented that allow prediction
and characterization of soil hydraulic properties,
with an emphasis on the moisture retention
characteristics, unsaturated hydraulic conductivity
and diffusivity.
This report describes the hydraulic properties of Fig 4.6 Hydraulic conductivity vs. Pressure head
unsaturated soils using RETC computer program. curve for Panjabari area in VG- Mualem model
The soil water retention curve Ѳ (h), in the
program can be represented by the equations of
van Genuchten, while the unsaturated hydraulic 5 CONCLUSIONS
conductivity K (h) or K (Ѳ) functions is formulated
in terms of the statistical pore-size distribution Soil hydraulic properties constitute the basis for
models of Mualem. From the study it is found soil
Figure 4.3 water content vs pressure head for
Panjabari area
479
Fig 4.6 Hydraulic conductivity vs. Pressure head
curve for Panjabari area in VG- Mualem model
Theme E
understanding flow and transport processes and

are of important input properties in any
simulations of vadose zone properties. In this
focus methods are presented that allow prediction
and characterization of soil hydraulic properties,
with an emphasis on the moisture retention
characteristics, unsaturated hydraulic conductivity
and diffusivity.
This report describes the hydraulic properties
of unsaturated soils using RETC computer
program. The soil water retention curve Ѳ (h), in
the program can be represented by the equations
of van Genuchten, while the unsaturated hydraulic
conductivity K (h) or K (Ѳ) functions is formulated
in terms of the statistical pore-size distribution
models of Mualem. From the study it is found soil
retention property is highest for soils having high
percentage of fine particles. In VG - Mualem
model it holds water upto a pressure head of 0.01
m. For hydraulic conductivity it is found that
hydraulic conductivity is highest for soils having
higher sand particles.
REFERENCES
A. T. Corey , Brooks and R.H (1964). “Hydraulic

properties of porous media. Hydrology Paper
No. 3, Colorado State Univ;Fort
Collins,Colorado. 27 pp.”
Burdine, N.T (1953), “Relative permeability
calculations from pore-size distribution
data”Trans;Am.Inst Min Eng. 198:71-77
Mualem, Y.(1976a) “ A new model for predicting
the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated
porous media.”Water Resour R12:513-52 M
Van Genuchten, M. Th. (1980), “A closed-form
equation for predicting the hydraulic
conductivity of unsaturated soil”Soil Sci Soc
Am J.44:892-898
480
WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS OF BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER AT AN

URBAN STRETCH OF GUWAHATI CITY USING HEC-RAS
(ICID2018_E_021)
Rubia Sultana Choudhury1 and Triptimoni Borah2
1,2,Assam Engineering College, Guwahati, Assam, India
ABSTRACT
Over the past few decades, river water quality has been a serious issue in urban stretch of the Guwahati city due to
direct disposal of domestic and industrial pollutants. The challenge lies in developing mechanism and tools that
assist to mitigate, prevent or possibly reverse deteriorating river water quality. In the present study, USACE
Hydrologic Engineering Center’s River Analysis System (HEC-RAS 4.1.0) Model is used for the analysis of flood. The
water surface elevations are computed for various flood discharges and return periods (5, 10, 20 and 50years). Total
17 cross-sections along the river near the city are considered for steady flow simulations. The objective was to
develop a hydrodynamic model coupled with a water quality model for the river Brahmaputra to access and
understand the process affecting the river. The model was also used to evaluate the amount, source and distribution
of algae, dissolved oxygen, nitrate and orthophosphate. Water samples collected systematically from different sites
within Guwahati during dry season were analyzed and examined for water quality evaluation. It was found that the
concentration of nitrate, phosphate and algae increase from upstream to downstream but the concentration of
dissolved oxygen decreases from upstream to downstream.
Keywords: HEC-RAS; water surface elevation; water quality model; dissolved oxygen; Brahmaputra River
1 INTRODUCTION The Brahmaputra is one of the major rivers of

Asia, a trans-boundary river which flows through
Surface waters such as rivers, lakes and oceans China, India and Bangladesh. About 3,848km
provide humans with food, transportation and long, the Brahmaputra is an important river for
recreation; however, they are also critical irrigation and transportation (Figure 1). At
recipients for the waste. Around 77% of pollution Guwahati the Brahmaputra cuts through the
in the ecosystems comes from the human Shillong plateau and is at its narrowest at 1km.
activities. There are two types of chemical Guwahati is a sprawling city beside the river
contaminations that enter the ecosystems; Brahmaputra in the northeast Indian state of
inorganic (phosphates, nitrates and metals) and Assam. In the present study 15 km long
organic (pesticides and hydrocarbons). Brahmaputra river reach is selected along
Understanding the water quality pattern is Guwahati city. The study area is located
necessary to identify the distribution, growth and 26ᴼ12’06.04’’N to 26ᴼ10’43.98’’N and
physiological function of aquatic ecosystems.The 91ᴼ45’22.88’’E to 91ᴼ37’18.46’’E. It covers the
objectives of the study are: area from UzanbazaruptoPalasbari. There are
i) To develop a 1D hydrodynamic model large residing populations along this river which
integrated with a water quality model for river necessitates the extensive study of potential
Brahmaputra. threats arising from the deterioration of quality of
ii) A steady flow analysis is done using software water.
HEC-RAS.
iii) To prepare simulated hydrograph of given
cross-section.
iv) To study the variation of water quality
parameters throughout the river using the
data from literature.
v) Study and access the factors (algae,
dissolved oxygen, BOD, nitrate and
orthophosphate) affecting the pollution in
Brahmaputra river.
2 STUDY AREA
481
Theme E
components, data storage and management

capabilities, graphics and reporting facilities. HEC-
RAS is software that allows us to perform one
dimensional steady and unsteady river hydraulic
calculations, sediment transport-mobile bed
modelling and water temperature analysis.
The HEC-RAS system contains four one
dimensional river analysis components for: (1)
Steady flow water surface profile computations;
(2) Unsteady flow simulation; (3) Movable
boundary sediment transport computation and (4)
Water quality analysis. All four components use a
common geometric data representation. HEC-
RAS is capable of performing one dimensional
water surface profile calculations for steady
gradually varied flow in natural or constructed
channels. Subcritical, supercritical and mixed flow
regime water surface profiles can be calculated.
Water surface profiles are calculated from one
Figure 1. Image showing the study area of cross section to the next by solving the energy
Brahmaputra river equation with an iterative procedure called the
standard step method. The energy equation is
written as:
3 LITERATURE REVIEW Y₂ + Z₂ + α₂V₂²/2g = Y₁ + Z₁ + α₁V₁²/2g + hₑ,
Where
As the awareness of water scarcity increased, it Y₁, Y₂ = depth of water at cross sections. Z₁, Z₂ =
resulted/or led to more attention towards water elevation of the main channel inverts. V₁, V₂ =
quality modelling. The variability of water quality
average velocities (total discharge/total flow area)
parameters requires a general complex model,
α₁, α₂ = velocity weighing coefficients.
though it needs well trained expert controllers.
hₑ= energy head loss
Water quality management includes two major
g= gravitational acceleration.
areas of investigation which are hydrology and
Whenever the water surface passes through
ecology. Overall the model aims to predict the
critical depth, energy equation is not applicable.
transport and dispersion operations to be followed
The energy equation is only applicable to
by the results input to the water quality element
gradually varied flow situations. For rapidly varied
model. Water quality modelling is used to describe
flow situations, momentum equation is used which
the surface water characteristics in terms of
is written as:
chemical, physical, radiological and biological
conditions. Zhang and Johnson et.
Force = Mass x Acceleration (change in
al(2016)described the HEC-RAS water
momentum) (4)
temperature model development and calibration
for five Missouri river reaches. It was developed
and calibrated by USACE Omaha and Kanas city
district. Hussienet. al. (2015)developed a
hydrodynamic model coupled with water quality
model for the Dubai Creek to access and
understand the processes affecting the creek.
Girijaet. al. (2006)attempted towards water quality
assessment of a relatively small tributary of the
Brahmaputra called the Bharalu River flowing
through Guwahati city.
4 METHODOLOGY
HEC-RAS is an integrated system of software,

designed for interactive use in a multi-tasking
environment. The system is comprised of
Graphical user interface, separate analysis
482
Theme E
Table 1.Water Quality Parameters Input Values
RS 17
Water Temp(ᴼC) 24
Algae (mg/l) 0.002
DO (mg/l) 6.9
CBOD (mg/l) 2.5
N (mg/l) 14.6
NH4(mg/l) 1.3
NO2(mg/l) 0.5
NO3(mg/l) 5
P (mg/l) 0.98
PO4(mg/l) 0.6
5.2 Water quality analysis of the study area
Figure 2. Representation of terms in energy The hydraulic model coupled with ecology
equation revealed the water quality results for all the cross-
sections. The water quality model results were
5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION compared with Guwahati Municipality data for the
first Quarter of 2010. In the upstream cross-
The water quality module uses the QUICKEST- section the water quality parameters was same for
ULTIMATE explicit numerical scheme to solve the dissolved oxygen (DO). It was found to be nil.
one-dimensional advection-dispersion equation. Results showed the highest algae concentration to
Individual sources and sinks as well as computed be in the most downstream cross-section
concentrations are available model output. (0.002mg/l) and the lowest concentration to be in
the upstream section (0.0023mg/l).
5.1 Water quality data
Figure 3 shows the schematic variation of algae
For water quality modelling in HEC-RAS, concentration from upstream to downstream. In
temperature and nutrients options were selected. surface water, the presence of algae creates
Temperature modelling computes heat energy surface scum, poor water clarity and noxious
sources and sinks and water temperature.Nutrient odours. The algae may lead to problems in the
modelling simulates nutrients, dissolved oxygen, drinking water treatment process, such as reduced
CBOD and algae. Because most of the rate filter runs and an increase in the amount of
constants in the nutrient model are temperature disinfectant needed, which can increase the cost of
dependent, nutrients may not be modelled unless treatment. Both the circulation and flow velocity
water temperature is also simulated or set to a along with a combination of physical (i.e. currents,
fixed value. wind) and chemical (nutrients) factors, impact the
A time series (boundary condition) must be occurrence and distribution of the algae
specified for each modelled constituent at all population. The existence of nutrients in streams is
upstream boundaries of the main channel and its neither associated with storm water, nor induced
tributaries and lateral inflows. At least one initial wind that mixes the deep nutrients and brings them
condition value is required for modelled to the surface. On the other hand, the
constituent in each reach. The boundary anthropogenic loading can lead to eutrophication.
conditions in the model were represented by one The natural conditions of the weather and water
station. For each boundary condition, different were controlling the algal occurrence in nature.
water quality parameters were added to the
model. Initial values for the water quality
parameters were entered to be the same as the
boundary conditions value mentioned in Tables 1.
The required dispersion coefficients were
assumed as fixed value for all location of
boundary conditions’ to be 25.6m 2/s. after that,
meteorological data sets are entered. The two
entered datasets are assigned to the different 17
water quality cells river station.
483
Theme E
The NO3 input Data vs Output Results are shown

in Table 2. The results showed that the highest
NO3 concentration is in the upstream cross-
section 1.030115mg/l and lowest in the
downstream cross-section 1. The nutrient level is
found to be decreasing from January 2010 to
December 2010. In December the concentration is
0.9645162 mg/l in the upstream section and
0.9942421mg/l in the downstream section of the
river. Figure 5shows the variation of nitrate
concentration along the river.
Table 2: NO3 input Data vs Output Results

RS Observed Simulated NO3
NO3 NO3 %Error
(mg/l) (mg/l)
16 1.3 1.003 22.8
15 1 1.008 0.8
Figure 3. Algae schematic plot 14 1.8 1.010 79.0
11 1.6 1.018 36.37
5.3 Dissolved Oxygen 8 1 1.022 22.02
The results showed that the highest DO

concentration in the most upstream section to be
0.9 mg/l and lowest concentration in cross-section
1 i.e. cross-section 1. DO levels vary seasonally
and over 24 hours period. They also fluctuate with
changes in the water temperature and the altitude.
The DO concentration is maximum in winter
season. Figure 4shows the dissolved oxygen
schematic plot of the study reach.
Figure 5. Nitrate concentration schematic plot
5.5 Orthophosphate
PO4 input Data vs Output Results are

shown in Table 3. Figure 6 shows the variation of
PO4 concentration along the river channel. The
variation is same as that of NO3 concentration i.e.
it is maximum in the downstream section and
minimum in the upstream section.
Table 3. PO4 input Data vs Output Results
RS Observed Simulated PO4
Figure 4. Dissolved oxygen schematic plot PO4 PO4 %Error
(mg/l) (mg/l)
16 1.5 1.45 3.33
5.4 Nitrate concentration 15 0.7 0.35 50
14 0.9 1.010 12.2
11 1.4 1.35 3.57
8 0.5 0.43 14.0
484
Theme E
Beavers (1994). “Hydraulic modelling of river

channels using GIS based tools named
HEC.”
Daniel E. Christiansen and David A. Eash (2008)
“Flood-Plain Study of the Upper Iowa River in
the vicinity of Decorah, Iowa” USGS Report.
Dyhouse Gary R.(2003) “ Floodpain Modelling
using HEC-RAS” Haested Methods First
Edition.
Fleenor, William E. ‘Evaluation of Numerical
Model, HEC-RAS and DHI-MIKE 11.” (2003).
Garde R J, Raju Ranga K. G. (2000). “Mechanics
of Sediment Transportation and alluvial
stream problems” New Age International
publishers (P) Ltd. New Delhi, India.
Jensen M. (2002), “Using HEC-RAS to model
canal systems”. Journal of Engineering, 2,
607-616
Subramanya K. (2006). “Flow In Open Channels”
Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company
Limited. New Delhi, India.
Figure 6.Orthophosphate concentration schematic Timbadiya P. V., Patel P., Porey Prakash D.,
plot (2011) “Calibration of HEC-RAS model on
Prediction of Flood for lower Tapi river India,”
Journal of Water Resource and Protection.
6 CONCLUSIONS
US Army Corps of Engineers, (2010) “HEC-RAS,
The variation of nitrate, phosphate dissolved Hydraulic Referance Manual,” Hydrologic
oxygen and algae is studied and found that the Engineering Center, Version 4.1.
concentration of nitrate, phosphate and algae US Army Corps of Engineers, (2010) “HEC-RAS,
increase from upstream to downstream but the User Manual,” Hydrologic Engineering
concentration of dissolved oxygen decreases from Center, Version 4.1.
upstream to downstream. Nitrate dissolves much
faster in water in comparison to phosphates and
the combination of NO3 and PO4 in big amounts
leads to an increase in the aquatic plant as well as
algae. This would reduce the DO concentration
impacting the entire aquatic system.
The water quality model was verified by
evaluating simulated results with the observed
data for five different locations. Water quality
output was evaluated for algae, DO, NO3 and
PO4. The algae concentration increased towards
downstream cross-section while DO had the
opposite pattern and was depleting towards
downstream. NO3 and PO4 recorded the highest
concentration in Panikhaiti section and lowest in
the Uzanbazar area.
REFERENCES
Agrawal R.P. and Regulwar D.G. (2016) “Flood

Analysis of Dhudhana River In Upper
Godavari Basin Using HEC-RAS”,
International Journal of Engineering
Research (IJER), Vol.5 (1), 2016, pp.188-
191.
485
RAINFALL RUNOFF MODELING OF PAGLADIYA RIVER BASIN

(ICID2018_E_022)
AtiqurRahman1, BipulTalukdar2
1. Post Graduate Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Assam Engineering College, Jalukbari,
Guwahati-781013, Assam, India
2. Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Assam Engineering College, Jalukbari,
Guwahati-781013, Assam, India
ABSTRACT
Flood is a natural phenomenon, forecast of which is highly important.Proper knowledge of rainfall-runoff relationship
helps in predicting the probable floods in the catchment. The present study aims at developing a model which
adequately represents the occurrence of flood in the Pagladiya river basin and hence helps us in understanding the
rainfall-runoff relationship of the study area. ArcGIS was used to delineate the watershed and from which sub-
watersheds were created. The various physiographic parameters such as SCS Curve Number, Lag time, longest flow
path, Land use pattern etc. of these sub-watersheds were determined. HEC-HMS (Hydrological Modeling System)
was used to simulate the rainfall-runoff process of the Pagladiya river basin and subsequently a model was
developed, optimized parameters of which were found out. Using these optimized parameters, three events were
selected for which the rainfall-runoff process was simulated. From the study it is found that in spite of limited data
availability, the HEC-HMS model has proved to be good for runoff estimation.
Keywords: ArcGIS, HEC-HMS, Pagladiya River Basin
1 INTRODUCTION a riverine flat plain formed due to continuous

fluvio-geomorphic actions of the Pagladiya,
A flood is an overflow of water that submerges Morapagladiya, Burhadiya, Nona, Ghogra and
land that is usually dry. Flooding may occur as an Baraliya rivers. The Brahmaputra river is also
overflow of water from water bodies, such as a responsible for the formation of the lower most
river, lake, or ocean, in which the water overtops part of the drainage complex.
or breaks levees, resulting in some of that water The river originates on southern slopes in hills
escaping its usual boundaries, or it may occur due of Bhutan (near Naningpho, 2,838m) at a point
to an accumulation of rainwater on saturated having latitude 27°0′N and longitude of 91°50′E
ground in an areal flood. and flows towards south through a mountainous
Assam, a state in the North eastern region of tract for 19 km upto Chowki. After traversing
India, is affected by floods quiet often. Every year, through the Bhutan territory it enters plains within
flooding from the Brahmaputra and other rivers Indian Territory in the Nalbari district of Assam
deluges places in Assam. The water levels of the near Chowki. The river length is 196.8 km out of
rivers rise because of rainfall resulting in the rivers which it flows for a length of 19 km in the hilly
overflowing their banks and engulfing nearby tracts of Bhutan and the rest 177.8 km through
areas. One such river which regularly creates Nalbari and Baksa districts of Assam. The slope of
havoc through flooding is the Pagladiya river, the river bed is very steep (about 1 in 75) in the
which is one of the major north bank tributaries of hilly tracts, moderate (about 1 in 200) in the
the Brahmaputra river. The river Pagladiya is middle reaches and very gentle (about 1 in 2600)
known to change its course and flow rapidly. This in the lower reach. The basin is lying between
is because of the shift in large mountainous 26°27'33.782"N to 27°0'4.099"N latitude and
masses due to seismic factors, resulting in 91°19'33.941"E to 91°32'47.235"E longitude. The
landslides and floods almost every year. It causes study area of the basin is about 496.58 sq.km. In
heavy flood damages in its middle and lower the plain the drainage complex has a general
reaches by over spilling banks and occasionally gradient of 1.5 to 1.0 m/km upto the built-up plain
by changing courses. which reduces to 0.5 m/km at the confluence. The
general climate of the Pagladiya basin is sub-
tropical with dry hot summer and cold foggy
2 METHODOLOGY AND PROCEURE winter. Relative humidity in the monsoon season
(May to September) varies from 79% to 85%.
2.1 Study Area Rainfall is substantially high during the monsoon
season, during which 83% of the annual rainfall
The Pagladiya river basin is a part of the north occurs. The average annual rainfall in the basin
bank plain of the Brahmaputra valley. This part is varies from 775 mm to 3447 mm.
486
Theme E
Figure 1.Pagladiya river basin Figure 2.Digital elevation model
2.2 Data Collection
The successful application of a hydrologic model

depends upon how well the model is calibrated,
which in turn depends on the technical capability
of the hydrologic model as well as quality of input
data. Various types of data required for this study
was collected from different sources. The rainfall
data and discharge data for the flood season (May
to August) for the years 2007, 2009 & 2012 which
was used for model calibration and validation was
acquired from Water Resources Department,
Assam. Harmonized World Soil Database
(HWSD) was used for soil related information and
also for Hydrologic Soil Group (HSG)
classification. For delineation of the watershed
and sub-watersheds, Digital Elevation Model
(DEM) of 30 m resolution was used. Also for Land
Use Land Cover (LULC) classification, IRS LISS-
III satellite imagery of 23.5 m resolution was used.
The DEM of Pagladiya basin has elevation
ranging from 25 m to 2396 m.
Figure 3.Flow accumulation map
487
Theme E
Figure4.Sub-basins of Pagladiya river basin Figure 6.Land use map of Pagladiya river basin
2.3 Modeling in HEC-HMS
A general rainfall-runoff model was developed in

HEC-HMS in which the time period considered
was 25May 2007 to 31August 2007. The model
generated output discharge was then calibrated
against the observed discharge in HEC-HMS so
as to obtain the optimized parameters. The
parameter selected for optimization was the basin
CN and the objective function used for the
calibration process was as per Nash-Sutcliffe
efficiency criterion. The search method used for
the determining optimized parameter was
Univariate-Gradient search algorithm. The Nash-
Sutcliffe efficiency of the calibrated model was
found to be 0.65.
Figure 5.Stream network map
Figure 7.HEC-HMS model setup
488
Theme E
Soil Conservation Services (SCS) Curve

