ESG M DesignHandbook R1 PDF

Engineering
Design
333333
Handbook
Mechanical / Process Element
QMS Ref.: ESG_M_DesignHandbook_r1.2_2016 (2) Page: 0 of 229

Engineering Standards Design Handbook
Mechanical Engineering
Engineering Standards
Design Handbook
Disciplines Covered:
Mechanical / Process Engineering
Version No.: 1.2
Date Published: 02-02-2016

This publication forms part of the GEA Process Technologies Ireland Ltd “Engineering Standards Design
Handbook”. The accompanying calculation and data files are listed in the references and will be issued
electronically with the handbook.
The support and encouragement of the ESG team [Arthur Rogers, Chris Hanney, and Liam McCabe], the
management of GPTIE and in particular the managing director Paddy Kenna were indispensable to the
development of this handbook.
First published: 2009 [22-May-2009 / uploaded to P Div workspace as revision 1.1 on 28Sep12]
Version Number: 1.2

Status: Revision 2
Date Published: 02-Feb-2016
Original Author: Kevin Walsh
Contributors: Áine Codd [Design reviews, Hazop], Donal Lalor & Micheál McGuinness [CIP], Niamh
O’Riordan [Valves],
Peter Otzen – prepare revision 1.1 for use on GEA intranet
Rev 1.2 contributors Pat O’Riordan [Valves], Barrie Hogan and Matt Roche [process
descriptions]; Aine Codd, Kevin Daley, Colin Burkley and Jim Gallagher [calculation
files] and Cormac Ryan [materials database]
Editor: Kevin Walsh
Modified by: Kevin Walsh
Reviewed by: [rev 0.4 17Jul reviewed by Knuth Lorenzen, comments added in 0.5]
[rev 0.5 section commented by KD – fine as is]
[rev0.7 reviewed by Knuth Lorenzen and FJ Helms, comments added in 0.8]
[Foreword added by Knuth Lorenzen for first edition 1.0]
Approved by: TBD later
GEA Process Technologies Ireland Ltd

Millennium Park, Naas, Co.Kildare, Ireland
Tel: +353-45-981200 ; Fax: +353-45-981232 ;
Web: http://intranet.gea.com/regions/NordicsUKIEBenelux/Pages/frontpage.aspx
Copyright © GEA Process Technologies Ireland Ltd

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted or utilized in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without written permission
from the publisher or a licence from GEA Process Technologies Ireland Ltd.

Preface
The aim of this handbook is to give guidance to the food process engineering group on how current
best practice in hygiene may be further improved. The food related illnesses reported daily in
surveys of the global food safety authorities, for example, show that, in many instances, such
improvements are highly desirable. We hope therefore that this handbook will not only reach those
who are now responsible for the design, building and installation of food plants to assure high
product quality and safety in food but particularly also to those who will assume such responsibility
in the future.
All our employees may benefit from using this handbook regardless of their background and
whether they are senior or junior management, since much of the information needed in practice in
the food industry – in its widest sense – is, in most cases, not part of common education programs.
This handbook is devoted to improving the design of production facilities. It covers areas on the
subject such as requirements for hygienic design principles, CE directives, process calculation,
equipment selection, process description, safety and energy conservation. All of this, however, will
not guarantee hygienic production. Adequate management is essential for food safety.
This handbook will give guidance to solve issues and deliver answers in your day-to-day
requirements of food safety improvements. The technology of Hygienic equipment plus good
engineering of Hygienic application results in Hygienic Design.
Good material is not enough ……

Good design with good engineering is essential!
Knuth Lorenzen
23.April 2009

CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 10
1.1 Design Process - Mechanical ........................................................................................................... 11
1.1.1 When Does The Design Start? ................................................................................................... 11
1.1.2 First Step – Schematic in Block Diagram Format ....................................................................... 13
1.1.3 Second Step – Physical Layout .................................................................................................. 14
1.1.4 Third Step – Calculations to Size Lines and Pumps .................................................................. 14
1.1.5 Fourth Step – P&IDs ................................................................................................................... 15
1.1.6 Fifth Step – Equipment Specifications ........................................................................................ 15
1.1.7 Sixth Step – Process Description / FDS ..................................................................................... 16
1.1.8 Seventh Step – Review .............................................................................................................. 16
1.2 Safety .................................................................................................................................................. 17
1.3 CE Directives [ATEX]......................................................................................................................... 18

1.3.1 Relevant CE Directives ............................................................................................................... 19
1.3.2 Application of Directives to GPTIE.............................................................................................. 20
1.4 Energy Conservation......................................................................................................................... 21
1 Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................................. 22
2 APPLICATION OF CE DIRECTIVES TO GEA ........................................................... 23

2.1 Simple Pressure Vessels .................................................................................................................. 24
2.2 Machinery ........................................................................................................................................... 25
2.3 Pressure Equipment [PED] ............................................................................................................... 26
2.4 Measuring Instruments [Legal Metrology] ...................................................................................... 27
2.5 Other Relevant Directives ................................................................................................................. 28
2 Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................................. 29
3 CHAPTER 3 BLOCK DIAGRAM GUIDELINES ......................................................... 30

3.1 Design Path to Making a Block Diagram ......................................................................................... 30
3.2 Product Information .......................................................................................................................... 31

3.2.1 Density ........................................................................................................................................ 32
3.2.1.1 Liquid Power – Proportional to Density ............................................................................................ 32
3.2.1.2 Reynolds Number – Proportional to Density.................................................................................... 32
3.2.1.3 Effect of Temperature on Density...................................................................................................... 33
3.2.2 Viscosity ...................................................................................................................................... 33
3.2.2.1 Fluid Types and their Affect on Viscosity ......................................................................................... 34
3.2.3 Specific Heat ............................................................................................................................... 34
3.2.4 Velocity Limits ............................................................................................................................. 34

3.3 The Key Process Blocks ................................................................................................................... 35

3.3.1 Mass Transfer [Pumping] ............................................................................................................ 36
3.3.2 Storage ....................................................................................................................................... 37
3.3.3 Heat Transfer .............................................................................................................................. 38
3.3.3.1 Types of heat transfer ......................................................................................................................... 39
3.3.3.2 Design Requirements for Plate Heat Exchangers .......................................................................... 41
3.3.3.3 Design Requirements for Tubular Heat Exchangers ...................................................................... 43
3.3.3.4 Design Requirements for Tank Heating/Cooling Jackets .............................................................. 44
3.3.3.5 Design requirements for insulation .................................................................................................... 45
3.4 Common Unit Operations ................................................................................................................. 47
3.5 Calculation of Utility Loads .............................................................................................................. 47
3.6 Sketching the Block Diagram ........................................................................................................... 48
3 Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................................. 48
4 EQUIPMENT LAYOUT GUIDELINES ........................................................................ 49

4.1 ATEX Zoning ...................................................................................................................................... 49
4.1.1 Guidelines for Zoning .................................................................................................................. 49
4.1.2 Typical Equipment Categories Available on the Market ............................................................. 50
4.2 Rules for laying out equipment ........................................................................................................ 50

4.2.1 How to Calculate the Number and Size of Tanks ....................................................................... 51
4.2.2 Guidelines for Locating Tanks .................................................................................................... 53
4.2.2.1 Design Requirements for Pressurised Tanks .................................................................................. 54
4.2.2 Guidelines for locating valves and pumps associated with tanks............................................... 55
4.2.3 Guidelines for Locating Major Equipment................................................................................... 56
4.3 How to Design for Access at Heights .............................................................................................. 59
4.4 How to Design for Noise Control ..................................................................................................... 59
4 Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................................. 59
5 CALCULATIONS TO SIZE LINES AND DUTIES FOR PUMPS................................. 60

5.1 Standard Pipe Sizes .......................................................................................................................... 60
5.1.1 Information on Metals ................................................................................................................. 65
5.1.2 Information on Seal Materials ..................................................................................................... 66
5.2 Methodology for Calculating Pressure Drop .................................................................................. 67

5.2.1 Pressure Drop for Liquids ........................................................................................................... 67
5.2.2 Pressure Drop for Gases ............................................................................................................ 67
5.3 Steam and condensate pipe sizing .................................................................................................. 68

5.3.1 Guidelines for Steam Distribution ............................................................................................... 69
5.3.2 Effect of Reducing Steam Pressure............................................................................................ 70
5.3.3 Guidelines for Steam Pressure Reducing Sets .......................................................................... 71
5.3.4 Guidelines for Selection of Steam Valves .................................................................................. 72
5.3.5 Example of Steam Branch Valve Layout .................................................................................... 76
5.3.6 Guidelines for Condensate ......................................................................................................... 77
5.4 Guidelines for Pipe Expansion ......................................................................................................... 79

5.4.1 Calculation of Pipe Expansion .................................................................................................... 79
5.4.2 Pipe Anchor Points and Free-Moving Supports ......................................................................... 79

5.4.3 Dimensions for Pipe Expansion Loops ....................................................................................... 79

5.4.4 Guidelines for Valve Manifolds ................................................................................................... 80
5 Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................................. 80
6 HYGIENIC DESIGN GUIDELINES ............................................................................. 81

6.1 Principles of Hygienic Design .......................................................................................................... 82
6.1.01 Principle 1 – Know the Product................................................................................................... 83
6.1.02 Principle 2 – Respect the Product .............................................................................................. 84
6.1.03 Principle 3 – Layout Separate Product Areas ............................................................................. 85
6.1.04 Principle 4 – Provide Space for Cleaning ................................................................................... 86
6.1.05 Principle 5 – Design for CIP........................................................................................................ 86
6.1.06 Principle 6 – Recover the Product .............................................................................................. 87
6.1.07 Principle 7 – Aim for Single Path for Product ............................................................................. 88
6.1.08 Principle 8 – Minimise Product Connections to Tanks ............................................................... 93
6.1.09 Principle 9 – Select hygienic equipment ..................................................................................... 95
6.1.09 Principle 9 – Select Hygienic Equipment .................................................................................... 96
6.1.10 Principle 10 – Specify Mechanical Installation Standards .......................................................... 99
6.1.11 Principle 11– Control Product Transfers and CIP..................................................................... 100
6.1.12 Principle 12 – Supervise the Installation to the Specified Standard ......................................... 100
6.2 CIP – Cleaning In Place ................................................................................................................... 101

6.2.1 Fundamentals Of Cleaning ....................................................................................................... 101
6.2.1.1 Water Supply ............................................................................................................................ 102
6.2.1.2 Detergents ................................................................................................................................. 103
6.2.1.3 Disinfectants for Sanitising Step ................................................................................................ 104
6.2.2 Rules for Cleaning .................................................................................................................... 105
6.2.3 URS for the Design of a CIP System ........................................................................................ 106
6.2.3.1 Product-Specific Requirements ................................................................................................. 106
6.2.3.2 Process-Specific Requirements................................................................................................. 107
6.2.3.3 Client-Specific Requirements .................................................................................................... 108
6.2.4 Plant Design.............................................................................................................................. 109
6.2.4.1 Single Use CIP Systems............................................................................................................ 109
6.2.4.2 Recoverable CIP Systems ......................................................................................................... 109
6.2.4.3 Centralised or De-centralised CIP Systems .............................................................................. 110
6.2.4.4 A Note on Effluent ...................................................................................................................... 110
6.2.4.5 Control and Instrumentation ...................................................................................................... 111
6.2.4.6 Tank Cleaning ............................................................................................................................ 113
6 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................................ 114
7 P&ID GUIDELINES ................................................................................................... 115

7.1 Sound Engineering Practice [SEP] ................................................................................................ 115
7.1.01 SEP for Varivent, Ecovent, Butterfly and Control Valves from GEA ........................................ 116
7.1.02 SEP for Overflow [Type Q] Valves from GEA........................................................................... 117
7.1.03 SEP for Vacuum Relief [Type V] Valves from GEA .................................................................. 118
7.1.04 SEP for Safety Relief [Type 488 and 483 Stericom] Valves from GEA .................................... 119
7.1.05 SEP for Centrifugal Pumps [Type TP, KN] from GEA .............................................................. 120
7.1.06 SEP for Piping Systems from GEA .......................................................................................... 121
7.2 Selection of Appropriate Pump Types .......................................................................................... 123

7.2.1 Overview of Pump Types, and Reference Material .................................................................. 123
7.2.2 Centrifugal Type – Where to Use it .......................................................................................... 125
7.2.3 Self-Priming Centrifugal Type – Where to Use it ...................................................................... 126
7.2.4 Rotary Lobe Positive Displacement Type – Where to Use it .................................................... 127
7.2.5 Design Rules for Pumps and Fail-Safe Features ..................................................................... 128

7.2.5.1 Flow ........................................................................................................................................... 128

7.2.5.2 No Flow ...................................................................................................................................... 128
7.2.5.3 Reverse Flow ............................................................................................................................. 128
7.2.5.4 High Pressure ............................................................................................................................ 129
7.2.5.5 Low Pressure ............................................................................................................................. 129
7.3 Selection of Appropriate Valve Types ........................................................................................... 130

7.3.1 Introduction and Summary of Hygienic Design Criteria for Valves........................................... 130
7.3.2 Overview of Valve Housing Configurations .............................................................................. 133
7.3.3 Overview of the Tuchenhagen Varivent Valve Range .............................................................. 134
7.3.4 VARIVENT® Valve Selection Scheme ...................................................................................... 135
7.3.5 Specific Valve Types and their Applications .............................................................................. 136
7.3.5.1 Single Seat Shut-Off Valves: Flow Stoppage ............................................................................ 136
7.3.5.2 Single Seat Shuttle Valves: Changing Flow Direction ............................................................... 137
7.3.5.3 Double Seat Shut-Off Valves: Hygienic Mix-Proof Separation of Media ................................... 138
7.3.5.3.1 Valve Type D ......................................................................................................................... 138
7.3.5.3.2 Valve Type B.......................................................................................................................... 139
7.3.5.3.3 Working Principle: D and B Type Valves ............................................................................... 140
7.3.5.3.4 Valve Type R ......................................................................................................................... 141
7.3.5.3.5 Working Principle: R Type Valve ........................................................................................... 142
7.3.5.4 Double Seat Shut-Off Valve: No Cleaning of the Neutral Area ................................................. 144
7.3.5.5 Double Seal Shut-Off Valve ....................................................................................................... 145
7.3.5.6 Double Seat Shuttle Valve: Changing Flow Direction with Mix-Proof Protection ...................... 146
7.3.5.7 Mix-Proof Tank Bottom Valve .................................................................................................... 147
7.3.5.8 Single Seat Tank Bottom Valve ................................................................................................. 148
7.3.5.9 When Product Recovery [“Pigging”] is Required ....................................................................... 149
7.3.5.10 Modulating Control Valves ..................................................................................................... 150
7.3.5.11 Overflow Valve ....................................................................................................................... 151
7.3.5.12 Safety Relief Valve ................................................................................................................ 152
7.3.5.13 Vacuum Valve ........................................................................................................................ 153
7.3.5.14 Sampling Valves .................................................................................................................... 154
7.3.5.14.1 Varivent Sample Valve type IT .......................................................................................... 154
7.3.5.14.2 Varivent Sample Valve type TSVN/U ................................................................................ 154
7.3.5.15 Butterfly Valves ...................................................................................................................... 155
7.3.5.16 Aseptomag Valves ................................................................................................................. 156
7.3.6 Dynamic and Static Behaviour of Valves in Pipe Systems ........................................................ 157
7.3.6.1 When Liquid is in Motion ............................................................................................................ 157
7.3.6.2 When Liquid is at Rest ............................................................................................................... 158
7.3.7 Practical Applications ...................................................................................................................... 159
7.4 Appearance and scaling of Major Equipment on the Drawing ................................................... 161
7.5 Orientation of Tanks and Associated Valves................................................................................ 162
7 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................................ 163
8 EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION TEMPLATES .......................................................... 164

8.1 Tanks................................................................................................................................................. 164
8.1.1 Tank Construction and Installation Specification ...................................................................... 164
8.1.1.1 Tank vents ................................................................................................................................. 165
8.1.1.2 Tank overflows ........................................................................................................................... 166
8.1.1.3 Eliminating air in product: vortex breaker and anti-foam inlet .................................................. 167
8.1.1.4 Mechanical interlock for CIP and tank vent ............................................................................... 168
8.1.2 Tank Data Sheet ....................................................................................................................... 169
8.1.3 Tank Man-Ways ........................................................................................................................ 169
8.2 Valves................................................................................................................................................ 170

8.2.1 Control Valve Data Sheet ......................................................................................................... 170

8.3 Pumps ............................................................................................................................................... 170

8.3.1 Centrifugal Pump Data Sheet ................................................................................................... 170
8.4 Instruments ...................................................................................................................................... 170
8 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................................ 171
9 PROCESS DESCRIPTION GUIDELINES ................................................................ 172

9.1 Objectives of a pasteuriser ............................................................................................................. 172
9.1.1 What is a pasteuriser ................................................................................................................ 173
9.2 Key features of a pasteuriser ......................................................................................................... 173

9.2.1 Raw milk supply ........................................................................................................................ 173
9.2.2 Separator .................................................................................................................................. 173
9.2.3 Cream line................................................................................................................................. 174
9.2.4 Back-pressure valve and boost pump ...................................................................................... 174
9.2.5 Hot divert................................................................................................................................... 174
9.2.6 Cold divert ................................................................................................................................. 174
9.2.7 Critical Instruments ................................................................................................................... 175
9.3 Pasteuriser design requirements and considerations ................................................................ 176
9.4 Step sequence ................................................................................................................................. 179
9 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................................ 183
10 DESIGN REVIEW GUIDELINES [AC] ................................................................... 184

10.1 Design life-cycle and review steps ................................................................................................ 185
10.2 Design qualification [DQ] ................................................................................................................ 185

10.2.1 Source Documents ................................................................................................................... 186
10.2.2 Design Deliverables .................................................................................................................. 187
10.3 Design Review Process .................................................................................................................. 188

10.3.1 Block Diagram Review .............................................................................................................. 190
10.3.2 Physical Layout Review ............................................................................................................ 190
10.3.3 Line Sizing and Pump Calculations Review ............................................................................. 191
10.3.4 P&ID Review ............................................................................................................................. 191
10.3.4.1 Template for P&ID Design Review ........................................................................................ 192
10.3.5 Key Equipment Specifications Review ..................................................................................... 194
10.3.6 Process Description Review ..................................................................................................... 194
10.4 When to complete the Design Review ........................................................................................... 195
10.5 Responsibility .................................................................................................................................. 195
10.6 Estimate of Review Hours............................................................................................................... 196
10 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................................ 198
11 SAFETY ................................................................................................................. 199

11.1 Risk Assessment ............................................................................................................................. 200
11.1.1 Risk Assessment Evaluation Table .......................................................................................... 201
11.1.2 Pre-Configured Risk Assessment for Piping ............................................................................ 202

11.1.3 Pre-Configured Risk Assessment for Storage Tanks ............................................................... 203

11.1.4 Pre-Configured Risk Assessment for Transfer Line with Heating ............................................ 204
11.2 Control Measures ............................................................................................................................ 205

11.2.1 The General Principles of Prevention ....................................................................................... 205
11.2.2 Risks and Control Measures for Common Hazards ................................................................. 206
11.3 HAZOP .............................................................................................................................................. 211

11.3.1 HAZOP as a Supplement to the Design Review ...................................................................... 211
11.3.2 The HAZOP Process ................................................................................................................ 212
11 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................................ 215
12 ENERGY CONSERVATION .................................................................................. 216

12.1 Reference standard for energy conservation ............................................................................... 216
12.2 Where to apply principles of energy conservation ...................................................................... 217
COMMUNICATION EVENTS TABLE ............................................................................. 219
APPENDICES ................................................................................................................. 220

Appendix 1: HSA – RF1 - Permanent Works Design Certificate ........................................................... 221
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................ 224
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................... 227
VERSION HISTORY ........................................................................................................ 228

1 Introduction
This chapter aims to:
Describe the design process for the mechanical engineering discipline

Explain the obligations of the designer to consider safety
Introduce the reader to the CE directives that are relevant to our area of work
Introduce the reader to the importance of considering “energy conservation” when
designing systems

1.1 Design Process - Mechanical
In this section of the handbook we are going to guide you through the design process for the
mechanical aspects of a project. This will create a set of design documents which will be used as
starting points by the electrical and automation disciplines, so it is essential to set-up and maintain
communications with these disciplines throughout the design.
The design process can be and often is invisible – there is no need to explain or document the
steps to making a P&ID, once you have the competence and experience to do it. The final drawing
will contain most of the information necessary to buy equipment and get it installed, but will not
show the underlying assumptions, calculations or any predecessor drawings used in its
construction.
However, safety legislation and CE directives have combined to place great stress on the role of
the designer in the construction of equipment and installations. In this legal environment we must
be able to document that we have considered safety in the design and we must keep the risk
analysis on file for up to 10 years after the project is taken over by the customer.
Finally, it is a hallmark of good engineering to be able to demonstrate how a design is arrived at,
and to be able to communicate this to our colleagues. Our goal is to produce consistent and
reliable designs according to clear principles so that they can be easily emulated in future work.
1.1.1 When Does The Design Start?
The design starts as soon as we decide to prepare a quotation. It is essential to realise that we are
in a business – it is the client who is paying for something they want to have – and that the design
must respect what is being sold. We can use the quotation to identify the scope of our proposal
and to identify exclusions [the Standard Quotation Template[1] is set up for this]. Within the scope,
the designer is responsible for ensuring that the delivered system will do what it is required to do in
a safe and efficient manner.
Within our line of work it will happen that there will be a delay between a quotation being issued
and its’ approval by the client. The engineers who are assigned to the project at that later date may
be unfamiliar with the scope of the work and with the design work to date – hence the importance
of documenting the design!
The responsibilities and duties of the designer can therefore be shared amongst more than one
person. The end point for the design is when equipment or an installation contract is purchased.
Everyone involved up until then has the duties and responsibilities of a designer.
[1]: Standard Quotation Template is on the server: QMS: G11_ENQ_S07_A02

Fig. 1.1.1: Diagram of Design Path
Client
Block diagram
Check data
basic info
Building
Survey
drawings
Physical layout Safety [access,

height]; ATEX;
Noise; Drains
Calculations Pipe &

& Sizing product
data
P&IDs
Specifications
Design
review
Process
Descriptions

1.1.2 First Step – Schematic in Block Diagram Format
The first step of the design is to sketch the process in a series of standard building blocks showing
inputs, transfer lines, storage and heat transfer or other unit operations [filtration, separation,
evaporation, etc.].This requires meeting[s] with the client.
This can be an iterative process where each revision can be changed due to new information or
preferences from the client or to choices made by the designer. Normally, the requirements are
well understood and the business development manager will have enough information to get the
block diagram completed.
The key reason for the block diagram is to show the minimum information required to size the
equipment. The designer must consider:
Product type[s]
o Parameters [density, viscosity, temperature, specific heat, velocity limits]
[Mass] Transfer rates
Heat transfer
o Temperature changes – including any pasteurisation requirements
Energy conservation
o Heat recovery – regeneration of heat, use of hot/cold storage of water for heat
transfer [e.g. for cheese plants] if there is a time offset in regeneration
Storage requirements
o Maximum holding times, operating time of fill / empty per 24h day – any specific
requirements for pressure or atmosphere in tanks
Unit operations and specialised package equipment
o Any resulting changes to product properties or flows; utilities required; new product
or waste flows
For more details on this step, see Chapter 3 “Block Diagram Guidelines”.

1.1.3 Second Step – Physical Layout
The second step of the design is to draw out the process equipment to scale on the building
drawings which are usually provided by the client. As before, this can be an iterative process.
The design risk assessment starts at this point, and the particular risks associated with access /
working at height must be considered in the arrangement of equipment. Please refer to section 1.2
“Safety”.
The key reason an equipment layout is required is to ensure that the equipment can be installed,
operated and maintained safely. The designer must consider:
ATEX zones if applicable [Please refer to section 1.3 “CE Directives”]
Space required for
o Installation [how to lift, position and fix equipment]
o Operation [access to manual parts, access for CLEANING]
o Maintenance [to open panel doors, dismantle equipment]
Height of equipment
o Ladder or platform access may be required in the scope, or else it can be agreed
that mobile platforms would be sufficient where operation or maintenance is
infrequent
o Clearance from floor and ceiling to allow for cleaning
Noise
o Very noisy equipment [separators, blowers] may need to be housed in a separate
room to avoid increasing the noise level in a process room
Drains
o Pipes flushed to drain, mix-proof valves, equipment needing cooling or sealing
water all require drainage
For more details on this step, see Chapter 4 “Equipment Layout Guidelines”.
1.1.4 Third Step – Calculations to Size Lines and Pumps
The third step of the design is to make calculations for each mass transfer [usually by pump] in the
block diagram so that each pipe line can be given a specific size. This is a necessary pre-condition
before making a Process and Instrument Diagram [P&ID].
This step influences the energy used in the process, and the designer must keep within general
guidelines on product velocity so as to minimise the energy required to move it from block to block
in the process. Please refer to section 1.4 “Energy Conservation”.
For more details on this step, see Chapter 5 “Calculations to Size Lines and Duties for Pumps”.

1.1.5 Fourth Step – P&IDs
The fourth step of the design is to sketch out the Process and Instrument Diagram [P&ID]. In our
business, the P&ID is the foundation document for design and in most cases in the past it was the
ONLY design document. It has a multitude of uses, as follows:
It is the basis for discussions with the client, including specifically

o Scope of project
o Suitability for purpose required by client
o HAZOP
It is used by mechanical engineers to produce equipment lists prior to purchasing
It is used by electrical engineers to prepare IO lists and wiring requirements
It is used by mechanical and automation engineers for process descriptions and FDS
It is used by the installation contractors for pricing
It is used by our supervisors during installation and testing
It is used by our commissioning engineers during water tests and product start-up
This is a very important design document and it needs to be carefully prepared by the designer
before other disciplines make use of it. The most important considerations are:
Appearance of main equipment items on P&ID

o Tanks must be laid out as per the equipment layout [so that valves in valve blocks
have the correct physical orientation – essential for successful installation and
commissioning
o Flow of product should follow, if possible, the block diagram
Accuracy
o Check that the functionality required by the client [most of which is in the block
diagram] is represented and that all the devices shown serve a useful and economic
purpose
o Check that the information shown [line sizes, tank sizes, etc.] is consistent with the
calculation files
Clarity
o Allow enough space for labelling of all devices [to identify them on the equipment
list]
o As a rough rule, show only one set of storage tanks per P&ID
For more details on this step, see Chapter 7 “P&ID Guidelines”.
1.1.6 Fifth Step – Equipment Specifications
The fifth step of the design is to produce a set of equipment specifications – strictly speaking, this
is not a design activity, but it is a necessary step to move on to the next phase [equipment
purchasing].
For more details on this step, see Chapter 8 “Equipment Specification Templates”.

1.1.7 Sixth Step – Process Description / FDS
The sixth step of the design is to produce a process description. This involves interaction with the
client and the automation engineer. The document may be a separate file, or part of the FDS [see
Automation section of handbook], or an animation of the process.
For more details on this step, see Chapter 9 “Process Description Guidelines” [Please note this will
be added in the next edition; this section is blank in the first edition].
1.1.8 Seventh Step – Review
This is both a continual process of checking the design, and a formal step of “Design Review”.
For more details on this step, see Chapter 10 “Design Review Guidelines”.

1.2 Safety
It can easily be forgotten that the process plant we are designing will be built, operated and
maintained by PEOPLE. Picture yourself in the plant when it is built, and consider how equipment
can be reached. You would prefer a clear layout with space to work [including space to take
equipment apart for maintenance] and to move around without difficulty. With this picture in mind,
now imagine all the things that could make it a dangerous place to work, and evaluate them. This
is the essence of safe design.
The company is legally obliged to ensure that the plant and equipment we design is safe
to operate and maintain.
NB If a legal action does ensue, we are obliged to prove that we carried out risk assessments
of the plant during construction, operation, maintenance and disassembly or disposal. We
must prove that we took all reasonable steps to eliminate these risks, or if the hazards
could not be eliminated, that we put control measures in place to minimise the event and
the consequences.
Figure 1.1 below is an extract from an Irish Health & Safety Authority (HSA) publication [2].
Figure 1.2 Designer duties as outlined by the Health & Safety Authority
For more details on safety and risk assessments, see Chapter 11 “Safety”.

1.3 CE Directives [ATEX]
The source book for our understanding of the directives that apply to our business, and how to
interpret these requirements, comes from the so-called “blue book” – the “Guide to the
implementation of directives based on new approach and global approach”, published by the
European Commission [3].
The reason for the “new approach” directives was to harmonise the pre-existing national standards
into a common set of EU directives that would allow unhindered movement and use of goods in the
“Single Market”. The directives put an obligation on manufacturers to assess their products, and
apply CE marking and issue declarations of conformity, directive by directive, according as they
apply. CE marking is not allowed if the products fail to conform, or if they are not covered by the
directives.
In addition to that, there are national standards and voluntary codes that are relevant in so far as
they deal with: platforms, walkways, steps, ladders, stainless steel tubing, piping, hygienic design,
electrical installations. These form the background to the “Sound Engineering Practice” (SEP), that
is part of the design process.
The evaluation of what is relevant to our business and the development of the written SEP was the
responsibility of a cross-disciplinary team. The initial document was prepared in Mar/Apr 05 by the
GEA PE Ireland team of:
Paddy Kenna [Director], Kevin Daley, Chris Hanney , Phillip Keyes, Liam McCabe [Quality], and
Kevin Walsh.

1.3.1 Relevant CE Directives
This table is adapted from Annex 8 of the Guide [3] to show only those new approach directives [7
out of 21 in total] that are relevant to our business. The numbering follows that of the Guide.
Number Directive
1 Low voltage equipment [73/23/EEC, amendment 93/68/EEC] …[4]
2 Simple pressure vessels [87/404/EEC, amendments 90/488/EEC and 93/68/EEC]

[5]
4 Electromagnetic compatibility [2004/108 – repeals 89/336/EEC] [6]
5 Machinery [2006/42 – repeals 98/37/EEC, comes into effect on 29Dec09] [7]
13 Potentially explosive atmospheres [94/9/EC] ... commonly known as ATEX [8]
17 Pressure equipment [97/23/EC, amendment 2003/1882] [9]
N/A Measuring instruments [2004/22/EC, amendment 2006/96] [10] Note this applies to
sales based on measured value e.g. milk tankers, cartons, fuel at filling stations
It is important to note that the “CE” mark is not a “quality” mark, nor does it mean that the origin of
the product is the EU, or that it is fit for purpose – it only signifies that according to the
manufacturer, it conforms with the relevant, stated, directive[s]. Also, “CE” marking does not
necessarily mean that it is suitable for meeting the requirements of US or markets.
EU legislation and directives:

The source for the actual wording of the directives is: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/ [11]. From this page select your
language and the “simple Search” to browse for the subject or directive you want. Directives which have been
repealed can still be found; the replacement directive will be listed.

1.3.2 Application of Directives to GPTIE
During the design process, we must assess whether these CE directives will apply. The earlier this
is considered, the better, and past experience is a good guide. If, however, there is no information
available when the design starts, then as a general rule, follow this order of priority:
In step 1 [block diagram], identify any pressure vessels
In step 2 [physical layout], find out from the client what ATEX zoning [if any] is applied,
and if so, sketch out the boundaries
In step 3 [calculations], assess if any transfer lines are also pressure vessels due to
their size * pressure multiple
In step 4 [P&IDs], assess each equipment specification against the directives and
where applicable give an ATEX category required, or a pressure category [note this
may include material certificates for piping]
We are an engineering company [not a manufacturer] that makes use of equipment supplied by
other companies, including “sister” companies, to create customised installations in client
companies. Therefore the machinery directive applies to our suppliers and we must expect the
equipment we buy from our suppliers to be CE-marked, where relevant [this is to be part of the
requests for quotations and the purchase conditions], and to conform to manufacturing standards.
Our responsibility is to assess the safety, suitability and function of the equipment we specify.
The “process” of assessing is specific to each project, and is part of the design.
For more details on CE directives, see Chapter 2 “Application of CE Directives to GEA”.

1.4 Energy Conservation
Energy is a fundamental requirement for the process industry – without it, there would be no heat
transfer and no movement of materials. In fact, part of the expertise we develop as engineers is in
the design and use of heat exchangers and pumps, and this expertise is of great value in designing
efficient machines. However, there is a cost to using energy, not just in utility bills for the customer,
but also to the world, both via the consumption of finite sources of energy [oil, in particular, in our
era] and via the consequences to the environment [climate change].
We have a duty to be mindful of how much energy is being consumed in the proposed plant,
particularly at the block diagram stage, when the main heat and mass transfer operations are
sketched out. The key considerations are:
Regeneration of heat
o Design for recovery of heat from product once a specific temperature is reached, if
possible
o Water stabilisation steps can assist in minimising start-up loads be keeping a heat
balance
Recovery of CIP
o This is a design standard, but note also that it is of great benefit in retaining heat
Minimise pressure drops

o Select pipe sizes to keep transfer lines at relatively low pressure [under 5b is our
design target], so as to minimise pumping energy
Control of operations
o Automatic control allows us to turn-off heat and mass transfers when they are not
required
Measurement
o Specify, where practical and agreed by the client, measurement of electrical power
consumption

1 Chapter Summary
This chapter addressed the following topics:
We have provided the reader with a brief introduction to the design process and the steps
from block diagram development through to process descriptions, with a review step
ensuring the design is checked against the client’s requirements.
We also looked at the practical requirements of safe design, at the relevant CE directives
[and when these are assessed], and at the subject of energy conservation.

2 Application of CE directives to GEA
Explain the context and general relevance of the CE directives Note 1

Outline how each directive applies to GEA companies
Essentially, CE marking provides a passport for equipment to be freely sold in the EU. The CE
directives are aimed at manufacturers. A manufacturer is defined as being the overall designer of
the equipment, even if manufacture in the normal meaning is sub-contracted to a separate
company. For each directive, we assess in the following section where the responsibility for CE
marking lies and how we deal with it.
The CE process for a manufacturer works in these stages:
Assess conformity Note 2 – to provisions of directives especially Essential Requirements

Mark the products
Draw up certificate of conformity
Each sub-section that follows lists each of the directives relevant to our business; the relevant
products or manufactured items are listed [the distinction is KEY – bought-in products must have
CE certification [if applicable] issued by the supplier, whereas manufactured items need bespoke
certification by ourselves or the manufacturer].
Even when we buy from our suppliers it remains our responsibility is to assess the safety,
suitability and function of the equipment we specify. The “process” of assessing is specific to each
project, and is part of the design process.
Note 1: The electrical directives [Low voltage, electro-magnetic compatibility and ATEX] are explained in the electrical
handbook.
Note 2: Assess conformance – there are 8 basic modules defined for assessing conformance to the provisions of the directives,
and especially to the essential requirements in each annex. The directives themselves specify what modules[s] are
allowed to be used for assessing conformance – sometimes the manufacturer has no choice. One of the most detailed
directives in this regard is the PED, which uses numerous charts to identify how certain categories of vessels or pipes [at
different levels of pressure / volume] are to be assessed. There are 9 charts, resulting in 5 different categories of
assessment, each of which has one or more modules allowed for assessment of conformance.

2.1 Simple Pressure Vessels
[87/404/EEC, amendments 90/488/EEC and 93/68/EEC]
Relevant products: welded, closed vessels for air or nitrogen, with [Pressure * Volume] limit of
50 < bar*litres < 10,000.
Bought-in products: Air filters. Check volume, and if > 7 litres ensure these have CE marking and
declarations of conformity.
Product example: Compressed air manifolds
In some projects, vessels with a Pressure * Volume multiple of greater than 50bar*litres can and
should be COMPLETELY avoided. For compressed air at 6bar [take 7bar for calculation safety],
work within a maximum volume of 7 litres, then the vessel does not have to be CE [PED] marked,
but it still must be made following sound engineering practice [in this case, good welding, test of
vessel with all fittings, safety relief of excess pressure, water drain down, marking of vessel and
documentation of who made it and when, etc.].
In practise if you want to make a distribution manifold for compressed air to a number of valves by
welding 2 ends to a piece of tubing, please work within these limits below so as to be outside the
scope of the directive:
4” dairy tube – max 0.9m long
3” dairy tube – max 1.6m long
2.5” dairy tube – max 2.4m long.
Please note this restriction is recommended because using a pipe with 2 closed ends can be
considered as making a “vessel” – thus becoming subject to the rules of this directive.
Reference:
[12] TBS [G. Worczinski] leaflet TBS-2002 on CE marking
[13] Guide to the simple pressure vessels directive 87/404/EEC – June 2000

2.2 Machinery
[2006/42, repeals 98/37/EEC, comes into force on 29Dec09]
The machinery directive 98/37 has been replaced by 2006/42 but there are only a few differences.
Annex 1 definitions relating to health and safety have been extended and now correspond closely
with the Irish Health and Safety Authority guidelines. One section of particular interest to GEA, 2.1
in Annex 1, is redefined as applying to “Foodstuffs machinery and machinery for cosmetics of
pharmaceutical products” as opposed to “agri-foodstuffs machinery”. The essential health and
safety requirements for this category of machinery have become more stringent with regard to
cleanability, absence of edges or crevices, and avoidance of threaded joints.
Relevant products: Machines (with predominantly mechanical movement, or assemblies of

machines). This directive has caused the most controversy within GPTIE and in dealing with
consultants, PM in particular. The “assemblies” could be taken to mean skid-mounted units e.g. for
pharmaceutical or mechanical installations. The decision within the GPTIE group was that the
directive applies to bought-in mechanical equipment, but not to installations or skids. However, the
level of design documentation will be increased with the use of the in-house developed Sound
Engineering Practice. That will allow us to attain such a level of technical proficiency with
documented designs that the requirements for a declaration of conformance could be met. Why?
Because of the benefit to GPTIE of more consistency and because following these SEPs at the
design stage “builds-in” safety [the ultimate objective of the directive] as opposed to being required
to tack it on later.
Relevant bought-in products: Safety valves, pumps, agitators, large machines such as
Homogenisers and Separators. Ensure these have CE marking and declarations of conformity, and
ensure that the layout and installation allows for the safe use of and safe access to the equipment.
The technical documentation for a project must include;

• Overall layout drawings, P&IDs, electrical drawings and control system documents [process
descriptions and FDS]
• Detailed drawings or O&M manuals for equipment, and DQ check sheets to show how
equipment conforms with essential health and safety requirements
• List of the essential requirements of the machinery directive, standards, and any other
specifications [IDF etc] used when the machinery was designed
• Instructions for the machinery
Reference:
[14] Comments on Directives 98/37/EC - 2001

2.3 Pressure Equipment [PED]
[97/23, amended by 2003/1882]
Relevant products: Piping for any media, tanks at > 0.5b [tanks with N2 top pressure for yoghurt or
butter-oil, etc. storage are normally 0.05b], safety valves and accessories [bursting disks, etc.], or
pressure accessories – units with say a function of in-line blending, but having a pressure in the
housing.
Bought-in products: Pressure vessels, filters, blenders, de-gassers. Ensure these have CE marking
and declarations of conformity.
Piping: check PED annexes for class of media [liquid or gas, group 1 [dangerous: explosive,
flammable, toxic, or oxidising] or group 2 [the rest]]
In typical projects, pressure vessels for alcohol or other dangerous liquids with a
“PS [in bar] .V [in litres]” > 200 are covered by PED [effectively all common pressure vessels for
alcohols]. Pipes for alcohol with a PS.DN > 2000 are covered – this excludes most applications
where pipe size is DN150 or less and max pressure < 12b.
The limits for group 2 liquids are more generous, but only small tanks would escape the limit of
PS.V > 10000. For piping, the PS.DN limit is 5000.
The situations to watch out for are pipes with gases [Nitrogen, steam [group 2]] at pressure over
3bar or lines sizes over DN40 – check tables. Any pressure vessel [> 0.5b] will require check for
PED certification. Below these limits, all piping needs to be designed with “Sound Engineering
Practice” – a cover-all for national or technical standards. In our case, the SEP [see chapter 7.1]
and the mechanical installation specification [54] will ensure we design and install safe piping.
In any case, the pipes used in the project must be marked so that we know the material [e.g. AISI
304] and the wall thickness. We must document the maximum allowed pressure [and this should
be as low as possible], and furthermore this pressure must be used in sizing pumps [maximum
dead head < maximum allowed pressure], and if necessary, valves.
The additional technical documentation for a project must include;

• Design statement on maximum allowed pressures in product and utility pipes
• Equipment list with normal design pressure and dead head pressure for pumps [this is
NEW]
• Line list with maximum allowed pressure [for the pipe manufacturer], design pressure [for
the process and process equipment – this will usually be less than that of pipe] and test
pressure [1.25 times the design pressure for process equipment]
• Check sheet signed by process engineer or mechanical supervisor to verify that pipe was
pressure tested [this is new and must be standard practice for all our turn-key jobs].
Reference:
[15] Royal Sun Alliance PED presentation
[16] Pressure Equipment – guidance notes to the UK regulations URN 99/1147 [Nov99]

2.4 Measuring Instruments [Legal Metrology]
[2004/22]
Legal metrology refers to a specific function of instruments: measuring a quantity involved in a

commercial transaction [an everyday example is measuring fuel pumped into a car’s tank]. This
directive provides a common framework for manufacturers to assess their conformance to the
technical standards in the directive. There are 10 specific areas covered. Those of interest to us
are: MI-003 – active electrical energy meters, MI-005 – continuous and dynamic measurement of
quantities of liquids other than water, and MI-006 – automatic weighing systems.
The directive applies if a payment between companies or individuals is based on a measurement

of for example electrical energy [MI-003], milk collected from a farm [MI-005], or filling of 25kg
sacks of powder [MI-006].
Relevant products: We don’t make any measurement systems, so there are no relevant products
requiring us to apply conformity assessment.
Bought-in products: Instruments for volumetric or mass-flow measurement, instruments for

measurement of electrical energy, weighing systems. The vast majority of these instruments are
not used as a basis for commercial contracts and are therefore not subject to the directive. If our
scope of work involves a transfer of ownership [from farmer to dairy, or from factory to package for
consumers] then we must confirm with the client if commercial contracts are based on these
measurements. If they are, we must specify this directive when sourcing instruments, and allow for
traceable calibration certificates to be included.
The additional technical documentation for a project must include;

• Equipment list identifying “commercial” measuring instruments
• Conformity declarations for the relevant instruments, plus traceable calibration certificates
• Check sheets signed by electrical supervisor to verify that instrument is installed in
accordance with rules for EMC.
Reference: [17] Guidance documents for the application of this directive are available at
http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/prepack/ms_inst/mi_guidances.htm

2.5 Other Relevant Directives
[Not requiring CE marking]
In the EU, the dairy industry was up to recently subject to directive 92/46 [Council Directive
92/46/EEC of 16 June 1992, laying down the health rules for the production and placing on the
market of raw milk, heat-treated milk and milk-based products], which provided guidelines on raw
milk quality and a simple description of the minimum requirements of the pasteurisation process.
This has been replaced with a non-specific directive 2004/41, with the same aims, but without
substance with regard to what time/temperature regime constitutes pasteurisation.
There are 3 relevant food hygiene regulations:
2004/R0852 deals with hygiene of foodstuffs and recommends the use of HACCP controls
in production factories. It lays the responsibility for food safety on the food business
operator.
2004/R0853 specifies the hygiene rules for all animal foodstuffs. Annex III Section IX
provides details similar to the repealed EC92/46 with regard to raw milk bacteriological
quality, temperature and processing. It defines legal pasteurisation.
2004/R0854 deals with the “organisation of official controls on products of animal origin
intended for human consumption”. The vast majority of the regulations concern meat,
shellfish and fisheries [Annex IV, consisting of 2 pages out of 115, describes the regulation
of milk processing factories].
There are no similar regulations for the brewing industry with regard to hygiene.
In the US, the “Pasteurised Milk Ordinance – 2009” sets out in far more detail than is found in the
European directives, the requirements for the design of milk pasteurisers, including the following
details that set them apart from [and therefore non-transferable] European models:
Pasteuriser to be drained by gravity into the fed balance tank [therefore a difference in level
between the bottom of the plates and the top of the tank is required].
Raw or unpasteurised regeneration section to be under vacuum [therefore the feed pump is
not put in its’ “natural” place directly after the feed tank but after the regeneration section].
The emphasis in the PMO is on following strictly defined criteria and since we have no experience
of this in our office, cooperation with GEA North America would be essential if we are to design for
the USA market.
The EHEDG group has 2 directives governing the design of pasteurisers or aseptic heaters [Doc 1,
Doc 1 Microbiologically safe continuous pasteurization, and Doc 6 Safe continuous flow thermal
sterilisation]. These were being revised during 2015.

2 Chapter Summary
The definition of “manufacturer”, according to the CE directives

The CE directives that apply to GEA
The products affected by the CE directive and what additional documentation we require
Other EC and USA regulations [particularly relevant to milk production]

3 Chapter 3 Block Diagram Guidelines
This chapter will:
Explain the design path used to create a block diagram

Identify the inflows and their properties, explain what product information is needed and
how it is used in the design, show how to use the standard product data and amend it for
specific projects
Identify the key process blocks [transfers, storage, etc.] and flow directions with arrows
Explain heat transfer, the typical forms of heat exchange, and how to calculate heat
transfer
Explain how to calculate utility requirements
Make a sketch for review / approval
3.1 Design Path to Making a Block Diagram
Follow this design path:
1. Get product information

2. Identify key process blocks [transfers, storage, etc.] and flow directions with arrows
3. Find out the mass transfer requirements [pumping]
4. Find out the heat transfer requirements
5. Find out about any unit operations [separators, filters, package equipment]
6. Calculate utility requirements
7. Make a sketch for review / approval
Each of these steps is explained in the following sections.

3.2 Product Information
Firstly, identify all the product inflows and outflows – we are not interested at this stage in the
process, it is just a black box. The relevant design properties of these products will determine the
size of pipes and heat exchangers in the final process, so it is vital to know them!
In most cases there is no problem with this because the products are well known, but to avoid
possible mistakes in sizing equipment, we must clearly specify the design properties and the
source for this information. In general, it is the client [often for reasons to do with the proprietary
nature of product] who has this information. Use the reference file below to prompt the client as to
the properties being used. The key parameters should be included in the quotation because of the
critical effect it has on pipe, valve and pump sizes.
Reference: [18] Product table “ESG_M_Data_Products_r0_14Mar08”
Figure 3.2.A Simple block diagram – product information
Explanatory Note
Process The process is drawn as a single

black box [to be expanded in later
Product 1 steps of the design]
Product 3 Show all products or ingredients
going into or out of the process
Product 2 Find out the properties of each
product
Figure 3.2.B Sample extract from products table
Product & Temp lookup Density Viscosity Specific GEA design Source
Heat velocity limit
kg/m3 cP kJ/kg'C m/s
Cream 40% Fat @ 5'C 990 80 3.6366 1 Tuch Dairy Systems Data on Cream
The following sections explain why these properties are important.

3.2.1 Density
Density is defined as the mass per unit volume of a substance.
!

" # $%&
For water it is 998 kg/m3 at 20oC and this is the base level when the term “specific gravity” is used.
It is quite acceptable, for most calculations, to use a value of 1,000 kg/m3 because in the range
0.01 oC to 50 oC, the density variance is less than 1%.
3.2.1.1 Liquid Power – Proportional to Density
This property affects the energy required to move a substance according to the following formula:
Note!
* + Increasing the
' (% )
367
density will increase
the power
requirement linearly
Q = flow [m3/s] To calculate motor
ρ = density [kg/m3] power, divide by
efficiency!
H = head of water [m]
This equation is derived from where g is gravity [9.81m/s2], but with g/1000 replaced with 1/367. The given
equation is extracted from the “ABC of pumps”, a Fristam publication (Fristam, 2006) [19].
Therefore, density affects the size of motor chosen for pumping, it affects energy use, and it is an
essential design property that we need to know for each product in the process.
2
3.2.1.2 Reynolds Number – Proportional to Density
Density is also used to calculate the Reynolds number which characterises flow as either laminar
[streamlined, little mixing between layers] or turbulent [random movement of liquid particles, well
mixed]. Normally we require turbulent flow in pipes and also in heat exchanger design.
Notes! /
Re is a dimensionless number - $) %&. -
Re < 2,320 is considered laminar μ
flow
Re > 2,320 is consider turbulent
flow
/ = velocity [m/s]
A minimum velocity of 1m/s is = pipe diameter [m]
recommend to prevent sediment; in µ = dynamic viscosity [cP]
CIP, the minimum is 1.5m/s
This equation is an extract from the “Manual for the design of pipe systems and pumps”, a GEA Tuchenhagen publication (GEA Process
Equipment Division, 2007) [20].
Osborne Reynolds [1842-1912] – English physicist - was the first to apply this parameter in his flow studies.

3.2.1.3 Effect of Temperature on Density
For liquids, the density changes slightly depending on the temperature of the product, and for
precise calculations it is necessary to also know the temperature range we are dealing with. For
gases, instead of density we use the inverse, specific volume [m3/kg], and this changes
dramatically according to temperature; therefore for gases, it is essential to know the temperature.
NORMAL VOLUMES
1#1 2#2
2 4 2 4 o
31 32
“Normal” means at temperature of 0 C and 1.0bar
3 o
Example: 0.005m of air at 7barabs and 20 C is
3
equivalent to what Nm ?
= pressure [barabs] 7 ∗ 0.005 1.0 ∗ #2

# = volume [m3] 2 4 2 4
273 > 20 273
T = Temperature [K]
V 2 0.0326 Nm3

Refer to: [21] ESG_M_CALC_GasNormalising_r1_05Feb09
Robert Boyle [Ireland, 1627-1691] developed the formula P*V = constant at a given temperature; Jacques Charles [1746-1823] worked
on the volume/temperature relationship of gases, V/T = constant; these were developed into the combined gas law in the formulation
above.
3.2.2 Viscosity
Viscosity is the resistance of a fluid to movement; the higher the viscosity, the “thicker” the material
is and the slower it is to flow.
89 !
Kinematic viscosity
# 7 μ
Although rarely necessary for our work, # $ 7 : !)
there is also kinematic viscosity, defined as:
μ
B &! 7 / 7 C
Viscosity affects the Reynolds number and the calculation of the friction factor – therefore it
influences the selection of pipe sizes and the size of the motor for pumps and agitators.
Usually when we are given figures for viscosity, it is actually dynamic viscosity [measured in centi-
Poise or cP]. The measurement of viscosity does not produce exact and reproducible results
unless carefully controlled, and part of these controls include referring to the machine used to
measure viscosity when quoting the result. The measured value varies depending on the machine
used in the measurement! For example, “Brookfield viscometer – spindle #2 – 40rpm” tells you the
type of machine, and qualifies that by telling you the spindle size and speed of rotation.
When the viscosity is “high” [in our work, a value over 300cP is high], then previous experience of
dealing with the product, and “interpretation” of viscosity readings, is more important than actual
values.

3.2.2.1 Fluid Types and their Affect on Viscosity
A further complication with viscosity is that it can vary with how the fluid is handled. So-called
“Newtonian” fluids, such as water and mineral oils have a constant viscosity independent of shear
rate. Therefore agitation, or pumping, does not materially affect the viscosity figure.
However, for Non-Newtonian fluids, there are three main classes:
• “plastic” fluids such as gels or lotions, will become less viscous after shearing [pumping].
• “dilatant” fluids such as sugar mixtures, will become more viscous after shearing.
• “thixotropic” fluids, such as soap, ketchup, retain a “memory”. During the time shear is
applied, they will become less viscous, but after shearing, or if the shear rate decreases,
the viscosity returns towards [but usually doesn’t reach] its original level.
We have no data for these materials therefore we depend on the experience of the client to assist
with making design assumptions.
Comment on viscosity [thanks to Knuth Lorenzen, TDS]
Viscosity of the same product can vary while stagnant in manifold or line. Protein can deposit on valve surfaces
preventing 100% closing. Also lactose [milk sugar] can crystallise on mix-proof valve surfaces resulting in the
same problem. In that case, a hot water flush to the neutral area was effective.
3.2.3 Specific Heat
Specific heat is a measure of the amount of heat energy required to heat a unit mass [1 kilogram]
of a substance by 1oC.
It is essential for heat exchange calculations. The equation for heat transfer is:
+ ! ! D ! ( &E)3
m = mass flow [kg/s]

C = specific heat [kJ/kgoC]
dT = change in temperature [oC]
3.2.4 Velocity Limits
Some fluids such as cream are sensitive to velocity, and limits are set to avoid damage. In these
cases the fluid is often a mixture of relatively large particles [fat] in a carrier liquid [water] that is
sensitive to shearing. In other cases the limits are not critical and they are used as a guide. The
effect of the limit is to make the designer carefully evaluate what pipe size should be selected,
balancing increasing cost [for larger pipe sizes, with lower velocities] against the beneficial effect of
lower energy required for pumping.

3.3 The Key Process Blocks
At this point, we should have a simple black box for the process and all the relevant information
about the products entering and leaving this box. Now we must examine the key process blocks
inside this black box! The information in this handbook will guide you with regard to most standard
processes, but this step depends on communication with the client. The aim is to find out or verify
[if you already have a good understanding of the process] each treatment step and to establish if
there are any additions [blending] or separations [resulting in 2 or more streams of product]. The
reference file below contains the most common process blocks, but the engineer needs to talk to
the client to identify ALL the key processes including CIP.
Figure 3.3 Example - blending process as a block diagram
Intake 1 Storage Transfer 1

Product 1
Blending Storage
Product 3
Intake 2 Storage Transfer 2

Product 2
Explanatory Note
The process is drawn as a set of linked blocks starting with an intake or transfer and ending in storage
Show all products or ingredients going into or out of the process
Reference: [22] Process block table and standard design features “ESG_M_Data_ProcessBlocks_r0_20Mar08”
Note the visual layout – approx 7-9 blocks for A4 paper to show all relevant information in a readable font

3.3.1 Mass Transfer [Pumping]
These blocks are represented as block arrows for either an intake or a transfer line, as shown
below.
Explanatory Note
Intake 1 This is drawn to an appropriate

scale with Ariel 9 font
All relevant information is shown
3 o o Rate
Product 1 Xx m /h Xx C
o Temperature
Identify each step where product is transferred, e.g. at an intake, and represent that as a process
block. We will later on size the pumps and lines that will make this transfer possible. The
information needed for the block diagram is the rate of transfer. This is usually known by the client
and frequently the rate will be a “Key Performance Indicator” [KPI] which will be used as one of the
measures of success when taking over the project. In any case, the engineer needs to agree with
the client the required rate and the temperature.
This simple piece of information will influence the sizing of the transfer pipe and associated valves,
the required CIP rate, and the size of the pump.

3.3.2 Storage
These blocks are represented as rectangles, as shown below.
Explanatory Note
Note flow in/out is above [option] Gas at X.x bar o

or below storage to Target C
represent top or bottom
filling Storage 1 for Xx h
Heating/Cooling jacket is
an option – do not draw Option:
if not required Jacket @ 3
All relevant information
o
Rate C/h Xxx m /d Xx h/d
is shown except CIP
For this overview level, what we need to know about storage blocks are:
total daily intake or supply
daily working hours
storage time required
type of agitation [if required], e.g. suspension, mixing, heat transfer, scraped surface etc –
this must be noted in tank and agitator equipment specifications
heating or cooling in tank [required temperature and rate of temperature change]
special features, such as pressurised tanks
special atmosphere in tank head space, e.g. carbon dioxide or nitrogen
CIP regime – how long is allowed for the wash, is tank washed after each cycle
From this, we will be able to calculate [see following section 4.2.1] the number and size of tanks
required and, if required, the heat load [see section 3.6]

3.3.3 Heat Transfer
In this block we are looking for heating and cooling during transfer of product, or during CIP. When
we check for heat transfer, we will also, even at this early stage of the design, calculate the utility
demands [see section 3.6 following]. This is important because the client may have an “energy
budget”, and will want to know what this design will require. On top of this, the lead time for
supplying utility generating plant is substantial and the contactor for that part of the project will
need this information as early as possible. Therefore, we represent heat transfer as a detailed
block.
Explanatory Note
HX-Media // Direct or Indirect // xx bar or xx oC Identify what media [e.g. steam,
chilled water], is available
Find out the supply pressure or
temperature
Indirect heating is via an
Heater [or cooler] 1 intermediate liquid, usually water;
this information won’t affect the
o o utility calculation but is important
Xx C Xx C for later
Product 1
In the following sub-sections there’s a little more detail on the terminology of heat transfer and the
common types of heat exchanger.
Reference: see calculation file: “ESG_M_CALC_SimpleHeatExchangerTempProfile”” [82] for

template on how to make calculations for heat transfer

3.3.3.1 Types of heat transfer
Conductive heat transfer is the transfer of heat through a fixed material, e.g. the plate of plate
heat exchanger. The rate of heat flow is dependent on the temperature difference [this is the
driving force – if there is no temperature difference, there is no heat transferred!], the area of
contact, a parameter called “k” – thermal conductivity of the fixed material, and inversely
dependant on the thickness of the fixed material between the hot and cold media.
)3
Explanatory Note
+ ! ! D ! ( F G
H The rate of heat transfer is
measured in watts.
k = thermal conductivity [W/mK] 1 Watt [W] = 1 Joule/s
o
When both temperatures are in C,
A = area perpendicular to heat flow [m2]
they can simply be subtracted for
)3 = Temperature difference in Kelvin [oK] use in the formula without affecting
H = thickness of plate the result.
Radiant heat transfer is the emission of heat from a source to a receiver, e.g. the surface of an
uninsulated steam pipe to the surrounding air. The rate of heat flow is dependent on a product
dependant parameter called “ε”, emissivity of surface, and on the area and on the temperature
difference raised to the power of 4!
+ ! ! D ! ( IJG)3 K
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant [5.67x10-3 W/m2oK4]

ε = emissivity of surface [dimensionless]
Convective heat transfer is the transfer of heat through direct mixing e.g. hot air rising from an
uninsulated steam pipe to mix with the surrounding cold air. The rate of heat flow is dependent on
a product dependant parameter called “h”, the heat transfer coefficient, and on the area and the
temperature difference.
+ ! ! D ! ( 9G)3
h = heat transfer coefficient [W/m2K]

Typical heat exchange involves more the one type of heat transfer. In a plate heat exchanger,
there is convection at each side of the plate, and conduction through the plate. For an uninsulated
pipe, there is radiation from the surface and convection of hot air also from the surface, as well as
conduction though the pipe wall.

3.3.3.1 Types of heat transfer cont’d.
Overall heat transfer is the combination of heat transfer mechanisms, for example in a hot water
pipe, there is convective heat transfer from the hot fluid to the pipe wall, followed by conduction of
heat through the pipe thickness, followed by convective heat transfer to the surrounding air.
+ ! ! D ! ( "G)3
U = overall heat transfer coefficient [J/m2.s.K]
1 H 1 N
" > >
9L 9M
9L = heat transfer coefficient inside pipe

9M = heat transfer coefficient outside pipe
H = thickness of pipe wall
= thermal conductivity of pipe material
The application of this equation is developed further in the case of insulation [section 3.3.3.5
following].
Counter-current flow in a heat exchanger means that the heat-exchange [HX] media is flowing in
the opposite direction to the product. This is the normal type as it gives the highest temperature
difference for heat exchange.
Co-current flow is used where the product is temperature sensitive and it is necessary to
minimise the temperature difference between product and media.

3.3.3.2 Design Requirements for Plate Heat Exchangers
Plate heat exchangers [PHE] are the most common type of heat exchanger we use. They are built
up of a series of thin corrugated plates [0.6-0.8mm] hung on a carrier bar and compressed
between a “fixed plate” and a “free plate” by means of a set of long “carry bars”. Each plate is
separated from its neighbour by a gasket around the border – these are usually pressed into
profiled grooves so that no glue is needed to retain the gasket.
Fig. 3.3.3.2.A Plate Heat Exchanger
The flow pattern inside the PHE consists of alternate product and HX media channels, divided by a
plate [across which the heat flows]. A set of channels [where the product flows in the same
direction] is called a pass. The number of channels in a pass is usually between 4 and 8 – the
higher the number of channels, the more the flow is divided and the lower is the velocity. The PHE
designer concentrates on flow velocity [higher is better, at the cost of increased pressure drop].
Adding more passes adds increased heating area and therefore higher capacity to the PHE.

3.3.3.2 Design Requirements for Plate Heat Exchangers cont’d.
Fig. 3.3.3.2.B Flow Principle in a PHE
Although we do not design PHEs, we need to be aware of the following required information:
Design pressure – a minimum of 8b [gauge] is recommended – you, the system designer,
will select this to be 20% above the expected maximum line pressure. Due to the large
gasket area, PHEs are sensitive to pressure shocks and in certain cases you may need to
specify a pressure relief valve to protect the heat exchanger.
Type of gasket – the standard is NBR. Note that gaskets are typically replaced every 2
years [the material loses its ability to form an effective seal over time].
Footprint – see relevant guidelines in section 4.2.3 for minimum access dimensions.
CIP flow-rate – the supplier can often specify a much higher rate than the product flow. This
may require you to design a booster loop with a CIP pump if the supplier cannot modify the
design.
Compromise between heating area and cost. A supplier can make the PHE appear cheap
by minimising the area and therefore the number of plates; the cost is that the flow of the
HX media has to be much higher in order to achieve the same heating duty. That in turn
puts a cost back on you, the system designer, in piping the HX media from its source to the
PHE and back again.

3.3.3.3 Design Requirements for Tubular Heat Exchangers
Shell and tube heat exchangers [STHE] are used for high pressure applications [a PHE is limited to
approx 25b] or for products containing solids that would clog up the channels in a PHE, or for
simple one-section heat applications [steam to water] where the low cost of maintenance is an
advantage. They consist of a shell [normally for the HX media] and a set of tubes welded to 2 tube-
sheets at each end of the shell.
Fig. 3.3.3.3 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
HX Media
inlet
Acknowledgement
Shell Image of Varitube VTE heater

thanks to TDS
“Floating”
head allows
for thermal
expansion
TDS - Varitube heater
The flow pattern inside the STHE consists of a set of tubes through which the product flows] and
an annular space inside the shell and over the tubes, through which the HX media flows. Baffles
are often used in this space to increase turbulence and effectiveness of heat transfer.
Although we do not design STHEs, we need to be aware of:

Design pressure – the high rating of STHEs means for example that you can eliminate the
need for pressure reducing stations on steam.
Thermal expansion – the tubes and tube sheets are welded, so stress due to thermal
expansion is a much greater problem than with PHEs. Check how suppliers deal with this
issue [TDS Varitube units have a “floating head” for hygienic duty and a “hairpin” bend for
CIP/water duties, others use expansion bellows or corrugations on shell].
Dimensions – some suppliers manufacture removable tube bundles, in which case allow
adequate space on the “free end”. Otherwise allow approx. 1m at each end to allow for
access to the flanges and for pipe connections to either end. STHEs usually are not
supplied with supporting frames, so you need to specify a frame or other supports in the
pipe itself.
CIP flow-rate – the supplier can often specify a much higher rate than the product flow. This
may require you to design a booster loop with a CIP pump if the supplier cannot modify the
design.
Compromise between heating area and cost. As with PHE, the supplier can make the
STHE appear cheap by minimising the area but the cost is that the flow of the HX media
has to be much higher in order to achieve the same heating duty. That in turn puts a cost
back on you, the system designer, in piping the HX media from its source to the STHE and
back again.

3.3.3.4 Design Requirements for Tank Heating/Cooling Jackets
Tank jackets are used to heat or cool [sometimes both] the contents for a specific reason such as
fermentation or crystallisation. There are 3 main types:
• “limpet coil” – a rectangular or curved half-pipe welded to tank or
• “dimple jackets” – 2 sheets joined with spot-welds, looking like a padded cushion or
• “full shell” – a second shell wrapped around the tank.
The flow pattern inside the limpet coil is similar to that of a pipe. The dimple and full shell jackets
have a more diffuse flow over the wider contact area. The tank manufacturer will in most cases
also make the jacket.
Although we do not design tank jackets, we need to be aware of:

Design pressure – this will be separate to the tank rating and is dependent on the pressure
drop in the jacket and the pressure of the HX media being used.
Thermal expansion – check how suppliers deal with this issue, especially if jacket is used
for both cooling and heating.
Dimensions – allow approx. 0.4m onto diameter when laying out tanks to allow for the
thickness of the jacket and insulation, and also allow 1m in one axis to allow for access to
the flanges and for pipe connections to the jackets.
Compromise between heating area and cost. As with any heat exchanger, the supplier can
make the jacket appear cheap by minimising the area but the cost is that the flow of the HX
media has to be much higher in order to achieve the same heating duty. That in turn puts a
cost back on you, the system designer, in piping the HX media from its source to the tank
jacket and back again.

3.3.3.5 Design requirements for insulation
Insulation reduces heat loss to the environment. It consists of a layer of pre-formed or rolled
insulation, a moisture barrier layer, and a cladding layer [aluminium or stainless steel] to protect the
layers underneath with a cleanable material. For outdoor pipes, as a precaution against chlorides
in rain water, a foil layer should first be attached to the surface of the pipe or tank.
Fig. 3.3.3.5 Cross-section of Pipe with Insulation
We can calculate heat losses through this equation:
h1 = convective heat transfer coefficient inside pipe [W/m2K]

x2 = pipe thickness [m]
x3 = insulation thickness [m]
x4 = cladding thickness [m]
ho = convective heat transfer coefficient outside pipe [W/m2K]
Insulation of hot pipes prevents heat loss and also injury. The following table is based on a
calculation where the maximum permitted surface temperature at the cladding is set at 60oC for hot
pipes, and it is at least 2.5oC above the dew point for cold pipes.

3.3.3.5 Design requirements for insulation cont’d.
Table 3.3.3.5: Min. Recommended Insulation Thicknesses
Table of minimum recommended insulation thicknesses:
- in the case of hot pipes, to avoid injury

- in the case of cold pipes, to avoid condensation
Reference: [see calculation file: “ESG_M_CALC_HeatLossAndInsulation” [23] for template on how

to make calculations for pipes]

3.4 Common Unit Operations
These are usually client-specific processes involving for example; separation, filtration or sugar-
dissolving which may involve specific suppliers. It typically takes substantially longer to get the
information about transfer rates, splitting of product flows, and utility requirements. The
“correspondence time” is a practical factor which needs to be allowed for in the design schedule. T
The designer must use a “black box” approach to each unit. Each interface point for utilities or
product is identified as a “tie-in” point. The unit itself, until details are received from the supplier, is
drawn as a box. On layout drawings, allow at least a metre clearance around the outside
dimensions, and remember to look for specific information about:
foundation details,
drainage requirements,
hoist beam requirements, if any,
access dimensions for installation and for maintenance,
requirements for platforms.
3.5 Calculation of Utility Loads
We define utilities as steam [and condensate], chilled water, electrical power, water for cooling or
for flushed seals, and compressed air.
The importance of calculating the utility loads at an early stage of the design is twofold: it allows
the client to plan the capacity required in generating and distributing utilities, and it reveals the
energy costs in making the product [refer to Ch. 12 “Energy Conservation” for more detail].
Please use the ESG utility load calculation file [24] as a template for the calculation. It consists of
a list of utilities in a summary table, linked to worksheets for each utility. In the utility worksheets,
there is a process blocks or rooms [please edit the titles], each of which contains a number of lines
to calculate the instantaneous demand, plus preliminary calculations on the lines size. The
calculation sheet can be used at budget stage to estimate the peak utility loads, and at detail
design stage to calculate the use in each plant area, and to size the distribution lines.

3.6 Sketching the Block Diagram
The block diagram should be sketched out so as to visually represent all the information gathered
and calculated so far. There are a couple of example sheets available as reference.
Please note that you should aim to show enough detail so that every pump can be identified. Each
pump denotes a transfer line and this can be traced back to a client requirement [often a “Key
Performance Indicator” [KPI] ], and tracked forwards to process descriptions and program control.
It is also useful to have a shorthand visual reference to design information and KPIs available to all
the process team and also to communicate with the client.
Reference: [22] Process block table and standard design features

“ESG_M_Data_ProcessBlocks_r0_20Mar08”
3 Chapter Summary
The design path used to create a block diagram

The importance of product information and the properties of products
The key process blocks [transfers, storage, etc.] and how to represent them
Mass and heat transfer requirements
How to calculate utility requirements [using a separate file]

4 Equipment Layout Guidelines
Give an overview of ATEX in terms of equipment layout

Give a set of rules and guidelines for laying out equipment
Explain how to design for access to high equipment
Explain how noise is measured and controlled
4.1 ATEX Zoning
If there is a risk of explosive atmospheres forming, the client has a duty to prepare an explosion
protection document for his premises. Amongst other things, this will include data on the materials
being used and a set of drawings showing where the zones are.
It is our responsibility to specify and select equipment that is correctly marked for the ATEX zone in
which they will be used.
4.1.1 Guidelines for Zoning
As a rule of thumb – please anticipate that if tanks or pipes may contain explosive material, then
the inside will be zoned 0 [for gases and liquids] or 20 [for powders]. The outside surface and
within 1m will be zoned 1 or 21, and further, up to a defined safe area, will be zoned 2 or 22.
In a powder handling area, as a rough guide, if the housekeeping keeps the layer of dust down to
the level where you can see the colour of the platforms or equipment underneath, then it is not
concentrated enough to pose a risk. The area would normally be considered safe.

4.1.2 Typical Equipment Categories Available on the Market
It is relatively inexpensive to get level, pressure and temperature instruments which are marked
category 1 [for the most demanding zones, 0 or 20]. However instruments which require a power
source [e.g. flow meters] are normally limited to category 2 at best [at a typical extra cost of €500].
Manual valves are not in themselves sources of ignition, but the plastic control module containing
the solenoid[s] and feedback[s] does require appropriate marking. In the GEA Tuchenhagen range,
the black VESTAMID control module must be chosen for ATEX duties, the type SES or ECOVENT
can be selected for ATEX duties, and the type T.VIS cannot.
Positioners on control valves can also be selected for ATEX duties.
Proximity switches, for example used on safety relief valves, vacuum valves, etc., are not available
for Tuchenhagen for ATEX areas. The Stericom valve range is also not suitable for use in ATEX
areas [unless no feedback is required].
Motors for ATEX areas are available in 2 different types of protection. Type “e” or “Increased
safety” relies on reducing arcs and excessive temperatures. It is the cheaper of the two, but it is not
recognised in the USA. Type “d” or “flame-proof” relies on a flameproof enclosure which is bulky
and expensive. Note that ATEX motors are usually larger and cannot be housed in a standard
shroud.
4.2 Rules for laying out equipment
Note it is recommended to have a minimum of 300mm clearance from floor and ceiling for
cleaning. This is relatively easy to allow for, except in the case of pumps. The normal design for a
pump puts it as low as possible for the obvious reasons of stability – it has a 3000rpm motor - and
NPSH. Therefore, in a hygienic environment, start by making tank outlets as high as practicably
possible [to allow plenty of suction head] and allow at the outset that pumps will be on frames. A
good rule of thumb is that if you can get the head of a brush [100mm] under the pump, it can be
cleaned!
Follow this design path:

1. Size tanks for each storage block
2. Locate tanks
3. Locate associated valves and pumps
4. Locate major equipment items [other tanks, pumps, heaters, package equipment]
5. Locate associated valves
6. Design CIP centre
7. Make ACAD drawing for review / approval

4.2.1 How to Calculate the Number and Size of Tanks
Volume and number of tanks
Tank - Farm design Recommendation
Minimum 2 tanks
IN
Rationale
Allow for CIP of one while other is in use

Refer to ESG tank farm calculation file [25]
OUT Link to file
Geometry of tank – refer to ESG tank and vent calculation file [26]
L / D ratio Recommendation
1.8 to 2.5
Rationale
L
The most economical ratio, based on material cost only, is between
1.8 and 2.5 for typical vertical tanks with cone angle 20° on bottom
and 15° on top.
For tanks inside process rooms, height is a practical consideration that
limits the tank design. Therefore the overall tank height [cone, shell
and access to top] must be computed as early as possible in the
D design process.
Refer to ESG calculation file for most efficient ratio of L to D [27]
Height of outlet Recommendation
Tank 0.8m clear height between floor and bottom of tank.