Number (CN) loss method was used for 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
computation of total runoff volume. Curve Number
for each sub-basin was determined by creating a The various parameters, data and variables were
grid using the LULC grid, soil maps obtained from fed into the HEC-HMS model setup for the period
HWSD (Harmonized World Soil Database) having 25May 2007-31August 2007. The CN value of
HSG (Hydrologic Soil Group) and the Curve each sub-basin was calibrated against the
Number tables published by SCS. observed discharge values to obtain the optimized
SCS Unit Hydrograph model was used for CN values. The search method used for
computation of direct runoff volume. The lag time calibration process was Univariate-Gradient
for modeling in HEC-HMS is calculated using the Search Algorithm with Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency as
SCS formula which is as follows: the objective function. The model was run to
obtain an output discharge having Nash- Sutcliffe
1000−9 𝐶𝑁 0.7
( 𝐿𝑥 3.28 𝑥 1000)0.8 ( ) efficiency of 0.65. The Percentage Error in Peak
Tlag = 0.5
𝐶𝑁
[1] (PEP) was found to be 6.01%. The Percentage
1900 𝑥𝑦
Error in Volume (PEV) was found to be 19.36%.
Where, Tlag = lag time in hours, L = length of Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency coefficient (NSE)
the longest flow path of the sub-basin (km), CN = developed by Nash and Sutcliffe in 1970 which is
composite CN of the sub-basin, y = average slope given by:
𝑇
of the sub-basin in percent.
For each sub-basin, the length of the longest 𝑞 𝑡 − 𝑞𝑚 𝑡
𝑁𝑆𝐸 = 1 − ∑ ( 0𝑡 )
flow path (L) and average slope (y) was 𝑞 0 − 𝑞̅0
determined using the HEC-GeoHMS toolbox 𝑡=1
specifically developed by U.S Army Corps of Where,
Engineers (USACE) for ArcGIS application. The q0 =Observed flows at time‘t’inm 3/s
following table shows the values of these qm =Mean of observed flows in m 3/s
parameters which are calculated using HEC- q̅0 = Model outflow at time‘t’ in m 3/s
GeoHMS.
For computation of channel flow, lag model of Percentage Error in Peak (PEP):
channel routing was used, which can be
𝑄𝑐(𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘)−𝑄𝑜(𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘)
mathematically expressed as: PEP = 100 x | |
𝑄𝑜(𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘)
Ot = It if t< lag time [2] Where,

Qo(peak) = Observed peak discharge
Ot= It- lag if t> lag time [3] Qc (peak) = Computed peak discharge
Where Ot= outflow hydrograph ordinate at time Percentage Error in Volume (PEV):
t, It = inflow hydrograph ordinate at time t. 𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉𝑐
PEV = 100 x 𝑉𝑜
Table 1. CN and physiographic variables of all Where,
sub-basins (25May 2007 – 31 August 2007) Vo = Observed volume (in MCM)
Basin Longest Vc = Computed volume (in MCM)
Basin
Sub- Basin Lag Area, Flow
Slope
basin CN Tlag (km2) Path, L
'y' (%)
(hr) (km)
W140 59.176 30.828 1.684 37.151 10.244

W150 58.395 33.503 1.501 19.040 9.120
W160 59.294 30.463 1.585 14.926 13.211
W170 59.540 31.370 2.027 32.474 7.126
W180 58.838 27.681 2.272 35.561 13.784
W190 59.723 33.234 1.196 22.052 9.467
W200 60.645 29.627 1.912 41.962 20.834
W210 59.112 29.003 3.068 68.961 12.275
W220 66.451 11.151 3.825 54.084 19.111
W230 66.540 8.778 2.995 21.816 12.157
W240 80.373 2.898 7.112 70.244 29.279
W250 75.799 2.763 3.937 17.826 11.418 Figure8.Comparison between actual and
W260 78.895 2.847 6.430 60.485 24.107
489
Theme E
simulated discharge for 25May 2007-31August slightly under predicted for the2012 event but the
2007 event time to peak coincides with the observed
hydrographs.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Rainfall-runoff simulation has been conducted

using three rainstorm events. Out of these one
was selected for the calibration and rest of the two
events was selected for validation. The surface
runoff hydrographs were computed for these
rainfall-runoff events using SCS unit hydrograph
model which were compared with the observed
hydrographs. The surface runoff hydrographs thus
computed using SCS UH model was compared
with the hydrographs obtained from the observed
Figure 9.Comparison between actual and values by employing error functions viz.
simulated discharge for 25May 2009 – 31August percentage change in peak discharge and
2009 event percentage change in outflow volume. Initial
The model was then validated against the results showed that there is clear difference
observed discharge values for the year 2009 and between observed and simulated peak flows.
2012.For the year 2009 the model gave an output Therefore, model calibration with optimization
discharge having Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency of 0.67. method was undertaken. Model validation using
The Percentage Error in Peak (PEP) was found to optimized parameter values showed reasonable
be 5.92%. The Percentage Error in Volume (PEV) difference in peak discharge and outflow volume.
was found to be 9.46%. This is due to the fact that the research was
conducted using limited data. Data scarcity made
the calibration difficult to fit the calculated and
observed values. However, a wider time span of
analysis can enhance the reliability and accuracy
of the results.
Finally it can be concluded that the model
can be used with reasonable approximation in
hydrologic simulation for the Pagladiya river basin.
REFERENCES
Bruce, A. and Arlen, D. F. 1993. Review of GIS

Applications in Hydrologic Modeling, Journal of
Water Resources Planning and Management,
119(2).
Fleming, M. and Neary, V. 2004. Continuous
Figure 10.Comparison between actual and Hydrologic Modeling Study with the Hydrologic
Modeling System, Journal of Hydrologic
simulated discharge for 25May 2012 – 31August
Engineering, 9(3).
2012 event
Mohsen, M.S., Mohammad, M.M., Amapr, S and
For the year 2012 the model gave an output Mohammad, A.2011. Rainfall-Runoff Modelling
discharge having Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency of 0.69. of Three Wadis in the Northern Area, Journal
of Hydrologic Engineering, 16(1).
The Percentage Error in Peak (PEP) was found to
be 7.30%. The Percentage Error in Volume (PEV) Rahman, S. and Talukdar, B. 2016. Hydrological
modeling of Krishnai river basin, Civil
was found to be 20.67%.
Engineering for Sustainable Development –
The simulated outflow for both the events, i.e.,
Opportunities and Challenges, Assam, India,
25May 2009–31August 2009 and 25May 2012–
31August 2012 using SCS-UH model shows that WS 01: 233-237.
the computed hydrograph follows the trend of the
observed hydrograph. The peak discharge is
slightly over predicted for the 2009 event while it is
490
Theme E
Skhakhfa, I.D. and Ouerdachi, L. 2016.

Hydrological Modeling of Wadi Ressoul
Watershed, Algeria, by HEC-HMS Model,
Journal of Water and Land Development, 31:X-
XII.
Subramanya, K. 2013, 4e. Engineering Hydrology,
McGraw Hill, New Delhi.
491
A STUDY ON THE EFFECTS OF LAND USE CHANGE ON STORM

HYDROGRAPH OF KAKODONGA WATERSHED
(ICID2018_E_023)
Upasana Kashyap1, Sanjoy Bhuyan2,Dr. Sudip Basack3
1,2,3Kaziranga University, Jorhat, Assam, India
ABSTRACT
The aim of this study has been to assess theeffect of land use change on storm hydrograph of Kakodonga
watershed. The ten years field data of discharge for Kakodonga watershed was collected from Water Resource
Department, Jorhat and the ten years rainfall data was collected from Assam Agriculture University. Disturbed and
Undisturbed soil samples from the site are collected to examine the soil parameters. TheCoefficient of permeability
for the soil was found to be k = 1.65 x 10-6 and the moisture content was found to be 17.33%. The dry density of the
soil was found to be 1.292 g/cm 3. The soil type was obtained as Clay loam. The Soil Conservation Service Curve
Number (SCS-CN) method is used to estimate the theoretical runoff. Three land use scenarios were considered
consisting forestland, grassland and pavement areas. The present scenario was considered at 19% paved area, 25%
forest area and 56% grassland. The other two scenarios were “No urbanization” with 0% paved areas, 39%
grassland and 61% forestland and “Full urbanization” with 83% paved areas, 4% forest and 13% grassland. The
effective runoff was obtained by subtracting the infiltration and evaporation losses from the field discharge.
Considering the land use type, soil type, hydraulic gradient of the watershed and the catchment, characteristics of
draining water out of the catchment is studied. Max runoff discharge in m 3/s is plotted against duration of rainfall for
three different land use change scenarios. The runoff for full urbanization was estimated to be an increase of 22.17%
from the present scenario and the runoff for present scenario showed an increase of 18.5% from no urbanization
scenario. The results of the study suggested that with urbanization, the discharge increases. So due to the land use
change, storm hydrograph will also experience a change.
Keywords: Land Use Change, SCS-CN Method, Storm Hydrograph, Urbanization
1 INTRODUCTION Brahmaputra. It is situated in the parts of Jorhat

and Golaghat districts of Assam and Wokha
The general effect of urbanisation on hydrological district of Nagaland. A small portion of the basin is
characteristics of a catchment causes reduction in covered by Naga Hills in south and most of part
the amount of infiltration into the ground and belongs to Brahmaputra plain. The majority of the
increases the speed of runoff. The quality and watershed covered an agricultural land, mainly tea
quantity of surface water due to effect of gardens and paddy fields.
urbanization is quite often investigated.
A storm hydrograph is a way of displaying how 1.2 Objective of the study
the discharge of a river can change over time in
response to a rainfall event.They are useful in The objective of this study is
planning for flood situations and times of drought i. To analyse the soil type/distribution,
as they show the discharge that originated as characteristics, land use pattern and the effect
precipitation. of flood on land use of the Kakodonga
watershed.
1.1 Study Area ii. Estimation of percentage of different land
use change present in the watershed and
The study comprises an area of about 1,113sq. analysis.
km., and geographically located between 260 iii. Comparison of storm hydrographs of
15’10”N to 26044’48”N latitude and 930 59’10”E to Kakodonga watershed for three different land
940 21’45”E longitude in Survey of India use scenario.
Topographic sheets. The land use of the
Kakodonga basin has been identified are 1.3 Data Collection and Sample Collection
cultivated land under wet conditions through bore
wells, tank and canal irrigations. They are found The Discharge Data for the past ten years (2007-
mostly in valley fill soils and fluvial plains. The 2016) is collected from Water Resource
major soils of the Kakodonga basin are alfisols, Department, Jorhat and the Rainfall Data is
entisols, inseptisols, and mountain soils. The collected from Assam Agricultural University,
Kakodonga river basin is one of the important Jorhat.
southern sub-tributaries of mighty River
492
Theme E
Disturbed and Undisturbed soil sample are discharge through the mentioned land use change
collected from the site to determine the properties is estimated with respect to rainfall – runoff
of the soil. The different soil tests conducted characteristics of the watershed. The Soil
arepermeability of soil for undisturbed sample to Conservation Service Curve Number (SCS-CN)
find the infiltration rate by falling head method, method is used to estimate the theoretical runoff.
moisture content, specific gravity, Atterberg limits
to distinguish between silt and clay, core cutter (𝑃 − 0.2𝑆)
test to find the dry density from which type of soil 𝑉=
(𝑃 + 0.8𝑆)
is determined. The void ratio of the soil is where
calculated in percentage. V is the runoff volume (mm),
P is the rainfall volume(mm) and
S is soil storage capacity (mm)
The parameter S can be empirically determined
as a function of the curve number (CN),
100
𝑆 = 254( − 1)
𝐶𝑁
CN varies from 0 to 100 and depends on the soil,
cover and hydrologic condition of the land
surface. CN also depends on the antecedent
wetness of the drainage basin, and three classes
of antecedent moisture condition (AMC) are
Fig 1: Bar Graph showing average monthly defined: dry, AMC(I), average, AMC(II) and wet,
Discharge for 10 years AMC(III).Our study refers to the CN values
relative to AMC(II)as these conditions are more
significant with respect to flood events.
Fig 2: Bar Graph showing Average Monthly

Rainfall for 10 years Fig 3: Monthly Average Run off through
Kakodonga watershed in a year
1.4 Results of soil test
The coefficient of permeability for the sample

collected is found to be k = 1.65 x 10-6. Moisture
content is found to be 17.33%, specific gravity is
found to be 2.529, dry density is found to be 1.292
g/cm3, shrinkage limit = 14.22% and plastic limit =
20.96%. The liquid limit is 37.5% and plasticity
index is 16.61%. The soil type is found to be clay
loam from the test results.
1.5 Analysis
Three Land use Scenarios are estimated

comprising of different percentage of forestland,
grassland and pavement area as No urbanisation,
Present scenario and Full urbanisation.The
present scenario was considered at 19% paved
area, 25% forest area and 56% grassland. The Fig 4: Three Land use Scenarios considered in
other two scenarios were “No urbanization” with this study.
0% paved areas, 39% grassland and 61%
forestland and “Full urbanization” with 83% paved 2 RESULTS
areas, 4% forest and 13% grassland.The
493
Theme E
Storm hydrograph are obtained by plotting the Journal of Spatial Hydrology Vol.9, No.2
field discharge and the calculated theoretical Fall 2009.
discharge. Khadka, Fu, Myint, Oliver and Saiers. (2013).
“Effect of land cover changes and other
remediation on hydrology of Xinjiang
River sub-watershed”. Journal of
Environmental Science and Engineering
B2, 416-425.
Kundu&Olang. (2011). “The impact of land use
change on runoff and peak flood
discharges for the Nyando River in Lake
Victoria drainage basin, Kenya”. WIT
Transactions on Ecology and The
Environment, Vol 153, © 2011 WIT Press.
Fig 5: Comparison between Theoretical and Field Kundu, Chemelil, Onyando, &Gichaba. (2008).
Discharge “The use of GIS and remote sensing to
evaluate the impact of land cover and
Considering the land use type, soil type, land use change on discharges in the
hydraulic gradient of the watershed and the River Njoro Watershed, Kenya”. Journal
catchment characteristics of draining water out of of World Association on Soil Water
the catchment is studied. Max discharge in m 3/s is Conservation J2: 109-120.
plotted against duration of rainfall for three Ranzi, Bochicchio, Bacchi. (2002). “Effects on
different land use change scenarios floods of recent afforestation and
urbanisation in the Mella River (Italian
Alps)”. Hydrology and Earth System
Sciences 6(2), 239–253.
Sahin and Hall. (1996). “The effects of
afforestation and deforestation on water
yields”. Journal of Hydrology 178, 293-
309.
Shuster, Bonta, Thurston, Warnemuende& Smith
D. (2005). “Impacts of impervious surface
on watershed hydrology: A review”. Urban
Fig 6: Graph for discharge through three land use Water Journal, Vol.2, Issue 4, p263-275.
change scenarios
The runoff for full urbanization was estimated

to be an increase of 22.17% from the present
scenario and the runoff for present scenario
showed an increase of 18.5% from no
urbanization scenario.
3 CONCLUSION
The Discharges of Kakodonga River due to

different land use are estimated and compared to
see the difference in storm hydrograph. The
results of the papers suggest that with
urbanization, the discharge increases showing
higher runoff. The higher runoff and decrease
infiltration rate are responsible for flash flood in
the low lying areas of the watershed which also
effect the agricultural land.
REFERENCES
Kalyanapu, Burian, and McPherson. (2009).

“Effect of land use-based surface
roughness on hydrologic model output”.
494
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Theme F: Infrastructure Planning and Management
495
Theme F
Infrastructure Planning and Management
496
Speculating Urban Form for Sustainable Growth:

Interpreting climatological parameters as determinants.
ICID2018_F_004
Subhasish Borah
Lecturer & Program Coordinator
B. Urban Design Program, Faculty of Planning
CEPT University, Ahmedabad-9
ABSTRACT
Cities are expanding and facing serious and constant pressure of urban development, eventually leading to either
positive or negative urban transformations. One of the most incredible potentials of urban design and planning
practices is to radically change cities to provide a better built-environment, hence achieving sustainable and smart
urban transformations. This paper proposes the study of transformative potential and interrelationships of city design
and building processes and their spatial products. Hence, the research will focus on developing a methodology to
speculate new ways of intervention for visualizing urban forms with intends to develop an understanding of multiple
shifts in urban scale. The expected outcome of the paper will show how urban form can be thought with a holistic
urban lens to transform the city fabric aiming towards a sustainable urban growth. As a speculative process,
generative techniques will be used as urban exploratory tools to intervene on urban form.
Key words: Urban-form, Urban Transformation, Generative Techniques and Speculation.
1 BACKGROUND Currently, the cities in developing countries are

experiencing a tremendous pressure of growth,
Cities are amalgamation of people and culture, and the immediate impact of this pressure is the
buildings and streets. Henceforth, cities are requirement of developable land. As cities started
shaped by various tangible and intangible growing the agricultural land got converted to
elements of urbanity making it into a living developable land leading to an abrupt change in
organism. Among all the elements of urbanity, land-use and urban form.
urban form develops a very imperative In the absence of form-oriented policies, cities
constituent, which predominantly changes the started growing in size and shape leading to
openness and enclosure, city shape and size, longer travel distances, increased emission of
urban experiences, etc. Whatever we see today GHG, poor infrastructure, bad air quality and
as urban form of our cities is majorly dictated by uneven distribution of airflow. There is an urgent
our past. The early determinants of settlement to address the complex urban issues that are
governed the laying of streets followed by plots reinforcing negative urban transformations. There
and the attached property rights and active is a lot to learn from the old settlements of Indian
engagements to the land make them almost cities as they strongly depict a sustainable way of
unmovable. The underlying cadastral map of the development accounting to a good balance
urban fabric undergo constant transformations between physical, social and cultural dimension of
due to various factors like urbanization, easy urban setting.
availability of land, land prices, change in FSI, etc.
Sometimes these transformations are positive
which creates a healthy urban setting and 2 CITIES AND URBAN FORM
sometimes negative, leading to urban decay. The
issues related with negative transformations are The term ‘Urban Form’ is an expression to
many and they need to be addressed with a demonstrate the physical form as an organization
holistic approach using urban design and planning of elements of urbanity and the relationship
as a speculative tool for achieving sustainable between the spatial products comprising built
urban growth. With the growing negative urban structures, buildings, streets, plots, etc. The urban
transformations, the hidden lines of cadastral form of any city at any point of time expresses the
maps which are unseen to people, starts making forces that are responsible for making the form.
the urban form more complex with issues like The underlying seen or unseen forces are may be
larger urban blocks, unstructured plots, reduced physical like topography, availability of fertile land
block porosity and walkability, inhuman scaled and water, climate and sometimes anthropological
buildings, wider streets, etc. like social, cultural and religious beliefs. The local
notions and customs add on more to the
intangible forces that shapes the urban form of
497
Theme F
any geographical area. All these elements of because of the lack of adapting a holistic lens to
urban form juxtaposed with social and cultural visualize the urban setting for future.
beliefs create a productive environment for urban The notion of maximum utilization of urban land
habitat. has influenced the policy makers to formulate very
With an obnoxious pressure of urbanization and dogmatic and prescriptive policies resulting in shift
all the structural changes, cities are growing faster of multiple scales in the urban form. The intuitive
with a notion of induced urban development. This notion of urban transformation with dense urban
notion has given more importance to the setting should be integrated with the climatological
physicality of the urban form and has completely parameters to reduce the complex effect of urban
ignored the social, cultural and climatic values of heat island in our growing cities. The policies
the geographical area. The immediate impact of should adapt an approach to integrate the existing
this induced development can be seen as sprawl urban form with the speculated future. Apparently,
leading to leapfrogging and fragmented urban the existing policies are dictated too much with the
development. Thefootprint that is left by this existing urban form that it completely ignore new
phenomenon has disturbed the urban form and its urban areas, which are constantly changing due to
relation with various social, cultural and spatial rapid urbanization and housing demands. One of
products of the city. To a large extend this notion those sensitive areas in every Indian city that is
of induced development is created by the highly vulnerable and prone to urban
politicians and local city authorities, policy makers, transformation is urban fringe.
urban planners and designers. With the current Fringe is the area that connects the city with its
trend of induced urban development there is a surrounding agricultural land. Due to easy
potential declinein the spatial quality exhibiting a availability of land most of the fringe areas convert
clear failure of institutions connected with non- into suburbs demonstrating a clear leapfrog
existence of sustainable policies towards shaping development and fragmented urban fabric. Due to
our cities for a better future. availability of land at cheaper prices the plot sizes
The urban settings of Indian cities are very are generally bigger with bungalows and
dense where two-sided urban fabric coexists, apartments as predominant building typologies.
producing incomprehensible urban form and The induced development oriented approaches of
scape. One side of the form is a result of induced the Indian cities make the fringes a ‘temporary
development and the other is the organic fabric urban zone’ waiting for the next wave of
designed considering the natural and built- condensed urban development to fill-up the
environment simultaneously. It is very clear that available empty land.
Indian cities are undergoing constant changes in
both, structure and size. Sometimes, these
changes are designed or planned and sometimes 3 SPECULATING URBAN FORM
they are unplanned. Whatever may the change is,
the interrelation of city design and building The word urban form has many meanings like
processes and their spatial products are either shape, configuration, pattern, structure,
manipulated or enhanced by these changes. The organizations and system of relation. The early
urban form in many mediaeval Indian cities are form or pattern of the settlement was
reflections of cosmic city planning and design predominantly governed by the exposure to sun,
approach manifested with social, cultural and wind and connectedness with the street network.
religious beliefs. Madurai is the best example, Slowly, all these determinants were replaced by
which demonstrates an urban form with human other physical elements like land-use, FSI, land
scaled enclosures, built to open space ratio, price, density, etc. These physical elements
orientation rooted with religious beliefs. became the drivers of urban form and completely
In the current development trend and the kinetic ignored the natural attributes of the environment.
quality of urban form, Indian cities are losing the There is a clear paradigm shift in the approach of
legibility that they possessed during the last city planning and design.
century. In any Indian city, like Ahmedabad, Delhi, The immediate impacts of this paradigm shift
Pune, Surat, Lucknow, Madurai, Chennai, etc. the are size and shape of urban blocks, block
early urban form illustrates a resilient connection porosity, street enclosure, accessibility and
between city design and building processes and walkability, deteriorating quality of air, interrupted
their spatial products. As the city grows, the urban airflow in urban areas and the list goes on.
fabric of newer areas demonstrates a clear Globally, cities have started to speculate their
disconnection with the social, cultural and future urban form to reduce the impacts of
climatological values of the early settlements. To a negative transformations on the natural and built-
great extend, one of the paramount reasons for environment. Scandinavian countries have
this complex and unpleasant situation of cities is already reduced their energy consumption with
integrated urban policies for city planning and
498
Theme F
design. Many cities have formulated strong urban are strongly related to each other. The nature of
fringe policies to save the sensitive fringe areas urban airflow is largely governed by the porosity,
from the induced urban development. enclosure and typology of buildings & blocks, and
There is a clear difference in approach towards the ratio of width of street to building. Within cities,
city planning and design in cities of global north the typology and orientation of buildings influence
and south. The cities in global south are struggling the behavior of wind flow and enhances the
with many urban issues that bring down the perceptual dimension of urban form. As per the
concern of speculating urban form for sustainable study done by (Gandemer, 1978), there are twelve
growth. Many south Asian cities demonstrate a major wind flow effects that are influenced by
strong urban form, which are based on buildings or group of buildings, ratio of building
climatological determinants along with other heights and street width, and openness and
physical determinants like FSI, density, land-use enclosures. These wind flows influences the
and price. microclimate of urban areas.
Among all the elements of urban form, porosity,
direction and enclosure, flow and building typology
4 CLIMATOLOGICAL PARAMETERS AS A experiences a high degree of influenced by wind
SPECULATIVE TOOL flow. In urban areas, porosity defines the empty
spaces of an urban setting in which the flow of
Climate is an inevitable part of the environment. In wind and pedestrians/vehicles can occur; direction
everyday life, climate acts as an integral part that and enclosure are the spaces defined by the
makes people either feel comfortable or uncomfortable orientation of buildings and streets.
in the urban setting. Sometimes the orientation of
buildings and enclosure makes wind to flow in
accelerated velocity, which makes us feel better in a 4.1.1 Porosity
sunny day. Or sometimes due to large-scale buildings
obstructing the wind stops the ventilation in the Porosity is a very strong characteristic feature of
adjoining area making us feel hotter. One ofthe urban form, which is traditionally being used in city
important climatological parameters that affect the built- Indian cities. The porosity of urban fabric in terms
environment in urban settings is wind (airflow). of urban built structures, network of public spaces
Depending on the urban form, the flow of wind and streets were benefited due to smooth airflow
influences the urban setting. Traditionally, in most of the that helps in maintaining the microclimate of urban
Indian settlements wind and sun exposure were areas. However, the qualities of integrated natural
considered as design parameters, for example Pols in
Ahmedabad and Wadas in Pune. Pols and Wadas are
and built environment are often neglected in the
two classic examples of urban form, which were induced development oriented city planning and
designed, based on climatological parameters and they design practices. One of the other important
still are better in comparison to the contemporary urban phenomenons that have neglected these qualities
forms. is the maximum utilization of urban areas.
In urban areas, porosity of urban form is defined
4.1 Wind and Urban form as the aspect ratio between built spaces and open
spaces. With the growing demand of development
The possibilities of wind in shaping the urban form this ratio has drastically reduced affecting the
are limitless. Wind is apowerful and substantial urban airflow contributing to the heat island effect.
climatogical parameter with limitless possibilities The work done by (Yuan & Edward, 2012) showed
of shaping the urban form(Krautheim, Pasel, the significant effect of cross ventilation due to
Pfeiffer, & Joachim, 2014). The requirement of high degree of porosity in dense urban setting.
integrating this climatological parameter in the The properties of buildings like orientation and
process of city planning and design is at volume affects the permeability of wind,
paramount. However, city planning and design henceforth affects the ventilation of airflow within
considering climate (wind and sun exposure) is the urban areas. The efficient and strategic
highly complex and sometimes even a paradox placement and orientation of buildings will largely
endeavor. Considering the climatological change the ventilation of urban areas. The
parameters of the natural environment, a big percentage of building cover in plots or collectively
question that this paper proposes is; can Indian in urban blocks can be a strategic tool to integrate
cities formulate policies for sustainable urban porosity as a parameter in city planning and
growth considering climatological parameters as design.
primary speculative tools for future urban form?
Currently two assumptions can be made for our 4.1.2 Direction
cities; the urban form of Indian cities is not
sustainable and secondly, considering Followed by porosity, direction or orientation and
climatological parameters in the development enclosure affect the flow of wind in urban areas.
process, urban form can be speculated with a As wind flows in urban areas, the orientation and
sustainable approach.Wind flow and urban form
499
Theme F
enclosures of buildings forces it to change its

direction. This makes differences in air pressure
and hence uneven distribution of airflow can be 5. CONCLUSION & WAY-FORWARD
experienced in different urban areas. Traditionally,
in most of the old Indian settlements, the Most of the new development trends of Indian
configuration of plots and buildings in narrow cities are not sustainable, may be because there
streets aligns with the angle of prevailing wind and is a structural imbalance in policies towards
enhances the airflow. The velocity of airflow adopting a sustainable urban lens. This imbalance
accelerates further if the building height increases is further strengthened by the gap in optimizing
as compared to the width of the streets. In newer the available natural resources and human
parts of our cities, the development is oriented development. Cities consume energy and
comparatively disoriented and blocks the airflow resources, and in return give lots of carbon
with uneven distribution of building volumes and footprints, waste and release tremendous heat to
orientations. This leads to the downwash effect of the environment. It is the time when Indian cities
airflow. The newer areas also experience low should start working on formulating policies to
velocity airflow due to the urban setting configured change the urban form considering climatological
with much wider streets and imbalanced building parameters. In fact using these parameters is
height to street width ratio. The enclosure, open to nothing new; it already exists in our cities. The
built space ratio, can change the impact of airflow failure of institutions in realizing the side effects of
in newer urban areas. the induced urban development in urban form has
already lead to urban decay. Today, the cities
4.1.3 Flsssow & Typology should re-align the urban policies that are based
on more sustainable approach of urban design
The size, form and arrangement of building and planning.
elements govern the wind flow and impacts of Integrating climatological parameters with the
wind within the building area. Basically the physical attributes of urban form will give limitless
typology of building plays a vital role in enhancing possibilities to explore sustainable measures to
the experience of airflow within the human scaled speculate urban form. Wind not only influences
urban setting of cities. The geometry of buildings the human senses but also shapes the urban
in various building typologies changes the environment. In the current time, wind is merely
intensity of airflow. Tapered or rounded building used or may be underestimated dimension of the
edges can help in maintaining a balanced airflow natural environment that is been considered in the
due to their efficient aerodynamic features. aspects of city planning and design.
The current development trend introduces large- Wind has tremendous power to change the
scale architecture and influences the fabric urban setting producing a human scaled urban
character. The large-scale buildings change the form. The city planners and designers should
fabric to coarse grain eventually blocking the flow explore the possibilities of using this unseen
of wind. Providing incentives like higher FSI and powerful climatological parameter in speculating
TDR made it very easy to change the fabric from the future form of our Indian cities. This paper
fine grain to coarse grain. The fine grain fabric opens up many vistas to explore the quantum of
exhibits high degree of porosity that helps in climatological parameters in the process of city
ventilating the adjoining area with accelerated planning and design for speculating sustainable
airflow. urban form. The policy makers, politicians
planning and design professionals have to
4.1.4 Enclosure integrate the climatological parameters along with
other physical parameters to achieve a cohesion
Enclosure is a globally used tool in the history of in the urban form that supports the development in
human settlements. The enclosure within a sustainable manner.
buildings i.e. courtyards, offers a great thermal
comfort with enhanced and accelerated airflow. 5 BIBLIOGRAPHY
For instance the ‘Wadas’ in Pune are a type of
buildings with centrally placed courtyard with only C,Yuan., & Edward. (2012). Building porosity for
one narrow exit which accelerates the airflow and better urban ventilation in high-density cities.
helps maintaining the microclimate of theadjoining Gandemer, J. (1978). Discomfort due to winds
area. There are many enclosures found in the near buldings; aerodynamics concepts.
urban setting but all of them don’t help in Department of Commerce, National Bureau of
increasing the ventilation of airflow in urban areas. Standards.
The enclosures are predominantly dependent on Jenks M. & Dempsey N., 2005, Future Forms
the orientation, size and shape and degree of and Design for Sustainable Cities, Architectural
openness and volume in relation to the building or Press, Elsevier, UK.
group of buildings.
500
Theme F
Krautheim, Pasel, Pfeiffer, & Joachim. (2014).

City and Wind; Climate as an Architectural
Instrument. Berlin, Germany: DOM Publisher.
Mehotra Rahul, 1990, Making Legible, city form;
A case study of Urban Design, Architecture
plus Design; A journal for Indian Architects,
Volume III.
Jenks M. & Dempsey N., 2005, Future Forms and
Design for Sustainable Cities, Architectural
Press, Elsevier, UK.
Mike Jenks, Rod Burgess, 2004, Compact
Cities; Sustainable Urban Forms for
Developing Countries, Taylor & Francis, New
York.
Ray Satmohini, 2012, Sustainable Urban Form
For Indian Cities, CityForm Research Findings
Conferences, New Delhi & Ahmedabad.
Shlomo Angel, 2017, Urban Forms and Future
Cities: A Commentary, Marron Institute of
Urban Management &New York University,
New York.
501
OPEN SPACES FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF CITIES, A

CASE OF HASSAN CITY, KARNATAKA, INDIA
ICID2018_F_005
Mohan Kumar Chavan1,Dilip Kumar Das2, Sachin B. Patil3, Nethra H. R4 and Yashodha M.J5.
1 Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Malnad College of Engineering, Hassan, Karnataka, India.
2
Professor, Central University of Technology Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa.
3,4,5
Students of Final Year Civil Engineering, Malnad College of Engineering, Hassan, Karnataka, India
ABSTRACT
In this study, using the case study of Hassan city of India an attempt has been made to study the existing open
spaces (public parks), their location; adequacy of the open spaces at the ward level and city level. Primary data
collected through the questionnaire survey and secondary data from the concerned authorities and published reports
and literatures. The data was analyzed by use of appropriate quantitative and qualitative methods. Findings
suggested that there is a need to strengthen the parks in order for them to contribute to the sustainability of the city
and wellbeing of the people.
Keywords: Geographic Information Systems; Open space; Questionnaire survey; Microsoft excel.
1. INTRODUCTION open spaces in the city has adversely impacted

the environment and social engagement among
Open spaces form an integral part of the city the people. In other words, the open spaces are
systems for the sustainable development of the being given away to other socio-economic
cities. They perform very important functions that activities in the city and their development is
include acting as the breathing spaces, breaking relatively less prioritized. Environmentally, they
the monotony of the buildings and roads, are suffering from the challenges of solid waste
contributing to the reduction of pollution, providing management, air pollution and decline of aesthetic
physical, social, cultural and community appearance. Consequently, they are being
engagement places for the people, and enhancing increasingly used to lesser extent by the people of
the aesthetic of the cities to name a few. the city for their social, cultural engagements,
However, it is experienced that the open spaces in physical and sporting activities. Further, according
the cities of India are on the wane- in other words to the survey it was found that concerted effort
their availability are being dwindled and they are that include awareness campaigns, appropriate
very poorly managed owing to the more pressing land use planning and design, and enforcement of
demands of economy and developing building and development control guidelines are essential to
other built infrastructures. Consequently, it is revitalize the open spaces in the city for its
observed that the available open spaces in the sustainable development.
cities are inadequate, underutilized, unorganized
and substandard. Therefore, using the case study
of the Hassan city in Karnataka of India, the study 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
examined the location, adequacy, quality and
environmental status of the open spaces and their Open spaces are vital for the suitability of the
impact on the social engagement of the people cities. The open spaces include the recreational
and the environment of the city. A survey research facilities covering parks and open spaces, sports
center and playground, botanical and zoological
method and Geographic Information System (GIS)
parks, water bodies/natural features, historical
method were used to collect data and relevant monuments, places of tourist interest (Gupta,
statistical and GIS techniques were used to 1998). They play crucial roles they play in terms
analyze the data. Findings suggest that the offering recreational facilities to people, bring
although a number of open spaces in the form of people together, increases social bonding, make
parks and play grounds are available in the city, intergenerational interaction, develop contact with
their quality and quantity are declining. The nature (especially if it is natural green spaces),
compliment the architectural articulation of the
decline of both the quality and quantity of the
502
Theme F
surrounding built areas, improve the value and suggested at least 10 -15 per cent of the total area
desirability of the surrounding residential areas, should be reserved for parks, playground and
and create an area for people to orientate open spaces. However, despite these
themselves with the greater part of the city or town recommendations, studies on examining whether
(Das and Honiball, 2016, 2017, 2018; Dempsey, urban areas of Karnataka state have adequate
2012). Open spaces have many design aspects, green and open space that would contribute to the
which positively contribute to the well-being and development of urban development policies have
value of the surrounding spaces. It is argued that not been explicitly conducted; hence this study.
properly planned and designed open green
spaces (OGSs) can add to the aesthetic quality of
the surrounding areas and satisfaction inhabitants 3. METHODS
around them. Also, they can engender a
restorative environment, which positively influence The investigation was conducted by considering
the inhabitant’s well-being and health.(Ariane, Hassan city of Karnataka in India as a case study.
Bedimo-Rung, Andrew, Mowen, Deborah, Cohen, Open spaces in from of parks located in different
2005). For example, trees and plants in open parts of the are considered for the purpose of the
green spaces can assist in reducing the pollution investigation. A survey research method was
because of emissions of carbon dioxide, adopted to collect primary data from park users.
particulate matters, and noxious gases like Followed by spatial analysis was conducted by
sulphur dioxide (SO2), emanating from burning of using GIS technique. Besides, data was also
coal and combination of petroleum products, collected from secondary sources such as the
ozone (O3) and peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN) from published literature, and annual reports, of the
the emission of automobiles and industries, and City Municipality and Hassan Urban Development
nitrogen oxides from automotive exhaust, thereby Authority (HUDA). For collecting data from park
making the air relatively free of pollutants. In users, eleven representative administrative wards
addition, they can also alleviate water pollution, (wards 1, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16, and 27)
noise, heat and light pollution too. Trees and were selected based on socio-economic condition,
shrubs, particularly when they are densely spread available infrastructural facilities and management
over significantly large areas, can contribute to scenario. The survey was conducted by using a
prevent erosion of soil and to fertility increase. pre tested questionnaire among the 700 park
(Gowda, Krishne, et al. 2012). The decreasing users in the selected wards by employing random
green cover, deforestation, decreasing open sampling process. Spatial analysis and maps
spaces, increasing temperature and pollution has showing various spatial, demographic attributes
degraded the environment and ecological balance and available facilities at various locations were
of the region. This negative growth is very developed by using GIS technique. For this
alarming in nature and needs deep analytical purpose ArcGIS software was used. Also, survey
analysis and due consideration of urban planners. data were analyzed by both quantitatively and use
Therefore, for sustainable development of any city of qualitative methods such as appropriate
it is important to maintain a balance between built narrative analysis and interpretative methods.
up mass and environment. (Singh, 2017)
In the Indian context, the National Recreation
Association (NRA) has recommended a land area 4. CASE STUDY: HASSAN, KARNATAKA, INDIA
of one acre per 100 persons for the environmental
sustainability of the cities. This is more or less 4.1 LOCATION AND DEMOGRAPHIC DETAILS
commensurate to the Global standards that OF HASSAN CITY
recommend at least 33 percent green cover for
urban areas. In the more spatial and land use Hassan city is located at 13° 06° N Latitude and
terms, according to the established best practices, 76° 1° E Longitude. It is a class I city in India
the green area per capita should be more than 20 having population of 1, 55,006 (Census, India,
m2 which translates into a minimum of 1.25- 2011). The city is well connected by roads and
hectare open space per 1,000 residents. Access railways to all parts of the Karnataka State and
to open space should be within 250 m from country. Hassan city comprises of 35
residential areas and 100 percent local/native administrative wards (Fig 1). The demographic
plants should be used in landscaping as this details that include total population, gender, no. of
reduces water usage and maintenance while households, no. of literates in the study area are
improving urban biodiversity. The per capita green presented in the Table 1. Further, the ward wise
space in Gandhinagar and Chandigarh are 160 m 2 population, area, population density, male and
and 55 m2 respectively is far more as compared to female population and number of households in
even traditional green cities such as Bangalore. each ward is presented in Table 2. This indicates
The Karnataka Town & Country Planning Act that the population is almost evenly distributed
503
Theme F
among all the wards across the city. However,27the 18.51 920 2.82 3939 2.95 212.80
density of the [population varies significantly,28i.e. 15.00 805 2.46 3755 2.81 250.33
ranging from more than 21 Persons per Hectare 29 8.23 851 2.61 3525 2.65 428.31
(PPH) to about 470 PPH. 30 17.21 1006 3.08 4383 3.28 254.67
31 69.29 1104 3.38 4775 3.56 68.91
32 9.17 504 1.54 2193 1.64 239.14
33 121.56 760 2.33 3017 2.26 24.81
34 100.31 1093 3.35 4260 3.19 42.46
35 199.73 1134 3.47 4312 3.23 21.58
Source: CMC Hassan
4.2 EXISTING LAND USE-2007 AND
PROPOSED LAND USE -2021
Existing land use of Hassan city for the year 2007
is presented in Fig. 2. It reveals that about 13.30
per cent of the total land use belong to open
Fig.1: Municipal Wards of Hassan City spaces such as parks, and playgrounds. It
indicates that the available number of parks,
Table 1: Demographic Details playgrounds and their area seems to be
Sl. Demographic details Number inadequate. However, the proposed land use of
No Hassan city for the year 2021 reveals about 8.40
. per cent of the total land use will belong to open
1. Total population 155006 spaces including parks and playgrounds (Fig 3).
2. Total male population 77051 Thus, there shall be reduction of of open spaces
3. Total female population 77955 by about 5% of the total land area of the city.
4. Total number of literates 107795
5. Total number of female literates 53118
6. Total number of male literates 54677
7. Number of total household 98249
8. Total number of ward 35
Source: CMC Hassan
Table 2: Ward Wise Population and Density of
Population in Hassan City
Ward Area in No. of Per Popul Per Density
No. Hectare HHs cent ation cent (PPH)
1 106.29 1372 4.2 5414 4.06 50.93
2 167.92 1097 3.36 4045 3.03 24.08
3 29.13 829 2.54 3201 2.40 109.88
4 16.39 1997 6.11 7712 5.78 470.53
5 13.98 784 2.40 3092 2.32 221.17
6 13.74 710 2.17 2725 2.04 198.32
7 15.07 750 2.30 3440 2.58 228.26 Fig. 2: Master Plan of Existing Land use – 2007
8 69.52 574 1.76 2309 1.73 33.213
9 31.49 1089 3.33 3991 2.99 126.73
10 61.40 839 2.57 3239 2.43 52.75
11 19.83 887 2.72 3290 2.47 165.91
12 87.42 1397 4.28 5259 3.94 60.15
13 10.31 1129 3.46 4236 3.17 410.86
14 15.13 856 2.62 3588 2.69 237.14
15 29.66 1047 3.21 3898 2.92 131.42
16 38.35 1426 4.37 5344 4.00 139.34
17 14.39 1136 3.48 5284 3.96 367.19
18 10.01 990 3.03 4641 3.48 463.63
19 11.89 798 2.44 3310 2.48 278.38
20 5.48 712 2.18 2979 2.23 543.61
21 9.33 677 2.07 3137 2.35 336.22
22 19.29 907 2.78 4379 3.28 227.00
23 21.01 744 2.28 3484 2.61 165.82
24 7.66 641 1.96 2691 2.02 351.30
25 6.34 565 1.73 2335 1.75 368.29 Fig. 3: Proposed Landuse-2021
26 5.71 530 1.62 2267 1.70 397.02
504
Theme F
Vidyuthnagar park in ward no. 10; Shanthinagar