If using the EcoMatrix system [recommended for FVs], 2 lines can be
fitted at the same elevation directly under the tank. Allow the valve
spacing plus 100mm per set of lines [increase this if lines are to be
insulated!].
0.8m
Rationale
Allows for minimum access space for maintenance of instruments and
fittings under tank.
Allows a minimum head of 0.5m over inlet of pump.
For certain types of CIP return pump with vertical inlets [Fristam, hi-
capacity Tetra MR-300] this minimum (clear height) should be
increased to 1.0m.

4.2.1 How to Calculate the Number and Size of Tanks cont’d
Bottom cone angle Recommendation
Tank 20o for most products [Water, CIP, milk, sugar concentrates].
55o for fermentation tanks [beer] equivalent to included angle of 70o.
Check with client or previous project experience.
Rationale
20o
This is based on GPTIE experience of the best angle for the emptying
of tanks. Note a vortex breaker is required on the outlet at the middle
of the bottom cone.
Top cone angle Recommendation
15o We recommend a 15o angle as a balance between strength and safety

[steeper angles are uncomfortable to walk on].
Rationale
The top cone must support the agitator and the weight of an operator
Tank who will occasionally need to be there, to gain access into the tank or
to inspect one of the fittings on top.

4.2.2 Guidelines for Locating Tanks
Location of tanks
Product flow Recommendation
Tanks to follow flow of product from intake to dispatch or to filling

INTAKE lines.
Rationale
GMP principles require logical flow path and separation of raw and
pasteurised products, which in turn allows physical barriers to be put
in place to control the environment and the movement of operators.
NEXT PROCESS A sequential location minimises piping [no doubling back] and
pumping of product.
STORAGE
Inside / Outside Recommendation
Raw product, liquid ingredients and CIP tanks outdoors. Treated

product or pasteurised product tanks indoors.
Rationale
Locating tanks outdoors significantly reduces building costs for client

and the tank geometry is not constrained by free height inside
OUTSIDE TANKS building.
Suitable products for storage outdoors are raw material products,
liquid ingredients [which might need more insulation or heat tracing],
and CIP tanks.
Locating tanks indoors is required for treated products [to prevent
contamination by vermin], where the external environment needs to be
controlled, or where there are a lot of tank operations [e.g. blending],
needing frequent operator inspection.
INSIDE TANKS

4.2.2.1 Design Requirements for Pressurised Tanks
[for storage combined with a unit operation – fermentation, or storage under controlled atmosphere
[N2, CO2]]
This topic will be dealt with later.

4.2.2 Guidelines for locating valves and pumps associated with tanks
Location of valves and pumps associated with tanks
Group valves into blocks Recommendation
Put valves close together in valve blocks.

FILLING LINE
Rationale
Dead legs in pipes when feeding one of a set of tanks are

minimised.
Air lines and electrical wiring is centralised – common runs of
conduit are more efficient and economical.
Access to the valves is centralised.
Pumps close to tanks Recommendation
Put emptying pump close to valve block.

PUMP
Rationale
Minimise pressure loss in suction line.

4.2.3 Guidelines for Locating Major Equipment
Tanks
Vertical access Recommendation
Ht clearance to ceiling at least 1.0m / 1.5m if there is an agitator.

Ht
Hp height from platform to shoulder of tank approx. 0.8m.
Rationale
Hp
The clearance to the ceiling allows standing height on the platform
Platform
and roughly hip height to the top manway.
For tanks with top-mounted agitators, the additional clearance allows
the motor to be lifted slightly [changing mechanical seals] but not
enough for the agitator shaft! Replacing the shaft is a rare occurrence
and would require a hole to be cut in the roof.
External access Recommendation

Dw
Dw “pinch-point” clearance to wall at least 0.9m if it’s for access.
Db between tanks at least 0.2m for rework on tank or cladding.
Rationale
Db
Access is required to at least one “side” of tanks.
Rework of cladding or tank shell may be required during its lifetime.
Location of Recommendation
instruments
Locate manway to face main access path or platform.
30 o 0o
Put all instruments on the same orientation, 30o.
Manway Rationale
Manway is located for ease of inspection or entry.

Instruments are in line so that one conduit can supply them all – and
specify that conduit is to be pre-fabricated and attached in tank
manufacturers’ workshop.

4.2.3 Guidelines for Locating Major Equipment cont’d.
Pumps
Ht clearance over pump at least 2.0m.

Ht
Hp clearance from floor 0.1m.
Rationale
Hp
The clearance over the pump allows standing height for electrical and
mechanical connections to be made / unmade.
Clearance under the pump allows cleaning of floor. Note pump feet
may not be available at this height; consider specifying a frame with
similar clearance but within the NPSHr for the pump.
Plan access Recommendation
Dfront Df front clearance at least 0.9m.

Db between pumps at least 0.2m [unless staggered].
Dr rear clearance at least 0.9m.
Rationale
Db Front clearance allows for access to work on pipe connections to

impeller cover, and for straight suction pipe for critical NPSHr.
Drear Clearance between pumps is for access to bolts to remove motor
covers [can be minimised if pumps are staggered by distance to bolts].
Rear clearance allows for maintenance access to change motors, and
for checking motor direction
Electrical isolator Recommendation
Locate at rear on single box section stand between every 2 motors.

De rear clearance approx 0.3m.
Rationale
Electrical isolators must be clearly identifiable as being connected to a

particular motor, for fool-proof isolation, and the power cable can be
Electrical short enough to avoid conduit and it will not be a trip hazard.
De
Isolators Single stand will minimise interference with access.

4.2.3 Guidelines for Locating Major Equipment cont’d
Plate heat exchangers [PHE]
Hc height from floor to ceiling 3.0m.

Hc Hf clearance from floor 0.3m.
Rationale
The floor to ceiling height is to allow a forklift to carry the unit to its’
Hf location.
Clearance under the PHE allows for cleaning of the floor.
Plan access Recommendation
Dplate Dplate left and right clearance at least 0.9m.

Dexp clearance for free end, at least 2m.
Rationale
Clearance for plates on either side is to remove them for inspection or

to change gaskets, and also to allow maintenance access for the
Dexp wrenches needed to open the tightening bars.
Front clearance allows for access to open the PHE for inspection, to
Dplate
change the gaskets or to add plates [future expansion]. At design
stage, specify the future expansion capacity and correct the layout
when the maximum frame length is known.

4.3 How to Design for Access at Heights
4.4 How to Design for Noise Control
This is specifically mentioned in the machinery directive [Annex 1: 1.5.8] [7], but our influence over
noise is limited. Standard components listed here are not intrinsically very noisy [e.g. TP pumps
operate below 75dBA], but in certain circumstances standard equipment can generate noise > the
protection level of 90dBA. Collectively, machinery running together will generate higher levels of
noise than individual machines do, so the environment has to be monitored over the day.
As designers we must minimise the following “high noise” occasions: cavitation in pump suction
lines, Q-type valves that are set to low spring tension, or “over-sized” control valves operating at
low % opening.
4 Chapter Summary
A rough overview of ATEX in terms of equipment layout

The rules and guidelines for laying out equipment

5 Calculations to Size Lines and Duties for Pumps
5.1 Standard Pipe Sizes
Pipes are usually made by seamless extrusion and are classified by thickness or a schedule
number corresponding to a pressure rating. The so-called “Mild steel” pipes are made from carbon
steel with carbon content of less than 2%. Stainless steel tubing is normally made from rolling
sheets into long cylinders, and longitudinally welding the join. The weld is rolled flat, then ground
and cannot be seen by eye.
By convention, pipes and tubes are classified according to nominal sizes in defined increments,
e.g. 2”, 3”, etc., and this means that we cannot exactly match velocity requirements [and therefore
pressure drop], with any cross-section of our choosing. There are only a certain number of
commercially manufactured pipe or tube sizes available, therefore a choice has to be made by the
designer when considering velocity and the resulting pressure drop.
It is necessary to agree with the client what pipe standards are required in the plant. The following
tables list the most commonly used pipe and tube standards.
USE Common name of pipe material Standard

Product lines Dairy tube None [see notes 1, 2 below]
[USA] Brewery pipe IPS Schedule 5 [see note 3 below]
ASTM ASTM 269, 270 & ASME BPE -2004
DIN DIN 11850 series 2 [note 4]
Service lines Mild steel ANSI B36.10 – Schedule 40
Double wall ANSI B36.10 – Schedule 80
European pipe DIN 2448 series 1
Note 1: Stainless steel tubing is supplied in various thicknesses depending on supplier and of course price. Normally,
pressure is not a problem because most lines operate at 5-6b [to prevent valves lifting] so thickness is not a key
requirement. However, the lack of consistency in diameters causes a hygiene problem because of the small lip formed
when joining equipment [usually supplied with ports according to a reference standard] to non-standard tubing [often
supplied by the mechanical installation contractor but sourced from the cheapest stainless steel stockholder].
Note 2: “Dairy tube” is widely available in Ireland, but not necessarily in any other market.
Note 3: IPS [“Iron Pipe Size”] has been replaced by NPS [National Pipe Schedule] and the size standard is ASME
B36.19M [2004].
Note 4: DIN tube is expensive and hard to source in Ireland, but common in Europe and some markets [Nigeria]. It is
recommended that you source this from a European supplier, e.g. ArmaturenWerk Hotensleben [AWH] – ref project
21097, or Nocado-Jena GmbH – ref project 21101.

5.1 Standard Pipe Sizes cont’d.
The following detailed tables give the dimensions of tubing when purchased according to the
relevant specification.
Please refer to our installation standard and pipe tables [54, 83].
Note the low carbon stainless steels [304L = 1.4307, 316L = 1.4404] are weaker than 304 and 316, therefore the
pressure ratings are based on the weaker steel. This gives a slightly greater margin of safety when using 304 or 316.

Note the low carbon stainless steels [304L = 1.4307, 316L = 1.4404] are weaker than 304 and 316, therefore the
pressure ratings are based on the weaker steel. This gives a slightly greater margin of safety when using 304 or 316.



5.1.1 Information on Metals
Cast iron [iron with approximately 3.5% carbon, also known as grey iron], is the cheapest metal
used for making the bodies of service or utility valves [e.g. Ari Armaturen Faba-Plus straight
through valve with flanges and bellows seal ]. Ductile iron, or spheroidal graphite [S.G.] iron, has a
similar composition to cast iron but is made by adding magnesium in the pouring process. The
magnesium causes the graphite flakes to form into spheres, greatly increasing the strength of the
iron and the safe working temperature. Carbon steel is more expensive to produce, and contains
low amounts of carbon [<2%] and depending on the exact composition can achieve a balance of
ductility and hardness that increases its range of applications.
All these steels have a major weakness: susceptibility to corrosion. In addition to rusting, they are
unsuitable for cleaning with acid and caustic. Stainless steel, which is a steel made with very low
carbon [<0.08%], and with added nickel and chromium for hardness and resistance to corrosion, is
ideal for use in the food and beverage industry. The most common grade is AISI304 [approx 8%
Nickel and 18% Chromium] which is suitable for CIP tanks with nitric acid and caustic. A higher
and more expensive grade is AISI316L [10% Nickel, 16% Chromium and 2-3% molybdenum]. The
main weakness with stainless steels is susceptibility to chlorine environments [refer to:
Chlorides_vs_304_Rept.doc, internal GPTIE folder [28], and Note 1 below] so a general rule, do
not use 304 if the concentration of chlorides is over 200ppm, and do not use 316 if the
concentration is above 500ppm. If the liquid containing chloride is heated, then the limits are
reduced to 50ppm and 250ppm, and daily CIP [to re-passivate the surface] is required.
Name or Valves which are made of this Density Yield point Temperature
code material 3 2 limits2
[kg/m ] [MN/m ]
EN-JL1040 Ari Armaturen: FABA - Plus 7800 Not -5 to 200oC
defined
[Cast Iron] Fig 12.046
EN-JL1049 Ari Armaturen: FABA - Plus 7100 300 -5 to 300oC
Ductile iron, Fig 22.046
SG Iron
Carbon steel Worcester A44 / 45 ball valve 7860 200 -20 to 500oC
Stainless Worcester A44 / 45 ball valve, 7900 200 -40 to 870
o
steel AISI Sanitary valves C
304
Stainless Sanitary valves [product contact 8000 200 -40 to 870
o
steel AISI parts of Tuchenhagen valves and C
316L pumps]
Note 1: [29] “Stainless steel for hygienic applications” – Tony Newson, Stainless Steel producers group
Paper originally delivered at the BSSA Conference 'Stainless Solutions for a Sustainable Future' held in
Rotherham on 3rd April 2003
Note 2: these limits are for the material and are guidelines based on different values published by various
sources; specific valves may have LOWER limits.
Acknowledgements
General metallurgical information from American Valve company [30]

Stainless steel properties from British Stainless Steel Association [31]

5.1.2 Information on Seal Materials
Name or Description Approval Temperature

code limits1
o
NBR Nitrile Butadiene Rubber; for non-product contact - -50 to +135 C
o
HNBR Hydrogenated Nitrile Butadiene Rubber FDA -25 to +145 C
o
EPDM Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer; standard valve seal FDA -40 to +135 C
FFKM [Kalrez] Perfluorelastomer FDA
o
FPM [Viton] Fluorinated Propylene Monomer; known as FKM in USA FDA -10 to +200 C
o
PEEK Poly-Ether Ether-Ketone -50 to +260 C
o
PTFE [Teflon] Poly-Tetra-Fluoro-Ethylene; not flexible; PFA [used by E+H] is FDA -40 to +230 C
similar
o
Graphite Carbon allotrope [used in “lead” pencils] – a necessary - Up to 500 C
component of seals for steam
Name Very good Good compatibility Not suitable for

compatibility
NBR - Petroleum, ethylene glycol Acids, ozone and weathering
HNBR Vegetable and animal Aliphatics [e.g. methane, fatty acids, ethylene] Aromatic [e.g. benzene] or
oils and fats o chlorinated hydrocarbons
Up to 3% acids and caustics [max 80 C]
o
EPDM wear from aging, Saturated steam [max 135 C] Oils, fats, fuel or
ozone and o hydrocarbons
weathering Up to 5% acids and caustics [max 80 C]
FFKM Hydrocarbons, chlorinated hydrocarbons, Fluorinated refrigerants

inorganic and organic acids, steam
FPM wear from aging, Mineral oils and fats Steam and hot water over
o
ozone and o 80 C
weathering Up to 5% acids [max 100 C]; Up to 5%
o
caustics [max 40 C]
PTFE Chemicals, fuels, oils Solid caustic; dynamic
applications [it will “cold-
flow”]
Compatibility
Each sealing material has a range of resistance to aging and attack from the fluids it is in contact
with. Depending on the source of your information, this can be expressed simply as “good”, or
quantified in terms of time, e.g. “Years”.
The nature of seals is that they will fail over a period of time, usually well before the other parts of
the equipment they are housed in.
Acknowledgements
Information on valve seals from Tuchenhagen Flow Components catalogue. Compatibility can be checked on these sites:
http://www.dkirubber.com/materials.asp [32]; www.dupont.com [33];
http://www.efunda.com/designstandards/oring [34]; http://www.sealingspecialties.com/materials.htm [35]

5.2 Methodology for Calculating Pressure Drop
Pressure drop and pipe sizing are interlinked, and subject to the influence of the designer.
Increasing pipe sizes will increase the cost of a project but reduce the energy costs in pumping the
fluid, or in the case of a gas, increasing pipe size will reduce the loss of pressure in distributing it to
the points of use.
The calculation guidelines that follow allow the designer to document the information available, or
assumed, about each transfer route, and to calculate and record the decision made about pipe size
and the resulting pressure drop. The methods used for the calculation can be traced back to
fundamental principles of fluid mechanics.
5.2.1 Pressure Drop for Liquids
We approach the sizing of product lines [where stainless steel tube is required] as follows:
1. Identify a route, taking the starting point at a tank or [for pumps in series] at the inlet of a
pump. If there are several tanks on the same route, use the furthest away tank for the
design.
2. Decide where the end point is:
• If the line finishes at another tank, the end point is the highest fill level in the destination
tank
• If the line supplies more than one tank, then choose the furthest away. If the there are
several route choices for the pump [e.g. CIP supply pump], make a separate calculation
for each one unless common sense or experience enables you to select the highest
and lowest duties.
3. Use the ESG pressure drop and pump duties calculation file [36] to record and calculate
each identifiable duty.
4. Note that this file will allow you to specify the duty, or range of duties for pumps, including
an estimation of the installed electrical power required.
5. The file is configured for up to 15 calculations, which means for large projects several files
are needed. Each file should be confined to a particular area [e.g. CIP] for ease of
reference.
5.2.2 Pressure Drop for Gases

5.3 Steam and condensate pipe sizing
In these guidelines we refer to saturated steam up to a pressure of 15b[g]. Steam can be “wet”
[carrying a varying degree of water vapour], or “super-heated” [if it was heated under pressure after
boiling] but it is normally treated as dry saturated steam. The performance of steam when it is wet
or superheated will be different, so it is important in all design documents and in written documents
[quotations, etc,] issued to the client, that we clearly state we are designing on the basis of dry
saturated steam.
Since the density of steam is a function of its pressure, we approach the sizing of steam pipes as
follows:
1. Identify a starting point at a tie-in [from customer supply] or at a branch from a main header
2. Decide where the end point is:
• If the line includes a pressure reducing station, then the end point is at the reducing
valve [and start a new line at the low pressure side!].
• If the line supplies more than one user [heat exchanger], then the line ends at the
furthest end of the pipe. At that point you select a pressure which will supply all the
users on the line [and each user has its’ own starting point at that pressure].
3. Use the ESG steam pressure drop calculation file [37] to record and calculate each
identifiable line.
4. Note that, because of the effect of pressure on the volumetric flow rate, if the pressure drop
in the line exceeds 10%, then the calculation will flag a warning message. You have a
choice of changing the line size upwards to reduce the pressure drop, or manually
averaging the density of steam at the start and end of the line and repeating the calculation.
As a rule, stay under 10%. If that is not possible, average the initial and final densities for
more accuracy in the calculation. If the pressure drop exceeds 40% of the initial pressure,
you are outside the “norms” for gas line sizing and you must increase the pipe size to avoid
the high pressure drop.
Caution!
These guidelines are based on saturated steam up to a pressure of 15b[g] – which covers all of our applications.
If something is not covered in these guidelines the best source for further information is Spirax Sarco.

5.3.1 Guidelines for Steam Distribution
Steam is generated in the boilers and distributed around the factory at boiler pressure in order to
minimise the cost of the distribution pipes. The higher the steam pressure, the greater the carrying
capacity of the pipes – thus the recommended capacity of a nominal 100mm pipe for steam at
10bar [g] is 3,240kg/h compared to only 1,580kg/h at 3bar[g] [Source: Spirax Sarco]. Keeping the
pipe size down reduces the cost of piping, the cost of insulation, and the energy costs [heat loss is
a function of pipe area].
From an earlier stage of the design we will have a list of utility loads, based on the requirements of
individual process blocks. Use the following guidelines to decide what steam pressure is required
at each process block:
• For CIP heaters: temperature differential is not an issue, so take the highest available steam pressure available,
up to a maximum of 14bar[b].
• For UHT heating plants: these normally include indirect heating circuits, so that the steam heats water in a
closed circulation loop which in turn heats the product. In these cases take the manufacturer’s upper limit for
steam pressure [usually this is dictated by the pressure rating of the heat exchangers].
• For other heaters with indirect heating: unless guided by the client, assume that there is a requirement to have a
condensate pressure of 1.5bar[g] after the steam trap in order to return the condensate to the boiler feed tank
[or other recovery system]. This is to be a key design criterion mentioned in the quotation! Allow 0.5b for
pressure drop across the trap, 0.25b across the heat exchanger and 0.75b across the control valve. Therefore,
the steam pressure required at this block is a minimum of 3.0bar[g].
• When all pressures are identified, rationalise these to one main distribution pressure [initially set 0.5b above the
highest individual requirement, to allow for lines losses], and then where possible group the other blocks so as
to minimise the number of step-down pressure reducing sets required.
Caution! Steam Pipe line slopes!!

Steam pipes slope down to end of line to condensate pots [at 1%]. Condensate slopes down to recovery tanks.

5.3.2 Effect of Reducing Steam Pressure
In theory the reduction of steam pressure causes a degree of superheat [some of the energy given
up when the pressure is reduced is stored as “degrees of superheat” in the low pressure steam.
This topic can be examined in more depth in the internet article
http://www.spiraxsarco.com/resources/steam-engineering-tutorials/steam-engineering-principles-
and-heat-transfer/superheated-steam.asp [38].
Explanatory Note
The reduction of Example: Steam for a tank heating jacket is required to be at

pressure is “isenthalpic” 3bar[g]; the distribution main is at 8bar[g].
– enthalpy is constant
The difference between Assume the steam in the distribution mains has a wetness of 2%
the original enthalpy and - calculate if there is any superheat in the low pressure steam.
the enthalpy for
saturated steam at the
lower pressure is given
up as heat From steam tables, enthalpy at 8b = hf + χ.hfg
Usually steam has some =743 + 0.98 * 2031
“wetness” as carried =2733.4 kJ/kg
water vapour which
absorbs this increase in From steam tables, enthalpy at 3b = 2739kJ/kg [dry]
heat
Since enthalpy of the steam at 8b [which remains constant after the
pressure drop] is LESS than the enthalpy of dry saturated steam at
3b, the steam is not superheated but retains some moisture,
calculated as follows:
2733.4 = 605 + χ * 2134
Χ = 0.997
So moisture content has reduced to 0.3%
IF the enthalpy at the original high pressure was MORE than the
enthalpy of dry steam at the lower pressure, you look-up the
superheat from the Mollier chart
In practise, this is not an issue in steam distribution. In a case where the client is particular about
maintaining dry steam at all times, this calculation is necessary at each pressure reducing valve
because superheated steam is NOT as effective at transferring heat as saturated steam. What
happens is that first the superheated steam gives up its superheat by sensible heat transfer, and
only when it is at the saturated condition will it condense, giving up its latent heat. Therefore, the
heat exchanger supplier needs to be given the exact condition of the superheat in the steam
because the area for heat transfer will be affected [or alternatively a “de-superheater” will be
required].

5.3.3 Guidelines for Steam Pressure Reducing Sets
The essential equipment needed for a pressure reducing station is shown below - note it will
require access, and therefore the unit is shown with drop pipes to a floor or platform.
Fig 5.3.3: Schematic of Steam Pressure reducing station
Type Function Notes

A, I Line trap set Keep line live, remove Discharge into return header.
condensate.
B Isolation valve – bellows Isolation for maintenance See 4.3.4.
seal globe valve on reducing valve.
C Strainer Option – remove metal
rust or debris from
pipeline.
D, F Pressure gauge with Shows pressure before
siphon loop and after reduction.
E Reducing valve –direct Reduce pressure of Mounted upside down to make
acting with condensate steam. use of feedback of pressure from
pot condensate pot.
G Isolation valve – on/off Option to shut-off steam to Not essential.
ball type with long handle create “no-load”.
H Safety relief valve Protects downstream Size bases on maximum
equipment from high allowable pressure of
pressure side; usually but downstream equipment or piping;
not always necessary. locate chimney in safe place
away from personnel.
Note The discharge line from a safety valve [pressure relief] should be entirely vertical, or, if there are any horizontal sections [there
usually are], they must slope to a lowest point on the discharge side of the relief valve, where a nominal size drain [0.5”] must carry any
residual condensation to a drain. REASON - any liquid to build up on the discharge side because it could affect the lifting pressure.

5.3.4 Guidelines for Selection of Steam Valves
Unless we specifically want to include it, we start our scope at branch points from the steam
distribution mains, which normally runs in a dedicated pipe corridor alongside the process rooms.
The following tables explain the various types of valve appropriate for isolation, control, pressure
reducing, and trapping. For a sample equipment list, refer to ESG steam configurations file [39]
Fig 5.3.4: Sample Equipment List
Isolation valves for steam and condensate use:
Function Type
MANUAL Isolation of steam Globe valve with hand-wheel and diaphragm seal to allow safe
from main distribution pipe robust opening and closing for plant areas. It must have a
to a room lantern to separate handle from body [to avoid getting hot]. It
must have 100% sealing. When opening, the hand-wheel allows
OR
“cracking” of valve to allow downstream pipe to warm up before
MANUAL Isolation of steam admitting full flow of steam. Note it will require access, and
from a branch pipe to a sub- therefore the provision of this access needs to be specifically
branch within a room included or specifically excluded at quotation stage.
Make and model Ari Armaturen,
FABA – Plus Fig 12.046, Flange PN16, Mat: [Cast Iron]
AUTOMATIC Isolation from a Globe valve with bellows as above, fitted with actuator, limit
branch pipe to a final user switches, and solenoid.
e.g. heat exchanger
Make and model Ari Armaturen ,
FABA - STEVI 405 Fig 12.405, FlangePN16, Mat: EN-JL1040
[Cast Iron], Act: DP33 [solenoid is separate]
Alternative make and model Spirax Sarco M21S2 reduced bore single-piece ball valve with
flanged connections PN40 for carbon steel lines. PTFE seal.
Remote activation with BVA actuator and M11 solenoid and
LSB3 switchbox for double feedback. Size range ½” – 4”.
MANUAL Isolation of Ari Armaturen, FABA – Plus Fig 12.046, as above
condensate after trap set


5.3.4 Guidelines for Selection of Steam Valves cont’d
Miscellaneous items [strainers, control valves, reducing valves, safety valves, NRV]:
Steam filter to each user Removable angle type strainer – note if all the users are close
[within 6m] to the main branch, then one common filter is more
economic. Otherwise, to remove any rust particles deriving
from the branch pipe itself, include a local filter prior to the
control valve.
Make and model Ari Strainer,
Fig 12.050, Flange PN16, Mat: EN-JL1040 [Cast Iron]
Control valve to a final user Automatic needle or plug type.
Make & model Samson Type 241 control valve with electro-pneumatic
positioner type 3730-1 [4-20mA].
Alternative make and model Spirax Sarco KE73 PTSUSS.2 globe type control valve with
EP5 electro-pneumatic positioner. Size ½” – 8”.
Pressure reducing valve Direct-acting bellows sealed pressure reducing valve with
downstream feed-back [low pressure side] via a “Water Seal”
WS4 to protect the diaphragm from high temperatures.
Make and model Spirax Sarco DRV7 with water seal pot WS4. Size range ½” –
4”.
Safety valve Full-lift pressure relief valve to protect downstream equipment.
Note this is a PED item and must have a name-plate with the
PED marking and a conformance certificate in the
documentation. The designer decides the lifting pressure based
on the rating of the weakest downstream element – it must not
be sized simply on the pressure reducing valve! The blow-off
line must be located away from any location accessible to
personnel.
Make and model Spirax Sarco SV607AS safety valve with PN25/16 flanges. Size
range: ¾” – 6”.
Non-return valve Spring-lift check valve with guide housing.
Make and model Ari Check Valve, CHECKO-V
Fig12.003, Flange PN16, Mat: EN-JL1040 [Cast Iron]

5.3.4 Guidelines for Selection of Steam Valves cont’d.
Steam traps:
The function of a trap is to prevent steam from passing into the condensate return line; it is a
restriction in the return line with a capacity much lower than the line size would apparently allow.
For a rough sizing, use “Condensate Capacity” worksheet in the ESG steam configurations file
[39].
As a general guide, we put thermodynamic traps on the condensate drains from steam supply
lines, and ball float traps after heat exchangers. The operating principle of a thermodynamic trap is:
when cold, the passage is fully open, but as the trap heats up, the bi-metallic strip expands and
closes the passage; as the condensate cools, it is released. It is very useful in start-up to get rid of
cold air, so this type of trap is very useful on a cold leg on the steam supply to a user – it helps
vent the line. A ball float trap with integrated thermostatic vent also has the advantage of venting
cold air at start-up; however the main opening or passage in the trap is governed by a float;
initially, it closes off the outlet passage; as it is raised by condensate [liquid], it allows more liquid
through. A ball-float type is most suitable for varying loads and, for its size, has the highest
capacity.
The steam traps on the condensate leg are recommended to be at least 0.5m below the outlet to
ensure there is a flooded head on the trap.
Condensate trapping of A pre-fabricated stainless steel trap station [without the

steam pipes actual trap!] located at each low point of the steam pipe in a
room, and at the end of the steam pipe branch; this keeps
the line ”live” by removing condensate. Elements are
upstream and downstream isolation valves [3-piece ball
type], strainer with connector for trap, and check valve.
Make and model 0.5” Spirax Sarco STS 17 with [extra] UTD30L
thermodynamic trap with integral strainer; socket weld ends
[minimise leaks!].
Condensate trapping of Ball float trap with integrated thermostatic air vent.
steam users [heat
exchangers, etc.]
Make and model Spirax Sarco FT47 SG Iron ball float trap; the internal parts
[float, lever, valve seat, are made of stainless steel;
connections are flanged PN40. Size range ½” – 2”. A variant
of this trap, the FT47V, can be mounted in a vertical pipe.

5.3.5 Example of Steam Branch Valve Layout
Figure 5.3.5: Schematic of Steam branch valves

5.3.6 Guidelines for Condensate
Condensate is a valuable source of heat and is usually returned to the boiler feed tank so as to
minimise the cost of treating new water [to remove hardness and suspended solids] and to
minimise the cost of heating it. Since condensate can be contaminated by the process fluids it is
heating [such as through leaks in plate heat exchangers], it is recommended to monitor the
“quality” [in effect, the conductivity], of the condensate prior to recovery.
Heat exchangers are designed on the basis of using the latent heat of condensation [and no more!]
so the condensate will be at the same temperature as saturated steam at the pressure at which it
condenses. It is therefore liable to “flash-off” a proportion of its volume as steam as the pressure in
the condensate [which is higher than the boiling point of water at atmospheric pressure] is reduced
in the return line.
Therefore we “oversize” the condensate pipes to allow for sudden increases in volume as a portion
of the condensate “flashes-off”. We approach the sizing of condensate lines as follows:
1. Identify a starting point at the outlet of the steam trap on a user, and an end-point at a common
condensate return header.
2. Make a preliminary estimate of the line size using the trap as a guide; the ESG steam configuration
file [39] contains a worksheet for this.
3. Use the ESG steam pressure drop calculation file [37] to record and calculate each identifiable line.
4. Note that the steam load on each condensate return is multiplied by a safety factor to allow for
“flashing-off”. If the resulting pressure drop to the condensate return header leaves the final pressure
at less than 1.5b, the calculation sheet will flag a warning message.
5. We assume the client is responsible for the condensate in the main header; if the pressure we
expect is less than 1.5b, we must design for pumped traps or condensate receivers.
Fig 5.3.6: Typical Layout of Condensate Return from Process Plant

Typical layout of condensate return from process plant
Condensate quality Fixed anchor Guidelines

check here
High pressure condensate tends to waste heat in flashing off
Consider [with Spirax Sarco] using flash vessel
and pipe flash steam to e.g. CIP tanks to recover heat
Increasing pressure drop across trap allows smaller model to be chosen
Boiler Expansion loops In this example pressure drop is critical for process room 1 and 2
If pressure drop for condensate return is more than 1.25b,
THEN consider [with Spirax Sarco] condensate receivers and pumps
Boiler Feed tank

BOILER HOUSE
Pressure step down

10.8 b UHT Room Process room 1 Process room 2
15
CIP Room 8 b 3 b 3 b
14 14 b 3t/h peak 4t/h peak 2t/h peak
6t/h peak
13
Pressure step-down Pressure step-down Pressure step-down
12 Pressure step-down 1 CV 0.5 CV 0.5 CV
1 CV 0.25 STHE 0.25 STHE 0.25 STHE
11
0.25 STHE 2 ST 0.5 ST 0.5 ST
10 2 ST
Steam after CV after after Trap 4.75 b 1.75 b 1.75 b
Supply STHE
14 Steam Supply
13 after CV Fixed anchor
12.8 after STHE
10.8 after Trap Expansion Fixed Expansion Fixed Expansion Fixed
loop Anchor loop Anchor loop Anchor

5.3.6 Guidelines for Condensate cont’d.
The physical arrangement of the condensate header line is important. The ideal layout is a line
sloping downwards to the tie-in point to the boiler feed tank, or to the main plant condensate
return header. The aim is to avoid ponding of condensate, as for example where a return pipe
must rise to travel over another process room.
If condensate from thermodynamic or other intermittent traps discharges on a main steam line
into a flooded line, there will be water hammer due to the pressure waves caused by the blast
action of the TD trap impacting on the condensate flow upstream.
In this cases you must consider:

[a] replacing the trap type on the mains steam line to a ball float type with regular output
[b] re-routing the condensate line, or, running a new line from the traps on the main steam line to
a non-flooded part of the condensate return pipe
[c] discharging the condensate from the main steam line to drain

5.4 Guidelines for Pipe Expansion
Steel expands as it is heated and contracts when it cools. The expansion depends on the material
itself [the “coefficient of thermal expansion”], the temperature change, and the length of the piece
of steel. In many cases there is enough flexibility in the piping to allow for this expansion. When
there is not, the results can be cracked valve housings, broken pipe support clips, and permanent
deformity.
To accommodate thermal expansion, first of all plot out the route and mark each main elbow as an
anchor point. Measure the lengths in-between to calculate expansion. The in-between pipe must
be supported on sliding joints or rollers. The expansion loops [or expansion compensators, where
space is limited] go in the middle, or equally divided lengths if there are many. Note that they are
to be installed in a horizontal plane, to allow free draining of the pipe [or, for steam, to prevent an
accumulation of condensate].
5.4.1 Calculation of Pipe Expansion
For stainless steel, we use a coefficient of 0.016mm per metre pipe length per oC of temperature
increase [reference: Outokumpu Steel Grades, Properties and Global Standards – download from
internet August 2008 [40]]; so for a length of 50m of 4" pipe and a temperature difference of 100oC,
the expansion is 80mm. To get this amount of movement in an expansion loop, we could have 2
small loops of width 1.1m or one long one of 1.75m.
5.4.2 Pipe Anchor Points and Free-Moving Supports
[Not in this edition]
5.4.3 Dimensions for Pipe Expansion Loops
As a rule of thumb, a pipe expansion loop is made as a loop with height twice as long as its width.
The width is the determining factor in calculating how much expansion it will accommodate. The
following reference includes a graph which can be used to read off the amount of expansion a loop
of a particular length will accommodate.
Please refer to http://www.spiraxsarco.com/resources/steam-engineering-tutorials/steam-

distribution/pipe-expansion-and-support.asp [41]

5.4.4 Guidelines for Valve Manifolds
For valve manifolds, there is a rule of thumb for the maximum number of valves joined centre to
centre before expansion compensation is required. Our experience [1] for Tuchenhagen D-type
valves, is a maximum distance of approximately 3000mm up to 3500 mm at a delta T of 90°C from
valve centre to valve centre. For R-type valves we recommend a smaller distance of 2000mm from
centre to centre because of the small gap between seat ring and balancer at the same delta T.
That means a manifold of about 8 no. R-type valves in line or from 12 up to 14 D-type valves
before expansion compensators are required.
Source
[1] e-mail from Dirk Jarmer, 10Jun08, GEA Process Equipment Division
Tuchenhagen GmbH [42]
5 Chapter Summary
Standard pipe and tube dimensions, with tables of volumes per metre and pipe weight, per
metre.
Materials [metals and sealing materials].
Steam distribution and the selection of suitable valves.
Pipe expansion.