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION park in ward no. 16; Hemavathy Nagar park in
ward no. 12; Vijayalakshmi park in ward no. 4;
5.1 STATUS OF OPEN SPACES IN THE CITY Hunasinakere park in ward no. 27. The
parameters considered to understand the
The spatial analysis revealed that only eleven infrastructural facilities available are general
wards of the total 35 wards have open spaces in space available, paved pathways, drinking water
terms of parks and open play grounds. The facility, comfort and convenience, sitting
distributions of parks in various awards are arrangements, landscaping, play space for
presented in the Table 3. It is found that a total of children, play area for adolescent, etc. It is
20 parks are distributed in the eleven wards. revealed that only a Maharaja Park has adequate
However, out of these 20 parks, five parks are space and it caters to the people at the city level.
located in the ward no. 3, which is the central and Parks such as Vidyuthnagar park, Shanthi nagar
planned part of the city. Of all the parks only one park, Sardar Vallabhai Patel park and Silver
park named Maharaja Park located in the ward Jubilee parks are of moderate size. and the rest of
no. 8 is a city level park, which generally is the parks are of very small size and are not well
accessible to the majority of the people of the city. equipped to meet demands of the population of
This clearly indicates the uneven, unplanned the area. Important facilities and services such as
distribution of parks and playgrounds across the Drinking water facility is available in five parks out
city. Further, majority of the other 19 parks are of of the selected nine parks. The parks are found to
smaller size (ranging between as small as a little have permeant boundaries. Seating facilities such
over 280 sq. m to about 6300 sq. m). So, there as benches are provided in all the parks it seems
appear to be inadequacy of open spaces both in it is adequate. However; illumination and waste
terms of numbers and sizes in the city. Besides disposal system found to be a challenge in some
the Figures 4 to 7 indicate that the parks are of the parks. Similarly, rainwater harvesting
largely misused. system was not adopted in majority of the parks
except the Maharaja park. Sporting arena are also
lacking in all the parks. Further, it appears that
Table 3: Ward wise Distribution of Parks adequate landscaping and planting of trees have
not been done in most of the parks.
Ward No of Name of the park with their areas in Sq. m
No. Parks
1 1 S J O Park 312.00 5.3 STATUS OF THE USE OF THE OPEN
3 5 Sachin Tendulkar Park 1938.00 SPACES (PARKS AND PLAY GROUNDS)
Ganesh Temple park 1140.00
Near Patel Shivanna House Park - 6248.00
Sardar Vallabhabhai Patel Park- 1002.00 Park user survey was conducted among 700 park
Silver Jubilee Park- 4388.00 users. The variables considered in the survey
4 3 Field Marshal Kariyappa Park- 1978.90
Vijayalakshmi Park 2130.60
includes frequency of visit to park, visit to park
Mini Park 432.00 alone or with accompanying members, purpose to
5 1 Kuvempunagar Park 201.61 visit to park, usage of available equipments,
8 1 Maharaja Park 60000.00 accessories in the parks, condition of parks,
9 2 Ravindra Nagar Park 3795.00 playgrounds, available parking facility, rules made
Saarvajanika Atada Maidana 2176.00
10 2 Vidyuthnagara Park 1299.70
to use the parks, cleanliness, usage of bath
Govt. College Park 20800.90 rooms, safety in the parks, availability of staff who
12 2 Hemavathi Nagar Park 1166.30 is looking after the affairs of the parks and their
Mini Park 280.40 behavior pattern, mode of transportation use by
14 1 Double Tank Park 4305.00 the park user, etc. The perception of the users
16 1 Shanthi Nagar Park 666.00
revealed that
27 1 Hunasinakere Park 2713.25
Total 20 116974.38
 About 50 per cent of the surveyed park
users are working in the private
5.2 EXISTING INFRASTRUCTURAL FACILITIES companies, industries other than
AVAILABLE IN PARKS & PLAYGROUNDS government. This also indicates the
available employment opportunities in the
Existing infrastructural facilities available in government are less in this kind of cities.
various parks and playgrounds are studied in the Most of the park users belong to age
selected wards of about 9 parks i.e., Maharaja group of 20 to 50 years old.
park in ward no. 8; Sachin Tendulkar park in ward  However, all age group people are visiting
no. 3; Ravindranagar park in ward no. 9; Salgame
the parks for various purposes, especially
road Double Tank Park in ward no. 14;
505
Theme F
for health reasons and to relax by using the available equipments/accessories in

available facilities in the parks. the parks.
 About one-third of the surveyed park  About 70 per cent of the surveyed park
users are illiterate and about half of the users revealed that available space in the
surveyed park users have education level parks are adequate.
ranging between less than 5th standard up  Procedures, rules to use the parks and
to 12th standard. Thus, educational required sign boards displayed in the
qualification is found to be not a criterion strategic points regarding are available.
to visit parks and playgrounds.  About three-fourth of the park users
 More than 90 per cent of the surveyed expressed satisfaction about the
park users are residents of the Hassan cleanliness of the parks.
city and only about 5 per cent of park  More than 60 per cent of the surveyed
users are non-resident. park users expressed that available
 About one-fourth of the surveyed park facilities and services such as toilet, bath
users access parks within 0.50 km radius room are inadequate and their condition is
and about one-fifth of the surveyed park very poor.
users travel a distance of about 1 km to  About 70 per cent revealed that safety
access the parks. measures are taken care of in the parks.
 More than half of surveyed park users are  More than 40 per cent of the park users
visiting park by using two-wheelers and expressed that the staff exclusively
more than one-third of the park users are working in parks are not available all the
visiting park by walk. time in parks.
 About half of the surveyed park users  About half of the surveyed park users
visits the park daily basis and more than revealed that parking facilities for their
one-fourth of the users visits on weekly vehicles are not available near the
basis. premises of parks.
 About two-third of the surveyed park  However, the demands of the users in the
users visits the parks with accompanying order of priority are to improve the
members which include family members, cleanliness, enhancing safety & security,
friends, etc., and the rest are visiting the planting trees, developing gardens with
parks alone. flowers, installation of adequate number
 About 30 per cent of the park users are of seating areas and infrastructure,
visiting to park to do exercises like yoga installing of children play equipment, and
and jogging, and about 20.00 per cent of construction of proper pavement inside
the park users visit the parks exclusively the parks.
for walking. However, about one-fourth of  All surveyed park users are found to be
the park users visit the parks with concerned about the condition of the
family/friends to pass the leisure time. green spaces in parks.
 About half of the surveyed park users  Besides, most of times the parks are
using the available misused for different purposes other than
equipments/accessories in the parks. for which they have been created.
5.4 PERCEPTION OF THE PARK USERS 6. RECOMMENDATIONS
According to the perception of the park users Based on the findings the following
the following are observed. recommendations are made.
 Provision of basic infrastructural facilities
 According to about one-third of the should be considered on property in all the
surveyed park users the condition of the parks to meet all sections of the people.
available equipments/accessories are  Creation of appropriate member and size
poor and more than 40 per cent of the of parks in hierarchical order need to be
users are neutral about the condition of considered at various levels of the such as
506
Theme F
at the neighbourhood level and city level Residential Areas of South African Cities - A
etc. Case Study of Bloemfontein City, Proceedings
 Care should be taken to make provision of of the 35th Southern African Transport
the parks in all the wards of the city. Conference (SATC 2016), PP. 539-557, ISBN:
Appropriate share of land area should be 978-1-920017-64-4.
provided to create the parks. Das Dillip Kumar and Honiball, James (2016).
 Rainwater harvesting, public library Effects of the Pedestrian Pavement Network
facilities, solar light etc., should be and Illumination on Accessibility on Public
integrated to the public parks. Parks In South African Cities, International
 Safety and security of the park users Conference on Traffic and Transport
around the clock need to be enhanced. Engineering,687-693, ISBN 978-86-916153-3-
 Parking facilities, and various playing 8.
equipments for entertainment and Das, D., Hornbill J. (2017). Appraisal of public
recreational purposes need to be park accessibility in South African cities,
strengthened. Municipal Engineer, Pages 1–8
 Planting medicinal and general trees to http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jmuen.16.00036
maintain ecological balance in the urban Dempsey, N. 2012. Neighbourhood Design:
region are of utmost importance. Green Space and Parks, International
 The parks should be developed in such a Encyclopedia of Housing and Home, 5:12–20.
way that they should become important doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-047163-1.00540-3.
destinations to the visitors and tourists. Gowda, Krishne, Sridhara, M. V. and Mahendra,
B. (2012), Institutional Greens: Illustrations
7. CONCLUSION from the City of Mysore, India, 60th National
Town & Country Planners Congress, Mysore.
Open space in terms of parks and playground are Gowda, Rame, K. S., (1999), Infrastructure
essential for the sustainability of cities and Facilities for Urban Areas with Norms and
wellbeing of the people of the cities. For this
Standards, ITPI Journal, March 1999, Vol. 17,
purpose, a study was conducted to examine the
challenges of public parks in the Hassan city of No. 3 (177).
India. Findings suggested that the city does not Gupta, S. C., (1998). Physical and Social
possess adequate number of parks. The sizes of Infrastructure-Norms & Standards, 47th
the parks also are inadequate. The land use National Town & Country Planners Congress,
suggests that there seems to be reduction in the Bhubaneswar.
allocation of the land area for the parks. However,
Singh, J, (2017), Urban Planning and Design
the parks available in the city are largely used by
the people of the city, despite the various Approaches for Increasing Green Cover and
infrastructural, safety and accessibility challenges. Reducing Temperature Variations in Cities: A
Therefore, it is recommended that infrastructure Case Study of Dehradun City, Institute of Town
facilities and services, equipment, and Planners, India Journal 14x3, July-September
accessories should be strengthened both inside 2017.
and outside the park. Furthermore, facilities such
as rainwater harvesting, planting tree and shrubs
should be made mandatory in all the parks so that
open spaces in the form of the parks can
contribute significantly to the sustainable
development of the cities.
References:
Ariane, L. B. R., Deborah, A. J. M., & Cohen, A.

(2005). The Significance of Parks to Physical
Activity and Public Health A Conceptual Model.
American Journal of Preventive Medicine
28(2), 159 –168. Fig. 4: Shelter made for buffalos in Vijayalakshmi
Das D, Honiball J. (2016). Evaluation of Park-Ward No-4.
Accessibility Challenges of Public Parks in
507
Theme F
Fig. 5: Basking cloths in Double Tank Park -Ward

No-14
Fig. 6: Condition of Rigid Pavement in Hunsinkere

Park-Ward no- 27
Fig. 7: Cow Grazing in Vijayalakshmi Park-Ward

No- 4
508
GIS BASED MULTI OBJECTIVE APPROACH FOR VILLAGE PLANNING

AND DEVELOPMENT
ICID2018_F_006
Guruprasad K1, Yogendra B.E.2

1) Assistant Professor in Civil Engineering, Malnad College of Engineering, Hassan, Karnataka.
2) Professor in Civil Engineering, Malnad College of Engineering, Hassan, Karnataka.
ABSTRACT
The progress and prosperity of the nation depends on how far it is able to improve the economy and social life of
rural masses. Efficient utilization of natural resources, conjunctive use of water and optimised development of
villages are essential. In the present study, information on topography extracted from topographical map from survey
of India, Digital Elevation Model (DEM) from Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) and validated by Total
Station survey has been used for analysis. Meteorological data are obtained from Indian Meteorological Department
(IMD). Village revenue maps are extracted from digital land recordsdata base of Karnataka government. Crop
pattern, water utilisation for domestic and agriculture useare collected by field survey. Social and economical
information are collected from villagers.The study area is a village by name Sankenahalli located a few kilometre to
the east of Hassan city, Karnataka state. The land use pattern is mainly agricultural.All collected information has
been digitized/processed on the GIS platform which stores all data with spatial and temporal information with high
accuracy. Spatial and non-spatial information including rural services, infrastructure and socio-economic information
are integrated in GIS presented in GIS are useful for the administrative bodies to carryout various development
works
Keywords: SRTM DEM; IMD; GIS; Sankenahalli; Total station
1. INTRODUCTION Necessarily, it is the economic transformation of

these villages that can bring a change in India‘s
Geographical Information System (GIS) is a
economic development. In other words, the
powerful set of tools for collecting, storing,
progress and prosperity of the nation depends
retrieving, transforming and displaying spatial data
entirely on how far it is able to improve the
from the real world for a particular set of purposes.
economy and social life of rural masses. India has
A large range of spatial and non-spatial data on
a massive unutilized potential of natural resources
topography, rural services, infrastructure, socio-
and versed human resources in remote and rural
economic and environmental information are
areas; therefore, growth of spatial database
integrated in GIS. Information collected from
infrastructure at village level helps in keeping
satellite and field survey are unified and integrated
record of these resources into a micro-level
with accurate spatial reference using total station
database.
survey in GIS based rural management system. It
In a review work by Adhvaryu et al., (2011) on
is an efficient methodology at a reasonable cost
implementation of developmental projectit was
that allows the use of the latest technological
found to be not successful due to lack of
developments in the areas of GIS for the
information which influences decision making,
generation, operation and updating of digital
poor quality of the final product and non-
information on a large scale in rural development
implementable proposals.
as found in the work by Aguilar et al., (2007).
Concept of sustainable development has emerged
and influencing the developmental policies in 2. STUDY AREA
countries around the world. There are three
fundamental components of sustainable
development: social, economic, and
environmental. All these components are given
equal consideration in sustainable development
decision making, which in turn provides for a
balance among sustainable developmental goals.
It is very important to acknowledge the benefits of
utilizing a good transportation system for a village
when considering sustainable development
(Ozceylan et al., 2016).
The real India lives in its six lakh villages
accounting for a large part of the population.
509
Theme F
pattern (number of people in each home , types of

employment, etc) in the village are collected by
the field survey.
4. METHODOLOGY
Detailed information of the village and the citizens
of the village is collected in a planned manner.
Statistics on socio-economic and environmental
conditions and spatial information of the village
are collected from the physical field survey and
administrative agenesis of the government of
Karnataka. The information collected are
classifieds in the following three groups (Yilmaz, B
et al., 2010).
Figure 1: Revenue map of Sankenahalli Village, i) A questionnaire for the field survey is prepared
indicating family wise division of land to collect the household information on number
of people, employment category, education
The village Sankenahalli located between
level, water supply for domestic and irrigation,
1301’56.82” N to 1301’3.41” N latitude to
electricity supply, domestic animals, property
7608’31.22” E` to 7609’50.14” E longitude
details, types of crops grown in each season,
covering an area of 623 acres is about 8 km from
poverty level (BPL/APL cards), owning of
Hassan city in South Karnataka. There are 201
vehicles, possessing government ID cards,
houses and the population is 913 in the village.
Aadhar/PAN/voter/driving licenses, etc.
Majority of the families (about 77%) depend on
ii) Location of houses, road, railway line,
agriculture for their livelihood. Totally 54% (about
drainages, electricity supply network, water
338 acres) of the land in the village is used for
supply system and sanitation network are
cultivation of various crops. The village receives
collected by the field survey using total station.
moderate rainfall in south west monsoon season
iii) Land use and details of water bodies are
and farmers depend on rainwater for their farming,
extracted from the village revenue map
there are five ponds/tanks within the village to
collected from the revenue department of the
store rainwater given in the Figure 1.
government of Karnataka.Details on the soil
type and areal distribution are extracted from
SBSS soil map of Hassan district. Similar work
3. DATA is made by Vasu et al., (2018)
All the above information collected are integrated
Field data with their geographical location are in the GIS platform for the analysis of data for use
used for the village development planning. Village in village development activities. In a study on
boundary and land distributions are extracted from rural England described the methodology used
revenue maps of Sankenahalli village of scale
incombining data from different sampling regimes,
1:25,000, which is collected from revenue
scales and themes to a consistent unit of analysis.
department of government of Karnataka is given
Itsuggests that the origin of the data, be it social,
in Figure 1. Digital Elevation Models (DEM) of economic or physical, need not initself be a barrier
Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) are to integrationHuby et al., (2007).
extracted from Earth Science Data Interface
(ESDI) at the Global Land Cover Facility (GLCF).
Soil Map of Sankenahalli villageis extracted from
National Bureau of Soil Survey (SBSS). Voter list 5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
of the village is collected from election
Sankenahalli village consists of 201 houses and it
commission of Karnataka and used for identifying
is inhabited by 913 persons out of which 317 are
the houses as a base data for the further
men, 317 are women and 279 children. About 149
collection of household information in the field
children are attending school and 54 students are
survey. Sankenahalli village census records are
perusing college education. About 25 persons are
collected from anganwadi and village panchayat.
in government employment and 22 are working in
Water supply system, drainage/sanitation
non-government organizations, its spatial
network, transport network, present residential
distribution is shown in Figure 2. A large number
areas, education facility, power supply, literacy
of people of the village are working in construction
information, economical condition, facilities used
related activities like electricians, masons,
in the house, water for irrigation, demographic
510
Theme F
painters, plumber, etc. in places around the village

in addition to their agricultural work.
Figure 3. Spatial distribution of the families with or

without agricultural.

without employment.
Majority of the population of the village are
depending on agriculture for their livelihood.
Agriculture is the dominant land use type in the
village, as about 337 acres of land is devoted to
this activity .In the total 201 households about
77% households depend on agriculture for
livelihood and remaining 23% of the families are
engaged in related occupations. Distributions of
the families with their own land for agriculture and
families which do not have land for agriculture are
given in the Figure 3. Land use map of
Sankenahalli village shows that cultivated land is Figure 4. Aerial view of Sankenahalli Village
about 80%. The main crops grown in the village showing agriculture land distribution is extracted
are paddy, Potato, Ragi, Ginger, Maize, etc. About from the Google earth.
159 families grow ragi, 64 grow paddy, 132 grow
There are five tanks of which the largest one of
potato, 47 ginger and 80 are growing maize as
21 acre is located near the eastern side of the
shown in Table 1. There are total 728 coconut
residential colony of Sankenahalli village, other
trees in the village. About 28 families have their
four are located on the revenue boundary of the
own bore wells to supply water for irrigating the
village with water spread areas of 9.85 acre, 7.36
land and rest of families depend on monsoon
acre, 3.46 acre and 3.16 acre as shown in the
rainfall for their agricultural activity.
Figure 1. Water ponds are yielding reasonable
Anganavadicentre for children, school up to
water for cultivation only in the year of good
seventh standard, milk collection unit for dairy,
monsoon. Major part of the land in the village is
domestic water supply system, temple and two
used to cultivate crops as shown in Figure 4 and
small grocery shops are public facilities in the
depends on rainwater for their cultivation. Twenty
village.
eight families of the village use bore-well water for
cultivation. Ground water table is depleting from
year to year and of late yield from the water tanks
is also reducing as per the information collected
from the farmers. Apart from the agricultural
crops, there is very little vegetation and forest
cover in the village. The people of the village are
not aware of the concept of rainwater harvesting
as per information gathered during the statistical
survey. Ponds/tanks and stream networks within
the village are presented in map which is shown in
Figure 5 with the elevation details of the village in
background, It can be used for the study of ground
511
Theme F
and surface water resource distribution of the Sl

Description
BPL APL
village and it can be used for rainwater No Card Card
harvesting/watershed management in future. Distribution of Population in village
1 Male 306 8
2 Female 308 6
3 Children 269 4
4 School going children 143 3
5 College students 51 1
6 Government Employee’s 20 5
7 Degree Holders 36 3
8 PG Holders 3 1
Cattle information in Village
9 No of Cows and Ox 319 6
10 No of Buffalo 18 1
11 No Sheep 36 0
House wise Crop pattern
12 Ragi crop 152 3
13 Paddy crop 42 3
14 Potato crop 126 3
15 Coconut crop 709 19
Figure 5. Stream network and ponds of village are 16 Ginger crop 47 0
superimposed on elevation map in background. 17 Other Crop 76 3
Road network, Railway line passing through House wise General information
village and distributions of residential buildings are 18 Irrigation bore-well 28 0
shown in the Figure 6. All the houses in the village 19 LPG for Cooking 167 4
are electrified. In the village most common source 20 Drinking Water 192 3
of domestic water supply is from common hand Land Cultivated
21 320 12
(Acres)
pump connected to bore well and also bore well
23 BPL/APL 194 4
water is filled into a small overhead tank with a
24 Aadhar 194 4
public tap in the street of the village. Most of the 25 Voter Id 194 4
village people have Below Poverty Line (BPL) 26 PAN Card 14 2
card or Above Poverty Line (APL) card, only four 27 Electric Supply 190 4
families have 28 Toilet Facility 152 4
29 Drainage Facility 121 1
30 Bike 157 5
31 Car 5 0
32 Cycle 33 0
33 Lorry 6 0
34 Tractor 8 0
APL card for their families and the information is

given in the Table 1 and Figure 7. Except four
families of village all other families use Liquefied
Petroleum Gas (LPG) for cocking purpose. It is
observed that, there is inadequate sanitation
facility in the village, about 40% households (81
houses out of total 201 houses) do not have
toilet/latrine facility in their houses. Details are
presented in the Table 1 and Figure 8.
In the village many families have; at least one
Figure 6. Indicating location of residential and type of vehicle like motor bike, cycle, bullock cart,
other buildings. car, lorry, tractor; and these statistics are given in
Table 1 and the information on the distribution of
Table 1. Details of Non-Spatial Data from Field
the families with or without vehicles is shown in
survey
the Figure 9.
People from almost every family are involved
in social activity organisations like Sthree-shakthi
committee, DharmasthalaManjunatheshwara
committee, Swa-Sahaya committee, Gare-
512
Theme F
kelasagarara committee. Milk production

committee, etc.

without owning vehicle.
Figure 7. Spatial distribution of the families having 5.1 Soil distribution of village
BPL and APL.
Sankenahalli village has three soil groups. Their
distribution is shown in the Figure 10. Soil 13 is
shallow to moderately deep gravelly sandy loam
of 60 to 70 percent gravel classified under Lithic
Ustorthent (247.6 acre or 39.71%); soil 6 is very
deep strong brown to grayish brown sandy clay
with sandy pockets classified under
FluventicUstorthent (188.2 acre or 30.18%) and
soil 5 is deep red to yellowish red gravel sandy
clay loam of 40 to 50 percent gravel classified as
UdicHeplustelf (187.7 acre or 30.10 %). This
information helpsin identifying and classifying the
village agro-ecological region
Figure 10. Map showing three soil group 13, 6 and

5 as classified Mapping Unit Symbol in NBSS
along with elevation information in background.
6. CONCLUSION
For the transformational development of villages
and overall development of rural India, it is
necessary to develop villages and maintain lakes
in the villages. Collection and representation of
the data is very important in any of the
developmental activity. In the present study socio-
economic and environmental data are collected
Figure 8. Spatial distribution of the families with or from government agenesis and field survey.
without toilets in their home. Spatial Integration of statistical field data is made
by collecting geographical location by the total
station survey. All the information about the
people and the village are represented in the map
in GIS platform. Information on land, public
facilities, financial and employment conditions, life
standard of people are presented in the maps.
These maps are useful for the visual interpretation
513
Theme F
while making decisions on the developmental

activity of the villages.
Present study report and survey data is
proposed for use in the preparation of a) new
layout for the village b) estimate the budget of
project to implement and c) to provide facility like
water supply, sanitation and drainage and also
distribute the government benefit to the farmers.
Study reveals that there are no proper roads,
drainage, sanitation facility and literacy in the
village. To improve the present data base of the
village, It is necessary to study the ground and
surface water resources and rainfall pattern in the
village.
REFERENCES
Adhvaryu, B. 2011. The ahmedabad urban
development plan-making process: A critical
review. Plan. Pract. Res. 26, 229–250.
Aguilar, F. J., Carvajal, F., Aguilar, M. A. &
Agüera, F. 2007. Developing digital
cartography in rural planning applications.
Comput. Electron. Agric. 55, 89–106.
Huby, M., Owen, A. & Cinderby, S. 2007.
Reconciling socio-economic and environmental
data in a GIS context: An example from rural
England. Appl. Geogr. 27, 1–13.
Özceylan, E., Erbaş, M., Tolon, M., Kabak, M. &
Durgut, T. 2018. Evaluation of freight villages:
A GIS-based multi-criteria decision analysis.
Comput. Ind. 76, 38–52.
Vasu, D., Srivastava, R., Patil, R.N., Tiwary, P.,
Chandran, P & Singh, S.K. 2018. A
comparative assessment of land suitability
evaluation methods for agricultural land use
planning at village level. Land use policy 79,
146–163.
Yilmaz, B., Dasdemir, I., Atmis, E. & Lise, W.
2010. Factors affecting rural development in
turkey: {Bartin} case study. Forest Policy and
Economics 12, 239–249.
514
SUSTAINABILITY IN INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT

ICID2018_F_007
Nipun Jain1, Tharun Dolla2,Vijayan Chelliah3, Boeing Laishram 4

M. Tech student, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT- Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam, India.,2-Research
Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT- Guwahati,3- Research Scholar, Department of Civil
Engineering, IIT- Guwahati, 4- Associate Professor, , IIT- Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam, India.
ABSTRACT
With increasing population and resource hungry economies, a healthy future is uncertain. At certain point of time, the
linear format of economy, prevalent today, and considering the scale and way development is occurring, it is not far
where we would cross the limits of planet’s carrying capacity. Being conscious about the way development occurs
and how the resource utilization is optimized can help us to avert this condition. The paper argues that the solution
lies in the nature. Taking inspiration from nature, developing ecologies, cascading resources and materials can
help.Providing a gist of current scenario of the infrastructure industry, and how sustainability can help to get resource
efficient services from the future and current infrastructure stock. The paper also lays stress on the various levels
where sustainability can be introduced to the infrastructure development, hence enhancing human life comforts,
furthering economy and at the same time be environment conscious.
Keywords: Infrastructure ecology; circular economy; resource efficiency; cascading effects; performance based
contracting.
1 INTRODUCTION to 40% of the world’s population, are

suffering serious water shortages; by
Infrastructure are the facilities that help the 2025, 1.8 billion people will live in
movement of capital in an economy (people, countries with absolute water scarcity
goods, services and energy). For the growing (UNEP, 2007). (UNEP, 2007) (Adisa
population and economies, the wealth is to be Azapagic, 2010).
created accordingly. But the planet is the one
paying the price of this development. One of the The paper talks about various concepts such
reasons being the nature of development which is as industrial ecology, performance based
only economy centric, the other being the linear contracting and circular economy, in context to the
format of consumption in society, the make-use- infrastructure present and to be developed.
dispose format where resources derived from
nature are worked upon, used and then disposed 2 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
of . Which again puts pressure on the
environment, apart from the pressures of The linkage between sustainability and economic
resources extraction and the energy required for development writ began to emerge as an
the manufacturing. The same trend prevails in the important policy issue in the 1970s, when a
infrastructure industry, where the development is number of international development programs,
just economy centric and even the efforts for the including those operated by or with the assistance
sustainability do not talk about the stock of of , the World Bank, the International Monetary
infrastructure already present. Fund and the US Agency for International
There are some alarming trends underway. Development came under the fire for using their
Most recent global environmental assessments extensive financial resources to inadvertently
put them into stark figures, characteristic promote environmental degradation under the
examples of which include: guise of economic development in developing
countries. Many non-governmental organizations
 Twenty percent of Earth’s land cover has took great issue with these development
been significantly degraded by human programs, suggesting that they ought to become
activity and 60% of the planet’s much more sensitive to the indigenous peoples
ecosystems are now damaged or and their environments in places where the
threatened (UNEP , 2000). financial resources of aid organizations being
used. By the late 1970s idea of pursuing
 Global average temperatures have risen
environmentally sensitive growth had found its
by about 0.74°C since 1906, and the rise way into the works of the United Nations
this century is projected to be between Environment Programme (Kent, 2015)
1.8°C and 4°C (UNEP, 2007). Around the world signs of severe stress can be
 Available freshwater resources are seen on interdependent economic, environmental
declining: some 80 countries, amounting and social systems. Population is growing – it
515
Theme F
topped 6 billion in 2000, up from 4.4 billion in between poor and rich has to be counter-
1980, and it is expected to reach 8 billion by 2025. acted as much as possible. (René J.
Excessive rate of consumption and poverty Jorna, n.d.)
continue to put enormous pressure on the
environment. In many regions, the condition of the The Brundtland Report describes all three
environment is much more delicate and degraded components from one perspective,
as it was a few decades ago. Despite notable emphasizing the protection of the
improvements in areas such as river and air environment. One approach that focuses
quality in countries such as Europe and North more on the organizational perspective is that
America, the environment has generally declined of the “Triple Bottom Line” presented by
steadily, especially in much of the developing Elkington(1999) or the “Triple P” (“people,
world.The emergence of sustainable development planet, profit”). The Triple P refers to the three
was mainly an intellectual answer to reconcile the foundations of sustainable development. The
conflicting goals of economic growth with Triple P offers a more general approach to
environmental protection(Wass, 2011) sustainability. It does include the three
foundations of sustainable development:
2.1 THE DEFINITION OF SUSTAINABLE ecology, economics, and society, but they are
DEVELOPMENT not merely viewed from the perspective of
environmental protection. This is in line with
Although many definitions exist, the most often our general point of view.
used definition of sustainable development is that
proposed by the Brundtland Commission, which
is: 3 TRANSLATION OF SUSTAINABLE
“Meeting the needs of the present without DEVELOPMENT TO INFRASTRUCTURE
compromising the ability of the future generations DEVELOPMENT
to meet their own needs.”
Sustainable development is a process of Infrastructure are the basic facilities to enable flow
change in which the use of resources, the of material, capital or services in an economy and
direction of the investments, the orientation of society. Also, infrastructure facilities have far
technological development and institutional reaching local, regional and global impacts that
change are all in harmony, and (all) increase both result from waste generation, and resource and
the current and the future possibilities to meet the energy demands. Cautious design is essential
human needs and wishes. (World Commission on despite their long life and the massive capital
Environment and Development, 1987) investments needed to build them. Infrastructure
The Brundtland Report distinguishes three needs a high investment to use previously
fundamental components of sustainable unknown reserves. Tapping the newly discovered
development: reserves will require heavy investment in
• In the first place, the protection of the infrastructure and new technology. According to
environment is referred to. It is stated that McKinsey meeting future demands for steel,
the environment should be protected, so water, agricultural products, and energy would
that natural resources are enriched. This require a total investment of around USD 3 trillion
per year , it is an amount roughly 50% higher than
is achieved by a gradual adjustment of the
current investment levels (Towards the Circular
way in which technology is developed and Economy : Accelerating the scale-up across global
used. supply chains, 2014).
• The second component involves The growing appetite for housing and services
economic growth. Brundtland as a result of the increasing population requires
reportargues that economic growth should the plan and delivery of infrastructure, at a time
be stimulated, whilst developing countries where resources are in decline, creating a matter
are offered the possibility to experience a of urgency in the long - term sustainability of the
growth similar to the growth of the sector that can not be ignored. The production of
developed countries. construction materials accounts for the greatest
• The third component of sustainable share of carbon emitted from the construction
development is social (re)structuring. The sector, with the majority attributed to the
production of steel, cement and timber. Global
Brundtland Report argues that a world-
cement production, the main ingredient of
wide gap between the poor and the rich
concrete, is around 4 Gigatonne and contributes
will result in a decline of the environment to about 9.5% of total global carbon emissions.
in poor countries. In this respect, The production of steel used for construction, is
Brundtland defends that in the pursuit of responsible for 3.3% of total global carbon
sustainable development, inequality emissions. The global warming impact attributable
516
Theme F
to timber production is contested, but could be as and 3) retrieval of storm-water treated with LID
high as 18% of total global carbon emissions techniques. All of these options provide an urban
(Iacovidou and Purnell, 2016). community with a local water supply that has a
The resource crunch and ever-increasing significantly lower energy footprint. The reduced
demand can be solved by taking inspiration from energy consumption stems from two aspects: 1)
the nature, in theories like Circular economy and the energy needed for distribution is significantly
infrastructure ecology, where nothing goes waste lower, and 2) the volume of water that needs to be
(apparently), every resource, nutrition and energy processed for either drinking water or sewer
quantum circulates again and again till perpetuity. treatment is reduced significantly.
3.1 INFRASTRUCTURE ECOLOGY AND Twelve Principles prescribed for Infrastructure

CIRCULAR ECONOMY Ecology
1. Interconnectedness rather than
To create more sustainable infrastructure, we segregated
must optimize resource and energy investments, 2. Integrated material, energy and water
minimize impacts and maximize the creation of flows
comfort and wealth. One way of doing this is to 3. Manage inherent complexity
optimize each infrastructure facility on an 4. Consider system dynamics
individual scale, which is already done while 5. Decentralise to increase response
design and option engineering. This is a “stove- diversity and modularity
pipe” approach towards sustainability undermines
6. Maximise sustainability and resilience of
the true potential of the infrastructure facilities. To
draw the true potential, it is imperative to examine materials and energy investment
the interconnections and synergies among various 7. Synergize engineered and ecological
infrastructure systems. (Li et al., 2017) systems
These interconnections among various 8. Design to meet stakeholder preference
infrastructure facilities is what can be called as 9. Maximise the creation of comfort and
infrastructure symbiosis. wealth
The infrastructure systems can be distilled into 10. Socio-economics is the decision driver
six shared components: 11. Adaptive management is requisite policy
1) socio economics, strategy
2) drinking water, storm water and 12. Utilize ‘renewable flows’ rather than
wastewater infrastructure, ‘depleting stocks’(Li et al., 2017)
3) energy systems,
4) transportation infrastructure, land-use,
and the natural environment (Li et al., 2017) 3.2 CIRCULAR ECONOMY AND
INFRASTRUCTURE
There are different definitions for the circular

economy. Following, a number of definitions:
Ellen MacArthur Foundation: “The circular
economy refers to an industrial economy that is
restorative by intention and design. It aims to
enable effective flows of materials, energy, labour
and information so that natural and social capital
can be rebuilt. It seeks to reduce energy use per
unit of output and accelerate the shift to
renewable energy by design, treating everything in
the economy as a valuable resource” (Ellen
MacArthur Foundation, 2013)
Waste and Resource Action Plan3: “A circular
Figure 1 An example of infrastructural symbiosis economy is an alternative to a traditional linear
for the proposed infrastructure ecology economy (make, use, dispose) in which we keep
model(Pandit et al., 2015) resources in use for as long as possible, extract
The diagram shows three alternatives for the maximum value from them whilst in use, then
municipal water supply (both potable and non- recover and regenerate products and materials at
potable) compared to the traditional engineering the end of each service life”.
approach of centralized water supply: 1) rainwater Report to the European Commission regard
harvesting, 2) local reclamation of wastewater, circular economy: “A circular economy represents
517
Theme F
a development strategy that enables economic  Working cross-functionally to develop

growth while optimizing the consumption of ‘themed’ working groups for various
natural resources, deeply transforming production infrastructure supply
chains and consumption patterns and re-  Provide examples of how you have
designing industrial systems” integrated circular economy principles
Since at the core circular economy focus on
the resource to be efficiently used and stay for a  Highlight how solutions were identified
much longer time in the loops before turning to and benefits were quantified
zero value or waste, performance based  Demonstrate how your product/material
contracting (PBC) has been heralded as one of will contribute to the circular economy,.
the most effective instruments for moving the  Demonstrate how your design will
society towards a resource-efficient or circular encompass the circular economy. This
economy. “A performance-based contract is a should include:
contract that focuses on the outputs, quality and  maximising retention/reuse of existing
outcomes of service provision and may tie at least assets
a portion of a contractor’s payment as well as any  minimising the use of non-renewable
contract extensions to their
primary materials
accomplishment”(Alizadeh, 2016).
 reducing waste
The other ideology presented by the MI-ROG
(Major Infrastructure-Resource Optimization  ensuring longevity
Group) presents a white paper discussion about  maximising the value of materials
the risks and opportunities associated with once the original purpose is
changing infrastructure procurement policies in accomplished
order to accelerate the circular economy in
infrastructure.
A circular economy approach requires a
degree of innovation in procurement and technical
specifications. Existing technical standards can
often be an obstacle to innovation, which can lead
to procurement procedures that restrict innovation
by being too prescriptive and leading to calls for
tenders based on familiar approaches.
On the other hand, it is unrealistic to expect
very large infrastructure schemes to take the risk
of completely new materials or methods without
track records. Innovation must offer improvements
over industry best practices, but it must also be
implementable, which requires a certain level of
performance / proof of concept to justify the Figure 2: Various Levels of Sustainability in
claimed benefits. (Infrastructure and Optimisation, Infrastructure(Pomponi and Moncaster, 2017)
2016).
Some of the procurement guidelines Now coming to infrastructure at micro level,
recommended by the MI-ROG are: every infrastructure is a construct of various
building materials, in fact steel and concrete
 Identifying which procurement activities— combined are the bulk of it. Though over the years
identifying value and where the key the metal from the demolition waste has always
opportunities lie been re-used or recycled but same is not
 Developing innovative performance applicable to concrete where only aggregates
frameworks with suppliers that reward have been extracted from bulk for further use,
circular economy outcomes, sharing risk which undermines the true potentials for the
in bringing in new materials, end of life Circular economy. But reusing the aggregates
approaches or new service models. again and again has made the aggregate recovery
 Establishing working groups to develop as a product way more over priced, than the
circular economy business models, freshly mined aggregate, whose rates have come
identifying key benefits, analysing and down due to demand and supply imbalance in
developing focused action plans, market (Rijkswaterstaat – Water, 2015).
informing and influencing stakeholders.
For materials to be used in loops of economy
again and again forming the cascades, there
518
Theme F
should be analysis on their extraction and then infrastructure more resource efficient and
refurbishment whenever they enter another loop. participate in the CE.
Life cycle assessment (LCA) and material flow Finally, at the macro level, all the infrastructure
analysis (MFA) are well established techniques for present in an urban area can be seen participating
sustainability studies in the built environment in the ecology, hence driving out the best efficient
which could both be extended to CE research way to utilize the full potential of the available
resources and participating in the symbiosis that
(Pomponi and Moncaster, 2017).
exist among the facilities.
Life Cycle assessment (LCA) is often used to When we talk about the temporal dimension,
assess the environmental performance of this is linked to various stages of procurement of
materials or products. LCA takes account of all the project, which essentially includes option-
engineering, design, contracting and hence
environmental consequences of using a product,
completes with the procurement. Though there
from cradle to grave. (Rijkswaterstaat – Water, have been considerable amount of work on
2015). For a material to be in loop LCA becomes optimization of individual projects but an
redundant, Multi Cycle Analysis must be used to interdisciplinary thought-line is still missing at
asses the materials in the loop cascades. large, where we have still not developed
technologies to harness the waste from the infra-
Despite a number of initiatives to unlock reuse industry, still cradle to cradle is not being
being widely documented in the global literature, a implemented.
lack of quantitative information restricts the At the procurement and contracting level, we
demonstration of the real advantages to be have ‘performance based contracting’, to be
gained. Research that can better highlight the implemented at much larger scale and principles
economic, environmental, technical and social for involving the concepts of CE into the project
benefits of reuse would enable designers and procurement as developed by the MI-ROG.
contractors to get a better understanding of how
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WCED. 1987. Our Common Future
520
Prequalification of Public-Private Partnership Municipal Infrastructure

in India
ICID2018_F_008
Tharun Dolla and Boeing Laishram*

Infrastructure Engineering and Management Division, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Guwahati,
Guwahati, Assam, India. Email: boeing@iitg.ac.in (Corresponding Author).
ABSTRACT
Prequalification (PQ) is a significant process in the selection of private sector for the delivery of civil infrastructure
projects. But, the extant literature, for the most part, focused on PQ of construction projects. The need for setting
proper PQ, i.e., criteria and corresponding limits in public-private partnership (PPP) infrastructure projects, especially
municipal solid waste (MSW) projects is still a lacuna in the body of knowledge of Indian PPPs. To this end, this
paper identified and analyzed PQ criteria using content analysis using the sample of MSW projects. The findings
indicate that urban local bodies (ULBs) are but less competent and less uniform in the rationale of setting the PQ
criteria and limits. This paper suggests lowering the technical and financial PQ limits towards the market orientation
to get more competitive bidders into the bidding. Since MSW is in a very nascent stage of application of PPP, the
study results could lay directions for future project procurement to discern right limits for right project sizes.
Keywords: Municipal Solid Waste Management, Public-Private Partnership, Prequalification.
1 INTRODUCTION embarking on soliciting proposals from the

bidders.
Public-private partnership (PPP) mode is The bidding and award procedures differ
considered as better procurement model to deliver across countries and sectors and thus contextual
projects on time and within budget. But there are empirical research is required for crafting the right
cases wherein projects procured through PPP prequalification procedures for a given country.
were delivered late and exceeding the estimated For instance, the European Union has established
project cost. This instigated more attention to the an overarching procurement process with
procurement process by the concession granting separate procedures for handling different sizes of
authorities in shortlisting the bidders who have the bidders (EPEC 2012). This also highlights the fact
requisite technical expertise and right set of that the design of the procurement process
experience for undertaking the projects (Morley inherently plays a key role in limiting the number
and Wainscott 2006). In the early manual issued of bidders that will be allowed to participate in the
by world bank on concession design, it is argued bidding process. Thus, the procurement
that the success of concession depends not only procedures have to be designed in terms of the
on the contractual arrangement in the concession, informational aspects beforehand so that the
but also the methodology adopted for the award of desired number of qualified bidders is allowed to
the concession. After a choice on the method of participate in the bidding process.
award, the next important process is MSW sector is also progressing towards
prequalification (PQ) of the interested bidders standardization of bid processing and contractual
(Kerf, Gray, and Taylor 1998). Lo et al. (1999) documents. There is a buyout increase in the
have stated that PQ plays an important role in the numbers as well as investments in this sector.
evaluation of the capacity and capability of bidders But these documents are silent on the PQ
for a given project. This assumes immense procedures and criteria. Furthermore, no previous
importance because the poor design of PQ could study has attempted to examine how the PQ limits
have an adverse effect on cost and progress, are employed (and varied) from project to project
could breed collusive behavior and unethical in the MSW sector to make empirical
practices in obtaining contract. On the other hand, generalizations. To this need, the current study
rightly set PQ process would yield four fold focus to buttress the procurement of MSW PPP
benefits: adherence to the planned schedule and projects. The main objective of this paper is,
sequence of construction, timely delivery, lower therefore, to examine what criteria encompass the
prices due to competition, and development of PQ limits and how to set the PQ limits in case of
local contractors (Lo, Krizek, and Hadavi 1999). Indian PPP MSW projects.
These benefits also extend to contain the public
procurement costs (Estache and Iimi 2011).
Proper design of the PQ stage is, therefore, one of 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
the key aspects of the procurement process which
need to be given due importance before
521
Theme F
Most of the studies on PQ design has focused would be capable of executing the project in a
on projects procured through the traditional route. worth manner but also to help in shortlisting and
For instance, Russell and Skibniewski (1988) limiting the number of bidders to a manageable
have asserted, through interviews with size.
construction stakeholders, that PQ is a three-part The shortlisting and limiting of the number
process concerned with the characteristics of the depends on the choice and composition of PQ
owner, contractors and the resulting decision. To criteria. In this vein, Singh and Tiong (2006) have
operationalize it, Xia et al. (2012) have developed observed that research focus is different from the
various factors that should be taken into industry practices and where the industry seems
consideration while designing the PQ process of to depend on the principles of the client
design-build projects based on the data set of the organization and their methodologies. For public
United States. Studies on PQ for projects projects, more specifically, some governments set
procured through PPP route, which differs from PQ limits to restrict the bidders, while others don’t
traditional procurement, is limited. Carbonara et specify any PQ requirements (like in case of open
al. (2016) have noted two important reasons that procedure). But, in general, the focus of PQ
set PPP tendering process different from criteria is mostly on the tangible attributes such as
traditional procurement – (i) the parameters used technical and financial experience and the same
for evaluation need to encompass all the phases are used in most of the countries. Lower limits on
of PPP project lifecycle, and (ii) there is a need to these criteria are set by the governments, and
ensure strong competition to bring improvement these limits are used to either screen or rank the
from value for money perspective. In the similar bidders. In spite of these general
lines, De Schepper et al. (2015) have also stated recommendations, the private sector is more
that the PPP procurement process has a strong inclined towards standardization of PQ criteria,
bearing on various aspects of the projects such as their limits, and the bidding process to aid
transaction costs, the value of money, and lead efficiency, predictability, and approval process of
time for project procurement. Furthermore, Doloi the project (EPEC 2012). Thus, the intended
(2009) has stressed the need to bring in enough standardization of PQ limits should not be
competition as it is the key to unlock the value for embarked upon without gathering empirical
money achievement in the PPP projects and evidences from the PQ experiences of PPP
contribute to stakeholder’s satisfaction. projects in a given sector. This is because setting
Realization of these benefits in PPPs is highly unrealistic PQ limits may either lead to the
contingent on the proper selection of PQ criteria participation of incompetent bidders and make the
and the design of the corresponding limits. competition very intense or make the project
The responsibility of PQ design for PPP mode unattractive for the bidders. While extant
vests in the hands of governments/granting literature has given directives for application, the
authorities. Potter and Sanvido (1995) have noted selection of qualified bidders to participate in the
that the public sector should be careful in crafting bidding process is not clearly understood thus far
the PQ criteria, limits, and the corresponding Indian MSW projects.
selection process to ensure a stable and
transparent evaluation procedure. Generally, the
government tends to seek bidders with proven 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
track records in similar projects but the
participation of bidders with appropriate The study aims at gaining insights of PQ in
experience and track records depends on: (i) size India. The research design, therefore, adopted for
and attractiveness of the market to be served, and this study comprised of three sequential stages.
(ii) sector and the number of established firms In the first stage, classical content analysis, as per
currently operating in the market. Given this, the procedures suggested by Saldaña (2011), was
before setting the PQ limits, the governments carried out to draw out the preliminary list of
often undertake a preliminary road show to various criteria used for PQ in PPP MSW projects.
promote the project and based on which the was used in this study. Information relating to PQ
degree of investors’ interest is assessed. Kerf et limits and criteria were collected from the RFQ
al. (1998) have stated that such practice will and RFP documents of various projects released
enable the governments in setting the PQ limits by the corresponding urban local bodies (ULBs).
appropriately so that a sufficient number of Secondly, mean calculations was carried out to
bidders to participate in the bidding process. understand the trend of PQ limits observed in
Estache and Iimi (2011) have emphasized that the MSW. 27 projects form the data set for PPP MSW
selection criteria for PQ normally serve to ensure projects where 11 projects are integrated MSW
an objective assessment of the private party projects, 9 are processing projects, and 7 projects
interested in bidding for the project. Its main have a scope of work limited to collection and
purpose is not only to include the bidders who transportation. Thirdly, to gain insights on the logic
522
Theme F
of setting the different PQ limits, interviews with and financial strength. Unless the success rate in
five key personnel of ULBs assess their MSW projects increases with the participation of
perceptions and methodological grounding in more number of private parties, fixed guidelines
setting the PQ limits. The interviews have cannot be followed”. As it was also noted by Xia et
precisely focused on two key aspects, minimum al. (2012), experience in similar projects is one of
limits of various criteria and the reason/reasons the prime aspects in PQ of the contractors.
for adopting such limits. The cumulative Projects in Lucknow and Bhopal have adopted PQ
experience of the experts is 34 years and based on the experience in implementation of
interviewees have participated in a limited number infrastructure projects. In case of the Bhopal MSW
of PPP projects. project, PQ was done based on the experience in
power sector experience as the supply chain and
operation can be considered to be close to
4 ANALYSIS characteristics of waste to energy project taken up
as part of MSW project.
The PQ limits set by the ULBs for various PPP
MSW projects do seem to reflect a different 4.3 Landfill
scenario from that of otherinfrastructure sectors.
Different limits for technical and financial expertise The mean of the sample for PQ limit of
have been set for implementing projects relating experience in management of landfill is around
to different phases of the solid waste process life 234 TPD. In this vein, respondent 4 surprising
cycle. noted that “The operation of the sanitary landfill is
independent of the capacity of the project." He
4.1 Collection justified his reasoning by referring to a project he
handled, where, irrespective of the project size,
The minimum PQ limit set for the criterion ability to handle sanitary landfill itself was
‘technical capacity for collection’ varies in the considered sufficient without any consideration of
range of 9-80% of the project cost. The mean of the size of landfill operated by them in the past.
the sample for PQ limits for expertise in the Also, this has been the case for the project at
collection is around 200 TPD. This might be an Berhampur of Orissa for which it was stated that
indication that the implementing agencies are the bidders should have experience of doing at
confident about the availability of enough least one integrated project.
expertise for handling projects of 200 TPD. The
operational aspects of MSW projects are not 4.4 Processing
repetitive but depend on various conditions like
geographical location, and life style of people. It The sample mean is 199.4 TPD. This
makes the experience of private sector different indicates thatthe ULBs tend to set a minimum PQ
from the variation of the project size. So, after limit of around 200 TPD. Respondent 5 opined
setting 200 TPD as PQ, increasing the technical thatthe requirements of the project should be
limit for collection by 50% would achieve bidders “close to the current project requirements. This
with sufficient experience for the project. means that the project size and its characteristics
should be set as the limits for the bidders. He
4.2 Transportation also added that "100% collected waste does not
go to processing plant and landfill, so a minimum
The sample mean is 197 TPD. This might of 50% of collected waste is reasonable to
suggest that if the bidder company (either new or estimate for treatment and disposal (landfill) of the
local contractor) experience is less than 200 TPD waste”. As these values are contextual to the
in collection or transportation, the company will values obtained from studies carried for preparing
find difficult in getting a new concession. This limit the detailed project report, such field data dictates
for transportation set by the ULB could be the PQ limits in case of processing.
interpreted as the practice of factoring 80% of the
project size into the transportation technical limit, 4.5 Annual Turn Over and Net Worth
beyond 250 TPD. However, this has been relaxed
in some project like ISWM Agra where the bidder The average annualturnover of 3 financial
company expertise in other sectors of years of the sample ranged from 27.37 – 320% of
infrastructure is also taken into consideration. the estimated project cost. The minimum annual
Respondent 1 opined that “…for old infrastructure turnover of the bidder for PQ has been set based
sectors, number of private parties are predictable. on the estimated project cost as well as the
Hence, a fixed guideline of PQ can be followed. construction period. This is calculated as a ratio
But, MSW is a new concept, and there are less of project cost and construction period such that
established bidders. Earlier, qualification was every year the project company will have that
sought in term of the experience in other sectors many funds during the construction period. This is
523
Theme F
to ensure that the project runs without financing in joint ventures with other major companies,
problems, as the recouping of investments starts thereby promoting local contractors. Another
after the commercial operation date. In this vein, interesting observation on financial capacity is
respondent 4 noted: "if the project fails, the that, in the case of national highways projects, the
company should be able to compensate the financial health of NHAI is quite sound and the
government." The mean annual turnover and net bidders normally do not take into consideration
worth of the sample (INR 330. 8 million) and is this aspect. But, in the case of MSW projects, the
around 37% of the sample mean project cost (INR bidding response depends to a great extent on the
821.6 million). This is higher than both the financial health of the ULBs. Respondent 2
interview opinions and published literature. For opined that “if the financial capacity is set high,
instance, the Central Vigilance Commission few bidders will qualify for the work, resulting in a
(2002) of India has prescribed that the average low level of competition thereby affecting the
annual turnover for the three financial years of quality of the proposal. Private parties look into
30% of the estimated project cost is enough for the financial health of the municipal corporation
setting it as the PQ limit. The minimum level of before participating in the bidding process”.
turnover is set at approximately twice/three times Hence, this should be considered in setting PQ
the estimated annualized value of the proposed limits because if the ULB has poor financial
construction project. Also, as per the practices health, setting high PQ limits would jeopardize the
being adopted in Ireland, annual turnover of 30% participation of bidders.
of the project cost seems to be a reasonable value
for setting it as the minimum standards 5 INFERENCES
(Department of Public Expenditure and Reform
2013). Specifically, the Health Service Executive PQ limits of MSW are dependent on the field
(HSE) of Ireland has, in light of the prevailing dynamics of MSW supply chain. The apparent
construction market conditions, set the threshold increase in variables of MSW project
value for the majority of the non-complex projects prequalification could be attributed to sectorial
at, or close to, the lower level, i.e., twice the characteristics rather than on the difference in
annualized project value. This measure will robustness of the assessment. The analysis
ensure that a wider range of contractors will meet indicates that both technical and financial limits
this criterion (Office of Government Procurement are over the recommendations of both the
2009). interviewed experts and extant literature,
Similarly, the average net worth for the past suggesting to lower the PQ limits. This finding is
three financial years varies from 20-186% of the concurrent with a recent incident where High court
estimated project cost. Respondent 3, in of Cuttack has asked to reduce the
connection with minimum net worth, opined that prequalification limits for a project by Cuttack
“the financing structure in typical projects are Municipal Corporation. The court directed the ULB
expected to have a debt: equity ratio of 70:30. to fix reasonable eligibility criterion especially the
Thus, it is appropriate to set the minimum net financial and thus the ULB has reduced limits and
worth at 30%”. It is usual practice to set leverage issued fresh tenders (Patnaik 2017). Based on
ratio high (high debt) for highly risky projects and our study, the minimum PQ (in approximation) for
low leverage ratio for projects with a low-risk future projects could be in the range of 300 TPD
profile. This shows that ULBs are interested in for collection, 250 TPD for transportation, 100
ensuring that enough debt investment in the form TPD for disposal and 100 TPD for treatment. This
of net worth is made by the private sector even would ensure participation of experienced and
before initiation of the bidding process. But, four competent bidders and screen out bidders with
projects to name a few, ISWM Ranchi, ISWM less experience that hinder strong competition in
Dhanbad, ISWM Jamshedpur, and ISWM Chennai the procurement process. On the other hand,
are the ones which have been set with a very there exists inconsistency in the way financial
aggressive limit of more than 100% of the project limits are set in MSW projects. This could be due
costas net worth. Instinctively, the reason could to the dynamics brought by ‘viability gap funding'
be attributed to the following reasons: all these grant offered by the government as an upfront
projects are integrated waste management funding support for individual project thereby
projects, and these projects are taken up in non- relaxes the financial expectations from the private
metro cities such as tier 1 and tier 2 cities. sector. Even then, financial capacity of INR
Furthermore, these ULBs also have shown their 300million seems fitting for both or either of
interest to arrest participation of unnecessary annual turnover and net worth.
participants in the bidding process. The Regarding the deviations in the current
implication of setting a low financial capacity than practice, the experts’ opinion indicates that
the current trend would facilitate the companies to stakeholders of PPP MSW of India, especially the
participate independently who had been executing individual ULBs who are the granting authority of
the projects have not gained enough expertise in
524
Theme F
managing the PQ process. In the similar lines, Department of Public Expenditure and Reform. 2013.
Russell and Skibniewski (1988) have also stated “Minimum Standards for Suitability Criteria for
that owner’s experience is one of the factors Works Contractors.” Dublin, Ireland: Department
which affects the execution of the PQ process. of Public Expenditure and Reform, Government of
Ireland.
When the owners are one-timers, which is the Doloi, H. 2009. “Analysis of Pre-Qualification Criteria in
case with MSW projects, the owner (i.e., ULB) is Contractor Selection and Their Impacts on Project
less aware of the appropriateness of the set PQ Success.” Construction Management and
limits. Capacity building exercise, therefore, Economics 27 (12): 1245–63.
should extend beyond training on bid evaluation EPEC. 2012. “The Guide to Guidance: How to Prepare,
process to include managing and designing of the Procure and Deliver PPP Projects.” Luxembourg
PQ process also. This is important given the new City: EPEC Secretariat, The European
insight from the current study that the level of Investment Bank.
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Bundling Infrastructure Procurement Evidence
level of ULBs as well. from Water Supply and Sewage Projects.” CBVO
Another inference from the study is the 2009/02. Brussels, Belgium: Université Libre de
comparison of PQ with that of contractor selection Bruxelles ECARES.
procedures followed in the traditional and Design- ———. 2011. “(Un)bundling Infrastructure
Build procurement. The criteria of PQ are quite Procurement: Evidence from Water Supply and
simple when compared with the robustness of Sewage Projects.” Utilities Policy 19 (2): 104–14.
other procurement systems. The reason for this Kerf, Michael, R.David Gray, and Robert R Taylor.
could be that the granting authorities might have 1998. “Concessions for Infrastructure: A Guide to
wanted to keep the PQ simple on purpose to Their Design and Award.” World Bank Technical
Papers No. 399. The World Bank and Inter-
facilitate a thorough analysis in the bid proposal American Development Bank.
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nascent stage, then these criteria will tend to be “Effects of High Prequalification Requirements.”
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MSW projects. Nevertheless, a suggestion could “Current Challenges Facing PFI/PPP
be made that PPP PQ has to incorporate other Procurement.” In XXIII International FIG
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6 CONCLUSIONS Government of Ireland.
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Michaël Dooms. 2015. “Understanding Pre-
Contractual Transaction Costs for Public-Private
Partnership Infrastructure Projects.” International
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Carbonara, Nunzia, Nicola Costantino, and Roberta Selection Criteria: Investigation of Opinions of
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Qualifications.” Journal of Management in

Engineering 28 (3): 348–51.
526
MODELLING EVACUATION BEHAVIOUR OF A HEALTH CARE UNIT

BUILDING ON FIRE OCCURRENCE WITH MATLAB PROGRAM
ICID2018_F_009
Shirolkar Meera1 , Gokhale Vasudha2

1 MKSSS, Dr Bhanuben Nanavati College of Architecture for Women, Pune, Maharashtra state, India
meera.shirolkar@gmail.com; meera.shirolkar@bnca.ac.in
2 MKSSS, Dr Bhanuben Nanavati College of Architecture for Women, Pune, Maharashtra state.India
gokhale.va@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Emergency planning and preparedness for any kind of disaster, particularly for healthcare buildingsis a key issue for
a developing country like Indiawhich are supposed to assist victims. However healthcare facility themselves are liable
to face a disaster, like fire, which may necessitate the occupants’ evacuation which include healthcare providers,
patients as well as visitors. This paper aims at assessment of environmental characteristics of a healthcare building,
and spatial behaviorsof the occupants with the help of simulation. MATLAB program, an agent based software
programming is used to model the egress situations in a healthcare facility on occurrence of a fire. A virtual
environment is created and checked for the required time for egress during evacuation by feeding input data close to
real spatial world character of hospital building. setup.. The analysis will help architects and planners for
designing as well as retrofitting hospital buildings aimed at a safe evacuation.
Key words: Healthcare building, MATLAB program, Simulation, Disaster, Egress
1. INTRODUCTION simulating diverse conditions in a static or

dynamic blockage of evacuation in a building.
Hospital evacuation in the event of a fire is a The physical environmental characteristics of
complex and unpredictable process. Recent fire healthcare buildings were analyzed in context of
incidences in healthcare facilities indicated need safe evacuation process. With due consideration
for attention towards the significance of a timely to the need for understanding the reaction of
evacuation of occupants. Emergency evacuation people with reference to the building s
can be specified as the removal of environment this research proposes MATLAB
residents/populations as quickly as possible and program to model the egress situations in a
with utmost reliability from areas considered as healthcare facility on occurrence of a fire. Here an
unsafe zones to safe locations (Saeed Osman & agent-based simulation paradigm is adopted to
Bala Ram, 2011). Previous incidences have simulate occupant movements in evacuations.
proved that the delay in evacuation time is directly The paper presents the development of a
proportional to the casualties or death rate during simulation model with its characteristic features
a fire disaster (Purser. & Bensilium., 2001). Pre and working followed by simulation analysis of a
movement time and pre-movement behaviour are healthcare facility as a case to demonstrate the
prime aspects in evacuation process. Delayed use of the proposed simulation in different
evacuation had led to a large number of fatality scenarios as far as exposure of healthcare
(Fahy & Proulx, 2001). Evacuation of occupants in facilities to fire is concerned.
a health care unit is a complex process during an
emergency situation and is based on critical
parameters such as number of exits, location of 2. DESCRIPTION OF THE MODEL
exits (potential bottle-necks), the amount of S
people, the size of the floor of hospital and the MATLAB is based on a matrix which is custom
distribution of the occupants. These parameters made program in which spatial characteristics of
play an important role in potential egress of building can be simulated with reference to static
occupants with minimal evacuation time. Jiang spatial characteristics and dynamic movement of
and friends stated that occupant walk 10%-20% occupants which is referred as agents.
slower in hospital buildings than healthy persons’ For input data there are two aspects
in general public buildings (Jiang, Zhang, Shang, 1. Spatial characteristics of the building.
& Tian, 2014). Occupants in hospital building have 2. Dynamic characteristics of agents.
a tendency to ask help to staffs of the hospital in
way finding in the case of emergent situations. 2.1. Input data:
An evacuation simulation model MATLAB
program is used to satisfy the requirements of 1. Spatial characteristics of building.-
527
Theme F
An enclosed space is plotted with walls, doors,

furniture and other objects and people present in
the space. For plotting room there are five
categories.
a) Wall- un-surmountable objects.
b) Paths- route.
c) People-agent
d) Beds, furniture, etc
e) Exit
The room is presented in Cartesian like matrix,
each above mentioned categories have assigned
values as shown in table no Table 1-1 Which are
to be given as input data. Here walls and other
obstacles, furniture are considered as un-
surmountable objects. MATLAB program accepts Figure 1-1 Schematic Layout of MATLAB program
rectangular matrix only and any irregularity is Simulation Process. (Source: Author)
layout is compensated with fillips, for which
assigned value is -2. For simulation the architecture layout of a sample
hospital plan is put to study which has two exits ,
2. Dynamic characteristics of agents. 270 square meter of area with 60 bed capacity
An autonomous agent representing human is and total occupants =164 (60 patients + 60
created which is static in nature. The static agents relatives + 15 doctors +12 nurses +12 ward
can be given dynamic properties like movement, attendants +15 admin).
direction, speed and decision making capability.
They can be programmed to achieve a certain 2.2. Simulation
task. Following data is saved as initial input for The architectural spatial features were selected to
Agent. portray the hospital environment and the
a) Current Position of agent in specific occupants input data has given with reference to
coordinate. movement routes exits, patients’ beds, furniture,
b) Maximum value of path etc.The dynamic input data include different
c) Direction of the last move of the agent. speeds assigned for patients and staff based on
d) Waiting time. Gauss window.
e) The start location of the agent.
f) Set up velocity of the agent. The environmental conditions were also included
in input data, like presence of smoke and visibility.
In this research the occupants’ movement pattern 2.2.1. Step-1:
was simulated on occurrence of fire where the Spread sheet is plotted with key values and to
time taken for complete evacuation is computed. It CSV (Comma Delimited) files before exporting to
has been programmed that the occupants which MATLAB program. Spread sheet representation of
are referred here as agents try to follow the the Hospital Plan is saved in CSV format before
shortest path to evacuate for the point of origin to importing to MATLAB program for testing (Figure
nearest exit. The program facilitates to take 1-2 ). MATLAB program simulates only with the
decision to change the route if there is an key values .
obstruction or blockage. Their capacity to see the
obstacles is defined in terms of ‘Threshold’, which Table 1-1: Key values for representative objects.
Objects Key
depends on the environmental condition and Values
physical condition of the agent. It is considered Walls/ No go/ Unsurmountable
that occupants move with different speeds -inf
Objects
depending on their physical and psychological Path 1
state at the time of an emergency, for which input People/Seat 0
data is given in terms of different velocities. Beds/Tables -1
Exit inf
Fillup -2
528
Theme F
3.1. Parameter values setting

3.1.1. Parameters
The following parameters and their values are
used to simulate hospital environment as follows.
a. Loop: Agent is updated in one loop cycle.
Limit loop of ‘400’ is set with reference to the
simulation tested for varied limit loop values.
b. Number velocity is the waiting period for
number of loops before making next move. Hence
lower is the velocity faster is the movement of
agent as observed in the simulation results.
Velocity distribution of number ‘3’ is considered
with respect to different movement rate of
occupants in hospital environment.
c. Maximum Person Per Unit: Maximum per
unit density value indicates total number of agents
Figure 1-2: Spreadsheet representation of the Hospital
Plan
present on one unit. In order to simulate close to
real hospital , maximum unit coordinate capacity
2.2.2. Step-2 : is considered as movement of a patient on a
MATLAB program version of input data is stretcher with two helpers i.e ‘MaxPerDensity = 3’.
obtained as shown in Figure 1-3 from the exported d. Maximum outflow: maximum out flow
csv spreadsheet file. value indicates number of agents moving out from
available exit. The maximum out flow capacity of
30
plot of the room matrix. Exit value = Inf exit is considered as ‘MaxOut=2’
Walls
Paths e. Threshold near value refers to linear
Tables
Fills number of coordinates beyond which agent can
Exits
25
understand threshold density. Threshold near is
considered as ‘10’.
20 f. Threshold density value refers to the
maximum number of agents beyond the threshold
level. Themaximum threshold density is
15
considered as 20 times Maximum person per unit.
3.2. Result of MATLAB simulation
10 1) Number of steps required by agents to
evacuate = 41 steps.
2) Elapsed time required for complete
5
evacuation = 12.850195 seconds.
In Figure 1-4 agent positions with room
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
architecture are shown with unit density
Figure 1-3: MATLAB program version of hospital plan. distribution. The BLUE area indicates floor space
path utilized for movement. The RED area
Simulation is done with maximum density based represents un-surmountable objects like walls,
on occupants in the hospital selected for case bed and tables and agents cannot move or cross
study. The program was run for different velocities them. Agents are represented in YELLOW and
for different scenarios which included various they move from path leading to exit with set
Agent Move :values.
parameter Red/Blue is Room Surface & yellow dot are agents
occupant types like, young, old, chronically ill
patients etc. It was tested with different sets and
different parameters where the result was
obtained in the form of number of steps required
by agents to evacuate and the total time required 0
-1000
-2000
for complete evacuation of the building which is 0
referred as Elapsed time. 30
10
20
3. Result of simulation of MATLAB program 20 10
The design of the simulation environment is made
useful, flexible and suitable for the evaluation of 0
y x
other rooms and settings. It is aimed to develop
and compare an idealistic visualization design with Figure 1-4 Agent positions with room architecture set up
a evacuation design in terms of viability. showing walls, paths, beds and seats.
3
2
1 529
0
10 25
20
20
20 10
0
Theme F
y x
Time needed to go to the nearest exit per seat

40
35
5
3
30
10
25
y
20
15
1 20
15
10
0 25 5
10 25 0
20 5 10 15
x
20 25 30 35
20 15
30 10 Figure 1-8 Time needed by agent to go to nearest exit
5 45
Number of steps needed to get out
Figure 1-5 Agent positions with room architecture 40

showing unit density distribution.
35
Number of Steps
30
It is observed from Figure 1-6 that density is
25
maximum nearest to exits when in emergency all
20
occupants start to evacuate at a time. This is due
15
to outflow value is less than the maximum unit
10
value. The case shall be different if occupant Person
pchip of Person
5
density is set less. Bottleneck situation is also 0 10 20 30 40 50
Person Nr.
60 70 80 90 100
observed at the cross junction which indicates Figure 1-9 Number of steps needed by agents to
passage width is not sufficient leading for agents evacuate.
to wait for certain period than move ahead when 6
Number of steps needed to get out
path is clear. 5
Integration of density of persons 4