6 Hygienic Design Guidelines
Definitions:
The EHEDG has published a glossary of terms [ref http://www.ehedg.org/guidelines/glossary.pdf

[43]] which includes these definitions:
Please note that “sanitary” is not defined even though it is still in common use [Alfa Laval use
“sanitary” to name their Sanitary Remote Control range of valves]. Please use only the defined
word “hygienic”. Sanitation is a term local to the USA. CIP and Cleanability are defined below:

6.1 Principles of Hygienic Design
There are many sources of information on hygienic design [EGEDG, ASME BPE, Codex
Alimentarius, PMO], but when you examine these closely it seems that the emphasis is on visible
details of pipe lines, welding and equipment. The expression “hygienic design” is usually
interpreted as “everything that can be inspected that contributes to hygiene” and this is reasonable,
because audits by customers or government agencies will focus on what can be seen and
measured, and not on the drawings!
The downside of this is that the information that is valuable to system designers [us!] is scattered
across many documents. Furthermore, the readership of these documents and those who we will
eventually face as inspectors [whether working for the client or for government agencies] will focus
on the finalised installation. If there are problems at that point, it is often expensive and time-
consuming to fix them.
So, in the following table, we list the key principles and at what time in the project lifecycle it is
important to focus on them.
Project lifecycle PRINCIPLE

Sales – project definition Know the product [and the normal practice of the client].
Project – design phase Respect the product [if perishable, provide cooling].
BLOCK DIAGRAM
Project – design phase Layout separate process areas.
PHYSICAL LAYOUT Provide space for cleaning.
Project – design phase Design for CIP.
P&IDs Recover the product.
Aim for single path for product.
Minimise connections to tanks.
Project – design phase Select hygienic equipment.
SPECIFICATIONS Specify mechanical installation standards
[pipe material, welding, layout].
Project – design phase Control product transfers and CIP.
PROCESS DESCRIPTIONS
Project – installation phase Supervise installation to specified standard.
Each sub-section below explains the principles in more detail.

6.1.01 Principle 1 – Know the Product
Most of the principles of hygienic design are already embedded in the habits and practices of our
clients and in our “inheritance” of drawings from previous projects. Make use of this knowledge,
and agree with the client the standard of hygienic design that is appropriate.
The “grund norm” of most of our brewing and dairy clients at the moment [2009] is in fact BELOW
the level of the EHEDG guidelines because very few of the pumps and pipe connections are
EHEDG certified. It is not a simple matter for the client to go to a new standard – in the case of
pipe connections, the usual SMS or DIN11851 pipe union costs approximately €85 in 3”; the
EHEDG [and ASME BPE] recommended aseptic union DIN11864-1 costs €320 in 3” [prices from
M&S catalog 2009 [44]].
The key things to agree are: the standards [if any] that will apply to the process and the equipment,
the properties of the product [for example, if it is perishable], and the interval between cleaning.
BREWING – the standards are particular to the client. AISI 304 piping is acceptable, but note the
welding quality is expected to be high and it is rigorously inspected. Hygienic components are
selected [but there is no strict adherence to EHEDG guidelines]. The product is perishable over a
period of weeks and the key precautions are avoidance of air incorporation [CO2 blanketed
storage, de-aeration process steps] and storage at temperatures of 4oC or lower. The interval
between cleaning is not relevant as many processes [fermentation, maturation] last more than a
week and water lines [even those added to product] are rarely washed more than once per year.
Product transfer lines and tanks are washed as soon as they are empty. Fermentation vessels
require high pressure cleaning to remove the residues. Most tanks are pressure vessels with
relatively small vents, and are not suitable for hot washing [danger of vacuum collapse due to rapid
cooling of vapour in tanks].
DAIRIES – the standard for heat processing and pasteurisation is EU regulation 2004/R0853 [45].
Other standards are particular to the client and can change rapidly in response to pressure from
large buyers [Mars, Nestle, Wyeth]. AISI 304 piping is acceptable, but many processes produce
low pH products [acid, whey] so AISI316L can be required. Note, the welding quality is quite
variable and the level of inspection depends on the particular process. Hygienic components are
selected [but there is no strict adherence to EHEDG guidelines]. The product is perishable over a
period of hours and the key precautions are avoidance of long dead legs, frequent CIP and storage
at temperatures of 6oC or lower. In the case of yoghurt prior to fermentation, it is common practise
to reverse the direction of flow in transfer lines to the tanks to empty the inevitable dead legs every
6 hours. The interval between cleaning is ideally 24 hours [ref Chapter V item 1 of 204/R0852 [46];
and EC92/46 [47]] because milk products are highly perishable; the exceptions are storage tanks
and some evaporation/drying processes. Water lines [for push-outs – it is highly unusual and in
most cases illegal to add water to milk products], are rarely washed and are often not designed for
CIP. Product transfer lines and tanks are washed as soon as they are empty. Evaporators and
some heat exchangers usually require higher strength detergent due to the fouling caused by
protein denaturation caused by heating the milk. Most tanks are atmospheric vessels with vents
large enough for hot washing [and allowing for the danger of vacuum collapse due to rapid cooling
of vapour in tanks].
Warning : Designing for the US Pasteurized Milk Ordinance involves a shift in thinking. The PMO document is comprehensive and
all inclusive. There is no allowance for negotiation or new engineering solutions. We have no experience in this office so please work
in conjunction with TDS and TNA [note: we do make a PMO approved mix-proof valve].

6.1.02 Principle 2 – Respect the Product
Fig 6.1.02: Respect the Product
The product must be respected in order to avoid damage in mechanical handling, in heat
treatment, or in storage. You might ask what has this got to do with hygienic design – well,
damaged product leaves greater residues, as a product layer on pipes and equipment.
This results in:
[a] increased risk of spoilage, by providing a constant “food” layer to bacteria,
[b] more product being rinsed to drain after use,
[c] longer times to clean pipes and equipment.
Respect means you take the following actions:
Design transfer lines so that product transfer velocities are under the design limits in the product
table [ref: ESG products file [18]].
For products such as milk and protein-rich liquids, design heat exchangers with low temperature
differences with the heating medium [2oC is recommended]. For products containing high levels of
fat [such as cream with 40% fat], design coolers with co-current flow or with attemperation
[regulation of cooling medium temperature by circulation] so as to prevent freezing and subsequent
damage to fat molecules.
For products where air incorporation can cause product deterioration [beers] or excessive foaming
[milks and especially high protein whey], design storage tanks to eliminate air [CO2 blanketing] and
air incorporation [use of anti-foam elbows, or filling below liquid level].
For perishable products, design for cooling prior to storage, and, if necessary, for cooling jackets
on storage vessels.

6.1.03 Principle 3 – Layout Separate Product Areas
Fig 6.1.03: Ideal Layout of Separate Processing Areas
The principle of separation is to provide a physical barrier between products requiring different
levels of care, or products that would contaminate each other. It makes it relatively easy to control
all aspects of hygiene – not just in the process, but also those relating to operator access, and to
the environment [air filtering and conditioning]. For pasteurising plants, the key danger is the
contamination of pasteurised product with unpasteurised product. This gives bugs a free ride into
the packaging or dispatch area without undergoing the heat treatment that inactivates them.
The principle is shown in the simplified layout above: raw materials are taken into the factory in a
separate area. It must be open to delivery trucks and personnel, but the rest of the factory is closed
off. The untreated product moves into a processing room – this could contain storage tanks,
coolers, etc, as well as a pasteuriser. That is the point at which potential contamination can occur
within one piece of equipment. The pasteurised product moves into a separate room [for storage or
further treatment]. Access to both areas is controlled and limited to operators. Since the product is
contained in pipes and tanks, it is not essential to prevent operators [who could carry product
unknowingly on shoes, or hands] moving between these areas, but that is the prerogative of the
client.
Finally, the pasteurised product is moved into the packaging area, where a new risk presents itself:
the product is in the open when it is filled into cartons or containers. This risk is controlled by
creating a separate area [possibly with its own air handling system] with a further operator access
control point. This area could equally be a dry powder area, and the same principle of separation
applies.
This principle is often seen in the flowcharts of “Good Manufacturing Practice” or GMP. The
building layout is almost always outside our scope, but nonetheless it is recommended as we
promote this principle for new process plants.

6.1.04 Principle 4 – Provide Space for Cleaning
Fig 6.1.04: Space for Cleaning
The equipment has to have enough space around it to allow it to be manually cleaned. The
minimum distance must allow either a person to walk between equipment, or temporarily crouch
down for cleaning, or else accommodate the head of a sweeping brush.
This means:
[a] Allow a clearance to the ceiling of 1m for tanks where a platform is positioned approximately 1m
below the top of the tank, or 2m if the top of the tank serves as the platform.
[b] Allow a clearance to the ceiling of 0.5m for pipes or conduit.
[c] Allow a clearance between flat-sided equipment of 0.9m, or 0.15m for circular equipment.
provided there is a 0.9m path into the closest point.
[d] Allow a clearance of 0.9m between walls and equipment, and 0.15m between pipes and walls.
[e] Allow a clearance of 0.1m between floors and pipes or equipment, unless access is also
required under the equipment [example: tanks], in which case allow 0.8m at closest point.
6.1.05 Principle 5 – Design for CIP
Design from the beginning that pipes and equipment can be cleaned in place. There may be
exceptions for packaged items, and of course for dry / powder handling, but identify the interfaces
to these at the start.
[a] Allow for separate CIP stations for products that must avoid cross-contamination.
[b] Allow for circuits to supply and return CIP solutions to each “target” that needs cleaning.
[c] Tanks and lines are to be washed separately, to ensure effective cleaning.
[d] Isolate CIP lines from product lines with mix-proof valves.
[e] Put drain valves on transfer lines so that after product is recovered to the destination, the line
can be rinsed immediately [minimise cleaning load].
[f] Allow where possible for tanks and pipelines to drain out fully by gravity [this makes cleaning
more effective and removes rinse water from the system afterwards].
[g] Minimise or eliminate tee-pieces; for example the valve seat cleaning valve to supply CIP to
“neutral area” of a set of mix-proof valves can [up to a limit set by the maximum flow] be a sample
valve type T which has no dead pocket [the usual solution is a “corner” valve NL on a 1” tee].
[h] Tanks should be designed with smooth, straight walls and curved corners that can be cleaned
easily by liquid from a spray-ball or jet cleaner.

6.1.06 Principle 6 – Recover the Product
Recovering the product minimises losses, spills, and residues that in addition to being a financial
cost, also create extra cleaning requirements.
[a] Put “push-out” valves on transfer lines so that water or air can push product into the destination
tanks [instead of leaving pipes full of product]. Note the push out valve is located between the CIP
supply valve and the product valves [see, for example, the emptying line in the picture “dead legs
in valve blocks”, Fig. 6.1.07.D].
[b] Calculate flow balances at storage and buffer tanks carefully to minimise risk of overflowing.
[c] Allow for filling tanks below liquid level or with anti-splash inlets to minimise foaming or
splashes.

6.1.07 Principle 7 – Aim for Single Path for Product
The ideal is a single path for product transfer. This means that no product is left standing [in a
“dead leg”] during production, and that it is easy to recover the product and to clean the line
afterwards. The reality is a number of exceptions will occur: bypass line / pressure relief line on
positive displacement pumps; flow reversing valves [on filters, on some pumps]; dead legs in valve
blocks; divert lines on pasteurisers.
There are remedial actions in all cases that use valves to create a straight through flow for CIP,
although there are still dead legs left in production. The final example here shows how to set up
tank filling valves so that the flow can be reversed periodically, pushing the “dead leg” into a tank
so as to refresh the line during production. In most cases, this is not necessary as cold product
does not pose a high risk of developing infection. In the case of yoghurt tanks or any product filled
at an incubation temperature [35 – 45oC for cheese milk or yoghurt milk], then it is recommended.
Bypass on PD pumps
Fig 6.1.07.A: Bypass on PD Pump

The flow is straight though in production; if the
downstream line is blocked, the valve lifts to relieve
pressure. If the valve is activated during CIP, it also
allows a higher flow of CIP in the line than through
the PD pump.
Fig 6.1.07.B: Pump Design (2/3 Sockets) This picture is thanks to FJ Helms, TDS

6.1.07 Principle 7 – Aim for Single Path for Product cont’d.
Flow reversing valves
Fig 6.1.07.C: Flow Reversing Valves on Centrifugal Pump
This is a case where a pump is located beside a tank and is used to empty or fill it. The
picture on the left shows the valves [WP type] activated; the picture on the right shows the
valves deactivated – this is the best orientation for CIP as it is a straight-through clean.
Dead-legs in a valve block
Fig 6.1.07.D: Dead-legs in a Valve Block
This is a very common occurrence; note also that when filling stops, the pipe from the valve
block to the tank is a very long dead leg. In all cases CIP will clean through the dead legs in a
single flow path. There are ways to eliminate some dead legs; see below the eco-matrix
[developed by TBS] which eliminates the dead leg from valve block to tank, but does not
eliminate the dead legs to the stop valves as highlighted above.

Eco-matrix [no dead-legs from tank to valve]
Fig 6.1.07.E: Eco-matrix [no Dead-legs from Tank to Valve]
Pipe loops on tank emptying to eliminate dead-legs
Fig 6.1.07.F: Pipe loops on tank emptying to eliminate dead-legs
In these cases the pipe loop [a process design by FJ Helms of TDS] allows movement in both
directions and thus eliminates the dead leg during production operations.

Pipe loops on tank filling line to eliminate dead-legs
Fig 6.1.07.G: Pipe loops on tank filling line to eliminate dead-legs
In this case there is a pipe loop on both the filling line and the tank line. Product can move in
both directions so there is no dead leg. CIP will clean through in a single flow path.

Turnover [reversal] of Dead-legs in a yoghurt filling line
Fig 6.1.07.H: Turnover [reversal] of Dead-legs in a yoghurt filling line - A
Fig 6.1.07.I: Turnover [reversal] of Dead-legs in a yoghurt filling line - B

6.1.08 Principle 8 – Minimise Product Connections to Tanks
Any storage tank by definition will have a storage cycle [filling, holding, and emptying] which will
mean that product is “dead” during that time. This means that product pipes directly connected to
the tank will also be dead legs during this time. Therefore;
[a] Minimise the length of pipe between tank and valve block. If there is a risk of temperature
increase in the pipe line [and therefore spoilage of the product], consider either insulation or
jacketing the connecting pipe to preserve the filling temperature.
[b] If there is a process such as fermentation in the tank, consider using the eco-matrix design
which has many advantages because all of the product is connected to the tank, or consider tank
valves such as type T with a direct connection [no piping] to the tank.
The cleaning of a tank and the cleaning of a line use different approaches. A line is filled and
cleaning depends on contact with all of internal surface and sufficient velocity for mechanical
scrubbing effect and most importantly to carry away the product residue. It is impractical and
wasteful to fill the tank for cleaning. Instead the cleaning effect is achieved through a spray [either
low pressure, large coverage or high pressure, directed jet]. There is a risk that the volume of
cleaning liquid in the tank will be insufficient to clean the product pipes directly connected to the
tank. There are several ways around this;
[c] Using one or more standard spray-balls allows you to select a CIP flow which should be at
least higher than the minimum required to wet the tank [see ESG tank and vent calculation file
[26]] and also high enough to give a velocity of 1m/s in the outlet pipe.
[d] Minimise the length of pipe from the tank to the valve block. The eco-matrix design or the tank
valve [T type] eliminates this pipe completely.
[e] If the cleaning needs to be high pressure, directed coverage [for example in a fermentation
vessel], the flow in the tank will generally not be enough to clean the outlet line. If an eco-matrix or
tank valve cannot be used, then another option is to put a branch on the CIP supply to the tank into
an extra CIP valve which is connected to the outlet line, so that the CIP can be pulsed directly into
the tank through the outlet pipe. See sketches below for example configurations.

6.1.08 Principle 8 – Minimise Product Connections to Tanks cont’d.
Options for cleaning of tank outlet
Fig 6.1.08.A: Option for Cleaning of Tank Outlet - A Fig 6.1.08.B: Option for Cleaning of Tank Outlet - B
Cleaning of tank outlet – A Cleaning of tank outlet - B

In this case the CIP supply is designed for 2 As in case A, there are two CIP supply
situations – cleaning tank [low volume], and flows, but the volume from the spray-ball is
cleaning pipe [high volume. Experience, or a sufficient for cleaning the outlet line.
requirement of the client, dictates that the
outlet pipe must be washed as a line

6.1.08 Principle 8 – Minimise Product Connections to Tanks cont’d.
Cleaning of tank inlet
Fig 6.1.08.C: Cleaning of Tank Inlet
Example: how to clean the tank inlet when the fill line is from the top.
Note: water valve allows burst rinse to recover product when emptying, divert valve allows fill line
6.1.09 and tank
Principle 9 – Select to be cleaned
hygienic in pulses.
equipment

6.1.09 Principle 9 – Select Hygienic Equipment
At the specification stage of a project, where possible, chose EHEDG certified equipment – the list
can be checked at the web address: http://www.ehedg.org and select “Certification” and then “List
of Certified Equipment” [48].
However, at the moment [Mar 2009], there are notable exceptions to the list of equipment so the
small and very dangerous word “all” must be excluded from your agreements with clients and
contractors! There are no tubular heaters, separators, decanters, homogenisers, or mixers [and
only one agitator] on the list. Only one type of temperature transmitter [made by Labom; ref
http://labom.com/labom/englisch/default.htm [49]] is certified. Only one type of non-return / check
valve [made by Ritag; ref http://www.ritag.com [50]] is certified.
Therefore the “grund norm” for selection is the agreement made with the client [Priciple1]. This
determines the acceptable standards for brewing, dairy and juice clients. If there is equipment that
is outside of the client’s recommended list, and is not on the EHEDG certification list [48], then
refer to the EHEDG publication number 8, “Hygienic equipment design criteria” [51], and to our
reference file “EHEDG Hygienic Design of Food Factories and Equipment,J.K” [1]. This will allow
you to identify the potential hygiene hazards in new equipment and to plan how to deal with them.
In summary, the key factors are:
[a] Full coverage by cleaning devices or in-line flow.

[b] Free-draining and with no sharp corners.
[c] Crevice-free.
[d] High standard of fabrication and welding at product contact surfaces.
If these hazards are present and there are no reasonable alternative suppliers, then the equipment
can be made acceptable, subject to client agreement, with these modifications:
[a] Adding additional, directed, cleaning devices [or in the worst case, inspecting the equipment
after cleaning and manually cleaning, or soaking].
[b] Allow for an air-blow, or add a sterilising step prior to production.
[c] Increase cleaning times until inspection and testing give good results, or add sterilising step.
[d] Re-work by equipment supplier.
Source
[1] power-point presentation file from Knuth Lorenzen, 2-Nov-2005, Tuchenhagen GmbH [52]
If the application is bio-processing, then the minimum standard is to use the EHEDG guidelines or
ASME BPE.

6.1.09 Principle 9 – Select Hygienic Equipment cont’d.
Pipe fittings for instruments
Fig 6.1.09.A: Pipe Fittings for Instruments
Process connections and pipe joints

Note that the “in-line” connections provide straight through cleaning path with no tees. There are no
dead legs for product to accumulate during operation, therefore it is easy and quick to clean compared
with the “tee-piece” connection.
Below, please see the disadvantages of a typical pipe union compared to the recommended flange or
DIN 11864 union – no crevices, metal stop, defined deformation of seal.
Source
[1] power-point presentation file from Knuth Lorenzen, “Hygienic Design of Food Factories and Equipment,
Mexico “ 31-Jan-2009, Tuchenhagen GmbH [53]

6.1.09 Principle 9 – Select Hygienic Equipment cont’d.
Fig 6.1.09.B: Design of Food Processing Machinery

6.1.10 Principle 10 – Specify Mechanical Installation Standards
Please refer to our in-house standard mechanical installation specification [54]. This includes
materials, welding and pipe arrangement.
The pictures below show the result of poor preparation of the pipe, and poor welding. Please note
that using the specification as the basis for the contract is not sufficient. On-site supervision and
checking of welds by qualified and experienced supervisors is essential to guarantee good quality.
Fig 6.1.10: Result of poor preparation of the pipe, and poor welding

6.1.11 Principle 11– Control Product Transfers and CIP
When the specification for the control system is being prepared, we can incorporate the philosophy
of respecting and recovering the product as follows:
[a] Allow for automatic programs to clean all product lines and equipment. Tank washes are
separate to line washes.
[b] Monitor the status of product contact lines and tanks so that we can ensure they are washed
[having “clean” status] before they are used, and that we can record the parameters of each
cleaning cycle [for times, temperature and conductivity].
[c] Allow for sequences of product transfer, and monitoring of time or quantities, so that the amount
of product going to drain or diluted with water is minimised.
[d] Monitor temperatures and times of product in storage.
[e] Allow for adequate cleaning of the lines which are exceptions to the principle of a single path for
product.
6.1.12 Principle 12 – Supervise the Installation to the Specified Standard
Finally, at the installation of the plant, we are closest to the time when inspections will take place,
and the visible evidence of how we respect the principles of hygienic design will be there for all to
see.

6.2 CIP – Cleaning In Place
6.2.1 Fundamentals Of Cleaning
Cleaning in place (CIP) can be defined as:

“The cleaning of complete items of plant or pipeline circuits without dismantling or opening of the
equipment and with little or no manual involvement on the part of the operator. The process
involves the jetting or spraying of surfaces or circulation of cleaning solutions through the plant
under conditions of increased turbulence and flow velocity.”
Acknowledgement : AJD Rowney [ed]: “CIP: Cleaning in Place” published by the Society of Dairy Technology 1990 [55]
The typical CIP process consists of the following operations:

• Preliminary Rinse: A rinse to drain with water [usually cold] to remove the bulk of solid
residues. For conservation purposes, the final rinse from the previous CIP is typically
recovered and used for this preliminary rinse.
• Detergent Wash: A circulation of hot caustic [typically 1.5% concentration at 75oC] to
remove any adhering soil.
• Intermediate Rinse: A rinse to drain with water is used to remove any detergent residues.
Not used unless an acid step is selected.
• Acid Wash: A circulation of hot acid [typically 0.75% concentration at 60oC] to remove
mineral deposits. This step is normally optional and may only be carried out once per week.
Acid washes have the ability to dissolve beer or milk-stone and remove hard water scale.
• Final Rinse: A rinse to the pre-rinse tank [as a water conservation measure] with good
quality potable water to remove any detergent residues.
• Drain: Allow a short time for the pipes and equipment to drain under gravity.
Some processes which are more sensitive to residual micro-organisms [e.g. consumer milk], also
require an additional step.
• Sanitation: A rinse to drain [with a hold step] with water injected with a disinfectant to
provide additional killing of micro-organisms. Alternatively, steam or hot water [95oC] may
be required for a “kosherisation” of the plant.
It is important that before cleaning commences, all process equipment and pipelines are properly
emptied of product by means of “pigging” or air purging. This ensures:
• Reduced product losses.
• Minimum cleaning cycles.
• Minimum product discharge into effluent and therefore reduced effluent costs.
• Reduced costs of detergents and improved cleaning efficiency.
To be successful, CIP has to be considered at the start of the design process for any hygienic
equipment or process plant. Attempts to fit a CIP system retrospectively to equipment which has
already been designed and installed are likely to prove expensive and are often not effective.

6.2.1.1 Water Supply
Water is used during all cleaning stages and it is important that the quality and degree of hardness
of the water is taken into consideration.
• Water supply – CIP station

Supplied rate must match maximum rinse to drain rate less the buffering capacity of
the fresh water tank.
• Water supply - flush or push-out points

Each point should use mix-proof valves to protect against contamination of the
water mains; note more protection can be provided by use of a “drop leg” from the
mains with a non-return valve and a nominal size drain valve to “freshen-up” the
branch pipe.
• Water quality
Water type may vary from normal potable water (this is minimum standard) to WFI
water (Water For Injection) - for pharmaceutical or biotech plants. The chloride
content should be below 50ppm to avoid corrosion of stainless steel [refer also to
section 5.1.1].
• Water hardness
Water hardness reduces the effectiveness of detergents and can leave deposits on
equipment and pipe-work – soft water [less than 30ppm calcium carbonate] is
recommended.
o Temporary hardness
- Calcium or magnesium carbonate
- Precipitates upon heating
- Precipitates in presence of alkali
o Permanent hardness
- Calcium or magnesium chlorides or sulphates
- Stable when heated
- Precipitates with alkali

6.2.1.2 Detergents
The basic functions of the detergents are:

• Physical: wetting of surfaces, dispersion of large agglomerates of soil to form finely divided
particulate matter and suspension of soil in solution.
• Chemical: dissolution of inorganic mineral scale by acid detergents, saponification of
lipophilic [fatty] components by alkaline detergents and hydrolysis of proteins.
• Conductivity to be well above that of water, with a linear relation between concentration
and conductivity – to allow easy detection of interface between water and detergent.
The following table lists the properties and functions of some various detergents.
Inorganic alkalis cause protein deposits to swell and dissolve. At high temperatures alkalis
“saponify” fat, converting it to water soluble salts.
1. Sodium Hydroxide 1 & 2 give high alkalinity, therefore should be handled with care.
2. Sodium Orthosilicate
2, 3, and 4 very effective for removing heavy soil.
3. Sodium Metasilicate
4. Trisodium Phosphate 5 and 6 give low alkalinity.
5. Sodium Carbonate Sodium hydroxide is the most commonly used detergent for the
6. Sodium Bicarbonate removal of heavy soils, however if used with hard water, it can
form insoluble precipitates that accumulate on surfaces in the
form of scale. Water softeners counter this (see below).
Acids are normally used for removal of tenacious soil or scale. They are corrosive, can
cause severe burns and may have to be used with corrosion inhibitors. They are less
efficient at removing heavy soils than alkaline detergents.
Inorganic: Nitric Acid In our process industries, nitric acid is the most commonly used
acid. In the concentrates industry, citric acid is the favoured acid.
Organic: Citric Acid
Surfactants Reduce surface tension and have a dispersing effect on deposits.
Anti-Foaming Agents Prevent foam formation generated by pumping action.
Water Softening Precipitation of calcium and magnesium ions from hard water in
order to avoid water scale deposition on equipment surfaces,
especially after final rinse.
Suspending Agents Sodium carboxymethyl cellulose or starch both assist in
maintaining undissolved soiling matter in suspension.
If you are in any doubt about a detergent proposed by the client, please check with the client what
seals and metals are currently being cleaned with this detergent and if there are any adverse
effects. If necessary, confirm with the chemical supplier.

6.2.1.3 Disinfectants for Sanitising Step
Disinfection is a treatment that kills micro-organisms and reduces loadings to a desired

concentration. It does not imply total killing (sterilisation). Where disinfection is important,
disinfectants are used to ensure microbiological loadings remain at low levels.
The ideal disinfectant should kill a broad spectrum of micro-organisms even when at low dilutions,
be inexpensive and have no adverse effect on plant or product. Unfortunately none meet all of
these requirements and compromises must be made. The following table lists the most commonly
used disinfectants.
Disinfectant Type Comments

Sodium Hypochlorite Used at concentrations of 50-300mg/l as a terminal sterilant in rinse
liquids. Has a number of disadvantages including its ability to cause
corrosion, it is unstable in acidic solutions and reacts with some
organic compounds to form taints.
Chlorine Dioxide Used at a concentrations of 0.1-0.5mg/l. At this concentration it is
nearly three times more effective as a biocide than sodium
hypochlorite. It is non-toxic, does not produce taints and does not
cause corrosion.
Iodine Iodine is mixed with surfactants to form preparations termed
iodophores. These are used at concentrations of 10mg/l. At high
concentrations iodine can be corrosive and cause taints.
Peracetic Acid Is often incorporated into final rinses as a terminal sterilant. It
decomposes to form acetic acid and hydrogen peroxide. It is used
cold at concentrations of 75-300mg/l. It is difficult to handle and is
corrosive leading to it being increasingly replaced by chlorine
dioxide.

6.2.2 Rules for Cleaning
The efficiency of cleaning is determined by a number of factors. The main factors are as follows:
• Contact time: Effective cleaning is time dependent. The longer the contact time between
detergent and soil, the greater chance for wetting, penetration, dissolving and suspending
of soil to be achieved.
• Chemical energy / Concentration: The cleaning effect is improved with increased
detergent concentrations up to a level where the cost and the dangers to plant become too
high. Alkali concentrations depend on the equipment to be cleaned. 1% is sufficient for
cleaning storage tanks and pipelines, 1 - 2% is recommended for multipurpose tanks and
heat exchangers, and 2 - 3% for cleaning UHT plants. Up to 5% may be necessary to clean
heavily soiled equipment. 0.5 to 1% acid is sufficient for most equipment; with 1 – 2% for
evaporators or UHT plants.
• Thermal energy / Temperature: In general the higher the temperature of cleaning, the
more effective the cleaning action. Remember the rule that the rate of chemical reaction
doubles with every 10oC increase in temperature.
• Physical energy / Turbulence: The physical scrubbing action in a CIP system depends on
achieving turbulent flow [defined as a Reynolds number of greater than 2500]. In addition,
we need to be able to carry away the soil without leaving deposits downstream; the
guideline minimum velocity is 1.5m/s in pipes. Note for tanks the recommended flow
depends on achieving a complete wetting, or impact energy via a directed jet [refer to ESG
tank and vent calculation file [26] for methodology], but this flow is usually much less than
the outlet pipe needs – take account of this increasing the flow, or pulsing to the tank outlet
pipe [refer to 6.1.08].
The effectiveness of a CIP will be obvious if a plant looks and smells clean on inspection, however,
it will also be necessary to determine effectiveness by means of a laboratory test for residual
micro-organisms, or via a “rapid ATP” test, with a value of less than 100mg/l being generally
acceptable.
If the results are unsatisfactory, then one or more of the four factors can be increased, or the
design can be changed to increase the flow to a particular trouble-spot.

6.2.3 URS for the Design of a CIP System
In order to properly design any process plant it is important to assess the basic requirements. The
following sections outline in detail what must be considered.
6.2.3.1 Product-Specific Requirements
• Soiling
Knowledge of the type of soiling helps in selecting the appropriate cleaning chemicals and
cleaning regime.
In a dairy plant, the soil mainly comprises Proteins, Carbohydrates, Mineral Salts and Fat,
so the detergent of choice will be alkali-based. Alkalis are good for dissolution of proteins
and carbohydrates, and effective for fat removal. An acid-based solution will be used also
to deal with the mineral salts – milk scale. For the higher temperature processes
[pasteurisation, evaporation, UHT], factors like chemical concentration and temperature are
adjusted for better cleaning effect.
The microbiological stability of the product will have a bearing on whether a sanitising step
may be necessary or not.
• Sensitivity to Water
Water added to certain products can have two detrimental effects. Firstly it tends to
support more micro-organisms to grow which will reduce the shelf-life, and secondly it will
dilute high value concentrates. Therefore in some cases it is not enough to drain the final
rinse water – it must be “dried out” also.
In a powder plant, dryer and bag filters and some transport lines need occasionally to be
wet cleaned as part of the CIP. These need a drying out step.

6.2.3.2 Process-Specific Requirements
From the P&IDs we can generate a list of “targets” for CIP so that every product route or storage
tank is cleaned. This list will determine the number of separate CIP circuits [ideally 9 to 12 targets
per circuit] and whether there are one or more CIP systems.
• The basic list of CIP targets is categorised as:

o Routes or lines – a velocity target of 1.5m/s [see 6.2.2 above] means different
line sizes require different CIP flow rates.
o Tanks – requiring spray cleaning either as low pressure coverage [via spray-
ball[s]] at 30-50l/min per metre of tank diameter or as high pressure directed jet
[flow can be reduced by 35 to 50%] depending on the soil to be removed.
o Package equipment – such as separators or PHEs, may have additional
requirements of flow and pressure.
• Product quality and geographical arrangement of plant

o In dairy processes there is usually one CIP system for “raw” or un-
pasteurised milk and another for pasteurised product. The latter requires a
higher quality CIP with final sanitisation step.
o In a brewery the part of the process before green beer separation requires a
CIP system primarily based on alkali cleaning. After green beer separation
from the yeast, the CIP is primarily acid based [to remove beer-stone] with
periodic alkali cleaning.
o The geographical spread of equipment in the process plant may also
influence whether a centralised or de-centralised CIP system set-up is
decided upon.
- If all the process equipment is contained in an area which is quite confined,
then a centralised CIP system makes more sense.
- If the process is segregated and spread out over a very wide area, then a
more de-centralised option would be appropriate. In this way, chemicals may
be stored centrally and piped around the entire process in a ring mains type
set-up.
• Tank blanketing gases

In some processes a pressurised blanket gas is to prevent air [which promotes
microbiological growth] or airborne contamination entering the product.
o A consequence of this is that the internal gas pressure will add to the overall
delivery pressure required from the CIP supply pumps.
o Furthermore there may be a reaction between the blanket gas and the detergent.
For example, in many breweries, CO2 is used as a blanket gas. Caustic (NaOH),
reacts with CO2, reduces both tank pressure and the strength of the caustic by
converting part of it to Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3). As a result it will be necessary
to extend the CIP time to compensate for the reduced concentration of caustic;
and may, unless separate gas piping is used, also extend the time due to a re-
pressurisation step.
• Drying out
If required, systems can be ‘dried-out’ after CIP drain down by a fan or set of fans blowing
warm air to a designated exhaust point.

6.2.3.3 Client-Specific Requirements
The CIP system design can be influenced by client-specific requirements such as:
• Process turnaround times
Ideally, the client provides us with a production plan. As a minimum, we need to know:
o When does production run and when are process areas available for cleaning.
o How many shifts are run and what are the suitable cleaning times.
o What areas can be cleaned together.
• Local regulations / site rules
Certain clients are very particular about when CIP can be carried out, for example, for
safety, they may decide that CIP should only take place at night-time or on a specific shift
designated for CIP.
Some clients will have a clear plan of what detergents and CIP regime they wish to adopt. If
it is a client that knows their product very well with years of experience in producing and
cleaning on their plant, then this knowledge should be respected.
Other clients will not be so clear or rigid in what detergents or CIP regime they require. This
is sometimes left to the discretion of the process designers to suggest an appropriate
option.
• Local / International relevant regulatory bodies
Clients who supply product into a market regulated by the FDA will be subjected to frequent
audits. We need to find out what specific requirements, e.g. for water quality will apply.
Dairies in the USA will follow PMO guidelines. These guidelines dictate that sanitisation
must be part of the cleaning process [Item 11r [56]: “The product-contact surfaces of all
multi-use containers, equipment and utensils used in the handling, storage or transportation
of milk shall be sanitised before each usage.”]
“Kosher” products have to be made on a plant that is cleaned with an acceptable method,
usually hot water [as close to boiling as can be pumped].

6.2.4 Plant Design
In general CIP systems are classified into two basic groups, single use CIP or recoverable CIP.
These groups may then be designed for either centralised cleaning or decentralised cleaning.
6.2.4.1 Single Use CIP Systems
Single use systems use a cleaning solution only once. This is normally a small system, ideal for
small plants and located close to the equipment being cleaned. The detergent is only used once
and the washing solution is sent to waste. This approach prevents cross-contamination and allows
for infrequent cleaning processes and low circulation volumes.
A single use system is recommended in the following cases:

• Equipment that is heavily soiled, where reuse of cleaning solution is unfeasible.
• Applications that require a fresh cleaning media with very low micro-organism levels.
• Cleaning tasks that require low volumes of cleaning media.
• Restricted installation space.
• Use of cleaning detergents that are strongly aggressive against pipe and equipment
materials.
6.2.4.2 Recoverable CIP Systems
In a recoverable CIP system the detergent solutions are recovered and re-used as many times as
possible. This system normally consists of:
• a pre-rinse tank [to recover the final rinse, the pre-rinse removes as much soil as possible],
• an alkali tank,
• an acid tank,
• a fresh water tank [the cleanest tank, used to supply the final rinse],
• a heating system.
These tanks are sized to cater for the circulation volume of the largest target on each separate CIP
circuit. A re-use system is recommended in the following cases:
• A preliminary rinse can remove a high percentage of soil.

• Applications where a large buffer capacity is required.
• Consistent demands on detergents from the various cleaning tasks.
• Where expensive detergents are used.
• Cleaning of complex systems.

6.2.4.3 Centralised or De-centralised CIP Systems
Centralised CIP System

This system is normally used in smaller plants with relatively short CIP pipelines. This system is
normally highly automated. The detergent solutions and hot water are kept hot in insulated tanks
and the required temperatures are maintained by heat exchangers. The final rinse water is
collected in the rinse water tank and is re-used as the pre-rinse in the next cleaning programme. A
high level of automation is required for this type of system with high and low level switches in
tanks, temperature sensors and conductivity sensors to determine the concentration of cleaning
solutions.
Decentralised CIP System

This system is an attractive option for large plants where extremely long pipelines would be
needed from a centralised CIP system. A large CIP centre is replaced by a number of smaller
satellite CIP units, closer to groups of process equipment. Detergents are normally centrally stored
in these systems and then supplied to the satellite units. The supply and heating of rinsing water is
carried out at the satellite units. This system minimises the water and steam consumption and
reduces the load on effluent systems compared to a centralised system due to the smaller volumes
of cleaning solutions used. Single use detergents are normally used with a decentralised system.
6.2.4.4 A Note on Effluent
Effluent from the CIP of a plant can contain organic and inorganic matter that is then subject to
biological decomposition by micro-organisms. Oxygen is required for this decomposition and if
polluted water is discharged in rivers, the dissolved oxygen in the water will be reduced due to the
demand by micro-organisms. The oxygen required to decompose solids in effluent is used to
determine the level of pollution and whether effluent treatment is required or not. The following
parameters are used to assess this level:
• Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD): The amount of oxygen demand required to decompose
solid matter at 20°C for 5 - 7 days.
• Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): The amount of oxygen required for chemical oxidation.
Effluent charges are typically based on the pH and COD of the discharge as well as the volume
and the cost of disposing of effluent from a CIP system can be substantial. Savings can be made
through efficient use of detergents and water and by using re-use and multi-use systems. In
addition to this, savings in effluent treatment costs can be made by the following means:
• The use of burst rinsing during CIP. This is more efficient in removing soils and uses less
water.
• Product recovery using a pigging system or air purging reduces the organic loading on
effluent and obviously reduce product wastage.
• If strong alkali detergents are used, the effect of pH in effluent can be minimised by mixing
them with acid solutions.

6.2.4.5 Control and Instrumentation
As a guide, please use a simplified version of a standard tank wash sequence as follows:
No. Step Name Step end condition/Comments

1 Pre-rinse Step time elapsed
2 Caustic push-out (PO) Step time or volume [target specific: not accessible to
water to [target] tank top operator]
Steps 2-4 are designed to minimise dilution of detergent
3 Drain tank LSL in target tank
4 Caustic PO water to CIP Caustic PO water conductivity set point (with time delay)
station
5 Caustic Wash Step time at set-point temperature
6 Water PO Caustic to Step time or volume [target specific: not accessible to
[target] tank top operator]
Steps 6-8 are designed to maximise recovery of detergent
8 Water PO Caustic to CIP Water PO Caustic conductivity set point (with time delay)
station
9 Rinse Step time elapsed
10 As 2 to 8 with Acid Steps 12 & 16 use acid conductivity parameters [12 & 14]
17 Rinse Step time elapsed
18 As 2 to 8 with Hot Water Steps 20 & 24 use hot water temperature parameters [16 &
18]
25 Final rinse Step time elapsed
Interface detection
The primary factor in good detection of the interface between water and detergent is “single path”
process design [see 6.1.07]. Unfortunately, when washing heat exchangers, or tanks, the interface
is inevitably not clean and some dilution will occur. On the CIP return line, we normally require:
• Conductivity - to detect the interface.
• Temperature - to monitor the required detergent temperature.
• Flow - to monitor that the water or detergent has filled the return line.

6.2.4.5 Control and Instrumentation cont’d.
CIP Flow Control

The flow of CIP solution needs to be varied according to the requirements of the target being
washed:
• The simplest method is using an orifice [set by trial and error].
• The most efficient method is to put a variable speed drive on the supply pump.
Temperature Control
The temperature can be controlled by using a heat exchanger on a circulation loop for each
detergent tank, and using the software to ensure that a wash can begin only when the desired
temperature is reached.
Alternatively, with a heat exchanger on each wash circuit, the CIP solution can be heated to the
required temperature [once circulation has commenced the temperature rise is not excessive].
Note that once the hot wash starts, there will be a fall in temperature [up to 5oC] due to heat lost
from uninsulated pipes. When a CIP solution is sprayed under pressure into a vessel, there can be
a considerable fall in temperature [up to 10oC]. In effect, the detergent step takes several minutes
before the return temperature is at a high enough level to begin counting down the desired step
time.

6.2.4.6 Tank Cleaning
There are a number of different cleaning devices available to clean vessels. Selection of a
particular cleaning device type and model is based on the following factors:
• Vessel size and shape.

• Products to be cleaned.
It is important that there is a full wetting of the vessel interior and all equipment in the tank and that
internal fittings such as agitators do not create shadow areas where soil cannot be removed. A
conical or dished end with central outlet is recommended to ensure full CIP drainability. The rate of
delivery of cleaning fluids must be balanced with rates of draining so that flooding does not occur
thereby negating the cleaning action of the spray cleaning device. This can be accomplished by
delivering the CIP solution in series of bursts. The level of cleaning solution in the vessel must be
kept as low as possible and should fluctuate during cleaning for the following reasons:
• To prevent a layer of soil forming on the side of the vessel.

• To prevent floating fat or foam that cannot be removed.
The CIP return pipe should be designed to avoid air accumulating in the return system. This air
would hinder the cleaning of the return pipe work.
Cleaning Device Selection

The following cleaning device types are supplied by Tuchenhagen:
• Spray Balls – Available as both static and rotating [rotating spray balls can reduce
consumption of water and cleaning agents by approximately 50%]. The spray pattern for
static spray balls can be selected to suit the application and vessel type. The spray ball
normally works by spraying cleaning solution to the upper sides of the vessel and soil
particles are dissolved and rinsed off by the falling film.
• Rotating Jet Cleaner – the rotating jet cleaner applies the cleaning solution in a focused
jet to a section of the vessel wall. The cleaning jet runs down the tank in spirals giving the
same effect as a pulse pause operation. The cleaning effect of the section is improved by 4
to 8 times due to the increased energy and detergent consumption is decreased by
approximately 50%. Various spray patterns are available to suit the vessel design cleaning
requirements.
• Orbital Cleaner – Orbital cleaners are designed to give complete cleaning coverage of
vessels. They allow very economic use of detergents and are completely self cleaning.
Orbital cleaners can be supplied with or without an external motor.
CIP Return Pumps

CIP return pumps from vessels are usually self-priming centrifugal pumps. This means that CIP
can be pumped from tanks even if the CIP contains air. However self priming pumps cannot be
throttled and are very sensitive to soiling. The suction piping for a self priming pump should include
a dirt trap if soiling is expected, also suction piping should be minimised to reduce priming time.
CIP return pumps should have the same, or preferably slightly higher, capacity than the supply
pumps.

6 Chapter Summary
The definitions [according to the EHEDG] of hygienic equipment and CIP
When to focus on the principles of hygienic design
12 principles of hygienic design, with examples
CIP fundamentals – water, detergents and disinfectants
Rules for cleaning [time, heat energy, chemical energy, and physical energy]
Design of a CIP system

7 P&ID Guidelines
7.1 Sound Engineering Practice [SEP]
These principles of “Sound Engineering Practice” form part of the intellectual property of GEA Ireland
(GPTIE) and are restricted to in-house design control.
They will be used on internal training courses1 and also form part of the competence of GPTIE
engineers2.
At regular intervals [at least annually], the GEA SEP principles are to be reviewed, because;
[a] By their nature, SEPs are subject to change, responding to greater knowledge or experience,
[b] Equipment designs change or are modified, and need to be reviewed so that relevant changes to
standard equipment are incorporated in SEPs.
Exceptions to any SEP are to be checked with a senior process / electrical engineer and flagged at
the design review stage.
NOTES
1: Tu_Varivent_Valves, Training_Pumps_basicskill_GPTIE_Jan04, Training_PressureDrop_lvl1_skill_GPTIE_Jan04
2: level 2 in relevant design skills, and level “a” in relevant equipment / technologies

7.1.01 SEP for Varivent, Ecovent, Butterfly and Control Valves from GEA
SEP 1 - function Classify all these types of valves in the project [from P&IDs or equipment list] into these types:
close-off flow [type –A, -B, -C, -L, any butterfly or shuttle valve W, X, Y] or mix [type –E], or
control flow.
SEP1.1 - close-off These valves are to close against flow [minimises water hammer] [exception: valves on tank
emptying – see SEP 4 below. Use “Components” catalogue [57] to check valve closing
direction.
If liquid will be trapped between two close-off valves, check for risk of thermal expansion /
hydraulic lock and ensure one valve can relieve [expansion pressure can lift seat] or else add a
relieving valve [type Q or safety valve if required].
SEP1.2 - mixing Minimise dead-legs by placing stop valves close to the mixing valve [at downstream, dead-leg
side].
SEP1.3 - control Control valves do not provide full shut-off. If this is necessary, add an automatic close-off valve.
Use “components” catalogue section 3.1/9 [57] to size Kv value.
SEP 2 - mix- As a minimum, CIP and product operations must be separated by mix-proof or block and bleed
proofing valves.
SEP2.1 - K or D Select K type when separating CIP detergents or CIP water, otherwise use D type.
SEP2.2 - other Type C has a double seal [a pressure spike could cause mixing of incompatible stream] but it is
mix-proof types an economical alternative, e.g. on suction side of CIP stations]. Type B, with balancer, protects
against pressure spikes. Type R has radial sealing to minimise losses in valve activation. Type
T is a tank bottom valve to minimise dead legs on tanks.
SEP2.3 - VSC Connect VSC to mix-proof valves [except type K]. Allow one VSC per product line, maximum
15 valves per 1” VSC on a 1” line. [NOTE in process description: VSC not allowed activate if
any of connected valves activated].
Locate VSC upstream of CIP supply valve or downstream of CIP return valve, so that dead leg
to VSC is not exposed to product or process water. Refer to file: VSC_flowrates_from
GEAFlowComponents_Aug99
SEP2.4 - Seat lift Use seat lift if the product is sticky such as sugar or yeast, and would adhere to the seal unless
it was cleaned.
SEP 3 - line size Size the valves to the local flow using ESG pressure drop calculation file [36] to check
allowable product velocities and effect on pump duty.
SEP 4 - pressure Size the actuator using “Components” catalogue [2.1/4-10] [57].
SEP 4 - hygiene All product valves must be on a CIP route. If there is no flow through the valve on CIP, put a
note on the P&ID “minimise dead-leg”.
Tank emptying valves should be top to bottom flow, for complete draining – this is allowed to
contravene SEP1.1 since pressures are normally < 0b [g].
SEP 5 - materials Select seals from “Components” catalogue [0/9] [57]. If client requires material certificates,
note requirements on valve list sheet in equipment list and in valve order.
SEP 6 - electrical Configure control cap as double feed-back, solenoid in valve cabinet, 24V dc, unless client /
site requirements are different. ATEX zoning affects the selection of feedback switches and
solenoids.
SEP 7 - access Valves must be located where they can be maintained, either at ground level or on a tank or
platform.
SEP 8 - noise Calculate Kv for control valves [3.1 /9 of components catalogue [57]] at normal flow duties. If
the valve would operate < 20% of selected Kv for the lowest normal flow, these is a danger of

excessive noise. Check design with a senior engineer.
7.1.02 SEP for Overflow [Type Q] Valves from GEA
SEP 1 - function Classify all these [Q] valves in the project [from P&IDs or equipment list] into these types:
relieve flow [type –B, -L, ] or bypass type [type –E], or control flow [-B].
SEP1.1 - relief For safety of personnel, [i.e. where liquid/gas is hazardous] or for cases where pressure relief
value is critical, use safety relief valve type 488 or equivalent instead; otherwise, Q type is
acceptable. Pipe relief line to ground or drain .
SEP1.2 - bypass Use at each positive pump [includes homogenisers] in process lines.
SEP1.3 - control Select a back-pressure to apply to product and note effect on pump. Note, it prevents back-
flow, and therefore acts as a non-return valve. Therefore also check for trapped liquid as per
1.1 of Varivent valves.
SEP 2 - mix- N/A

proofing
SEP 3 - line size As for Varivent valves. For relief valves, the relief line and valve housing may be sized
according to the flow required to reduce the pressure in the system to safe levels.
SEP 4 - pressure Size the spring range using “Components” catalogue [3.3/3] [57].
SEP 4 - hygiene If it’s located on a product line, the valve must activate in CIP to clean the seats. For a relief
line allow for loss of CIP during pulsing operation.
SEP 5 - materials As for Varivent valves.
SEP 6 - electrical Select one feed-back in lantern.

NOTE for process description – if the valve lifts, it should not put the program into error
[exclude from generic V/M errors], just give an alarm message.
SEP 7 - access As for Varivent valves.
SEP 8 - noise Select spring range [3.3 /3 of components catalogue [57]] so that the normal duty is mid-range
on spring. If the valve would operate at lowest spring tension, there is a danger of excessive
noise. If selection cannot be made, check design with a senior engineer.

7.1.03 SEP for Vacuum Relief [Type V] Valves from GEA
SEP 1 - function Exclusively for vacuum protection of enclosed tanks. Must be protected against freezing, and
restrictions to air inflow.
SEP1.1 - relief Activates at minimum vacuum of 25mm water gauge of -2.5mbar. Normally not suitable on its
own for protection against collapse of hot CIP vapour.
SEP 2 - mix- N/A

proofing
SEP 3 - line size Size according to air inflow required, using chart on components catalogue [3.3/5] [57], against
vacuum rating allowed for tank.
SEP 4 - pressure No protection against over-pressure. Self-acting on vacuum < -2.5mbar.
SEP 4 - hygiene If it’s located on a product tank, the valve must activate in CIP to clean the seat. Specify the
pneumatic lifting actuator [needs 5b air to open against maximum 3b in tank].
CIP fluid is collected in an integral drip pan, with 22mm – 36mm OD drain [depends on size of
valve] to be collected in funnel and drain pipe.
Allow for loss of CIP during pulsing operation.
SEP 6 - electrical Optional feed-back under drip pan.


7.1.04 SEP for Safety Relief [Type 488 and 483 Stericom] Valves from GEA
SEP 1 - function Protection of personnel from rupture of pipes or vessels containing hazardous fluids or gases,
or protection of equipment when pressure setting is critical.
Stericom types contain bellows-type seal, suitable for pharmaceutical application. Type 483 is
for tanks or valves. Type 484 is for dead-space free tank connection only.
Varivent type 488 is for dairy, food, beverage and brewing applications.
SEP1.1 - relief Run vent pipe to external or safe area [not linked to other vents]. Observe installation
guidelines in manual to avoid a pipe layout that would allow liquid to accumulate over the lifting
disk.
SEP 2 - mix- N/A

proofing
SEP 3 - line size Stericom Type 483 sized according to table in Components catalogue 3.2/4 [57]; Stericom type
484 sized to 3.2/7 [57]; Varivent type 488 sized to 3.2/11 [57].
SEP 4 - pressure Specify the pressure at which the valve must lift. This cannot be varied on site.
SEP 4 - hygiene If it’s located on a product line, the valve must activate in CIP to clean the seats. Specify the
pneumatic lifting device H8.
Allow for loss of CIP during pulsing operation.
SEP 6 - electrical Option – proximity switch for H8.


7.1.05 SEP for Centrifugal Pumps [Type TP, KN] from GEA
3
SEP 1 - function These pumps add a differential pressure to liquids in a flow range 1 to 200m /h, maximum 90m
flow head. It is for sanitary applications where the liquid is less than 500cP. The pump will
operate at a point determined by the system back pressure and the “pump curve” for the
selected impeller / model. See SEP 2 below.
SEP1.1 - direction These pumps do not block liquid flow in either direction.
If reverse flow is a possibility, and it is fitted with a speed drive, a specific set-up configuration
is required to avoid errors in speed drive.
SEP1.2 - starting Rated for up to 15 starts per hour. It is not suitable for pulse operation.
SEP1.3 - control Pump operating flow can be controlled by speed drive or by control valve on discharge.
SEP 2 - sizing Use the ESG pressure drop calculation file [36] to calculate the duty of the pump. Warning
levels in the file point where NPSH is low [redesign system / select special pump] or liquid
velocity is high [check client requirements].
Specify the duty to the pump supplier / manufacturer, who is given the responsibility to select
the correct model / impeller / motor based on this data. Check the pump type proposed by the
manufacturer – it is to be mid-range on curve and ideally be one impeller size below maximum
allowed in housing.
SEP2.1 - routes If the flow can increase due to changes in routing or operating requirements [CIP, or options],
make a separate calculation for this duty and provide all relevant information to the supplier.
SEP2.2 - motor Consider the requirements for over-sizing the motor if operating conditions allowed for “run-
out”, i.e. the pump operating at the end of the pump curve due to absence of system back-
pressure.
Consider the number of starts per hour, especially for CIP supply pumps and pumps operating
to maintain a level or pressure.
SEP2.3 - sealing The seal protects the motor from the liquid in the housing; it allows part of the fluid to lubricate
the seal surface. NEVER run the pump without liquid in the line – the seal will overheat and
break.
Consider flushed seals for CIP supply pumps and pumps where product is at temperature
>60°C, or is likely to crystallise or harden when the pump is inactive. Double or balanced seal
sets are used to prevent leakage of the fluid to the atmosphere, or for high suction pressure.
SEP 3 - pressure Find the maximum dead-head pressure that the selected pump can generate, and check the
pressure rating of the connected piping system.
SEP 4 - hygiene Pump must be on a CIP route. Check if pump needs to operate in CIP, if not, put a note on the
process description / activation table to “jog” pump a limited number of times in CIP. If pump
housing needs to be drained [usual in pharmaceutical applications] then specify VTP drain
valve]
SEP 5 - materials Select seals from “Components” catalogue [0/9] [57]. If client requires material certificates,
note requirements on pump sheet in equipment list and in pump order.
SEP 6 - electrical Configure pump as 50Hz 400V standard IEC motor, with thermistors if necessary, unless client
/ site requirements are different. Select stainless steel shroud. ATEX zoning affects the
selection of motors, thermistors, cable and glands.
SEP 7 - access Pump must be located where it can be maintained [see section 4.2.3]. There is approx. 80mm
clearance under the motor. If more is required, fit the pump to a box section frame.
SEP 8 - noise See SEP 2 [NPSH] above.

7.1.06 SEP for Piping Systems from GEA

also refer to GPTIE Mechanical Specification [54]
SEP 1 - function Classify all these systems [from P&IDs] into these types: hygienic, hazardous fluids, utilities.
Note that “tubing” is the correct description for the typical stainless steel “pipe” we use in our
installations, and that “pipes” are defined by reference to schedules of pipe thicknesses.
Refer to section 5.1 to specify the appropriate pipes or tubes for the project.
SEP1.1 - hygienic Consider CIP as the prime requirement. CIP flow to be a minimum of 1.5m/s in any part of
hygienic pipe system.
Avoid or minimise dead-legs [Length / Diameter <= 0.5].
SEP1.2 - hazard Specify earthing at each pipe connection to dissipate static charge for hazardous fluids or
powders with risk of explosion or fire.
Concentrated detergents are hazards and must be carried in Sch. 5 pipe or double pipe, to
minimise dangers of leaks.
SEP1.3 - utilities Service pressure is outside our control; consider the available pressure and specify pressure
reducing sets, if required.
Refer to section 5.3 for guidelines on steam and condensate arrangements.
SEP 2 - line size Size the pipes to the local flow using ESG pressure drops calculation file [36] to check
allowable product velocities and effect on pump duty.
SEP 3 - pressure Generally adopt 5b as the design pressure. This corresponds with the “standard” actuator
selection [see 4.1 / SEP 4] for GEA Flow Components valves with compressed air pressure
of 6b.
Check the multiple of pipe diameter by design pressure [<5000 generally, or <2000 for
hazardous fluids]. Below these limits, use SEP, above use the requirements of the PED at
the defined class [ref section 2.3].
SEP3.1 - hammer Consider any shut-off valve or positive displacement pump where liquid can suddenly stop
due to normal or fail operation of valve or pump.
Ensure valves close against flow. If no fail-safe relief is possible [given the valves as required
or used in the process], specify a Q-type valve discharging safely to drain. Specify Q-type
valves at positive displacement pumps so that discharge-line pressure can lift seat to relieve
to upstream side.
Note in process description / activation matrix – on-delay of pumps, off-delay of valves.
SEP3.2 - vacuum If due to siphoning, or collapse of vapour after CIP, or water hammer, vacuum can be created
in the system, provide vacuum break valves so as to allow the pipes to drain out.
SEP3.3 - expansion Stainless tube will expand approximately 1.7mm per metre when heated from 0°C to 100°C.
In lengths < 5m where elbows are free to move, compensation for this expansion is usually
not necessary.
The mechanical installation specification makes it the contractor’s responsibility to cater for
expansion by sliding supports, pipe loops, or compensators. GPTIE must note, on layout or
otherwise, the fixed points in each pipe >5m straight length [usually at equipment, or where
passing though a wall, or as designated].

7.1.06 SEP for Piping Systems from GEA cont’d.
SEP3.4 - safety [Pressure] Consider if the pressure can exceed the design pressure and find the weakest
equipment or tubing in the system. If this equipment or tubing is of a lower rating that the
possible maximum pressure in a system, protect the equipment with a rated safety valve
[section 7.1.04]
[Temperature] If the pipe surface temperature is generally at a temperature of >60°C and
is within normal reach of operators, it must be marked on the P&ID as requiring insulation.
SEP3.5 - venting / Line must be capable of being filled and emptied.

draining
On closed loops [e.g. circulating water for heat exchangers], ensure high points can be
vented, and low points can be drained, with the addition of manual valves [for first filling].
SEP 4 - hygiene Line must be on a CIP route. If there is no flow through the line on CIP, put a note on the
P&ID “minimise dead-leg”.
Line must be free-draining to atmosphere. If a non-draining section [U-section] in the pipe
layout is unavoidable, add an automatic drain valve for use in CIP [and add a note to the
process description].
Specify line filters [M&S angular type], mesh 1.5mm, on delivery side of CIP pumps to
trap residual dirt or particles.
Product filters may be specified by client. Check the pressure drop, and if a proprietary
filter is specified [e.g. bag-type] note that many are not CIP cleanable and may have
dead-legs. Advise client of any breaches in hygiene or CIP due to the client specification.
The responsibility for manual cleaning will be with the client.
SEP 5 - materials Select seals from “Components” catalogue [0/9] [57]. If client requires material
certificates, note requirements on mechanical installation specification and in contract /
order.
Tubing to be AISI 316L or 304 to a defined standard [DIN 11850, or ASTM A270] for
pharmaceutical or high quality hygienic systems.
SEP 6 - insulation For thermal efficiency, steam, condensate, chilled water and hot water pipes must be
insulated – refer to mechanical installation specification.
SEP 7 - access Equipment must be located where it can be maintained, either at ground level or on a
tank or platform. Pipes can be carried in overhead racks.

7.2 Selection of Appropriate Pump Types
7.2.1 Overview of Pump Types, and Reference Material
Pumps are commonly grouped into 2 classes; those which produce pressure by accelerating the
liquid [roto-dynamic or centrifugal type], and those which move volume [positive displacement
type].
Fig 7.2.1.A: Pump Types
There are useful reference files for further reading:
From TBS: Manual for the design of Pipe systems and pumps [20]
From Fristam: ABC of pumps, published in a revised edition in 2005 [19]
GPTIE training courses: Training_Pumps_Lvl1_GPTIE_Apr07 [58]

7.2.1 Overview of Pump Types, and Reference Material cont’d.
The operating characteristics of each type of pump is illustrated below. A centrifugal pump has a
characteristic flat curve with the pressure [representing pressure added by the pump] decreasing
with flow, whereas a positive displacement pump typically moves the same volume flow regardless
of pressure.
Fig 7.2.1.A: Comparison of Pump Responses
The “dead head” represents the pressure added by a centrifugal pump when the outlet is closed.
The “System” represents the pressure drop in the piping and equipment downstream of the pump.
As flow and velocity increase, the system pressure increases. The pressure drop at zero flow
represents the static head, or the pressure required to lift the liquid to the discharge point.

7.2.2 Centrifugal Type – Where to Use it
A centrifugal pump takes a liquid in at the centre of a rotating impeller and accelerates it by moving
it along the vanes to the discharge neck at the top right of the impeller housing. The fast moving
liquid is suddenly slowed down to pass through the outlet. This is what generates the pressure at
the discharge point. Looking from the motor side, the motor and the impeller move in a clockwise
direction.
Key features:
1 Impeller A Mechanical seal

3 Pump cover 7 Shaft
55 Key to join motor stub shaft to shaft 7
Fig 7.2.2: Centrifugal Pump
Centrifugal pumps have very wide applications in our business. They are cheaper than similarly
sized positive displacement pumps, are easy to clean, and many types have EHEDG certification.
They are not good for cases where the suction pipe is not flooded [CIP return from a tank], or for
low flow-rates [under 5m3/h requires a careful selection] or media which is sensitive to shear
[because of the acceleration caused by the impeller] or media which have a viscosity greater than
300cP [note some manufacturers will supply centrifugal pumps for higher viscosities].

7.2.3 Self-Priming Centrifugal Type – Where to Use it
A self-priming centrifugal pump is a mechanical modification of the impeller housing so as to tackle

one fundamental weakness of centrifugal pumps – the requirement for flooded suction. Each
manufacturer has a different approach. MDM put a reservoir on the outlet [to maintain prime].
Fristam and Hilge have liquid ring pumps which depend on a gradually deepening channel behind
the impeller to create an enhanced suction. Alfa Laval developed a cartwheel type impeller to
create a wide liquid ring. APV [Ws+] use an inducer [a “pre-impeller”] to create a liquid ring, plus a
small pilot pipe refilling the suction from the discharge to create a very effective and efficient self-
priming pump. Very recently [Summer 2008], GEA have released a self-priming centrifugal based
on the TP pump which has a good chance of being the first EHEDG certified self-priming pump. It
is efficient [40% compared to a typical 25% for a conventional liquid ring pump], it uses an inducer
which is eccentrically mounted to maintain a liquid “well” while it creates a liquid ring, and does not
need a pipe connection from the discharge to the suction. It does need to be piped to be at a low
point.
Fig 7.2.3: Self-Priming Centrifugal Pump
Self-priming centrifugal pumps are almost always used ONLY for CIP return from tanks. Most
types are not designed in a hygienic way and would therefore be unsuitable for product. Even the
APV [Ws+] and the more recent GEA models [TPS] are less efficient than standard centrifugal
motors and therefore have a high power requirement. They are not suitable for generating high
pressure – the usual limit is 4bar for “conventional” types and 6b for the APV and GEA types.

7.2.4 Rotary Lobe Positive Displacement Type – Where to Use it
A rotary lobe pump draws liquid into a central inlet between two counter rotating lobes, and as the
lobes rotate each carries a fixed pocket of liquid around until they meet on the opposite side, where
they are squeezed together and “escape” through the centrally mounted outlet. Note that the pump
creates enough suction to prime itself, and that the flow is necessarily “pulsed” because of the time
interval between suction and delivery. Increasing the number of lobes reduces the effect of
pulsation. [A bi-lobe or scimitar type is worst for pulsation but can be selected for the most shear-
sensitive products. Conventionally we use a tri-lobe. There are 4-lobes available also, which is
best at reducing pulsation].
In a lobe pump there is clearance between the lobes and the impeller casing which allows a certain
amount of the liquid to be carried back to the suction. This is called slippage and it is a
consequence of having a clearance for the lobes. Slippage decreases as viscosity increases.
Pumps which are designed for viscous materials are very poor at pumping water or CIP.
Fig 7.2.4: Rotary Lobe Pump Operation
Rotary lobe pumps are used for liquids with a viscosity higher than 300cP, or for shear-sensitive
liquids. They are typically used for cold cream, flavours, colours, food oils and yeast. The Alfa
Laval SRU, and the Waukesha Universal II series are among several rotary lobe pumps with
EHEDG certification.

7.2.5 Design Rules for Pumps and Fail-Safe Features
At the simplest level we are concerned with the following key words associated with pumps: flow,
no flow, reverse flow, high pressure and low pressure.
7.2.5.1 Flow
Ensure there is a supply of liquid to pumps before they start. Place them where there is a flow by
gravity into the suction of the pump, ensure by calculation [section 5.2.1] that there will be
adequate suction pressure, and control the operation of the route so that the valves open [to allow
liquid to flow] before the pump starts. Note even P.D. type pumps, which can prime themselves,
should still be governed by this rule.
7.2.5.2 No Flow
There are two cases; no flow due to blockage of the outlet line, and no flow because there is no
liquid getting into the pump. The control system needs to be designed to protect against these
cases by generating a no flow error, and in particular, by turning off pumps if there is a low level in
the supply tank.
In the first case, there is no immediate danger for centrifugal pumps. the fluid will be heated by the
pump and will expand, and the motor will heat-up. The motor will normally NOT have a thermistor
and can be damaged [usually after more than 10 minutes] to the point of needing to be sent for
rewinding. The product, if the supply side route is open, generally will not cause damage due to
expansion, but this needs to be considered. However, there is a danger for positive displacement
pumps, because the volume of liquid displaced by the pump must go somewhere and it will rupture
pipes or connections or equipment. Therefore we must design a fail-safe protection for positive
displacement pumps in the form of a pressure relief or overflow valve – see example in 6.1.07.
In the second case, the pump will run dry which will cause the seal to heat up extremely quickly [a
matter of seconds]. The pump must be protected by the control system!
7.2.5.3 Reverse Flow
For centrifugal pumps, even incorrect wiring [running backwards] doesn’t cause reverse flow, just
much lower pressure. However, because the impeller housing has an open flow path, liquid can
flow backwards through a centrifugal pump if it is off. This can be a desired result [e.g. if you are
washing two lines together, one in reverse flow] but if it is not required, the best protection against
it is a non-return valve.
For lobe type positive displacement pumps, incorrect wiring can cause reverse flow driven by the
pump. If there is liquid available [hence, per rule 1, always have the route open before starting the
pump]. However when the pump is off, it is a blockage to flow [except for a small amount of slip].
Therefore do NOT put a non-return valve on the outlet of a P.D. pump.

7.2.5.4 High Pressure
If high pressure can be generated outside the pump in question [for example by pumps in series],
then pressure on the suction side of [typically] 3bar or greater can force open a mechanical seal,
and cause excessive leakage. Therefore, if putting pumps in series ensure that the second pump
has a balanced [double] mechanical seal. The control of such pumps must allow for a phasing in
and out to avoid sudden pressure peaks or water hammer.
A pump generates a pressure wave when it starts which can be higher than the dead head
pressure; therefore check the actuator sizing on valves that are close to the pump delivery and
ensure there is a margin of safety on the lifting pressure [2bar suggested]. Valves further away will
not see the same level of pressure due to pressure drops in the system.
Water hammer is a well-known phenomenon caused by the sudden closing of a valve in a flowing
stream of liquid. As a rule of thumb, sudden closures can cause a pressure spike of twice the
operating pressure [if lines are more that 100m long, this effect is exacerbated. The pressure
spike may need to be calculated by methods such as in “Fluid Mechanics: Massey” [59]]. The
control system must protect against this by turning off pumps while the route valves are still open.
This is a phased shut-down. The designer must put in additional safety for positive displacement
pumps [such as the overflow valve pictured in 6.1.07]. For centrifugal pumps, the designer must
consider where extra pressure would relieve to – for example in a normal transfer line, the weak
point may be the push-out to drain valve [typically a UA type] which will open to relieve excess
pressure. Furthermore, the control system should be designed to minimise pump re-starts
[pulse/pausing of pumps is not recommended!].
7.2.5.5 Low Pressure
Centrifugal pumps need a minimum suction pressure [Net Positive Suction Head – Required, or
NPSHr] in order to function effectively. Otherwise the cavitation will damage the pump and prevent
it from priming. This is calculated by the pressure drop calculation file [refer to section 5.2.1].
There are rules of thumb regarding suction pipes sizes, for example the suction should be one size
larger than the delivery side – this may compromise the CIP velocity in each, so it is not always
appropriate. One very useful rule is to have as long as possible a straight suction pipe into the
pump. This is especially relevant for positive displacement pumps, because the pulsing flow
creates an additional acceleration head [difficult to calculate], that can affect cavitation.
Vacuum can also occur in piping if there is an intermediate high point between the pump and the
outlet. This is a risk associated with the pipe layout. If the pump stops, the liquid in the high point
will drain both ways downwards, and if BOTH sides are unable to drain out fully [thereby letting air
into the line], then a vacuum break occurs. These cause a problem on restart of water hammer and
possibly even an overload on the pump [due to high initial flow]. In the piping design, select and
specify routes that avoid intermediate rises with liquid trapped on both sides – a continuous
downward path on both sides is ideal.

7.3 Selection of Appropriate Valve Types
This section explains the different VARIVENT® valve types, recommended uses and fail-safe
design.
7.3.1 Introduction and Summary of Hygienic Design Criteria for Valves
The VARIVENT® Valve System is designed for process plants in which production quality, hygiene
and operational safety is a first priority. They are a classic example of “hygienic engineering” in
which the principles of “cleanability” and “drainability” are incorporated into the mechanical design.
There are certain features of the design of the VARIVENT® valves that differentiate them from
other piston-type valves, including:
- Leakage detection at the open valve lantern, which provides a hygienic design solution
- Geometry of the valve housings [no pockets, drainability, curved surfaces], which provides
a hygienic design solution.
- The seal / gasket design is such that no crevices exist where soil residues may be trapped
and bacteria can accumulate and multiply.
- The valve can be “cleaned in place“.
- Modularity / interchangeability of parts [see section 5.3.2]
- Standard “product contact” surface finishes of Ra </= 0.8µm, which provide better
cleanability.
- The valves are EHEDG approved.
According to the EHEDG Requirement for “Leak detection” [Doc. 14, Item 5.8] [60], the valve
design must provide for rapid external detection of leakage of seals between the product side and
the atmosphere. In addition, it must not be possible for fluid to transfer from actuators into product
areas, and vice versa. VARIVENT® valves achieve this requirement as follows:
- The lantern is open, allowing the valve stem to be visible and providing immediate leak
detection from the outside.
- The open lantern provides a break between the actuator and the valve housing, ensuring
that there can be no contamination from the actuator through to the product.
- The open lantern also prevents temperature changes occurring in the actuator (as it is not
subjected to any changes in product temperature), thereby increasing the actuator’s
lifetime.
Fig 7.3.1.A: Varivent Valve (lantern open)
Acknowledgement
Picture from files of Knuth Lorenzen [TDS and EHEDG]

7.3.1 Introduction and Summary of Hygienic Design Criteria for Valves cont’d.
The VARIVENT® valve system satisfies the EHEDG Requirement for “Geometry and
Drainability” [Doc. 14, Figure 1] [60] as follows:
- The clear height of the housing always conforms exactly to the size of the sockets.
- There are no domes or sumps in the valve housings.
- The housings have excellent cleaning characteristics.
Fig 7.3.1.B: Geometry and Drainability
Acknowledgement
The VARIVENT® valve system satisfies the EHEDG Requirement for “Seals” [Doc. 8] [60] as
follows:
- The valves utilize a V-ring type seal in a groove, and a metallic stop which limits seal
deformation and avoids uncontrolled overstress.
- This avoids any dead space behind the seal, reduces the risk of contamination and
increases the lifetime of the seals.
Fig 7.3.1.C: Seals
Acknowledgement

7.3.1 Introduction and Summary of Hygienic Design Criteria for Valves cont’d.
The EHEDG Requirement for “Cleaning in Place” [Doc. 20, Item 5] [60] lists the following
methods for cleaning valve surfaces:
- Seat lifting to flush the seat, complete with a metallic stop, cavity and drain pipe.
- Cavity spray cleaning to reach the leakage chamber up to the seat seals and the drain pipe.
The VARIVENT® valve system achieves this requirement as follows:
- Cleaning by seat lifting optimizes cleaning of the cavity chamber and seal.
- The cavity outlet is small and easy to clean.
- There are no dead corners and a metallic throttling gap – no risk of contamination.
- Cleaning via the external connection achieves optimized cleaning by means of a spray
nozzle.
Fig 7.3.1.D: CIP 1
Fig 7.3.1.E: CIP 2

7.3.2 Overview of Valve Housing Configurations
The VARIVENT® valve system is modular in nature, i.e. valve parts are interchangeable. All valves
feature the same housing design, with many different combinations of housings possible. Some
examples of these typical housing combinations are shown below.
Fig 7.3.2.A: For stop valves and mix-proof valves:
Fig 7.3.2.B: For shuttle valves:
The two-letter code indicates the valve type [first letter] and the housing configuration [second
letter] being used.
It is also possible to have a valve with a “mix-match” housing combination, where the upper
housing is smaller than the lower housing. In this case, the actuator size is based on the size of the
upper housing. In some cases, it is possible to have a larger housing on the upper side, e.g. the 3”
/ 2.5” combination, but this should always be confirmed with Tuchenhagen prior to purchasing the
valve.
• Note: Valves with mix-match housing combinations should also be considered for use in Valve
Seat Cleaning operations, in place of the more commonly used NL type valve, because there is
no dead-leg associated with its installation.