Number of Persons
150
Number of persons
100
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Number of Steps
50
0
Figure 1-10 Number of steps needed.
0
30
10
20
4.Value interpretation of controlled parameters
20
10 Table 1-3 Parameter and value interpretation.
30
y x
Figure 1-6 Integration of density of persons for all unit Parameter Value Interpretation
coordinates.
Number The number velocity value can be
It is observed in Figure 1-7 that maximum waiting velocity adjusted as per the occupants’
time is taken by occupants who are moving form physical status with respect to spatial
passageways with two or three turns. The least environment. In this simulation test,
time is taken by agent who is nearest to exit as patient movement is assisted totally
well as passage way leading directly to exit by staff. Frantzich and other
without turns as indicated in Figure 1-8. researchers’ findings confirm that
Integration of Waiting times of persons walking speed of occupants who are
16
exposed to the impact of fire and

smoke is slower than the normal
14
5
10
12
speed (Frantzich, 1994; Jin, 2002;
10
Isobe, Helbing, & Nagatani, 2003;
Nagai, Nagatani, Isobe, & Adachi,
y
15 8
20
6
2004). Hence THREE velocities are
4
set which indicate
25 2
a) Average human speed in
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
0 normal spatial conditions.
x
Figure 1-7 Integration of waiting time of agents for all b) Human speed in
unit coordinates unfavourable spatial conditions
like smoke, darkness etc.
c) Speed of staff along with
stretcher movement.
However number velocities can be
530
Theme F
set as per the hospital environment healthcare facility is used for simulation in order to
and type of patients with partial speed provide a realistic result. The occupation density
, which may need only direction adopted as per available enrolled staff in the
assistance not manual. building selected.
Threshold This value can be decided as per the It is observed from the simulations that if there is a
near spatial and visibility conditions. The vast difference in velocities with reference to
fire event usually is followed with occupants density. It has been found that the
smoke formation due to combustible problem of bottleneck does not arise considerably
material if present with electricity shut in low density. Because the agents with higher
down thereby creating smoke filled velocity escape faster there by leaving slow
dark passages which are difficult to movers behind. The total evacuation time is
egress. The visibility level is least in reflected in this model when all agents are
such environments. The simulation reaching the exit where the number of occupants
thus can be tested for least threshold could be changed as an input data for a different
near value to calculate the resultants. situation. Hence this simulation can be effectively
Exit This value can be decided upon the checked for various occupancy levels. The model
outflow actual width of exit at actual. Many a is based on the coordinate size, room layout, and
times it is observed that full width exit number of exits, available paths, passage ways
door is not operating; either it is and obstacles if any which are checked here for
closed for night duration or partially the layout of the selected healthcare building. The
closed for specific day/night time. model allows changing these parameters for
Paths Paths are the unit coordinates utilized another layout and consequent architectural and
for movement for egress by agents planning characteristics. Input data like direction
starting from different rooms leading and speed can be as per the existing occupant
to passageways to exits. Straight physical and psychological status in order to get
passage, ‘L’ turn and ‘C’ turn near to real life situations. This program can be
passages are tested in simulation simulated for different healthcare building layouts
plan for hospital with single and and corresponding inputs of data to get required
double loaded passages. The safe egress time for evacuation. The required time
passage ways leading to exits are for safe evacuation could be computed with
considered unobstructed for modification in layout which could be used for
simulation purpose. But it is noted retrofitting an existing healthcare facility or
from case studies that effective width designing a new one.
of passageways is reduced due to
seating arrangement and parking of
stretchers. References:
Elapsed Fire safety engineering at global level
time has set models of Available Safe .
Egress Time (ASET) and Required Fahy, R., & Proulx, M. (2001). Toward creating a
Safe Egress Time (RSET) database on delay times to start
ASET- period between the outbreak evacuation and walking speeds for use in
of fire and point at which the fatal evacuation modelling,. Second
environment conditions have arisen International Symposium on Human
RSET- period between the outbreak Behaviour in Fire, (pp. pp. 175–183).
of fire and point at which safe place is Boston,.
reached. The RSET is plotted as Frantzich. (1994). A model for performance-based
Elapsed time with the set variables design of escape routes. Department of
in place which can be changed and Fire Engineering,. Lund Institute of
run for new room settings as well. Technology, Lund University.
The evacuation time required to Jiang, Z. M., Zhang, P. H., Shang, R. X., & Tian,
reach the safe place should be less X. L. (2014). Investigation and simulation
than the point at which the fatal on human evacuation behaviour in large
environmental conditions arise which hospital building in Shenyang. . Procedia
depends on psychonomics. engineering,, 71, 101-106.
Purser., D. A., & Bensilium., M. (2001).
5. Discussion. Quantification of behaviorfor engineering
The simulation model is developed considering design standards and escape time
velocities which represent the mobility pattern of calculations. Safety Science, 38:157-182.
different type of occupants in a healthcare Saeed Osman, M., & Bala Ram, .. (2011).
building. The building plan of an existing "Evacuation route scheduling using
531
Theme F
discrete time-based Capacity Constrained

model. Industrial Engineering and
Engineering Management (IEEM),IEEE
International Conference, (pp. pp. 161-
165.).
Helbing, D., Isobe, M., Nagatani, T., & Takimoto,
K. (2003). Lattice gas simulation of
experimentally studied evacuation
dynamics. Physical review E, 67(6),
067101.
Nagai, R., Nagatani, T., Isobe, M., & Adachi, T.
(2004). Effect of exit configuration on
evacuation of a room without
visibility. Physica A: Statistical Mechanics
and its Applications, 343, 712-724.
532
SUSTAINABLE INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT IN NORTHEAST -

CASE STUDY OF NERUDP PROJECT
ICID2018_F_010
Pathak, J1, Viswanathan, R2

1 Civil Engineering Department, Assam Engineering College, Guwahati, Assam, India
2. LEA Associates South Asia Pvt Ltd. Canada - Asian Development Bank, Manila, Philippines
ABSTRACT
The Government of India (GoI), since early 2000, has made several initiatives to encourage economic
development in the region. Towards this end, in response, Asian Development Bank (ADB) provided an advisory
technical assistance for the North Eastern Region Urban Sector Profile Study, which was completed in December
2003. The Sector Study assessed the socio-economic situation in all eight capital cities of the North Eastern States,
outlined infrastructure development programs and identified institutional, environmental and social issues. ADB then
provided Project Preparatory Technical Assistance (PPTA-the TA) to help design the Project. Subsequent to the
approval of the TA, it was decided in principle by the GoI and ADB that the Project would be split into two phases,
with the first phase (NERUDP-Phase I) scheduled for consideration for approval in ADB in early 2006 and the second
phase (NERUDP-Phase II) in 2007. The NERUDP-Phase-I was planned to cover cities (the Project Cities) of
Agartala, Aizawl, Gangtok, Kohima and Shillong. The authors were involved as consultant for seismic vulnerability
assessment of the infrastructure component proposed under the project and seismic safety qualification was drafted
considering sustainable development of the project components with mainstreaming of disaster risk reduction in to the
future detailed project report for the various proposal to be taken up for development work in the northeast India.
Keywords: urban development, lifeline, earthquake, vulnerability
1. PROJECT GOAL AND TA PURPOSE This Seismic Vulnerability Assessment Report

addressed the potential impacts resulting from
The goal of the Project was to achieve sustainable proposed infrastructure interventions in the
urban development in the North Eastern Region by project cities due to their seismic vulnerability.
enhancing the level of urban infrastructure The focus of this report is on earthquake
investments, improving levels of urban hazards and the issues and opportunities
infrastructure services, making urban governance associated with the reduction of risks to urban
and by reducing poverty. It was conceived that this lifeline systems. The basic thesis of the work
would be achieved through a loan project that was that the cost of rebuilding lifeline system
would fund water supply, sanitation and sewerage, after major natural disasters prohibitively
solid waste management, drainage, roads and expensive, even for large union budgets. As the
street lighting. The purpose of the TA was to help entire five project cities lay in one of the most
the capital cities of five selected states of North seismically active region of the world, the
Eastern India, comprising Agartala, Aizawl, design of the proposed infrastructure
Gangtok, Kohima and Shillong, prepare an urban components must consider these risks and,
investment project for consideration for funding by perhaps more importantly, develop ways of
the ADB and the GoI. effectively reducing these risks through proper
The TA outputs included (a) A Main land use planning, modification of hazardous
Consolidated Report; (b) Five City Sub-Project site conditions, and enhanced design standard.
Reports (Project Feasibility Reports), covering city There is substantial evidence of water supply
economic development strategy, urban pipeline damage caused by PGD from past
infrastructure development, urban poverty reduction major earthquakes, such as the 1906 San
program and project implementation assistance; Francisco, the 1964 Niigata, the 1971 San
and (c) Separate Technical Reports on the Fernando, the 1979 Imperial Valley, the 1983
infrastructure components proposed, on the key Nihonkai-chubu, the 1989 Loma Prieta, the
social and environmental safeguard issues (city 1994 Northridge, and the 1995 Hyogoken-
poverty alleviation strategy, resettlement, land nanbu earthquakes. (O'Rourke et al,1991.
acquisition, indigenous people’s development plan, O’rourke,1996, O’rourke, et al., 2004)
gender development, environmental impact
alleviation, biodiversity, disaster mitigation) as well
as on urban institutional development and capacity
building, economic and financial aspects.
533
Theme F
More recent earthquakes, including the 1999 base maps of each city were carried out in
Kokkali and Duce earthquakes in Turkey, and the electronic format for study of vulnerability. The
1999 Chi-chi earthquake in Taiwan, have provided activity can be summarized as given below.
additional evidence for the importance of
liquefaction, faults rupture and landslides through a. Detailed mapping of the proposed lifelines –
their effects on water supply lines (O'Rourke et al. water & sewerage pipe lines on base map of
2006, Pitilakis, et al. 2006 ). each project city.
b. Mapping of spatial representation of the active
fault relative to the street layout and proposed
2. APPROACH & METHODOLOGY ADOPTED lifeline.
c. The width of the deformation zone across the
The approach for seismic vulnerability assessment
fault was estimated as a 50- to 100-foot zone on
and feasibility study of various mitigation options in
the project cities included review of existing Indian either side of the identified fault traces (ALA,
code of practice for hill area development, codes 2001). This zone takes into account the
governing earthquake resistant design and uncertainty about the location of the fault trace.
construction, various literatures available on d. The pipeline mitigation scheme designed for this
seismic hazard assessment, earthquake case project assumed that the pipe break could occur
histories and retrofitting of structures and anywhere within this zone.
vulnerability Atlas of India. The available mitigation e. Broad maps of vulnerability have been prepared
options mandated in those codes were reviewed in by overlaying fault map and landslide hazard
context with the proposed infrastructure map separately on water supply network map
components.
and sewerage network map. Based on the
Consultations were carried out with the
concerned state government officials on the need to intervention of the proposed infrastructure with
enforce existing building bye-laws, state of existing hazards, qualitative and quantitative
implementation of BIS codes for earthquake measures are proposed for disaster mitigation.
resistant design and construction of buildings, Pipelines must not cross active faults, but if
protection measures in landslide affected areas and unavoidable, they should cross perpendicularly
the need to retrofit seismically deficient buildings. It (ALA, 2001). The resistant capacity of a buried
may be mentioned here that, there is no specific pipeline to fault movement is dependent upon the
Indian standard code/codes for seismic vulnerability soil, pipe and fault characteristics. Minimizing the
assessment, analysis & design of lifeline structures. longitudinal and lateral resistance of the soil to the
However, such seismic codes for lifelines are not
pipe motion maximizes the pipe resistance. In some
yet drafted specifically in other countries too. In US,
the federal department has historically played a cases, the pipes are placed in a trench with shallow
major role in facilitating research and seismic sloping sides so that it can accommodate itself to
evaluation programs for lifelines, With the the transverse as well as the longitudinal
reauthorization of the National Earthquake hazards components of the fault movement. It has been
Reduction Program (NEHRP), Congress mandated found that the damages due to occurrence of a
that, the Federal Emergency Management Agency certain seismic scenario in pipe networks are
(FEMA) in consultation with National Institute of associated to three characteristic parameters of the
Standards and Technology (NIST), develop a plan of the soil’s movement: PGA (for the components
for assembling and adopting national seismic other than the buried pipelines), PGV (for the buried
design standards for all lifelines, public and private.
pipelines) and PGD (for all type of components).
This plan was developed in the mid 1990s.In 1998,
FEMA in partnership with American Society of Civil The seismo-tectonic atlas of India published by
Engineers (ASCE), formed American Lifeline GSI was referred to study the regional seimo-
Alliance (ALA). The goal of the ALA is to establish tectonic setting of each project city to study wave
methodologies for assessing lifeline performance propagation hazard to lifelines. ( Narula, et al. 2000)
and to identify actions to reduce their risk from The mitigation options are discussed and
earthquakes. presented for various types of seismic vulnerability,
Therefore, while formulating this report of so that the same can be exercised in the detail
seismic vulnerability of lifeline and other design phase of these lifelines. This technical report
infrastructures, extensive literature review of attempts to provide information on seismic
international publications was carried out. In
vulnerability of the proposed interventions and their
addition to the available literature, the basic
emphasis was on available secondary data for all mitigation options by collating existing data and
project cities. Various available maps were following the standard procedure of mitigations
collected and digitized. Overlay of these maps on which qualify for various site conditions in the cities.
534
Theme F
Garo-Rajhamal gap, occupying the area between

Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers, control the
3. SEISMICITY OF THE NORTHEASTERN drainage system of this area.
REGION Within the 300 km radius of the Gangtok
there are various seismogenic features, which
Northeastern region of India extending to makes Gangtok town vulnerable to earthquakes,
the Himalayan arc in the north and Burmese arc to these include, MCT, MBT, faults, and thrusts etc. as
the east is among the most seismically active shown in Fig. 2.
regions of the world. Earthquakes here are
generally shallow but some intermediate focus 3.3 REGIONAL SEISMOTECTONIC &
events have also occurred. The high seismicity in GEOLOGICAL SETTING AROUND KOHIMA
the region is attributed to the collision tectonics
between the Indian plate and Eurasian plate in the The entire state of Nagaland is mainly
north and subduction tectonics along the Indo- mountainous and underlain by several thrusts. Most
Myanmar range (IMR) in the east. significant are the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), the
Main Central Thrust (MCT), the Himalayan Frontal
3.1 REGIONAL SEISMOTECTONIC & Thrust (HFF), and the Naga Thrust. In addition to
GEOLOGICAL SETTING AROUND AIZAWL the above major features there are numerous
thrusts, lineament, neo-tectonic faults, subsurface
The area comprises part of two major tectonic faults, synform surrounding the Kohima town within
domains – the outer molasses basin of Tripura – the area of study.
Chittagong, and the Bengal Basin. Seismicity within
the area is sparse and is mostly of shallow foci F Yalung
Gyangste Dzong
origin. All the earthquakes in the area define the
Laraphu Chu
Wangden F
o
Ch
Lo
F
F
shallow section of the subducting lithosphere with

Shekar Dzong F
Dena
Chundu
F
F
moderate magnitude events. Within 300 km radius

F
n
t
Tingkye ze
en
be
m
Gra
ea
Khamba Dzong.
Lin
F
Glu
n
Aru
of the Aizawl there are various seismogenic
ng
Dekyling
do
Ya
Kharta Shika
F
F F
features, which makes Aizawl town vulnerable to Makalu
Lach
ung
earthquakes, these include, faults, lineaments and
Chu
Kanchenjunga
antiforms and synforms etc. as shown in Fig. 1. GANGTOK THIMPU
Wangdi
t
en
em
Arun R.
Lin
a
ng
nju
he
F
nc
12
Darjeeling
2
Agartala
Kalimpang
Ka
Dagan
Dacca
11 AIJAWL Dhiankuta F
F
(
7
6 1 Shiliguri
Ja
Tis
ldh
ta
ala
Comilla 8 at
R
F Jalpaiguri
F
Lin
F
au
ea
10 Alipur Duar
me
lt F
nt
Ja
ya
nti
13
Koch Bihar
R
Chandpur 5
Line
9
amen
Kishanganj
t
Fault Dhuburi
F t
lt
ari Faul
au
Munge
Nailpham
Lakhsmipur 3 Katihar
jF
an
ng
r
Saidpur
ha
Kis
-
Rangpur
Tis
ta
Sahar
F
Fa
ult
F Dinajpur
sha
Raigpur
Katihar
Ridge Ma
F
rginal
Fault
Palasbari
Chittagona Sahibganj
F
4
Figure 2. Tectonic features around Gangtok
F
Within the 300 km radius of the Kohima
there are various seismogenic features, which
makes Kohima town vulnerable to earthquakes,
these include, thrusts, MBT, MFT, EBT, shear zone
and faults etc. as shown in Fig. 3.
Figure 1. Major Tectonic Features around Aizawl Akyab
3.4 REGIONAL SEISMOTECTONIC &

3.2 REGIONAL SEISMOTECTONIC & GEOLOGICAL SETTING AROUND SHILLONG
GEOLOGICAL SETTING AROUND GANGTOK
This area is a part of complex tectonic province
The southern part comprises parts of West Bengal, displaying juxtaposition of two Tertiary mobile belts
Bihar and Bangladesh; the middle segment as shown n Fig. 4. The scarp of the Chedrang Fault
includes parts of Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Assam; which has developed as a co-seismic fault of the
and the northern part includes Tibet. Well known 1897 great Shillong earthquake runs parallel to the
localities are Purnia in Bihar Siliguri, Darjeeling and Chedrang River for about 19 km treading NNW-
Kalimpang in West Bengal; Gangtok in Sikkim; SSE with maximum vertical throw of 10 m, and is
Thimpu in Bhutan and Rangpur in Bangladesh,
535
Theme F
probably the ruptured segment of the Dudhnoi consistently seen that the land subsidence is more
Fault. prominent around and along the natural streams
going down the slope as shown in Fig. 7 & 8.
F Lohit
R.
MFT ang
F F Dib
Su F F
ba
F
Dibrugarh
nsir
Tongsa
F
R.
Bo
md
F ila
Lin
am e
e
Tashigang Bomdila nt
F
North Lakhimpur F Shemgang
(F)CPz F
F F MC
T
F
a R.
m aputr MFT
F Brah Geylegphug
Jorhat F
MB
T
Atherkhet Fault
ver
s Ri
Mana
ar
She
F
ani Golaghat
Kaly
F
F
Dh
F
an
sir
F
iK
F
op
ili
a river
Fa
F aputr
ult
F F
Brahm
Guwahati Kopill river
F
Kulsi R.
Dudhnoi R.
R.
r
ea
rus st
win
Sh
ni
Th
Kulsi Fault
pa
ru
ra
ga
Dudhnoi Fault
ind
Ba
Th
Na g KOHIMA Shillong
Ch
n
e
sa
Zon
Di
F
ust
F F
F F
Thr
F
F
Dauki Fault Dauki Fault
dary
F
oun
F
rn B
e Sylhet
on
g eZ
Hin
te
ne
ce
Eas
Eo Mymensingh
IMPHAL
ing Fault
F
F
ult
Fa
Shan-Shaga
et
lh
Sy
lt
au
aF
un
Jam
Figure 4: Tectonic features around Shillong
It has been observed that Almost 85% of

Figure 3: Tectonic features around Kohima the Kohima town is threatened by landslide,
landslip, and lateral spreading due to subsidence of
4. SITUATION ASSESSMENT OF PROJECT loose soil. It has been consistently seen that the
CITIES land subsidence is more prominent around and
along the natural streams going down the slope.
The assessment has been based on visits to project This is mostly triggered by loss of vegetation cover.
cities, consultations with the government agencies, The problem of land subsidence is acute in the New
communities and supplemented through an Market area causing damage of foundations and
assessment of the lifeline structures in the cities. wide cracks in the buildings, rendering the buildings
The city of Aizawl is threatened by landslide unsafe for habitation. The sinking New Market area
and various sections of the roads are facing land in Kohima is shown in Fig. 9.
subsidence problem. The landslide, landslip and
land subsidence are triggered mainly due to
improper drainage of the natural streams and
mostly aggravated during monsoon season due to
saturated condition, which reduces the shear
strength. The problem of landslide in the area is
one of the most critical natural hazards and
considering the seismo-tectonic status of the area
and the lithological distribution, the probability of
earthquake induced landslide cannot be ruled out.
Typical landscape of the city in shown in figure 5
Most of the buildings built precariously on
steep slopes, where horizontal spaces are created
by erecting inadequately braced column systems
(shown in figure 6), which is very vulnerable.
It has been observed that a large Figure 5. Landscape of Aizawl
percentage of area in Gangtok is threatened by
landslide, landslip, and lateral spreading due to
subsidence of loose soil. It has been seen
536
Theme F
rates, while wave propagation damage

occurs over much larger areas, but with lower
damage rates.
Figure 6. Building on Steep Slopes
Figure 9. Sinking New Market Area
C. PGD (such as landslides, liquefactions-

induced lateral spread, and seismic
settlement) hazards are characterized by the
amount, geometry and spatial extent of the
PGD zone.
D. The fault–crossing PGD hazard is
characterized by the permanent horizontal
and vertical offset at the fault and the pipe-
fault intersection angle.
E. For lifeline systems, TGD includes the strong
. motion characteristics needed for structural
Figure 7. North Sikkim Highway near Bhatak and secondary system response of buildings
and aboveground facilities.
Fall F. Routing and relocation involves alternate
locations (i.e. realignment in the horizontal
plane). When such alternate locations are
unavailable, impractical, or cost prohibitive,
isolation techniques can be used to mitigate
seismic damage to pipelines. In this case, the
pipeline traverses the hazardous area but is
isolated from the effects of large ground
deformation by realignment in the vertical
direction( ALA, 2001)..
G. It is necessary to reduce the buried depth, in
order to increase the bearing capacity of the
pipeline due to the fault movement. In the
current proposal for all cities, the buried
depth should be within 900 mm to 1000 mm
Figure 8. Landslip causing failure in houses only( ALA, 2001)..
H. The optimal intersection angle for pipe with
mechanical joint is about 70(β) degree. The
decrease in capacity for β greater than the
5. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS
optimal value is caused by the larger bending
A. For buried pipelines, seismic hazards can be moments developed in the pipeline for large
classified as being either wave propagation intersection angle.
hazards (transient ground deformation TGD) I. Significant improvement in the performance
or permanent ground deformation (PGD) can be achieved if pipes are placed so as to
hazards ( ALA, 2001). cross a known fault at angles close to 90°,
B. The PGD damage typically occurs in isolated without resorting to measures such as using
areas of ground failures, with high damage softer backfill, improving the resistance of the
537
Theme F
pipe, or using special joints or more joints in

the fault vicinity.
J. During the initial design process for a new
pipeline, it is easy to route the line avoiding
area with hazard. This method would typically
be more effective for the PGD hazard such
as landslides or areas susceptible to
liquefaction. It can also be used for fault-
crossing hazard if the end points for the line
are both on the same side of the active fault.
K. In some cases, attempt is made to place the
pipeline below the hazardous area using
directional drilling. This can be done to
isolate pipelines for landslide hazard or
liquefaction hazard( ALA, 2001)..
L. The transverse PGD is preferable than
longitudinal PGD, particularly if the joints are
flexible. Also, at fault crossing, an angle of
close to 90 degree is marginally better for
typical joint type.
REFERENCES
American Lifeline Alliance( ALA), 2001, Seismic