7.3.3 Overview of the Tuchenhagen Varivent Valve Range
The following types of valves are manufactured within the VARIVENT® Valve System:
• Single Seat Shut-off Valves
• Single Seat Shuttle Valves
• Double Seal Valves
• Mix-proof Shut-off Valves
• Mix-proof Shuttle Valves
• Mix-proof Tank Bottom Valves
• Aseptic Valves (not covered in this section)
• Leakage Free Valves
Also covered in this section is Tuchenhagen’s range of:

• Sampling Valves
• Vacuum Valves
• Overflow Valves
• Control Valves
• Safety Valves
Fig 7.3.3: Tuchenhagen Valve Range

7.3.4 VARIVENT® Valve Selection Scheme
The VARIVENT® Valve selection scheme is an aid to selecting the appropriate valve type for the
particular application. Please refer to the component catalogue [57] for details.
When selecting the type of valve to use, it is important to bear in mind that different valve types
have different static and dynamic closing behaviours that must be taken into account when
operating pipe systems.
In static pipe system conditions, it may be possible for a valve seat to open due to high pressure in
the pipeline. [Standard valve design allows the valve to be resistant to pressures of 5 bar or less].
Conversely, it may be possible for a valve seat to be “locked” into place [i.e. unable to open] if the
pressure in the pipe-line pressing down on the valve seat is greater than the compressed air
pressure required to open the valve [standard valves require 6 bar air pressure to open].
Therefore, when selecting the valve type to use, it is important to consider the orientation of the
valve seats as well as the actuator size required.
In dynamic conditions, water hammer may be exacerbated during the closing action of the valve.
Therefore it is always important to ensure that the valve is installed so that its seat will close
against the direction of flow of the liquid. The diagram below shows a typical mix-proof valve,
where the arrow indicates the recommended direction of flow in order to prevent these pressure
surges:
Fig 7.3.4: Typical Mix-Proof Valve

7.3.5 Specific Valve Types and their Applications
Refer to the GEA Tuchenhagen Components Catalogue [57] for full details on possible housing
configurations and sizes available.
Refer also to the GPTIE P&ID Symbols [61] which illustrates how these valves are denoted on the
P&ID.
7.3.5.1 Single Seat Shut-Off Valves: Flow Stoppage
• Valve types N and U provide single seat shut-off [flow stoppage] within a piping system.
• Typical applications include: Drain valve [type U], bypass valve, dosing valve and tank outlet
valve [see section 5.3.5.11 for details].
• The actuator is reversible, with the normal position being spring to open, air to close.
• The direction of flow dictates whether an N or a U valve is most appropriate – pressure surges
during the closing operation of the valve should be avoided. The valve should always shut
against the direction of hydraulic flow.
• If closing against the direction of flow is not possible [e.g. emptying of the system] the valve
type U should be used.
• There is also a smaller, more economical version of the N type valve available [ECOVENT]
which has no accessories and fewer housing combinations available.
Fig 7.3.5.1: Valve Types N and U
Type N Type U

7.3.5.2 Single Seat Shuttle Valves: Changing Flow Direction
• Valve types W and X change the direction of flow within a piping system.
• The valve switch over should always take place against the direction of flow.
• Typical applications include: CIP supply piping, CIP return piping, collecting [converging] [Type
W], separating [diverging] [Type X].
• The actuator is reversible, with the normal position being spring to open, air to close.
• There is also a smaller, more economical version of the W type valve available [ECOVENT]
which has no accessories and fewer housing combinations available.
Fig 7.3.5.2: Valve Types W and X
Type W Type X

7.3.5.3 Double Seat Shut-Off Valves: Hygienic Mix-Proof Separation of Media
7.3.5.3.1 Valve Type D
• The D type valve provides mix-proof separation at pipe junctions within pipe systems –
stopping flow or joining flow streams.
• Typical applications include: Valve blocks, tank outlets, units. For mix-proof separation of
incompatible media in rigid matrix-piped systems flowing through closed valve housings or for
protecting already cleaned pipes against contamination. This valve allows tanks in a common
valve block to be washed without putting the transfer operation at risk of contamination.
• The valve has an axial/axial gasket arrangement on the insert [which causes leakage of
product during switching from open to closed]. The lower seat moves up by about 2mm
[allowing material in the bottom housing into the neutral area] to join the upper seat and then
both seats move up together [refer to section 5.3.5.3.3].
• The valve type D has a cleaning device for spray-cleaning of the leakage chamber. If valve
seat cleaning is required in connection with pipe cleaning, the valve must be equipped with a
lifting actuator for lifting the valve disk on the actuator side and/or on the opposite side for
cleaning the leakage chamber.
• The valve should always shut against the direction of flow.
• Note: When ordering a D valve with a lifting actuator for independent seat lifting, it is very
important to specify that the standard cavity cleaning connection to the valve stem is also
required. To achieve full EHEDG requirements, it must be possible to clean the cavity of the
valve; i.e. just cleaning the seats is not enough because not enough flow velocity is present in
the valve cavity to ensure that it is cleaned properly. This should also be noted on the P&ID
and in the FDS.
Type D Seat Arrangement

Fig 7.3.5.3.1: Valve Type D

7.3.5.3.2 Valve Type B
• Higher pressure peaks over 25 barG in the pipe system beneath the valve seat may force the
lower valve seat open. The pressure peak is then relieved via the leakage outlet.
• The B type valve provides mix-proof separation at pipe junctions within pipe systems.
• Typical applications are similar to the D valve, except they are preferred for use with expensive
products in high pressure conditions.
• The valve comes with a balancer for the lower valve seat, which provides pressure hammer
safety up to 25 bar.
• The valve has an axial/axial gasket arrangement on the insert [which causes leakage of
product during switching from open to closed].
• Note: Due to its pressure resistance from the balancer, the valve has strong spring closing
forces that cause the valve to close much quicker than the valve type D without balancer. This
may cause such problems as water hammer in the piping system, or loss of feedback. The
closing time of the valve can be prolonged by throttling the exhaust air or by serial
disconnection in the system via timer, first stopping the liquid supply and then closing the
valve1.
• The B type valve has the same housing combinations and sizes as the D type valve.
• Note: When ordering a B valve with a lifting actuator for independent seat lifting, it is very
valve; i.e. just cleaning the seats [with the lifting actuator] is not enough because not enough
flow velocity is present in the valve cavity to ensure that it is cleaned properly. This should also
be noted on the P&ID and in the FDS.
Fig 7.3.5.3.2: Valve Type B
Type B Seat Arrangement
Notes:
1. G. Worczinski [62]. Worczinski says: “In particular for valves (type R and type B) which are balanced under the
valve seat against pressure surges, it is of utmost importance that these valves are not closed abruptly against
flowing in liquid. Otherwise high dynamic pressure forms at the valve seat, high differential pressure at the
discharge side and high flow velocity occur”.

7.3.5.3.3 Working Principle: D and B Type Valves
Fig 7.3.5.3.3: Valve Type D and B
During opening, the lower seat moves up first, by about 2mm, to join the upper seat. This action
allows liquid from the lower pipeline to enter the neutral area of the valve. Then both seats move
up together. During the closing action of the valve, the liquid in the neutral area is discharged via
the leakage port.
The effect of the balancer (pressure hammer safety):
Fig 7.3.5.3.3: Effect of Balancer
Pressure acts equally in all directions. Also, pressure is inversely proportional to surface area.
Therefore, the addition of the balancer to the lower part of the valve insert, increases the surface
area upon which the pressure of the liquid can act. This counteracts the pressure which is acting
on the valve seat, thereby “balancing” the effect of the pressure surge.

7.3.5.3.4 Valve Type R
• The R type valve provides mix-proof separation at pipe junctions within pipe systems.
• Typical applications are similar to the D and B valves, except they are preferred for use with
expensive products where no losses are desired.
• The valve has an axial/radial sealing arrangement on the insert (which means it is leakage free
during switching from open to closed).
• The valve is fitted with a balancer which provides pressure hammer safety up to 30 bar.
• Due to its pressure resistance of 30 bar[g] and its quick-closing characteristic, the same
conditions as described for valve type B must be taken into account for the closing of the valve.
• Note: When ordering an R valve with a lifting actuator for independent seat lifting, it is very
valve; i.e. just cleaning the seats [with the lifting actuator] is not enough because not enough
flow velocity is present in the valve cavity to ensure that it is cleaned properly. This should also
be noted on the P&ID and in the FDS.
Fig 7.3.5.3.4: Valve Type R
Type R Seat Arrangement

7.3.5.3.5 Working Principle: R Type Valve
Comparison of Axial and Radial Seals:
Fig 7.3.5.3.5.A: Valves with Axial-axial and Radial-axial Sealing
The radial sealing arrangement on the lower seat of the R valve means there is no leakage of
product from the neutral area during switching of the valve.
The axial-axial sealing arrangement means that the valve seal lifts as the lower part moves up,
allowing liquid into the neutral area. Whereas with the radial sealing arrangement, the seal is
retained as the lower part moves up, so that no liquid can enter the cavity.
Fig 7.3.5.3.5.B: Axial-axial Sealing

7.3.5.3.5 Working Principle: R Type Valve cont’d
A note on cleaning of the cavity of mix-proof valves:
• Cleaning can be achieved by means of a “valve seat cleaning” valve [typically an N type valve]
which supplies CIP solution via a flexible hose connection to the neutral area of the mix-proof
valve.
• Cleaning can also be achieved through lifting [by fitting a lifting actuator onto the valve, which
can lift the individual valve seats independently of each other and of the main operation of the
valve]. This means:
• Optimised cleaning of cavity AND gasket surfaces.
• Metallic throttling gap.
• No dead corners.
• Small and easily cleanable leakage outlet.
• No contamination risk.
Fig 7.3.5.3.5.C: Cavity Cleaning and Lift Positions
Cavity Cleaning Lift Positions

7.3.5.4 Double Seat Shut-Off Valve: No Cleaning of the Neutral Area
• The K type valve provides mix-proof separation at pipe junctions within CIP or gas pipe
systems – with no cleaning of the neutral area.
• The valve type K is not designed for cleaning the leakage chamber. It is not suitable for
applications in hygienic product systems. It is preferably used in pipe systems that need not to
be cleaned, but must have mix-proof separation.
• Typical applications include mix-proof separation of CIP solutions or gas. They are also
frequently used on CIP Centres.
• The leakage chamber of the valve type K is not drained, neither in vertical nor horizontal
installation position of the valve. This should be taken into consideration when using this valve
type. If draining of the leakage chamber is required, then double-seat valves, type D, B or R
should be used. The double-seal valve, type C is also suitable for simple applications.
• The valve has an axial/axial gasket arrangement on the insert [which causes leakage of liquid
during switching from open to closed].
• The K valve is an economic version of the D type valve, where hygiene might be less of a
concern. It is not available with a balancer.
Fig 7.3.5.4: Valve Type K
Type K

7.3.5.5 Double Seal Shut-Off Valve
• The C type valve provides double-seal separation at pipe junctions within CIP or gas pipe
systems – stopping flow or joining flow streams.
• In all installation positions of the valve type C, the leakage chamber is drained via the lateral
drain valves.
• If the valve is to be mounted in horizontal position, (e.g. Gas Block) the drain valve should
always be at the lower position to ensure drainage.
• This valve is not commonly used, although one possible use is in CIP Centres, instead of using
a K type valve [the advantage being that the seals/seats of the C valve can be cleaned].
• The C valve could be used as a more economical version of the D valve, but it should be noted
that it is not as reliable, because it does not have two independent seats. [If one seat lifts due
to high pressure in the line, so does the other].
• The valve has an axial-axial sealing arrangement.
• There is only one valve disk.
• The leakage cavity is cleanable, by means of 2 rinsing valves.
• On a product or Gas Block installation, one rinsing valve should be connected to a VSC supply
and the second rinsing valve should be piped to drain via 8mm tube.
• On a CIP Plant installation, only 1 rinsing valve is needed. (No VSC) This valve should be
piped to drain via 8mm tube. The Nozzle on the valve housing for the 2nd rinsing valve should
be blanked off by using a PTFE blanking plug. This plug is “flush” with the inside wall of the
housing so there is no dirt pocket.
• Note: Make sure that both seals are in good condition, as otherwise only one seal is reliably
sealing. When changing the seals, both seals should always be replaced.
Fig 7.3.5.5: Valve Type C
Valve Closed, Cleaning Valve Opened, Rinsing

Type C
Leakage Area Valves Closed

7.3.5.6 Double Seat Shuttle Valve: Changing Flow Direction with Mix-Proof
Protection
• The type Y valve changes flow direction with mix-proof separation of incompatible media.
• Typical applications include: Pasteurizers [pasteurised product against non-pasteurised
product] and tanks. Since the valve type Y is a mix-proof shuttle valve, it should be primarily
used for flow diverging applications.
• The Y valve is a combination of the shuttle valve X [lower part] & the mix-proof valve D [upper
part].
• Note: Only the seat between the middle and upper ports is mix-proof. The lower seat, between
the middle and lower ports, is a single seat. This should be borne in mind when installing the
valve and designing the piping system.
• Cleaning of the “neutral area” is possible.
• A lifting actuator is available as an option.
• The valve should always switch against the direction of flow.
• Note: When ordering a Y valve with a lifting actuator for independent seat lifting, it is very
and in the FDS.
Fig 7.3.5.6: Valve Type Y
Type Y

7.3.5.7 Mix-Proof Tank Bottom Valve
• The T type valve provides mix-proof tank outlet shut-off – stopping flow or joining flow streams.
• Typical applications include: Storage tanks [cream, milk, concentrate], process tanks
[rennetting tanks, ripening tanks, culture vessels, mixing tanks]. E.g. mix-proof separation of
product in the tank from CIP in the line:
Fig 7.3.5.7.A: Mix-proof Separation of Product in Tank from CIP in the Line
• The valve has an axial-radial sealing arrangement, similar to the R valve [leakage free
switching].
• It also has a balancer for the valve seat on the actuator side. This is because, after tank filling,
the valve closes with the direction of flow [contrary to our usual philosophy]. The balancer on
the actuator side works against the tendency of pressure surges.
• The valve is mix-proof, and cleaning of neutral area is possible.
• A lifting actuator is available as an option.
• Horizontal installation is possible [ECO-MATRIX® principle].
• The leakage chamber of the bottom valve, type T_R is self-draining in the upside-down position
only. In case of vertical or horizontal installation position [e.g. ECO-MATRIX], the valve is
equipped with an additional drain valve.
• The valve provides a means of flush tank bottom shut-off.
• Note: When ordering a T valve with a lifting actuator for independent seat lifting, it is very
and in the FDS.

7.3.5.7 Mix-Proof Tank Bottom Valve cont’d.
Fig 7.3.5.7.B: Valve Type T
Type T – vertical Type T – horizontal installation

installation
7.3.5.8 Single Seat Tank Bottom Valve
• The type NF or UF valves provide tank outlet shut-off.

• The valves have an axial sealing arrangement, and are not mix-proof.
• Horizontal installation is possible.
• The valves are an economic solution, instead of the T type, where mix-proof protection is not
required.
Fig 7.3.5.8: Valve Type UF and Type NF
Type UF Type NF

7.3.5.9 When Product Recovery [“Pigging”] is Required
• The L type valve stops flow or joins flow streams, with mix-proof separation of incompatible
media, and is suitable for pigging [product recovery] operations.
• Typical applications include tank filling and tank emptying, with pigging of the complete product
pipe.
• The valve comes with an optional lifting actuator, individually switchable for upper and lower
valve seats.
• Cleaning of “neutral area” with rinsing [valve seat cleaning] valves is also possible.
• The valve has a radial seal arrangement, similar to the R type valve.
• The valve can be installed in upright, horizontal or upside-down positions.
• Note: Product recovery is only possible in one housing [the housing furthest away from the
actuator], as the other housing contains the valve insert.
• Note: When ordering an L valve with a lifting actuator for independent seat lifting, it is very
valve as well as the individual seats; i.e. just cleaning the seats is not enough because not
enough flow velocity is present in the valve cavity to ensure that it is cleaned properly. This
should also be noted on the P&ID and in the FDS
• .
Fig 7.3.5.9: Valve Type L
Type L – upright installation Type L – upside-down Cavity Cleaning

installation

7.3.5.10 Modulating Control Valves
Valves type A and type S are used for controlling flow.
Type S Valve [Samson]:
• Typical applications include: Controlling flow, sustaining pressure; in gas armatures, yeast
pitching, wort aeration, flash pasteurisers, and filling.
• The valve has a plastic-coated steel actuator.
• Suitable for product pressures up to 25 bar, air pressures of max. 6 bar.
• There are 6 housing combinations available, according to the VARIVENT principle.
• The valve lantern is open, providing easy visibility of the stem movement.
Type A Valve [Arca]:
• Typical applications include: Controlling flow, sustaining pressure; in gas armatures, yeast
pitching, wort aeration, flash pasteurisers, and filling.
• The valve has a stainless steel actuator.
• Suitable for product pressures up to 25 bar, air pressures of max. 6 bar.
• There are 8 housing combinations available, including shuttle-type housings and mix-match
housings, according to the VARIVENT principle.
• The valve lantern is open, providing easy visibility of the stem movement.
Fig 7.3.5.10: Valve Type S and Type A

7.3.5.11 Overflow Valve
• The Q valve relieves excess pressure in pipes, but is NOT a safety device.
• Typical applications include: bypass valve after positive displacement pumps, drain valve, air
exhaust valve.
• The set pressure is adjustable by means of an actuator with an adjustable spring.
• An integrated pneumatic actuator [type M] is available as an option, in order to lift the valve
seat for cleaning purposes.
• There are 6 housing combinations available, according to the VARIVENT principle.
Fig 7.3.5.11: Valve Type Q
Type Q

7.3.5.12 Safety Relief Valve
• The type 448 valve relieves excess pressure and is an approved safety device. The adjustment
is factory set and the adjustment mechanism is sealed.
• Approvals include TUV, ASME and ATEX.
• Typical application: tank pressure relief.
• Full-lift function.
• Response pressure: max. 10 bar.
• Pressure range: 0.2 to 16 bar [spring loaded actuator].
• Wetted components made of AISI 316L.
• Includes a cleanable housing, according to the VARIVENT principle.
• Manual lifting as standard, pneumatic seat lifting optional.
• Different connection types are available.
Fig 7.3.5.12: Valve Type 448
Type 448

7.3.5.13 Vacuum Valve
• Valve type V relieves vacuum pressure.

• Typical application: tank vacuum protection.
• Suitable for vacuum of < / = 25 mm w.g. [2.5 mbar] [not to be used as tank protection during
CIP, when hot media is followed by cold].
• Pocket free designed housing, according to the VARIVENT principle, completely drainable and
improved protection against dirt particles.
• Special materials and surfaces for quick response.
• Integrated drip pan for cleaning media.
• Optional: heating rod, pneumatic lifting actuator, feedback.
Fig 7.3.5.13: Valve Type V
Type V

7.3.5.14 Sampling Valves
There are three types of sampling valves available, as follows:
Fig 7.3.5.14: Valves Type IT, TSVU and TSVN
Type IT Type TSVU Type TSVN
7.3.5.14.1 Varivent Sample Valve type IT
• The type IT sample valve stops flow at sample points.

• Typical application: drawing samples from product lines in small amounts.
• Note: Spiral flame nozzles are used for liquids containing CO2 and other mediums tending to
foam.
7.3.5.14.2 Varivent Sample Valve type TSVN/U
• The type TSVN/U valve stops flow at sample points.

• Typical application: drawing samples from product lines.
• Type TSVU: Safe from impact pressure.
• Type TSVN: For product recovery systems.
• Optionally, the valves are upgradable with metal bellows for aseptic sampling.
• Note: These valves should also be considered for use in Valve Seat Cleaning operations, in
place of the more commonly used NL type valve, because there is no dead-leg associated with
its installation. Note that the pipe diameter is smaller, so the maximum number of valves that
can be connected should be limited to 5 [10 in case of 1” NL].

7.3.5.15 Butterfly Valves
• The function of the Ecovent butterfly valve is to stop flow.

• A butterfly valve opens and closes by rotating the flap. When closing the valve, the flap takes
positions between 0° and 90° in the direction of flow.
• The type SS – weld end valve is the standard choice for applications where valve flanges can
be easily split to allow replacement of seals and bushes.
• The type VV – flanged end valve is the logical choice for applications where rigid pipe work
prevents easy removal of seals and bushes.
• Various connection types are available: flanged, weld-end, tri-clamp, and DIN union.
• Compact design.
• Vacuum resistant sealing.
• Possesses EHEDG certificate.
• One actuator mounting bracket; a selection of different actuators available. Control cap [T-VIS]
also available.
Fig 7.3.5.15: Valves Type SS and Type VV
Type SS Type VV

7.3.5.16 Aseptomag Valves
• Aseptomag Bellows valves should be used for aseptic installations.

• Maximum operating pressures should not exceed 12bar
• If the valve closes with the direction of flow, it will cause serious damage to the Bellows.
• Different types of seal materials are available. –TEPASEP, PTFE, SILICONE, EPDM, VITON.
• Installations with Aseptomag valves which have Tefasep seals need to be Sterilized with steam
to approx. 140degs for approx. 20mins, with all valves in the open position. The valves will then
need to be closed to embed the seal against the seat-ring to ensure a proper seal of up to
6bar.
Damaged Bellows

7.3.6 Dynamic and Static Behaviour of Valves in Pipe Systems
Adapted from source article by G. Worczinski: [62]
7.3.6.1 When Liquid is in Motion
Liquid is not compressible, and in principle it must be assumed that incompressible liquids behave
like a solid body. If they are suddenly decelerated or abruptly brought to a halt, pressure surges
can build up in closed pipes [commonly known as “water hammer”] and can cause destruction
[imagine a car being driven into a solid wall].
There are three ways to avoid this scenario:

(1) Always install the valve such that it closes against the direction of flow of the liquid; this
alone will slow down the closing action of the valve, as the valve seat forces itself against
the pressure of the moving liquid.
(2) If this installation is not possible [for example, on tank outlet headers, where a “free
draining” line is required], the closing action of the valve can be slowed down by throttling
the exhaust air of the actuator.
(3) The liquid flow can be brought to a halt before the valve is closed [for example, ensure the
supply pump is stopped before closing the valve]. This should be done as a matter of
standard, and should be included in all Program FDS.
In principle, these guidelines should be applied to all valves within the VARIVENT® range,
particularly where the valve has a “shut-off” or “direction-switching” function.
A special note relating to balanced valves:

In a balanced valve, the net force resisting the closing / downward action of the disk is much
smaller than in a standard [unbalanced] valve. [This is because the surface area of the balancer is
acted on by the pressure in the fluid to create a downward force. There is no such downward force
in a standard valve].
Therefore, when the balanced valve closes against flow, it does so much quicker than a standard
valve, almost negating the advantage of closing against the flow. The result is a stronger water
hammer and associated wear on valve seals [in particular the radial seal in the valve type R, which
is more susceptible than an axial seal].
To counteract this, balanced valves that close against flow must also have restrictors in the
air exhaust, in order to slow down the closing action.

7.3.6.2 When Liquid is at Rest
The following situation, where liquid may be trapped between 2 closed valves, must be avoided:
Fig 7.3.6.2: Liquid Trapped Between Two Valves
Liquid is not compressible, therefore it will not “give way” to allow the valve to open [or close] into
it. The high pressure build-up in the system means that the valve can no longer be opened by the
control air pressure or that it does not reach its non-actuated [closed] position.
Often, this high pressure build-up is caused by “thermal expansion” in the system when the liquid is
at rest, i.e. the temperature of the pipe-work, and the liquid in it, can increase over time, causing
the liquid volume to expand.
There are a few ways to avoid this scenario:

(1) Evacuate the line before closing the route [e.g. carry out an air-blow of the pipe-line].
(2) Serial switching of the valves in the pipe system.
(3) Throttling of the closing stroke on certain valves to provide for compensation.
(4) Installation of expansion compensators or damping cylinders for the compensation of
displacement volumes.
How do butterfly valves behave under static conditions?

Liquid cannot be trapped in butterfly valves. Due to the rotating valve disk, the displaced volume on
one side is released on the other side of the rotating disk.

7.3.7 Practical Applications
• The C type valve can be used for double-seal separation at pipe junctions within CIP or gas
pipe systems instead of the K valve.
•
• Advantage
• The C valve is that the valve is cheaper than the D or K valve. It has only one disk. Less
moving parts and less seals.
• Disadvantage
• The C valve is not a true mix-proof, like the K or D valves, because it does not have two
independent seats. If one seat lifts due to high pressure in the line, so does the other.
C Valves on a Gas Block VSC hose and 8mm drain line on a C Valve
Typical Gas Block with C Valves

Typical CIP Manifold with C Valves

• The Aseptomag Bellows valves should be used for aseptic installations.

• Advantage
• The Aseptomag Valve is hygienic. When the shaft of the valve insert moves, there is no contact
with the outside of the valve housing chamber. There is no risk of the product getting
contaminated.
• Disadvantage
• The Aseptomag valve Bellows is easily damaged. If the valve closes with the direction of flow,
it will cause serious damage to the Bellows.
• Replacement of the seals is not easy. They need to be melted off with a soldering iron.
• Replacement seals need to be heated in an oven.
• Tefasep seals need to be sterilised with steam to approx. 140degs for approx. 20mins, with all
valves in the open position. The valves will then need to be closed to embed the seal against
the seat-ring to ensure a proper seal of up to 6bar.
Typical Aseptomag Valve Block Typical Aseptomag Valve Block

7.4 Appearance and scaling of Major Equipment on the Drawing
The ideal arrangement is to have one process represented per P&ID, so for example, an intake
line is a process, and the storage tanks should be shown on a separate drawing. If there is a single
intake line and a single storage tank, then it makes sense to combine them. Please avoid the more
common situation where multiple intakes and a despatch line are squeezed onto a P&ID with
numerous tanks laid out in a single line, making it impossible to correctly represent the orientation.
Note that tanks typically have three or more instruments attached, and may have an agitator, so
the size of the tank symbol must be large enough for all these foreseeable attachments.

7.5 Orientation of Tanks and Associated Valves
Although a P&ID is primarily schematic, it is often relied upon [even when layouts are available] as
the guide for placing and orienting tanks and valve blocks.
Mistakes are commonly made with valve block manufacture because the layout on the P&ID is
notional and does not reflect the actual orientation of the tanks and the valve block. The key risks
are: a tank is connected to the wrong valve row, or a valve block is constructed in the wrong
orientation, meaning pipes are crossing each other from tank to valve block. Therefore ALWAYS
ensure the P&ID reflects the planned layout of tanks and valve block.
Fig 7.5: Tank and Valve Block Layout
Explanatory Note
Note the equipment layout will

NOT follow these lines – they are
sketched here to SHOW:
o Space required between
tank rows.
o How tanks must be
linked to avoid lines
crossing.
The size this will occupy on the P&ID will be larger than a simplistic schematic layout, but this is a
small price to pay for accuracy of construction of valve block and accuracy in pipe to valve
connections, with the attendant benefits for wiring and process descriptions.

7 Chapter Summary
This chapter dealt with the design of the P&ID. The designer must be familiar with our Sound
engineering practice which provides a series of checks on the selection of valves and pumps.
Specific information is provided on common pump and valve types so that the appropriate type can
be selected for the application.

8 Equipment Specification Templates
The purpose of these specifications is to ensure that all the suppliers who are quoting for the
particular items of equipment have sufficient, identical, written information on our requirements. We
use two types of specification document:
[a] A general specification describing the standard requirements of design, workmanship, and
testing for the particular type of equipment. This document applies to “big ticket” items like tanks.
[b] A particular data sheet itemising the specific requirements of individual pieces of equipment.
This document can be an extract from the equipment list, provided we provide all the details
needed for the supplier to select the correct equipment. The templates below provide examples for
the most common items we order.
Please note that a data sheet has different meanings depending on the context. In a
pharmaceutical job, the documentation requirements include filling up a data sheet per item of
equipment with a standard format proposed by the client or the client’s consulting engineers [and
much of the information can only be filled out after procurement]. For suppliers, it means a generic
summary of the features of a family of similar items of equipment. Please note that we will use it as
a summary listing of requirements to ensure we purchase the correct equipment.
Each data sheet will be in spreadsheet format and will use menus to facilitate speedy and
consistent selection of the desired features. In cases where we also have a standard calculation
file for the draft dimensions or characteristics of the equipment, the summary information must be
pasted into the data sheet into a “landing area” where the parameters can be read by the data
sheet template.
8.1 Tanks
8.1.1 Tank Construction and Installation Specification
Before tanks are purchased, send a “general specification” [to describe the common requirements
for tank construction] and “data sheets” [to describe each tank] to a shortlist of suppliers.
For example, GPTIE have a general tank specification which must be reviewed for each project,
and sent with the enquiry to each tank manufacturer.
Reference
Tank specification: G09_PUR_S03_A02.doc [on the intranet under SOPs / Purchasing / Appendices] [63]
In the following sections, we will examine some of the common components fitted to tanks.

8.1.1.1 Tank vents
For “atmospheric” tanks, i.e. with no top pressure applied, a vent provides a free opening so that
air can move in and out of the tank. When the tank is being filled, the product will displace air; if the
air cannot escape at least as quickly as it is being displaced, a pressure will build up in the tank.
Similarly, when the tank is being emptied, air must enter the at least as fast as product is leaving,
or a vacuum will form in the tank.
Most dairy tanks are atmospheric vessels; most beer vessels are pressurised [usually with carbon
dioxide] to ensure air and aerobic-spoiling bacteria cannot thrive. Tanks with top pressure [but
underneath the 0.5b threshold that requires PED certification] are often used for storing cultures or
food oils. For these 3 cases, the venting requirements are different:
Atmospheric tanks: Vent can be any size; it is typically made large enough to cope with vapour
collapse after hot CIP.
Pressurised tanks: These will have a vent positioned after a pressure relief valve, and also the
gas line providing the top pressure is effectively a vent or “breather” line for the tank. The relief
vent is sized as a minimum equal to the port on the relief valve, but in any case it must not exert a
back pressure on the tank [calculated by pressure drop due to friction as the rated flow passes
through the vent] in excess of 10% of the rated pressure. The second vent is the gas line; the size
must allow for displacement due to filling and emptying of the tank in normal operation. The tank
will require a separate anti-vacuum valve to protect the tank from the vacuum caused by the
maximum emptying rate out of the tank. As a rule, these tanks must not undergo hot CIP [this must
be a software interlock!], unless extremely large anti-vacuum devices are installed.
Oil / culture tanks: Tanks which have a low [< 0.5b] top pressure of nitrogen or other neutral gas
must be protected by both a conservation vent [in effect, a mechanical pressure relief valve / anti-
vacuum valve] and an another device [for both pressure and vacuum conditions] because these
tanks are rarely if ever cleaned, and the conservation vent cannot be guaranteed to operate once
subject to product build-up. The rating of the conservation vent affects the tank specification. In
addition, specify a pressure relief valve and anti-vacuum valve [sized in the same manner as that
on a pressure vessel]. These tanks must not undergo hot CIP [a software interlock is required].
The engineer must specify in the tank data sheet what is the “worst case” for air flow rates required
during all stages of the tanks life. In the majority of tanks, the worst case is CIP; after the detergent
phase, the tank will be full of hot vapour; in the subsequent cold rinse, this vapour will collapse
extremely quickly, and must be replaced just as quickly by air, to avoid a vacuum.
References
GPTIE have developed a tank calculation file, which contains worksheets to calculate the tank geometry, and
worksheets to calculate the size of vent required, for a given, acceptable pressure drop, the minimum diameter of
air vent required for CIP.
Calculation sheet: ESG_M_CALC_TankAndVentSizing_r3_18May09
In addition, the maximum emptying rate can be calculated in file: ESG_M_CALC_TankDraining_r1_21Mar12
The vent should be as short as reasonably possible; combining several vents is possible, but with
care; the line size needs to be adequate for all the vessels, and the back-pressure on each valve
will increase. Long vent pipes will need to be cleaned in place, so the best and simplest vent is one
that sits directly on the tank and vents into the room.

8.1.1.2 Tank overflows
These are only applicable to “atmospheric” tanks, because they consist of a simple open pipe from
the high level of the tank to a nearby drain. As a rule of thumb, allow 150mm from the high level to
the lowest point of the overflow.
Warning! Do not combine the vent and the overflow. The photograph below is from a site where
the installation crew tidied up a combined vent / overflow and piped it to a floor level drain. During
commissioning, the tank overflowed during filling as the high level switch was not tested. The
commissioning engineer opened the outlet valve on the bottom of the tank and it collapsed
immediately. Why? The tank contents emptied from the bottom. Replacement air was unable to
enter the tank because the overflow pipe was stuffed with product, acting as a water lock. As the
product emptied, it pulled a vacuum in the tank, resulting in tank collapse.

8.1.1.3 Eliminating air in product: vortex breaker and anti-foam inlet
Some products [particularly those with relatively high suspended particle counts, such as milk
products and certain beers] will foam easily and incorporate gas or air if hitting a surface
perpendicularly. An anti-foam or anti-splash inlet pipe consists of a couple of elbows to direct the
product at the tank wall at a 45 degree angle so as to cause it to fan out on the surface. The effect
is to reduce entrained air and to avoid foaming.
Once a foam forms, it is difficult to break down. The foam layer is difficult to detect [level switches
may fail to pick it up] and it causes problem in flow measurement [2 phase flow errors, or erratic
readings] and in heat exchangers [the air blocks heat transfer] and in separators [prevents
separation of heavy and light phases due to “clogging” with foam.
Therefore elimination by mechanical means [anti-foam inlets, or designing the inlet to be under the
liquid level], is preferable to post-hoc treatments such as chemical addition [anti-foam – a last
resort, used by some customers during “difficult” CIPs], or physical breakdown [a water spray on
the surface].
Air can also be entrained during the tank emptying step; if a vortex forms [and this is typical in a
central outlet], air will be funnelled with the product stream, causing cavitation in the outlet pump.
There are 2 simple ways to eliminate vortex formation;
[a] side outlet on a tank – if this needs to be at the lowest point, the tank could [if site
considerations allow it] be designed with a wedge-shaped sloping bottom;
[b] vortex breaker over the outlet; this is a plate at least 3 diameters across and 1.5 diameters high
that prevents vortex patterns from forming. There are a variety of shapes proposed by tank
manufacturers. We must specify full welding at the joint to the tank bottom so as to avoid crevices
which would harbour micro-organisms.

8.1.1.4 Mechanical interlock for CIP and tank vent
In the USA, dairy plants will typically have small vents sized only for tank emptying rates; these
tank vents are internal to the building [so that only treated air can be drawn into the tank. However,
the CIP pipe to the tank can only be connected when the man-way door is opened [the CIP pipe
was installed so that it runs through the space occupied by the handle of the door; when the door is
opened, the CIP pipe can be completed with a spool piece.
Simplified diagram below:
The procedure before a CIP is: [with thanks to JP Brady]

Empty cooling jacket, then open the man way door. Install a splash screen, and then a pipe and
funnel are fitted to the vent lines which come in through the alcove. This pipe goes through the
splash guard and into the tank returning CIP from the vent lines to the tank. I think this pipe had a
proximity switch on it to allow for CIP start. This was the Bentley version, the Ford version had a
spool that connected the CIP supply to the spray ball line in the alcove, and this spool was made in
such a way that it could not be fitted unless the vessel door was open.

8.1.2 Tank Data Sheet
GPTIE have a general tank data sheet which must be filled in for each tank type required by the
project, and sent with the enquiry to each tank manufacturer.
Reference
Tank data sheet: ESG_M_DATA_Tanks_r3_21Mar12 [on the intranet under SOPs / Purchasing / Appendices] [64]
[note this file is currently being updated by the ESG – ref [65]].
8.1.3 Tank Man-Ways
Although no manway has been certified by the EHEDG [it might be impractical for such large
surfaces], we can identify key features that represent good hygienic engineering. The key
component, which often requires removal and manual cleaning, is the seal. Secondly, the manway
should fit flush with the tank inner surface, with no “lip” or shadowed areas in the door or in the
frame. For the highest hygienic standards, please use the following tank manway:
Fig 8.1.3: Tank Manhole
Reference
Website: www.thrun-edelstahl.de [Recommendation by FJ Helms, TDS] [66]

8.2 Valves
8.2.1 Control Valve Data Sheet
Control valves are usually used to control flow but they can also control pressure. They can be
hygienic, for use in product lines, or non-hygienic, for use in service lines such as steam or chilled
water. GPTIE have developed a control valve sizing workbook [accommodating 15 different cases],
which follows the methodology in the GEA Flow Components catalogue to calculate the Kv value.
This information needs to be put into the data sheet template and sent with the enquiry to each
control valve supplier.
Reference
ESG control valve sizing calculation file [67]
ESG control valve data sheet [68]
8.3 Pumps
8.3.1 Centrifugal Pump Data Sheet
Please use the pressure drop and pump duty calculation workbook to develop a summary of the
pump duties, and import this into the data sheet template.
Reference
ESG Pressure drop and pump duty calculation file [36]
ESG Pump data sheet [69]
8.4 Instruments
GEA and Endress + Hauser have a global agreement which gives us a competitive advantage in
buying a wide range of instruments. We currently [2009] use the GRP2007 price list as the basis
for our purchases. The instruments can be configured and priced in-house with a [limited] supply
of pricing CDs, or via the internet.
Reference
Global pricing address [select GRP 2007]: http://www.endress.com/grp/en/Index_1.htm [70]
We can therefore specify and simultaneously get a price for E+H instruments. There is a time
saving for us in using E+H instruments at the pricing and at the design and procurement stages of
a project. Where possible we should promote E+H to our clients.

8 Chapter Summary
This chapter addressed the topics of:
• Standard specifications for major equipment
• Standard data sheets for individual components [this can be an extract from the
equipment list]

9 Process Description Guidelines
In revision 1.2 we have added a process description for a milk pasteuriser. This is an edited extract
from the design document [see reference] prepared by Barrie Hogan, Matt Roche and Kevin Walsh
for a specific project. Further descriptions will be added in later editions.
9.1 Objectives of a pasteuriser
Pasteurisation is necessary and a legal requirement to kill most/all bacteria in the milk, prior to
further processing. The pasteuriser is usually linked to a Separator and Standardiser unit. This
allows the production of different spec products as mentioned below.
In this project, the Separator is installed on the hot regeneration side [the milk has already been
pasteurised]. The standardiser is a skid-mounted package from Westfalia to regulate the fat
content in the milk. Warning! Protein standardisation [by adding lactose solutions, permeate or
buttermilk] must be done after pasteurisation – if the addition is before pasteurisation, the heating
step, at least in this specific project, caused dangerous levels precipitation in the separator.

9.1.1 What is a pasteuriser
The milk pasteuriser comprises a plate heat exchanger, milk separator / standardiser and
associated equipment to perform two functions:
(a) Heat incoming milk to pasteurising temperature ( 72.40C), for a holding time (15-22 seconds)
and then to cool it to storage temperature ( 50C)
(b) Separate the pasteurised milk (not incoming raw milk) into skim and cream and recombine if
necessary to produce two different product types:
Type Description Milk outlet Cream (≈40% fat) outlet

WM Full-fat whole milk at a approximately 4% fat Full-fat milk Negligible
SMP Skim milk, <0.06% fat, fortified milk with some Skim milk 10% of inlet milk flow
additional components (PLBM, Vitamins &
Minerals)
The process is linked to two transfer routes:

(a) Raw milk silos to the pasteurised product silos, via the pasteuriser
(b) cream to cream silos
The key equipment items are described below. The step sequence for controlling the production
phase of the pasteuriser is described also later on. The parameters [set points etc.] for this
program are listed later also, in a tabular format. Please refer to: 22300-01-005 Milk Pasteuriser
No.1 R2-Glanbia A1 [85]
9.2 Key features of a pasteuriser
9.2.1 Raw milk supply
The supply of raw milk is controlled by a separate transfer program which allows the operator to
select source and destination tanks. The transfer program is subject to the pasteuriser program, so
that the milk supply can be easily interrupted for any time that the pasteuriser is in local circulation
9.2.2 Separator
The separator is a centrifuge designed to split milk into cream (fat) and skim portions. These are
blended again in a controlled fashion by the standardising unit so as to regulate the fat content of
the outgoing milk. For efficient running of the separator, there must be at minimum 0.2% more fat
in the raw milk than in the desired fat content of the outgoing “standardised” milk; the excess
cream is transferred to the cream tanks. There are three product settings required (see above
table): FF milk, EMP milk, and skim milk (full separation: the entire cream fraction is transferred to
the pasteurised cream tanks).
There is a standardising unit for controlling the blending of the cream fraction with the skim fraction
in order to achieve the required fat content in the outgoing milk. It will also control the frequency
and operation of de-sludges.

9.2.3 Cream line
The separator has two outputs, each with a centripetal pump driving the flow. It separates the
incoming milk into skim, the heavy phase, and cream, the light phase. The cream line branches in
two directions; one line is connected to the skim line to allow blending to produce a standard fat
content – this is controlled by the standardising unit. The other branch carries all the cream in the
case of full separation
9.2.4 Back-pressure valve and boost pump
This valve on the milk outlet line (e.g. 0501CV04) is designed to maintain a positive differential
pressure between pasteurised product and the cooling water (or the raw milk side). The additional
pressure is provided by the boost pump (e.g. 0501PU03), which runs at a variable speed. Failure
to maintain a minimum differential pressure between pasteurised and raw sides is a production
fault condition.
9.2.5 Hot divert
The plant should go into hot divert if:
a) The temperature post holding tubes (e.g. WPC0501TT03) drops below the hot divert
(pasteurisation) temperature set-point (72.8°C) or
b) If the flowrate is greater than 88,000L/hr, then circulate to balance tank at WPC0501AV18. (The
reason for this condition is that 60,000L/hr @ 22s hold time = 88,000L/hr at 15s hold time; the
minimum hold time = 15s, hence any flowrate higher than 88,000L/hr means the holding time
exceeds the minimum.
c) Duplex Temp Probe WPC0501TT03A/ TT03B. If the deviation is greater than x0C (~0.50C) for 3
seconds or if the deviation between WPC0501TT03A and WPC0501TT02 is greater than 0.80C for
3 minutes
Any of the above means the flow returns to the balance tank via WPC0501AV18.
9.2.6 Cold divert
There is no cold divert on the Belview pasteuriser. Usually however a plant should go into cold
divert if: (a) Balance tank level < X% (Parameter) (b) No pasteurised silo selected or fault on the
silo selected (c) Fault on pasteurised line or the common cream line (d) Fault with Raw milk supply
program and Level in Balance TK < x% (e) Fault with any of the ingredients dosing programs for 3
mins. The flow would return to the balance tank after the cooling section via WPC0501AV24.

9.2.7 Critical Instruments
WPC0501TT02 – Pre hold tube temperature

WPC0501TT03A/B – Post hold tube temperature (Duplex Housing)
WPC0501FT02 – Inlet flowmeter ex balance tank into pasteuriser
WPC0501CV01 – Balance tank level control valve
WPC0501CV04 – Past milk outlet pressure control valve for pressure check / control
WPC0501PT05 – Past milk outlet pressure transmitter for pressure check / control

9.3 Pasteuriser design requirements and considerations
• Design Temperature profile e.g. 50C 74.20C 50C

• Design Flow e.g. 60m3/h
• Design Holding time e.g. 22s [Legal pasteurising time for milk = 15s at 72’C]
• Design Holding tube design e.g. 4” OD tube, 62m, based on turbulent profile
• Pressure Differential (Positive dP across the unit)
• Pasteuriser design is based on the ESG standard dairy pasteuriser configuration.
The key points are:
(a) Divert valve (WPC0501AV18)

a. WPC0501TT02 measures temperature just after the heating section. WPC0501TT03
measures temperature after the holding tube. If either TT02 or TT03 is below the divert
set point [72.40C], the pasteuriser goes into “hot” divert. If TT03 causes the divert, and
the divert valve closes in a longer time than the travel time of milk from WPC0501TT03
to the divert valve, then the pasteuriser has to be cleaned. To recover from divert, both
TT02 and TT03 have to be above the pasteurising set point by a margin [+/- 0.05%] for
a time.
(b) Holding Tube Design
a. Use GEA standard pasteuriser design calculation file

9.3 Pasteuriser design requirements and considerations cont’d.
(c) Holding Tube Design / As Built Measurements

a. Enter / Calculate / Measure the distance from hot section outlet to divert valve: 73m
[Ideally > design requirement]
b. Enter / Calculate / Measure the distance from WPC0501TT03 to Hot Divert Valve
WPC0501AV18. In this case it is 12.25m, equivalent to 4.5s travel time
i. Time = Distance / Speed ∴ Time = 12.25m / (2.2m/s x VCF 1.22).
ii. This concludes that the divert valve will have 4.5s to close (de-activate) to the
balance tank route before any “unpasteurised” milk, in a hot divert scenario,
reaches it.
iii. The actual de-act time is recorded in start-up each time (Sect 4.1 - Step 35)
c. Temperature Transmitter: Endress+Hauser TR45 [accuracy +/-0.3’C]
d. Analog card: 12 bit, +/- 0.1’C
e. Combined accuracy: +/- 0.4’C [0.32’C rounded up]
(d) Holding Tube Design / As Built Model
(e) Pressure Differential (Positive dP across the unit)

The pressure in each section is measured. Fault conditions would be if the difference between
pasteurised side and raw milk side OR milk / service is less than 0.2barg, then this causes the
pasteuriser to go into circulation. Forward flow is not enabled until the pressure differential is
greater than 0.2barg

9.3 Pasteuriser design requirements and considerations cont’d.
(f) Flow control of feed pump

It is hugely beneficial to have a VSD fitted to not only the feed pump, but also all pumps throughout
the pasteuriser. This will aid “tuning” of the unit with respect to temperatures, flows and pressures
during commissioning.
(g) Operation to include sanitise / sterilise step in start-up

This will be discussed later in Step 55 and 60)
(h) Balance tank as pressure break between raw and pasteurised milk.
Design the balance tank to avoid aeration of product or vortexes i.e. consider working liquid level,
inlet pipe level, position of outlet pipe.

9.4 Step sequence
Step 10 – Start separator:

Once the Separator is ‘Ready for Operation’, the Pasteuriser program will step on from Step 10.
Step 15 – Fill Balance Tank to LSH:

The pasteuriser fills the balance tank with mains utility water to the high level switch.
Step 20 – Check LSH & LT:
Check the level transmitter and the high level switch are within +/- #% of each other. This ensures
the LT and LSH are operational prior to commencing production run.
Step 25 – Check Conductivity OK at WPC0501CT01 - Separator Bypass

Circulating the water, check the reading on WPC0501CT01 is under the max allowable level to
ensure no CIP liquid remains in the lines.
Step 26 – Check Conductivity OK at WPC0501CT01 including Separator

Circulating the water, check the reading on WPC0501CT01 is under the max allowable level to
ensure no CIP liquid remains in the separator bowl.
Step 30 – Test: Heat-Up Short Loop

Circulating the water around the short loop (to/from the balance tank), turn on the steam/hot water
system in the pasteuriser heating section, thus heating this “stock” of circulating water.
Step 32 – Test: Heat-Up Long Loop

Circulating the water around the long loop (to/from the balance tank), keep on the steam/hot water
system in the pasteuriser heating section, thus heating this “stock” of circulating water. When the
long loop is brought into play, mains utility water is added to the balance tank to keep the level
constant, if required.
Step 35 – Test: Divert – Shut Off Steam

Turn off the steam to the steam/hot water system in the pasteuriser heating section. Gradually the
circulating water temperature will drop. When it goes under the pasteurisation temperature at
WPC0501TT03, then “Hot Divert” occurs. System records the time for WPC0501AV18 to de-
activate, and “Test Divert Successful” is recorded. If the Divert test fails, the Pasteuriser is
prevented from going any further until the valve deactivation time is within tolerance (~3secs).
Step 40: Heat Up Short Loop

Circulating the water around the short loop (to/from the balance tank), turn on the steam/hot water
system in the pasteuriser heating section, thus heating this “stock” of circulating water. Only the
short loop is used to prevent the regen section in cooling the water that has just been heated. This
method shortens the overall pasteuriser heat up time.
Step 45: Heat Up Long Loop (Bypass Separator)

Circulating the water around the long loop (to/from the balance tank), keep on the steam/hot water
system in the pasteuriser heating section, thus heating this “stock” of circulating water. When the
long loop is brought into play, fresh cold utility water is added to the balance tank to keep the level
constant. When the long loop is active, water will be added to the balance tank if the level drops
below a parameter valve ~30%.

9.4 Step sequence cont’d
Step 50: Heat Up Long Loop (Via Separator)

As per step 45, except now include the separator in the “loop”. The reason the separator is avoided
in previous steps is to avoid prolonged heating of the disk stack which will cause fouling of the
pasteuriser when the first milk would touch overheated disks.
Step 55: Sterilise

The water heating set-point in the heating section is now set to approximately 800C. Continue
circulation until WPC0501TT03 and WPC0501TT04 (TT at hot and cold end of the pasteuriser)
both read the set-point, and circulate like this for a time. This ensures all pipework in the whole
pasteuriser unit is sterilised. Note the temperature at the cold end will be ~ 6-80C lower than that at
the heating section due to regen losses.
Step 60: Sterilise Pasteurised Milk Line

Pasteurised milk divert valve WPC0501AV24 activates, thus allowing the hot “sterilizing” water
down the pasteurised milk line to end of line drain valve at pasteurised milk silos WPE0501AV60.
This ensures all pipework associated with the whole pasteuriser unit is sterilised.
Step 62: Cool: Initial Balance Tank Cool Down

An amount (WPC0501AV28 activate for a time) of mains utility water is introduced into the
pasteuriser balance tank. This cools the core temperature of the “stock” of hot water, and also
replaces the volume (roughly) of hot water gone to drain from step 60. The aim of this and next few
steps are to get the pasteuriser temperatures approaching that of production set-points. Begin
circulating via the “long loop”.
Step 65: Cool with Mains Water

The heating section of the pasteuriser aims to keep the temperature at WPC0501TT03 at
pasteurisation temperature (72.40C). The cooling section of the pasteuriser aims to keep the
temperature at WPC0501TT04 at pasteurised milk outgoing temperature (50C). In order to get this
temperature at WPC0501TT04 we need to “activate the cooling section”. Because of restrictions
on CWR temperature we cannot use CW for this until the “product temp” < 200C (Overload CW
Plant!). Mains water is used for cooling until “product temp” = 200C. WPC0501AV32 is activated,
WPC0501CV31 activated 100%, WPC0501AV40 is activated closed (N.O valve) and
WPC0501AV33 is activated. Said mains water (post cool section) is sent to drain post cooling
section via WPC0501AV33. All the while in this step the circulating water circulates via the “long
loop” to/from the balance tank. WPE0501AV60 is activated to drain “hot sterilized” line by gravity.
Step 70: Stabilise – Cool with Chill Water (CW)

Once “product temp” = 200C, step 70 begins. Continue as above, only now with CW instead of
mains water. WPC0501AV32 is now de-activated, WPC0501AV31 is now activated,
WPC0501CV31 activated #% (chasing set-point temp on WPC0501TT04), WPC0501AV40 is de-
activated open (N.O valve) and WPC0501AV33 is de-activated. Chill water (post cool section) is
sent to back to CW plant [NOTE: Initially the CW displaces the MW in the cooling section to drain,
as MW back to CW plant is unwanted]. CW then circulates until WPC0501TT04 ≈ pasteurised milk
outgoing temperature (50C). Plant is bringing down temp with chilled water. All cooling done in
closed system so no need to go out to PM line. WPC0501AV24 is not activated as before.

Step 75: Stabilise – Pasteuriser Temperatures & Pressures

The plant should be almost stabilised now. This step uses various software control loops to “settle”
the plant down so flowrate, temperatures and pressures are correct i.e. temperatures in,
throughout and out of the plant, positive differential pressure across the plant. Once all control
loops are satisfied, the program steps on. All stabilising is done in closed system so no need to go
out to PM line. WPC0501AV24 is not activated. Once stabilised, the program transitions to Step 84
if there is some condition that will not allow the program to proceed OR transitions to Step 85 if all
conditions (including supply/ destination and ingredient tanks are in the correct state).
Step 80: Water Recirculation - By-Pass Separator

This step is only used if the plant is stable but the Separator is not available – Plant is ok but no
“Ready for Operation” signal from Separator. Activate WPC0501AV19.
Step 84: NOT ready for product

Multiple conditions must be present before we go to Step 85.
Step 85: Ready for product

Soft-key becomes available to Operator to Start Production
Step 86: Via CMF

This is not like Step 80. Step 80 by-passes the Separator. Step 86 is Production on Water via the
Separator AND via the CMF. This step is used to stabilise the 2 plants on water prior to bringing on
Milk. If the CMF is selected – Step 85 will not be processed.
Step 90: Product Fill – Milk PO to Balance Tank

Raw milk is pumped from the selected raw milk silo as far as the pasteuriser balance tank.
WPC0501FT02 totalises the flow volume and this step continues until the set volume (parameter)
is reached.
Step 95: Product Fill - Drain Balance Tank

Stop raw milk transfer at end of step 90; continue pumping out of balance tank until LSL.
Step 100: Product Fill – Milk PO to Separator

Restart raw milk transfer into the pasteuriser and continue until milk reaches the separator.
is reached.
Step 105: Product Fill – Skim PO to Past Milk Tank Drain

Continue raw milk transfer into the pasteuriser and via the separator as per step 100. Continue in
this fashion until milk out of the pasteuriser has displaced all the water to drain at WPE0501AV60.
is reached.
Step 110: Forward Flow - Production

All conditions, interlocks, alarms and process parameters are satisfied, the pasteuriser in is
production. Raw milk in, cream and skim/standardised milk out.
Step 112: Forward Flow – Empty Ingredients Lines

Water pushes out ingredient lines into pasteuriser, based on inline FT totalised volume i.e.
WPC0311FT01. This step is based on all ingredients programs being idle or in their water flush to
drain steps. All the time in this step, raw milk is being brought in to combine with the ingredients
lines being water chased.

Step 115: Product Hot Divert

Hot divert occurs because of any one or more unacceptable alarms, and the aim of the step is to
circulate all of the unpasteurised milk back via the balance tank in order to ensure (a) re-
pasteurisation of the milk (b) bring said alarm back into an acceptable state (c) stabilise the plant.
In a hot divert WPC0501AV18 de-activates. Milk is only circulated via the “short loop”. Milk in the
“long loop” is stagnant. Temperatures and pressures in the “short loop” are not at their set-points
and the aim is to try get the plant back stable before reverting to step 110.
Step 120: Product – Circulation – Wait for Ingredient

Product is circulated via the “long loop”.
Step 126: Product – Circulation – CMF

Step 130: Product – Circulation – Wait for Vits & Mins

Step 135: Product – Circulation – Wait for Raw Milk

Step 136: Product – Circulation – Wait for Cream Cooler

Step 140: Product – Circulation – Manual

Step 145: Product – Circulation – Separator Fault

Step 146: Product – Circulation – Wait for Skim Tank

Step 147: Product – Circulation Condition

Step 148: Product Empty - Circulation
Step 149: Product – Pushout Raw Milk to Balance Tank

This step is used after a divert to pushout full fat milk from the skimmed side of the pasteuriser
(from WPC0501AV19 back to balance tank via WPC0501AV24). Bear in mind that in circulation,
we by-pass the separator so no skimming took place. The aim is to get all full fat milk out of system
and then only send past WPC0501AV24 what is skimmed.
Step 150: Product Empty – Raw Milk Line Pushout

Ala Step 90 only the opposite, water is fed (from the local polished condensate loop) as far as the
pasteuriser balance tank. The raw milk supply valve on selected feed silo is shut off and water
“purges” the line of milk into the balance tank. WPC0501FT01 totalises the flow volume and this
step continues until the set volume (parameter) is reached. Step 150 is to water chase the raw milk
into the balance tank on shutdown.

Step 152: Product – Drain Balance Tank

Stop water pushout at end of step 150; continue pumping out of balance tank until LSL.
Step 155: Product Empty – Water PO to Separator

Restart water transfer into the pasteuriser and continue until water reaches the separator.
is reached.
Step 160: Product Empty – Water PO Skim through CMF

Continue water transfer into the pasteuriser and via the separator as per step 155. Continue in this
fashion until water out of the pasteuriser has displaced all the milk through the lines as far as the
CMF plant (If producing IF and CMF’s in use). WPC0501FT01 totalises the flow volume and this
step continues until the set volume (parameter) is reached.
Step 165: Product Empty – Water PO Skim to Past Milk Tank

Continue water transfer into the pasteuriser, via the separator (and CMF if applicable) as per step
155/160 above. Continue in this fashion until water out of the pasteuriser has displaced all the milk
through the lines as far as the destination PM Tank. WPC0501FT01 totalises the flow volume and
this step continues until the set volume (parameter) is reached.
Step 170: Shutdown – Cool Down

Steam to heat section is shut off. Hot water circulating pump is left running for a time. Cooling
section is left active. The aim of this step is to bring the pasteuriser core temperature down. With
the heat section inactive, then with every “pass” or “recirculation” the core temperature drops.
Step 175: Shutdown – Drain Balance Tank

Stop all pumps, control loop and utilities. Activate WPC0501AV41 to drain balance tank to LSL,
and WPE0501AV60 to drain down line to PM silos.
Step 180: Shutdown Complete

Upon LSL, programs stop and pasteuriser goes into idle and is ready for a “long CIP”.
Reference
22300 - Belview Pasteuriser Design and Operation [84]
9 Chapter Summary
This chapter contains an abbreviated version of the process description for a milk pasteuriser from
a specific project.

10 Design Review Guidelines [AC]
Define the term design review

Outline the scope of a design review
Identify the key documents used to develop a design
Review each of the steps in the mechanical design process
Identify the best time to complete the review
Define who is responsible
Estimate the cost of a design review
Summarise the benefits and limitations of a design review

10.1 Design life-cycle and review steps
A Design Review provides documented verification that the proposed design of a system is
suitable for the intended purpose. It is used to verify that the system has been designed as
specified in the tender documents, URS (User Requirement Specification) or contract.
As the design review is the final step to formally review and document the proper process design of
the system, the protocol must enable the reviewers to verify that all essential technical attributes of
the system have been incorporated in the design.
Sometimes clients produce their own P&ID’s/designs or assign this task to their consultant. In this
instance we still need to review/qualify this design as if it were our own in the manner described
herein.
The design review establishes confidence that both the system and equipment are supplied in
accordance with the design specifications and user requirements.
10.2 Design qualification [DQ]
The scope of the design review must include but is not limited to:
• Verification that the design will satisfy the URS.

• Verification that the client gets what is asked for.
• Verification that the design meets specific client standards (e.g. cGMP).
• Verification that the system conforms to national standards and guidelines, when
applicable.
• Verification that the design will achieve the KPI requirements.
• Verification that the system will operate in a manner that is safe to both product and staff.
• Verification that the utilities required will be available.
• Verification that the system will be maintainable.
The design should also meet other important considerations like cGMP for the industry, SEP,
EHEDG, GAMP, QA, FDA, CE, ATEX, PED, ASME, BS, health & safety, environment, energy,
ergonomics, standards, specifications, statutory & regulatory requirements, and of course ensure
that everything is fit for purpose.
Refer to Section 10.2.1 for a list of useful source documents that assist a design review.

10.2.1 Source Documents
Some or all of following items need to be gathered, reviewed and used;
Document Explanation Application
1 Data associated with the User Requirement Specification Required for all
enquiry (URS), Tender Documents, KPI’s, projects.
Design/Files from previous similar
projects.
2 Production Schedule Volume and sequence of products to Required mainly for
be processed over a certain period. larger projects.
3 Product Specifications Product Information and Material Required for projects

and Safety Sheet Safety Data Sheets (MSDS). involving new
equipment.
4 ATEX Zoning Drawings Zoning Information should be Required for all
incorporated into plant layout projects.
drawings and design.
5 cGMP Guidelines “Current Good Manufacturing Required for projects
Practices”. Regulation of where specified by
manufacturing environment. client.
6 EHEDG Guidelines “European Hygienic Engineering & Required for projects
Design Group”. Guidance on where specified by
hygienic engineering aspects of client.
manufacturing.

10.2.2 Design Deliverables
The following documents are produced as part of the mechanical design process. The design
review performs a check on each of these documents.
Document Explanation Application
1 Process Flow Diagram A preliminary outline design. Required mainly for

(Block Diagram) larger projects.
2 Layouts & Piping Equipment layouts, pipe routes in Required for medium
Drawings the plant. to large projects.
3 Design Calculations for Line sizing and pressure drop Required for projects
lines and pumps calculations. involving new
pipework and
equipment.
4 P&ID’s Piping & Instrumentation Diagrams. Required for all
projects.
5 Equipment Specifications Overview of equipment to be Required for all

or Equipment Lists purchased. projects.
6 Process Descriptions Description of the plant, used to Required for all

produce an FDS and develop projects.
software.

10.3 Design Review Process
Please use the internal document for a Design Review Checklist [71]. This should be completed at
the end of the design stage of projects and used as documented verification that a design review
has been completed. It is the only document that is going to confirm the design will work. When
the design review is approved, the system is ready for fabrication and construction.
The signed-off version should be archived so it can serve as a reference of design decisions and
design evaluation, as well as a record that the design appeared to meet all requirements at that
time.
Design requirements will vary from project to project, with some being client specific, but the
components discussed here form the basis of what is required.
Fig 10.3: Design Review
P&ID’s
Equipment
Specifications


10.3.1 Block Diagram Review
As described in Chapter 3, the first stage of the mechanical design is to develop a PFD (Process
Flow Diagram). This is generally in the form of a block diagram, which shows the general flow of
plant processes and equipment. The rest of the design should flow from this block diagram. It is a
simple or conceptual design providing less detail than fully developed P&ID’s. A PFD displays the
relationship between major equipment of a plant facility and does not show minor details such as
piping details and designations.
The Design Review Checklist [71] contains a check that a preliminary outline design, in the form of
a block diagram, has been produced. The following should be considered when checking the
block diagram;
[a] Check that the block diagram is a correct representation of key information provided in the URS
/ Tender Documents.
[b] Check that the flow path meets requirements of the URS / Tender Documents.
[c] Check that the block diagram is complete and has not omitted anything from the URS or any
KPI.
[d] Check that the product data has been confirmed by the client and is not just estimated or
assumed.
[e] Check that the calculation file for determining utility loads has been completed.
Documents Required: URS, Tender Documents, KPI’s, Product Information & MSDS,
Utility Calculation File.
10.3.2 Physical Layout Review
Guidelines for laying out equipment are described in Chapter 4. Items for consideration include
ATEX areas, drains, size and number of tanks, access to high equipment, etc. These should be
considered when reviewing the layout.
The Design Review Checklist [71] contains a check that a layout has been produced in
accordance with the recommended guidelines. The following should be considered when checking
the layout;
[a] If applicable, check that guidelines for ATEX zoning have been produced and ATEX areas are
clearly identified.
[b] Check that the calculation tool for determining number and size of tanks has been completed.
Documents Required: ATEX Zoning Drawings, Tank Farm Design File.

10.3.3 Line Sizing and Pump Calculations Review
Chapter 5 looks at calculating lines sizes and the resulting pressure drops for product, steam and
gas.
The Design Review Checklist [71] contains a section for line and pump design for the new
process. The following check should be performed;
[a] Check that a pressure drop calculation has been produced for each new pump in the system.
[b] If applicable, check that a pressure drop calculation has been produced for steam and
condensate pipe sizing.
Documents Required: Product Pressure Drop File, Steam Pressure Drop File.
10.3.4 P&ID Review
In most instances, the P&ID’s are the lead documents for our projects. It is important to carry out a
P&ID Design Review at the design stage of a project. Although this is just one element of the
design review for a complete project, it is probably the one with the most significance. The design
review is a brainstorm of the process design to qualify that the developed P&ID’s are fit for
purpose. It should be carried out by qualified people who can challenge the design performance.
It should not be carried out by the P&ID designer. Ideally, it is performed by a team of engineers
who can identify more problems working together than alone.
The Design Review Checklist [71] includes a section for the P&ID design of the new process. The
following should be performed;
[a] Perform a P&ID Design Review for each section of any new or modified P&ID’s in the system.
Documents Required: P&ID Design Review Template.

10.3.4.1 Template for P&ID Design Review
Please use the internal document P&ID review checklist [72] for the template that should be used
when conducting a P&ID Review. This includes instructions on how to complete a design review of
a P&ID. The following diagram and definitions give a summary of the process used for the P&ID
Design Review.
Fig 10.3.4.1: P&ID Design Review Flowchart
Line & Pump

Sizing
Process
Description
Physical Layout
Design
SELECT A NODE Review
Process Flow
APPLY GUIDE WORDS
DIVIDE
Diagram
SYSTEM INTO
NODES
Nodes
The P&ID Design Review will focus on specific portions of a process called “Nodes”. An example
of a node would be a transfer line including source and destination tanks. The identification of
nodes is up to the discretion of the reviewer. Process parameters within these nodes are
investigated for deviations.
Guidewords & Checks
The design review comprises of a list of just over 100 questions. These questions are based on 13
guidewords and must be answered for each of the identified nodes. The questions are designed to
require simple pass or fail approvals as described below.
Approval
It the test passes, it can be signed off and dated. Deviations are created if a test fails. Deviations
are returned to the designer for correction.

Pass & Close-out P&ID Design Review
The designer must resolve any test failures before the reviewer can formally close-out the process
review. Documented evidence of a design review should be provided upon completion.

10.3.5 Key Equipment Specifications Review
Key equipment specifications and equipment lists are prepared to assist procurement and to inform
the client of the equipment that is intended to be purchased for the project. Key equipment refers
to equipment that directly performs the key duties or KPI’s, e.g. pumps, agitators, heat exchangers.
The Design Review Checklist [71] contains a section for key equipment specifications and
equipment lists. The following check should be performed;
[a] Check that equipment specifications or data sheets have been prepared for key equipment and
that they are correctly represented.
[b] Check that equipment lists have been prepared for all equipment.
[c] Check equipment specifications and lists for completeness.
Documents Required: URS, Product Information & MSDS, ATEX Zoning Drawings, EHEDG
Guidelines.
10.3.6 Process Description Review
A process description describes the plant in such a way that experienced software engineers can
produce an FDS and develop software for it.
The Design Review Checklist [71] contains a section for process description. The following check
should be performed;
[a] Check that all processes in the URS have a process description against them.
[b] Check that there is a record of a process description transmittal to the client and that it has
been reviewed by the client.
[c] Check that there is a record of a process description transmittal to the automation team.
Documents Required: URS, Tender Documents, Process Description Transmittal.

10.4 When to complete the Design Review
All of the design deliverables described in Section 10.2.2 above, must be in place to complete and
sign-off the Design Review Checklist [71]. Ideally the design review will be a pre-procurement
activity, so that changes can be made to the design without major costs.
10.5 Responsibility
The project manager should ensure that the mechanical design review is completed and supported
with relevant documentation.
It is the responsibility of the project manager to delegate this task to some of the engineering
personnel on the project team. Ideally the design review will be performed by a team of engineers
who can challenge the design performance and identify more problems working together than
alone.

10.6 Estimate of Review Hours
The following is an estimate of the number of engineering hours it takes to complete the different
stages of a design review for small, medium and large projects.
Review Document Engineering Hours Typical Example Total

for Small Projects Hours
1 Block Diagram 2 hours per block diagram 1 block diagram 2
Review
2 Physical Layout 1 hour per layout drawing 1 layout drawing 1
Review
3 Line Sizing & Pump 5 minutes per pump 4 pumps 0.5
Calculations Review
4 P&ID Review 4 hours for first node, 1 P&ID, say 2 nodes 5
per P&ID => 2
1 hour for every node after
nodes
that
5 Key Equipment 30 minutes for small project Small sized project 0.5
Specifications
Review
6 Process Description 15 minutes per process 2 process 0.5
Review descriptions
7 Review Meetings 2 hours for small project Small sized project 2
Total 11.5

10.6 Estimate of Review Hours cont’d.

10.6 Estimate of Review Hours

for Medium Hours
Projects
1 Block Diagram 2 hours per block diagram 2 block diagrams 4
Review
2 Physical Layout 1 hour per layout drawing 4 layout drawings 4
Review
3 Line Sizing & Pump 5 minutes per pump 10 pumps 1
Calculations Review
4 P&ID Review 4 hours for first node, 4 P&ID’s, say 2 11
nodes per P&ID =>
8 nodes
that
5 Key Equipment 1 hour for medium projects Medium sized 1

Specifications project
Review
6 Process Description 15 minutes per process 6 process 1.5
Review descriptions
7 Review Meetings 4 hours for medium projects Medium sized 4
project
Total 26.5

for Large Projects Hours
1 Block Diagram 2 hours per block diagram 4 block diagrams 8
Review
2 Physical Layout 1 hour per layout drawing 6 layout drawings 6
Review
3 Line Sizing & Pump 5 minutes per pump 20 pumps 1.5
Calculations Review
4 P&ID Review 4 hours for first node, 10 P&ID’s, say 2 23
nodes per P&ID =>
20 nodes
that
5 Key Equipment 2 hours for large projects Large sized project 2

Specifications
Review
6 Process Description 15 minutes per process 20 process 5
Review descriptions
7 Review Meetings 6 hours for large projects Large sized project 6
Total 51.5

10 Chapter Summary
A design review is an organized approach to evaluating a process design. It is a systematic way to

make sure the user requirements are being met before equipment and materials are actually
ordered.
A design review is intended to catch design errors and prompt discussions. Without the design
review, these issues might not have been addressed for months down the road. The design
review will identify potential problems on paper during the design, rather than in the field during
start-up. It provides an opportunity to design out non-compliances sooner rather than later.
When the design review is structured and executed properly, it can help assure the design is
robust and complete, giving the project team a high degree of confidence that every requirement
has been factored into the design.