Fragility Formulation for Water Systems, Part 1-
Guidelines, Report prepared by American
Society of Civil Engineers ( ASCE) and Federal
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
American Lifeline Alliance (ALA), 2001, Guidelines
for Design of Buried Steel Pipe, Report
prepared by American Society of Civil
Engineers (ASCE) and Federal Emergency
Management Agency (FEMA)
Narula, P.L, Acharyya, S.K., Banerjee J.
Seismotectonic Atlas of India and Its
EnvironsSeptember 2000, Special Publication
Series 59, Geological Survey of India
O’rourke, T D. Wang, Y. and Peixin SHI, 2004,
Advances in Lifeline Earthquake Engineering,
13th World Conference on Earthquake
Engineering , Vancouver, B.C., Canada, Paper
No. 5003
O’rourke, T D. 1996, Lesson Learned from Lifeline
Engineering from Major Urban Earthquakes, 11
WCEE : Eleventh World Conference on
Earthquake Engineering, Acapulco, Mexico,
paper No.2172
O'Rourke, T. D.; Stewart, H. E.; Gowdy, T. E.; and
Pease, J. W., "Lifeline and Geotechnical
Aspects of the 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake"
(1991). International Conferences on Recent
Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake
Engineering and Soil Dynamics. 8.
Pitilakis, K. Alexoudi, M. Argyroudis, S. Monge, ·
O., Martin, C. 2006 Earthquake risk
assessment of lifelines, Bull Earthquake Eng
(2006) 4:365–390
538
A DETAILED STUDY ON BAMBOO REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS
Dr (Mrs) Nayanmoni Chetia1
1 Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department, Jorhat Engineering College
This paper aims at exploring the various aspects of bamboo reinforced concrete beams which are simple, efficient
and economical for rural constructions. In order to satisfy the ever increasing housing demands of the world’s inflated
population, bamboo being a natural product and due to its many positive aspects such as availability in NE region,
serviceability, strength and economy can be considered as an alternate building material in place of steel at least for
the purpose of low cost housing . The study has been broadly divided in three steps. At first an attempt has been
made to investigate the feasibility of a locally available species- Bamboosa Tulda popularly known as “Jati bah”. Its
performance in CCB (Coper Chromo Boron) treated splint form as well as in beams as tension reinforcement was
studied. Tensile strength was determined experimentally for CCB treated bamboo splints supplied by Rain Forest
Research Institute and a better flexural performance was observed for beams with more numbers of reinforcements
and shear links than those without it. The test results i.e. flexural strength of 7, 28, and 45 days were taken into
consideration for comparison purpose. Moreover remarkable reduction in the mid span deflection in concrete beams
was observed when provided with bamboo reinforcements as compared to PCC. Hence leaves an option of using
bamboo as potential reinforcement in low cost construction. In the second phase of the study,a comparative study of
bamboo reinforced concrete beams with various frictional properties were performed. The frictional properties of
bamboo reinforced concrete beams have been achieved by rolling the bamboo reinforcements with Sand, G.I wire
and Coir. The web material essentially consists of steel stirrups which helps in resisting shear of bamboo reinforced
concrete beams. Frictional properties were achieved with the help of a series of pull out tests. For all specimen of
CCB treated bamboo splints, a coat of epoxy was applied to get rid of water absoption by splints. Higher bond stress
has been achieved for beams with G.I wire rolled bamboo reinforcements. Beams were prepared with epoxy coated
and GI wire rolled bamboo splints have been tested to failure under four-point bend test. Flexural strength of 28, 45
and 60 days has been taken into consideration for comparison purpose. At failure, it has been observed that beams
subjected to higher curing period and greater reinforcement size perform better as compared to beams with lower
curing period and smaller reinforcement size. In the third phase of study, trials have been made for the use of
bamboo as reinforcement in concrete beams by making a comparative study of four different bamboo species
namely Bamboosa balcoa (commonly known as Bholuka baah), Bamboosa Tulda (Commonly known as Jati bah),
bamboosa Nutans (Commonly known as Mokal Bah) and Dendrocalamushamiltonii (Kakobaah). Two different sized
splints:16mm and 20mm used for construction of BRC. Flexural strength of 28, 45 and 60 days has been taken into
consideration for comparison purpose. Both four point bend test and tests under UTM was performed for cast BRC
beams. Continuous load Vs deflection graphs were obtained for different specimen when tested in the laboratory of
NEIST (CSIR). At failure, it has been observed that beams subjected to higher curing period and greater
reinforcement size perform better as compared to beams with lower curing period and smaller reinforcement size.
The experimental results obtained were verified by modelling it in finite element software, ANSYS® . Finally the
present study encourages use of bamboo as a good potential reinforcement as partial or full scale replacement of
steel for low cost housing thereby saving natural resources to a considerable extent.
Keywords: CCB, BRC
1. INTRODUCTION temperate areas. There are studies that have

been carried out on the engineering properties of
India being the second most populous country in bamboo and it was found suitable to be used as a
the world, shortage of shelter due to substitution for steel although it has lesser tensile
unaffordability has become a matter of great strength than traditional steel reinforcement. An
concern. Innovations in alternative materials for attempt has been made to introduce bamboo as a
building technologies are targeted for the low-cost structural material in low cost housing structures
mass housing sector to provide shelter for the which are safe durable and affordable.
poor. Bamboo is one of the oldest construction
materials with high tensile strength and is being 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
used as main structural component for low-cost
indigenous houses and bridges for thousands of Ghavami K (2004) studied the mechanical
years in Asia. It has been historically used as a properties and treatment to be provided to six
building material due to its inherent properties, different types of bamboo when utilised as
being regenerating, biodegradable, availability in concrete reinforcement. Its tendency to absorb
bulk with high tensile strength, and light weight. water was also a point of study. The properties of
Bamboo, bearing the scientific name bamboo were found to be based upon a
BambusaTulda, Bamblusa Balcooa etc. belongs functionally graded construction, with its most
to grass family occurring mostly in tropical and important property being that its ratio of strength
subtropical areas, from sea level to snow-capped to specific weight is six times greater than steel.
mountain peaks, with a few species reaching into Test results showed the ideal value for the
539
ICID 2018
percentage of bamboo in concrete to be 3% of the spring and early summer as during these times
cross-sectional area of concrete beam. This study the fiber moisture content is high. Among the wide
concluded that bamboo can substitute steel range of available bamboo species, the following
satisfactorily, and that there is a need to establish four types of bamboo species have been choosen
the characteristic strength of Bamboo for design based on their availability, cost effectiveness and
purposes. performance. They are
Khare L (2005) concluded that bamboo can be 1) Bholuka (Bambusa balcooa)
potentially used as a substitute of steel 2) Jati (Bambusa tulda)
reinforcement. However, for regions of the world 3) Mokal (Bambusa nutans)
where availability of steel is limited and plain 4) Kako (Dendrocalamushamiltonii)
concrete members are commonly being used, the Fig 1 shows the CCB treatment process carried
use of reinforced bamboo concrete is highly on Rain Forest Research Institute (Indian Council
recommended. of Forestry Research and Education) for
3. PROPERTIES OF BAMBOO preparation of splints to make them free from
The mechanical and physical properties of insect attacks.
bamboo vary from species to species and from
soil to soil but still it has adequate strength
properties making it suitable for engineering
purpose. Bamboo is very good in tension and its
tensile strength varies from species to species. An
average tensile strength of 50% to 75% of that of
steel or sometimes even more can be found in
bamboo. The moisture content in bamboo varies
along its height, location and seasoning period. It
is considered to be one of the vital factors in
deciding the life of bamboo. Water absorption is
inversely proportional to the moisture content
whereas dimensional changes, tensile and
compressive strength are directly proportional to
moisture content. To prevent the slippage of Fig 1. CCB treatment on Bamboo in RFRI
reinforcement from concrete, a proper bonding
4. METHODOLOGY
between concrete and reinforcing material is
necessary. The dimensional changes of bamboo
The locally available species Bamboosa Tulda
due to temperature and moisture variations tend
(popularly known as jati Bah) was first
to affect bond characteristics such as adhesive selected for preliminary tests. CCB treated
properties of cement matrix, compression frictional bamboo splints of various sizes were
forces appearing on the surface of reinforcing bar collected from RFRI for preparation of
due to shrinkage of concrete . bamboo reinforced concrete. The supplied
The bamboo culm, in general, is a cylindrical treated splints were tested in the laboratory
shell, which is divided by transversal diaphragms and a representative load versus
at the nodes. The fiber density of bamboo in cross displacement graph is presented in Fig.2.
section varies with the thickness as well as height.
The fibers are concentrated in regions closer to
the outer skin. Bamboo shells are orthotropic
materials with high strength in the direction
parallel to the fibers and low strength
perpendicular to the fibers respectively. Although
bamboo partially in wooden family yet it has
strength which is greater than most of its
correlates. The main drawback however is its
susceptibility to insect attack which makes it
unsuitable to use in construction. Matured
bamboo will be brownish green in color. Selection
is made is such a manner that longest and largest
diameter culms are obtained from bamboo having Fig 2. Load versus displacement characteristic
age more than 3 years. Generally, culms from the curve for splint .
base portion of the bamboo are preferable. Also
cutting of bamboo should be avoided during A number of splints have been tested and
failure value ranging from 330N/mm 2 to 420N/mm2
540
ICID 2018
has been observed. It should be noted that for all One effective treatment is the application of thin
splint specimen, the failure mode is similar as in layer of epoxy. Fig.5 shows the application of
fig 2. In fig 3, a typical load displacement curve for epoxy in bamboo splints.
Fe 500 steel has been presented.
Fig 4. Effect of water absorption by bamboo

splint
Fig 3. Load versus displacement characteristic
curve for Fe 500 steel.
Bamboo is excessively prone to insects than other

trees and grasses because of the fact that
bamboo contains high content of nutrients. So in
order to combat this problem it becomes
necessary to treat bamboo so as to protect it from
the environment. Copper Chrome Boron (CCB)
treatment of bamboo has been adopted to prevent
bamboo from insect attack. The content of various
chemicals is in the ratio- Boric acid: Copper
Sulphate: Sodium Dichromate- 1.5:3.0:4.0 and its
Fig 5. Application of epoxy to CCB treated splints
recommended concentration is 8-10% for outdoor
use (structures exposed to weather and in ground
After solving the water absorption problem, the
contact)
problem of bond strength was addressed. Treated
bamboo splints are very smooth in nature and
5. TEST PROCEDURE AND RESULTS
when used as reinforcement, the bond strength is
The beams have been fabricated with coarse very less. The bonding between concrete and
aggregates of sizes 20mm down respectively. bamboo splint has been increased by three types
Ordinary Portland cement of 43 grade and of treatment process and then compared. Three
naturally washed river sand of grading zone II cases were sand rolled, coir rolled and GI wire
have been used. The concrete proportioned in the rolled.
ratio 1:1.5:3 for M20 grade and the mix proportion
has a water-cement ratio of 0.45. One of the main
shortcomings of bamboo is water absorption when
it is used as reinforcement in concrete. Bamboo
has a high-water absorption capacity. The
dimensional variation of untreated bamboo due to
water absorption pushes the concrete away. Then
at the end of the curing period, the bamboo loses
the moisture and shrinks back almost to its
original dimensions leaving voids around itself.
(Fig4). This leads to the formation of micro cracks
or even macro cracks which is not desirable in
concrete. The swelling and shrinkage of bamboo
in concrete is very harmful. To improve the bond
between bamboo reinforcements and concrete, an Fig 6. sand rolled, GI wire rolled and coir rolled
effective water-repellent treatment is necessary. bamboo splints
541
ICID 2018
In the third phase of this study, four different

The bonding between concrete and these three types i.e. Bholuka, Jati, Mokal and Kako of locally
types of improvised versions were established by available bamboo species were taken for study.
reinforcement pull out test performed in the The bars of 16mm and 20mm and all GI Wire
Universal Testing Machine. The reinforcement rolled are then caged with steel stirrups and then
with different frictional properties were inserted in cast in the mould of dimension 15cm x 15cm x 70
cubes. The bonding shear stress µb was cm with concrete to obtain bamboo reinforced
calculated as concrete beams. Finally, these beams are being
µb = Fm⁄𝐿 ∗ 𝑆 tested in the flexure testing apparatus which
works on the principle of four-point bend test as
where Fm is the pull out force, L is the length of done in earlier case. Some tests were also done
bonded interface and S is the perimeter of in UTM to get continuous load-displacement
bamboo splint. Bond strength of the three types of relationships. Fig 7,8,9,10 give some idea about
splints namely sand rolled, coir rolled and GI wire the procedure of casting of BRC beams.
rolled were 5.96N/mm 2, 8.46/mm2, 9.71N/mm2
respectively. Verification was also done by casting
18 numbers of bamboo reinforced beams and
testing them for 28, 45 and 60days in flexure
testing machine. Simply supported beam
subjected to four-point bend test with its middle
third portion subjected to maximum uniform
bending and zero shear force and assuming that
the self-weight of the beam is negligible has been
tested.
Table 1: Failure load in KN
Splint Casting Sand Coir GI wire

size Period rolled rolled rolled Fig7. Rolling of GI wires to splints
in days splint splint splint
16 28 73.5 71.5 84.0 The preparation starts with winding of GI wires
to epoxy coated bamboo splints. Next step is to
20 28 78.5 81.5 87.0 prepare the reinforcement cages with steel
stirrups.
16 45 71.0 85.0 87.5
20 45 72.5 91.5 94.0
16 60 82.0 85.0 88.0
20 60 91.0 89.0 93.0
From the above observation, it is very clear that

the performance of GI wire rolled bamboo splints Fig 8. Prepared cages before
are the best. Another point of observation was the
strength increases with increased size of splint
and increase in curing days. For all results
presented in the table, average of three values
has been considered. Finally a regression
equation for compressive stress P in N/mm2 was
proposed from the set of observed results relating
µb, the bond strength; N, the number of days and
W, the width of bamboo splints as P=25.52+1.917
µb+0.268N+1.680W.
Fig 9. Moulds used for casting
542
ICID 2018
mm splint , cured for 45 days. Here also Jati

Once the skeleton or cages are prepared, they bamboo performs the best.
are cast in previously greased beam moulds.
100 91.4892.38
89.63 89.89
90 86.18 84.2
82.56
79
80 75
69.25 71.53
70 63.5
60
Load kN
50
40
30
20
Fig10: BRC beams ready for curing. 10
0
BRC beams cured properly in tank are tested in 28 days 45 days 60 days
flexural testing machine as well as in Universal
Testing Machine for continuous readings.
Fig12. Comparison of failure loads for species
bholuka,Jati, Mokal anf Kako
120000
100000
80000
Load N
60000
40000
Fig 11. BRC beam under test in NEIST(CSIR). 20000
Most of the routine tests were performed in 0

flexural testing machine in Civil Engineering 0 2 4 6 8
Department. The failure loads obtained from tests
were analysed. It was observed that bamboosa Deflection mm
tulda (Jati Bah) performs the best under most of Mokal 20-45
the circumstances. But there is no significant Jati 20-45
difference in the performance of different species kako 20-45
also. Fig 12 compares the failure loads for 28
days cured bamboo reinforced beams prepared Bholuka 20-45
with 16 mm splints. The species used over here
are Bholuka, Jati, Mokal and Kako bamboo. Fig 13. Comparison of load-deflection curves
Similar kind of analysis was done for BRC for BRC with 20mm splint for 45 days.
prepared with 20 mm splints and the trend
observed was the same for all cases of 28 , 45 For validation purpose BRC under four point
and 60 days curing. load test was modelled in ANSYS. The similar
cases of 16 mm and 20 mm reinforcement
The load-deflection characteristics were also bars were considered for the purpose. One
studied by testing the BRC beams in UTM. One representative model has been shown in Fig
representative curve is presented in Fig 13 which 14. Solid 65, a 3-D solid element and link 180
shows the characteristics of BRC beams with 20 3 –D spar element were used for modelling.
Target and contact pairs were Target 170 and
543
ICID 2018
quanta 175. Material properties were 8. REFERENCES

assigned as obtained from experimental data. 1. [1] Adom-Asamoah Mark, AfrifaOwusu
Russell, A comparative study of Bamboo
reinforced concrete beams using different
stirrup materials for rural construction, 2, 407-
Fig 423, 2011.
2. [2] B.BenittaPaulinMary, Dr. D.Tensing, State
of the Art Report on Bamboo Reinforcement,
3, pp 683-686, 2013.
3. [3] Chandra S, Maduwanti L, Sharma U, Can
bamboo replace steel as reinforcement in
concrete, for the key structural elements in a
low cost house, designed for the urban
poor?,1, pp 257-262, 2013.
4. [4] Dr. Shakeel Ahmad, Altamash Raza, Hina
Gupta, Mechanical Properties of Bamboo
Fibre Reinforced Concrete, pp 162-166, 2014.
5. [5] Ghavami K., Bamboo as reinforcement in
structural concrete elements, Cement and
composites, 27, pp 637-649, 2005
6. [6] Kankam CK, Odum-Ewuakye B, Babadua
14.BRC beam modeled in ANSYS reinforced concrete two-way slabs subjected to
concentrated loading, Construction and
Building Materials, 20, pp 279-285, 2006.
7. [7] Kawari A, Awari U.R, Wakchaure M.R,
Results obtained from ANSYS analysis were in +- Review of bamboo as reinforcement material
20% tolerance level of the results obtained from in concrete structure, 2, pp 2461-2464, 2013.
experimental data. 8. [8] Khare L, Performance evaluation of
bamboo reinforced concrete beams, MSc
Thesis, Faculty of the Graduate School,
6. CONCLUSION
University of Texas, Arlington, 2005.
The study evaluated the feasibility of the 9. [9] Terai.M, Minami.K, Bamboo reinforcement
use of bamboo as a potential reinforcement in concrete structure, 15WCEE LISBOA, 2012.
concrete structural members. To achieve this 10. [10] U.S. Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory,
objective four-point bending tests were conducted Bamboo Reinforced Concrete Construction,
on four types of bamboo reinforced concrete (http://www.romanconcrete.com/docs/bamboo
beams. An overview of bamboo as a construction 1966/ Bamboo Reinforced Concrete,
material, its characteristics, problems, treatments Accessed 13/05/2006), (1966, 2006).
etc are also discussed.
An improved flexural performance of BRC beam

has been observed with the increase in number of
days of curing period and increase in the size of
bamboo rebar. It has been found that the strength
in flexure varies from species to species. In our
case of study, the Jati Bamboo (Bambusatulda)
exhibited best performance. The study also
included modelling of BRC beam and validation of
experimental output.
To conclude the use of bamboo has the potential

and can act as a substitute material for
construction in India which will be a bold step
toward building a sustainable environment. Due to
the great advantages bamboo yield to the
environment bamboo can be a substituted
material for both wood and steel in construction.
7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My sincere thanks goes to my PG students
Farhina Naznin, Abhijit Dey and Mukunda Madhab
Bora, and NEQIP for financial assistance.
.
544

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INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON

Editor: Dr. Atanu Kumar Dutta

Jorhat Engineering College

Malnad College of Engineering

Dr. Prasanna Kumar Khaund

Editor: Dr. Atanu Kumar Dutta

Theme B: Environmental Engineering

Theme C: Geotechnical Engineering

Theme E: Hydraulics and Water Resource Engineering

ICID2018_E_0022 Rainfall Runoff Modeling Of Pagladiya River Basin 486

Theme F: Infrastructure Planning and Management

UPGRADING DEVELOPMENT INFRASTRUCTURE IN ASSAM

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CHRONIC FLOOD AND EROSION SCENARIO

SUGGESTED DEVELOPMENT INFRASTRUCTURE UPGRADATION

Upgrading Infrastructure To Modernize Irrigated Agriculture

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To Develop Infrastructure of Inland Navigation Waterways For Cheaper Eco-Friendly Goods

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PRESENT REVIEW OF STUDIES OF METEOROLOGICAL DISASTERS IN THE

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SCOPE AND BENEFITS

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Typical stress-strain hysteresis loop of GTCM is shown in Figure 3.

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ANASTASIADIS, A., SENETAKIS, K., PITILAKIS, K., GARGALA, C. & KARAKASI, I.

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