11 Safety
Definitions
Hazard: Anything that can cause harm, injury or ill-health.
Examples – [from HSE statistics on the greatest risks on construction sites [73]].
Hazards causing death: Hazards causing injury or ill-health:

Falling from height Lifting, pushing or pulling loads,
Moving vehicles [often reversing] Slips, trips and falls,
Falling objects or collapsing structure Collapse of material or structure,
Burial in trenches or excavations Falling from height,
Overhead power lines Chemical or biological hazards or hazardous
substances
Likelihood: The probability that the hazard will occur.
Risk: A combination of the likelihood and the severity of the hazard.
Risk assessment: A process of establishing whether or not risks are adequately managed.
PSDP: Project Supervisor Design Process - the person or company appointed in writing by the
client to carry out specified duties:
[a] Take into account the general principles of prevention, in particular in planning the activities
and the time allowed for completion.
[b] Take account of any safety and health plan or safety file.
[c] Organise co-operation between the designers.

Engin
11.1 Risk Assessment
Each design will need a risk assessment, but we can use the following templates [11.1.2, etc.] to
standardise the assessment and to ensure that we can focus on the particular risks that a project
may present.
A risk assessment starts when the physical layout of the plant is being designed. Using the layout
drawing, and your knowledge of the equipment and how it is installed and operated, prepare a list
of all the hazards that may be present during its’ life-cycle.
This list must be evaluated by examining the probability of the hazard happening, and the severity
of the outcome. In this way we can try to put numbers on the answer to the question, “How
dangerous is this hazard?” Section 11.1.1 goes into this method in more detail.
Many of our designs have common elements, so we have pre-configured some of these in sections
11.1.2 onwards. These sections will give the designer a starting point for the first draft of the risk
assessment. It is an iterative process, affecting and being affected by the design until the
completed risk assessment document is ready to send to the Project Supervisor Design Phase.
Remember that we are examining our design work, not that of our suppliers. Just as a composer
makes use of his knowledge of various instruments to create a score for them without being
involved in their construction, we are arranging equipment for a particular purpose [but not
designing or building the equipment]. Therefore we look at the risks in the arrangement of the
equipment, and not in the design of the component.
Risk assessments for safety focus mainly on construction, maintenance and end of life disposal of
equipment. Section 11.3 below describes how a HAZOP can be used as a risk assessment for the
operation and control of a live plant.

11.1.1 Risk Assessment Evaluation Table
This is the general methodology to be used for risk assessment. It allows the risk assessment to be
documented and provides a clear and readable basis for communication with the PSDP.
For each hazard, estimate the likelihood of it happening and then estimate the severity of the
outcome, if the hazard actually happens. For both estimates, use the table of values below. Then
cross-reference the likelihood with the severity in the matrix below and write down the risk level
result. The 5 possible conclusions will direct you to take a design action to avoid the risk, or to add
a set of control measures to be adopted so as to reduce the level of risk, or will tell you that the
controls in the design are sufficient, or that no controls are necessary. For hazards which are
known to occur in our designs, we can take standard and consistent actions. The following tables
will outline that. However, please note that this is a communication tool to enable the client and the
contractor to decide who takes responsibility for the design action to avoid the hazard, and who is
responsible for controlling any remaining risks.
Likelihood [L] table Hazard severity [S] table
L1 Improbable S1 Negligible
L2 Remote S2 Minor [i.e. reportable accidents]
L3 Possible S3 Severe [loss of limb, or fatality]
L4 Probable S4 Extreme [multiple fatalities]

Risk level result [R] Conclusions
S1 S2 S3 S4 A Hazard MUST be avoided (or level of risk reduced

significantly & reliably by controls).
L1 - - D C B Hazard SHOULD be avoided (or level of risk

reduced as above.
L2 - D C B C Risk is to be controlled as far as is reasonably

practicable.
L3 D C B A D Risk is controlled as far as is reasonably

practicable.
L4 D B A A - No control measures necessary.

Engin
11.1.2 Pre-Configured Risk Assessment for Piping
General: Piping
Life cycle Description of work Hazards
Delivery / Unloading, moving on site, storing. Vehicle movement for delivery
handling truck and for forklifts, manual
handling, trips.
Installation Moving sections of pipe and support Manual handling, working at height,
brackets, fixing pipe supports [usually falls, trips, cutting and grinding
at height], cutting and grinding pipe, machinery, chemicals [argon gas
welding, applying acid paste for and acid].
pickling.
Operation None – not inspected unless sight Burns [if pipe is being hot cleaned,
glasses installed [separate table]. Can or has hot water or oil or
be touched to check contents, or steam/condensate inside].
climbed over for access to other parts
Injury if pipe bursts.
of plant.
End of life / Removal of any insulation and separate As for installation, plus possible
disposal disposal, cutting up, moving, disposal hazard with insulation.
to scrap steel merchant.

11.1.3 Pre-Configured Risk Assessment for Storage Tanks
Process block: Storage – set of tanks and valve manifold

Life cycle Description of work Hazards
Delivery / Unloading of tanks, pumps and valve Crane set up and lifting over site,
handling blocks, moving on site, storing. vehicle movement for delivery truck
and for forklifts.
Installation Levelling and [outdoors] securing Manual handling [similar to piping
bases, fitting instruments and agitators hazard], working at height [similar
at high level, connections to piping and to piping hazard].
electrical systems.
Operation – Inspection of tank contents, valve Burns [if tank is being hot cleaned,
access for positions, or checking for leaks. Can be or contains hot water or oil].
inspection or touched to check contents, or climbed
Injury if tank bursts or fails.
operation over or past for access to other parts of
plant. Falls from height of tank top or
from attached equipment.
Operation – Maintenance of attached equipment Live plant – flow of services,

access for [e.g. level switches, pumps, valves]. product, water or CIP from opened
maintenance pipes or equipment.
Live electricity from electrical
devices.
Lifting injuries or dropping of
equipment.
Operation – The process consists of pumped Over-pressure and failure of pipes
process transfer operations to fill and empty the or components.
storage tanks, storage of the process
Sudden closing of routes causing
liquid, with or without agitation, and
water hammer.
cleaning [usually by a hot detergent
sprayed inside the tanks]. Leaks from pipes or equipment.
Collapse of tanks during cold
rinses after hot cleaning.
Leaks of CIP detergent.
End of life / Removal of any insulation and separate As for installation, plus possible
disposal disposal, cutting up, moving, disposal hazard with insulation.
to scrap steel merchant.

Engin
11.1.4 Pre-Configured Risk Assessment for Transfer Line with Heating
Process: transfer line with heating

Life cycle Description of work NEW Hazards
[Other hazards same as for
storage]
Operation – Changing gaskets in heat exchangers Glued-in gaskets need special
maintenance tools to remove and application of
glue to fit.
Operation – The process consists of pumped Over-pressure and failure of pipes
process transfer operations to and from storage or components due to trapped heat
tanks, with either heating or cooling in- [liquid expansion].
line. The source or destination could
Freezing of liquids in glycol-chilled
be a road tanker, with manual hook-up
heat exchangers.
and disconnection. There will be
cleaning [usually by a hot detergent Bursting of gaskets in heaters if
inside the same pipe route as product]. filled quickly before air is fully
vented.
In the following section [control measures] we show the full risk assessment table, with control
measures table.

11.2 Control Measures
11.2.1 The General Principles of Prevention
As designers we must [this is a legal requirement] take account of the general principles of
prevention when evaluating the hazards. These are [note the order is important. We are obliged to
use the highest possible principle on the list when eliminating the hazard or controlling the risk]:
General principles of prevention

Eliminate the risk
Increasing reliance on personal

manage risks [recommended]
Increasing use of systems to
Evaluate unavoidable risks

Combat risks “at source”
Adapt the workplace to the individual
behaviour
Adapt the workplace to technical progress
Replace dangerous articles, substances, or systems of work
Development of a prevention policy
Collective protective measures over individual measures
Training and instruction
Reference: Nifast Project Supervisor Design Stage training course – 23rd April 2007 [Instructor
Aidan Duffy] [74].
See Section 11.2.2 [landscape format].

11.2.2 Risks and Control Measures for Common Hazards
(PIPING: HAZARD INDENTIFICATION AND RISK ASSESSMENT during DESIGN PROCESS)
LOCATION: [refer to plant layout drawing] DATE:

RISK ASSESMENT RISK ASSESSMENT
ITEM HAZARD (NO CONTROLS) CONTROLS appropriate during design*1 (with CONTROLS)
L S R L S R
Collision with vehicles [deliveries and movement] 3 3 B Designate roadway access to site, impose speed limit, plan and mark 2 2 D
on layouts an unloading area.
Injuries due to manual handling 3 2 C Specify that mechanical contractor is to provide pallet trucks and that 2 2 D
staff are to be certified for manual handling.
Falls from height or equipment dropped due to 3 3 B Design pipe runs in defined pipe racks to minimise work-at-height-area. 2 3 C
working at height Specify that supports with pipe clips are to be pre-fabricated and then
used to provide secure supports for high level pipes.
Trips due to piping work in progress 3 2 C Designate a work area for the contractor separate to the installation 3 2 C
site; specify that mechanical contractor provides bins for collection of
scrap piping.
Injuries from cutting and grinding machinery, 3 2 C Specify that mechanical contractors pre-qualify by means of inspection 2 2 D
burns from acid pickling paste or hot work, or or previous experience, so that their competence with piping can be
inhaling argon gas during purging verified.
Injury from pipe bursting 2 2 D Selection of appropriate materials for each product/service; use PED 1 2 -
classification in design.
Burns during operation [hot contents or hot 2 2 D Design insulation for pipes with continuously hot contents. 1 2 -
cleaning]
Removal of old insulation at end of life or removal 2 2 D Specify approved [non-asbestos-based] insulation. 1 1 -
of equipment
Summary of risks that are not controlled in design process: working from height, trips, burns from pipes during hot cleaning.

STORAGE: HAZARD INDENTIFICATION AND RISK ASSESSMENT during DESIGN PROCESS … 1 of 2

L S R L S R
Installation: Collision with vehicles [deliveries and 3 3 B Plan and mark out [on layouts] the proposed access route and 2 2 D
movement] unloading areas.
Installation: Tank dropped during lifting by crane 2 3 C Mark out crane operating area and plan [on project schedule] group 2 3 C
deliveries to minimise duration of lifting.
Installation: Falls from height, or equipment 3 3 B Design and specify tanks so that pipes and electrical conduit are pre- 2 3 C
dropped, due to working at height fitted. Plan and coordinate deliveries so that agitators can be fitted in
tank workshop before delivery to site.
Operation: Falls from height, or equipment 3 3 B Design a platform to access the working area of the tank top. Design 1 3 D
dropped, due to working at height instruments so that they can be accessed from tank top, platform, or
from ground level*1.
Operation: Injury from tank bursting 2 2 D Selection of appropriate materials for each product/service. Use PED 1 2 -
Operation: Burns during operation [hot contents 2 2 D Design insulation for tanks with continuously hot contents. 1 2 -
or hot cleaning]
Maintenance: Live flow of services, product or 3 2 C Include isolation valves [manual or automatic] on pumps, service lines, 2 2 D
CIP from opened pipes and tank outlets.
Maintenance: live electricity 3 3 B Instruments and valves to be powered at low voltage [24Vdc] where 2 3 C
possible. Pumps and agitators to have local isolation. Lock-off isolation
switches on MCC.
Maintenance: lifting injuries or dropping of 3 2 C Mark out on equipment layouts the minimum space required for 2 2 D
equipment maintenance of pumps, tanks, local panels etc.
Notes:
1: Designate the equipment e.g. mid-level instruments, service valves on heating/cooling jacket, for which NO platform will be provided because of low frequency of access

STORAGE: HAZARD INDENTIFICATION AND RISK ASSESSMENT during DESIGN PROCESS … 2 of 2

L S R L S R
Process: Over-pressure and failure of pipes and 3 2 C Calculate pressure for each transfer line and select appropriate pipe 1 2 -
components material, and valve actuators for the duty [default maximum is 5bar].
Process: Sudden closing of routes causing water 3 1 D Select the type of automatic isolation valve that closes with fluid flow. 2 1 -
hammer Use GPTIE design principles [SEP in chapter 7] to avoid these
situations. Specify steps of “controlled stop” in process descriptions
[heat off, pumps off, valves closed].
Process: Leaks from pipes or equipment 3 1 D Pipe connections [unions, sealing materials] selected to match design 2 1 -
pressure and fluids, refer to chapter 7 in handbook.
Process: Vacuum collapse of tanks during cold 3 1 D Design for adequate venting on tanks [specification to manufacturer]. 2 1 -
rinse after hot CIP; or in emergency emptying Calculate emergency emptying rates.
Process: leaks of CIP detergent 3 2 C Design funnels for leakage areas on mix-proof valves or drip trays for 2 2 D
valve manifolds. Specify baffles on tank vents. Where pipes go to a
drain, specify splash plate or elbow in open channels to minimise
splashing.
Summary of risks that are not controlled in design process: lifting by crane, working from height [installation], working from height [operation – specified equipment], burns
from tanks during hot cleaning.

TRANSFER with HEATING: HAZARD INDENTIFICATION AND RISK ASSESSMENT during DESIGN PROCESS

L S R L S R
Maintenance: Removal of glued gaskets. Re- 4 1 D Specify loc-in or clip-in [non-glued] gaskets to eliminate hazard. 1 1 -
fitting new gaskets
Process: Over-pressure due to heat expansion 3 1 D Select the a type of automatic isolation valve that opens against 2 1 -
pressure in the trapped line. Specify steps of “controlled stop” in
process descriptions [heat off, pumps off, valves closed].
Process: Freezing of liquids in glycol-chilled heat 3 1 D Use Chiller design standard [75] to avoid the risk [use of isolation on 2 1 -
exchangers chilled glycol line, and attemperation of supply temperature].
Process: Bursting of gaskets when heaters filled 3 1 D Design for high point vents on service lines and screwed pipe 2 1 -
suddenly, before air is vented connection on product side to enable both pipe lines to be vented easily
in start-up situations.

(PUMPS: HAZARD INDENTIFICATION AND RISK ASSESSMENT during DESIGN PROCESS)

L S R L S R
Collision with vehicles [deliveries and movement] 3 3 B Designate roadway access to site. Impose speed limit. Plan and mark 2 2 D
on layouts, an unloading area.
Tank dropped during lifting by crane 2 3 C Mark out crane operating area and plan tank deliveries to minimise 2 3 C
duration of lifting.
Falls from height, or equipment dropped, due to 3 3 B Design and specify tanks so that pipes and electrical conduit are pre- 2 3 C
working at height during installation fitted. Plan and coordinate deliveries so that agitators can be fitted in
tank workshop before delivery to site.
Falls from height, or equipment dropped, due to 3 3 B Design a platform to access the working area of the tank top. Design 1 3 D
working at height during operation instruments so that they can be accessed from tank top, platform, or
from ground level.
Falls from height, or equipment dropped, due to 2 3 C Designate the equipment [e.g. mid-level instruments, service valves on 2 3 C
working at height during operation heating/cooling jacket], for which NO platform will be provided because
of low frequency of access.
Injury from tank bursting 2 2 D Selection of appropriate materials for each product/service. Use PED 1 2 -
Burns during operation [hot contents or hot 2 2 D Design insulation for tanks with continuously hot contents. 1 2 -
cleaning]
Note 1: At construction phase, risks can be controlled by actions taken by the installation contractor

11.3 HAZOP
The term HAZOP denotes Hazard & Operability Study.
A HAZOP is basically a risk assessment. HAZOP studies identify credible incident scenarios,
which would have a significant impact on plant safety and operational capability. They investigate
how the plant might deviate from the design intent. HAZOP studies focus primarily on the
operation and control of a plant.
Hazard
Any operation that could possibly cause a catastrophic release of toxic, flammable or explosive
chemicals or any action that could result in injury to personnel.
Operability
Any operation inside the design envelope that would cause a shutdown that could possibly lead to
a violation of environmental, health or safety regulations or negatively impact profitability.
11.3.1 HAZOP as a Supplement to the Design Review
The designer has a legal responsibility for completing a design review, from which documented
verification can be provided. Chapter 10 described this design review process in detail.
Some clients might request that a HAZOP is conducted to identify hazards arising from the design.
This is additional to our legal responsibilities and should be at the client’s expense. There are
other forms of risk assessments that can test the design. HAZOP studies tend to be used most
often. They are not legally binding but are current practice. They are normally conducted by a third
party, however, some clients request that they are conducted by GEA in a bid to cut down on
costs.
HAZOPs are best conducted during the detailed design stage of a project. The design should be
fairly firm and well enough defined to allow meaningful discussions.

11.3.2 The HAZOP Process
The following diagram and definitions give a summary of the process used for a HAZOP.
Fig 11.3.2: HAZOP Process Flowchart
PASS & CLOSE-OUT REVIEW
ANY DEVIATIONS?
RETURN TO P&ID DESIGNER

TO RESOLVE
YES
NO
Nodes
A HAZOP will focus on specific portions of a process called “Nodes”. An example of a node would
be a transfer line including source and destination tanks. Nodes identified during the design review
of P&IDs can be used again for the HAZOP. Process parameters within these nodes are
investigated for deviations.
Process Parameters
The following list of typical process parameters should be considered when evaluating each node;
Most common For consideration also

• Flow • pH
• Pressure • Mixing / Reaction
• Temperature • Contamination
• Level • Relief
• Agitation • Sampling
• Viscosity • Instrumentation
• Corrosion / Erosion
• Static
• Flammable
• Services / Utilities
• Environmental
• Safety

• Training

11.3.2 The HAZOP Process cont’d.
Guidewords
• No
• More
• Less
• Reverse
• Misdirected
• High
• Low
Deviations
Deviations are created by combining the Guide Words with the Process Parameters. For example;
• No Flow
• More Pressure
• Low Level
• High pH
Causes
Causes are the reasons why deviations might occur. They can be equipment failures, human
errors or external events. Only credible causes should be listed.
Consequences
These are the results of the deviations should they occur. The deviation may result in a hazard or
operability problem.
Safeguards
Some consequences present credible process hazards. Safeguards may already be in place to
prevent, detect or mitigate these hazards. These safeguards should be recorded. The sufficiency
of a safeguard needs careful determination. They must function as intended in the event of an
occurrence.
Actions
Recommendations or action items are required when safeguards are not already in place or when
safeguards are determined to be inadequate in protecting against the hazard. Action items should
reduce or eliminate deviations, causes, and/or consequences. They can include design, operating
or maintenance changes.
Responsibility
An individual or department is assigned to each action item. These action items should be
resolved within the agreed time frame.

11 Chapter Summary
The key definitions of safety, particularly those used by the HSA

Identifying and evaluating hazards and outcomes
Developing a risk assessment template
Pre-configured hazard identification for common processes
Pre-configured control measures for common processes
HAZOP as a form of risk assessment for the operation of a plant.

12 Energy Conservation
Outline the references and organisations that are resources for energy conservation
Identify what parts of the design, and the proposed sequences of operation, contribute to
energy conservation
When it comes to energy conservation or energy efficiency, we must step back a little from our own
design. Energy is a global concern, and it is a common expenditure at every level of the national
economy, from the home up to the biggest business.
Example: We will set the scene here with some facts about how energy is managed and used in
Ireland, but please regard it as a challenge to keep yourself informed about this topic on an on-
going basis. It will be necessary to adapt to different sources of energy, and to share in a wider
team approach when evaluating the energy usage in your project.
The overall expenditure by Irish business on energy was €2bn in 2007. Many businesses are
already operating energy management systems, and many larger companies are on the path to, or
are already certified to the Irish Energy Management Standard [I.S. 393]. Those that we would be
familiar with already, as repeat customers, include: Diageo [April 2007], and Glanbia [May 2007].
From reading the “Demand side management” report of the SEI [76], it appears that the current
focus is on reduction of electrical consumption [particularly in lighting]. We must take this on-board.
For example, if task-specific lighting is needed and is part of our scope [eg in electrical panels, or
at tank sight glasses], that it is designed with timers or some other occupancy-based switch
mechanism to limit the time it is switched on.
DIVIDE SYSTEM INTO NODES
12.1 Reference standard for energy conservation
The common focus of various national organisations devoted to energy conservation is on

management systems for energy measurement. The foundation for any company wanting to
reduce energy usage is to set up and maintain an energy monitoring system. Therefore, the
reference material is more useful for client organisations than for ourselves, who work on a project
basis. Just because we must become part of a bigger picture shouldn’t stop us from making a
contribution.

12.2 Where to apply principles of energy conservation
The key principles are:
Manage – Measure – Reduce
Manage
Promote a systematic approach to energy management. If the client is already in one of the SEI
schemes, or similar schemes, then invite the client to bring the responsible manager to the project
meetings as early as possible so as to foster a good working relationship and to spot opportunities
for energy efficiency.
Measure
Do a utility usage calculation so that the energy requirement of the design can be reported to the
client at an early stage. Be mindful in developing the architecture for electrical power, steam,
glycol/chilled water, and compressed air distribution, that the client will want to measure utilities
[even if this is not in the scope of our supply]. Try to facilitate this in the layout of equipment that
uses the largest amount of energy.
Reduce
Once the block diagrams are developed, examine ways in which energy can be conserved by:
[a] Reducing heating temperatures to the minimum required by the process or CIP.
[b] Minimising storage steps where cooling is required.
[c] Regeneration of heat.
[d] Recovery of waste heat in discharges to drain [as condensate, CIP, or warm water].
[e] Use of the most efficient processes for heating [for example in a typical milk powder plant, milk
has to concentrated in an evaporator prior to drying. Since steam economy is much better in an
evaporator, it makes sense to concentrate to the highest possible solids content in the evaporator.
Similarly, the feed to the atomiser must be heated to promote drying of the spray. The preheating
is more efficient at the feed stage than it is in the dryer [heating liquid with steam or water is more
efficient than using hot air!]].

12.2 Where to apply principles of energy conservation cont’d.
Additional note on steam:
Steam: when steam systems are surveyed, the most frequent cause of wasted energy is leaks,
followed by uninsulated pipe.
At the design stage, we can anticipate and minimise the impact of leaks by:
[a] Specifying reliable branch isolation [so that leaks can be fixed without a long wait for downtime],
specifying good quality equipment and fittings [flanges and gaskets];
[b] Minimising or eliminating threaded connections [however, please note that for sizes smaller
than 1.5” it can be expensive or impossible to follow this principle, especially for condensate
equipment].

Communication Events Table
This table identifies those events which must be accompanied by a communication of information to
the various parties when these events arise.
The purpose of such communications is to inform the relevant parties of the events as they may have
an impact on; (a) the work completed, (b) documents generated, (c) project schedule, and (d) the
information disseminated by the relevant parties.
SUCH COMMUNICATIONS SHOULD ALWAYS BE CLEARLY DOCUMENTED,

COMPLETED PROMPTLY, AND RECORDED WITH THE PROJECT DOCUMENTATION
No. Event Description Auto Elec Mech PCAD

1 Adding any new pieces of electrical equipment / instruments X X X X
2 Adding any new (non electrical) local display instruments X X
3 Reversing valve actuators X X X X
4 Changing the number of valve feedbacks X X X
5 Changing the size of a control valve X X
6 Inclusion or removal of a variable speed drive X X X X
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

Appendices
The following appendices are contained in this publication;
[AX1] HSA – RF1 - Permanent Works Design Certificate

Appendix 1: HSA – RF1 - Permanent Works Design Certificate
The following guide explains what documents to use when completing the HSA [guidance]
document: Permanent Works Design Certificate [RF1] [80].
Question in RF1 Recommended answer

Detail design codes GPTIE Engineering Standards Group [ESG] Handbook
adopted or complied
with for this element of
works:
Explanatory note: The relevant EC directives are not design codes. The
handbook provides an overall design framework that is suitable for us.
Reference numbers for Use project specific examples of the workbooks below:
calculations completed
[see explanatory notes on following page]
and checked:
[Number] ESG_M_CALC_TankAndVentSizing_r2_14Jan09
[Number] ESG_M_CALC_PressureDropAndPumpDuties_r13_10Jun08
[Number] ESG_M_CALC_SteamPressureDrops_r3_05Dec08
[Number] ESG_M_CALC_ControlValveSizing_r4_05Feb09
[Number] ESG_M_CALC_HeatLossAndInsulation_r2_11Aug08
[Number] ESG_M_CALC_SimpleHeatExchangerTempProfile_r2_12Feb09
Drawing numbers Use the equipment layout and the P&IDs

completed and
checked:
Explanatory note: The key drawing for assessing safety [and in
particular, access during construction and operation] is the equipment
layout and if possible the site plan with the construction area and set-
down areas marked].
Design intent and Our intent is to advise the client or client’s civil contractor of the locations
assumptions that may and weights of all heavy equipment, of any particular foundation or
affect constructability: height clearances required, of access routes for deliveries and cranes
and of openings for piping and electrical cables. We assume that the
floors will be finished with a surface that allows equipment installation
and fixing.

Notes on calculation files

21xxx-M-10.1 ESG_M_CALC_TankAndVentSizing_r2_14Jan09
Calculates preliminary dimensions for tanks in advance of construction
dimensions from selected tank manufacturer. Vent sizing is indicative
only and must be confirmed by manufacturer!
21xxx-M-11.1 ESG_M_CALC_PressureDropAndPumpDuties_r13_10Jun08
Calculates pressure drop for liquids for each duty- so that pumps can be
specified. Gives indicative motor sizing for use in electrical design. Note
that each workbook [excel file] comprises 15 cases, so several files will
be needed for large projects
21xxx-M-12.1 ESG_M_CALC_SteamPressureDrops_r3_05Dec08
Calculates pressure drop for steam for each line- so that steam lines and
valves can be specified. Note that each workbook [excel file] comprises
15 cases, so several files will be needed for large projects
21xxx-M-13.1 ESG_M_CALC_ControlValveSizing_r4_05Feb09
Calculates Kv and design Kv[s] for control valves on gas, steam or
liquids using the methodology of the GEA Flow components catalogue
[and checked against it]. The selection of the correct model of control
valve is up to the supplier! Note that each workbook [excel file]
comprises 15 cases, so several files will be needed for large projects
21xxx-M-14.1 ESG_M_CALC_HeatLossAndInsulation_r2_11Aug08
Calculates the surface temperature of the insulation for hot and cold
pipes, in the former for a safe touch temperature, in the latter to avoid
condensation drips. Note that the workbook comprises a table of
recommended insulation thicknesses for each typical pipe size; and
several worksheet for a more detailed individual calculation if required.
21xxx-M-15.1 ESG_M_CALC_SimpleHeatExchangerTempProfile_r2_12Feb09
Calculates Temperature profile and utility loads for simple one-section
heat exchangers. The sizing and selection of the appropriate heat
exchanger is up to the supplier! Note that each workbook [excel file]
comprises 15 cases, so several files will be needed for large projects

Extract from HSA guidelines – the General principles of prevention [free download] [81]

References
[1] Standard Quotation Template is on the server: QMS: G11_ENQ_S07_A02

[2] Health and Safety Authority (2003) Summary of Key Duties under the Procurement, Design
and Site Management Requirements of the Safety Health & Welfare at Work (Construction)
Regulations, 2006, Dublin 1
[3] “Guide to the implementation of directives based on new approach and global approach”,
published by the European Commission
[4] Low voltage equipment [73/23/EEC, amendment 93/68/EEC]

[5] Simple pressure vessels [87/404/EEC, amendments 90/488/EEC and 93/68/EEC]
[6] Electromagnetic compatibility [2004/108 – repeals 89/336/EEC]
[7] Machinery [2006/42 – repeals 98/37/EEC, comes into effect on 29Dec09]
[8] Potentially explosive atmospheres [94/9/EC] ... commonly known as ATEX
[9] Pressure equipment [97/23/EC, amendment 2003/1882]
[10] Measuring instruments [2004/22/EC, amendment 2006/96]
[11] http://eur-lex.europa.eu/
[13] Guide to the simple pressure vessels directive 87/404/EEC – June 2000
[14] Comments on Directives 98/37/EC – 2001
[15] Royal Sun Alliance PED presentation
[16] Pressure Equipment – guidance notes to the UK regulations URN 99/1147 [Nov99]
[17] Guidance documents for the application of this directive are available at
http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/prepack/ms_inst/mi_guidances.htm
[18] Product table “ESG_M_Data_Products_r0_14Mar08”
[19] “ABC of pumps”, a Fristam publication (Fristam, 2006)
[20] “Manual for the design of pipe systems and pumps”, a GEA Tuchenhagen publication (GEA Process Equipment Division,
2007)
[21] ESG_M_CALC_GasNormalising
Calculates gas flow according to [SI] Normal units and [USA] Standard units.
[22] Process block table and standard design features

“ESG_M_Data_ProcessBlocks_r0_20Mar08”
[23] ESG_M_CALC_HeatLossAndInsulation
Calculates the surface temperature of the insulation for hot and cold pipes, in the former for a safe touch temperature, in the
latter to avoid condensation drips. Note that the workbook comprises a table of recommended insulation thicknesses for
each typical pipe size; and several worksheet for a more detailed individual calculation if required.

References, cont’d.
[24] ESG_M_CALC_Utility Calculator
Calculates summary utility loads for a set of standardised process area. Each process line item is pre-configured to allow
simple calculation of its particular utility load and estimated line size. .
[25] ESG_M_CALC_TankFarmDesign
Uses a standard format to allow entry of the basic operating parameters for a set of storage tanks. Estimates the number
and size of tanks for the tank farm.
[26] ESG_M_CALC_TankAndVentSizing
Calculates preliminary dimensions for tanks in advance of construction dimensions from selected tank manufacturer. Vent
sizing is indicative only and must be confirmed by manufacturer!
[27] “ESG_M_CalcMostEfficientTankLtoD_r0_27Mar08”
[28] Chlorides_vs_304_Rept.doc, internal GPTIE folder
[29] “Stainless steel for hygienic applications” – Tony Newson, Stainless Steel producers
group Paper originally delivered at the BSSA Conference 'Stainless Solutions for a
Sustainable Future' held in Rotherham on 3rd April 2003
[30] General metallurgical information from American Valve company [web
http://www.americanvalve.com/flanged%20pages/metallurgy.html]
[31] Stainless steel properties from British Stainless Steel Association [web:
http://www.bssa.org.uk/topics.php?article=96]
[32] http://www.dkirubber.com/materials.asp
[33] www.dupont.com
[34] http://www.efunda.com/designstandards/oring
[35] http://www.sealingspecialties.com/materials.htm
[36] ESG_M_CALC_PressureDropAndPumpDuties
Calculates pressure drop for liquids for each duty- so that pumps can be specified. Gives indicative motor sizing for use in
electrical design. Note that each workbook [excel file] comprises 15 cases, so several files will be needed for large projects
[37] ESG_M_CALC_SteamPressureDrops
Calculates pressure drop for steam for each line- so that steam lines and valves can be specified. Note that each workbook
[excel file] comprises 15 cases, so several files will be needed for large projects
[38] http://www.spiraxsarco.com/resources/steam-engineering-tutorials/steam-engineering-
principles-and-heat-transfer/superheated-steam.asp
[39] “ESG_M_SteamConfigurations_r0_23May08.xls – worksheet: SteamEquipment”
[40] Outokumpu Steel Grades, Properties and Global Standards – download from internet
August 2008
[41] http://www.spiraxsarco.com/resources/steam-engineering-tutorials/steam-
distribution/pipe-expansion-and-support.asp
[42] e-mail from Dirk Jarmer, 10Jun08, GEA Process Equipment Division Tuchenhagen GmbH
[43] http://www.ehedg.org/guidelines/glossary.pdf
[44] M&S catalog 2009
[45] EU regulation 2004/R0853
[46] Chapter V item 1 of 204/R0852

????? Chapter Title
[47] EC92/46 : Council Directive 92/46/EEC of 16 June 1992 laying down the health rules
for the production and placing on the market of raw milk, heat-treated milk and milk-based
products [repealed by: 2004 / 41]
[48] http://www.ehedg.org
[49] http://labom.com/labom/englisch/default.htm
[50] http://www.ritag.com
[51] EHEDG publication number 8, “Hygienic equipment design criteria”
[52] power-point presentation file from Knuth Lorenzen, 2-Nov-2005, Tuchenhagen GmbH
[53] power-point presentation file from Knuth Lorenzen, “Hygienic Design of Food Factories
and Equipment, Mexico “ 31-Jan-2009, Tuchenhagen GmbH
[54] GPTIE in-house standard: “G12_MECH_U04_GPTIE_ M_MechSpec”
[55] AJD Rowney [ed]: “CIP: Cleaning in Place” published by the Society of Dairy Technology
1990
[56] PMO guidelines, Item 11r
[57] Use “Components” catalogue
[58] GPTIE training courses: Training_Pumps_Lvl1_GPTIE_Apr07
[59] “Fluid Mechanics” Massey
[60] Knuth Lorenzen power-point file “EHEDG Designkriterien Ventile,e.ppt:Design criteria for
Mixproof Valves: A Hygienic Solution” – November 2007
[61] GPTIE drawing office – P&ID symbols
[62] G. Worczinski “65_Static and Dynamic closing behaviour of different valve types, 2004 –
TBS internal publication
[63] Tank specification: G09_PUR_S03_A02.doc [on the GPTIE intranet under SOPs /
Purchasing / Appendices]
[64] Tank data sheet: G09_PUR_S03_A01.doc [on the GPTIE intranet under SOPs /
Purchasing / Appendices]
[65] ESG_M_DATA_Tanks
[66] Website: www.thrun-edelstahl.de
[67] ESG_M_CALC_ControlValveSizing
[68] ESG_M_DATA_ControlValves
[69] ESG_M_DATA_Pumps
[70] Global pricing address [select GRP 2007]: http://www.endress.com/grp/en/Index_1.htm
[71] ESG_M_DesignHandbook_Design Review Checklist_r2_26Jan09
[72] ESG_M_DesignHandbook_P&ID Design Review_r2_26Jan09
[73] from HSE statistics on the greatest risks on construction sites
[74] Nifast Project Supervisor Design Stage training course – 23rd April 2007 [Instructor Aidan
Duffy]
[75] refer to GPTIE Intranet “Tools/Mechanical Tools/Chiller Design – Basic Concepts

[76] Sustainable Energy Ireland [SEI]: “Energy in Business” document downloaded from their
website in Jan2009
[77] Canadian OEE: “Energy Efficiency Planning and Management Guide”, available on their
website as http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/publications/infosource/pub/cipec/efficiency
[78] Sustainable Energy Ireland [SEI]: “Energy Efficiency Planning and Management Guide”
document downloaded from their website in Jan2009
[79] US Department of Energy: “Improving Steam Performance – a sourcebook for industry”
DOE/GO-10200401868 Oct 2004; document downloaded from their website in Jan2009
[80] Health and Safety Authority [HSA]: Permanent Works Design Certificate [RF1]
[81] Health and Safety Authority [HSA]: The general principles of protection
[82] ESG_M_CALC_SimpleHeatExchangerTempProfile
Calculates simple heat transfer [for one section of a heat exchanger]
[83] ESG_M_DATA_PipeTables: A calculation file according to EN13480. This includes

sample calculations for the pressure rating of pipe assemblies – i.e. straight tube and
elbows, and lists of pressure ratings for inch OD tube [SMS 2037] and metric tube
[DIN11850].
[84] 22300 - Belview Pasteuriser Design Operation
[85] 22300-01-005 Milk Pasteuriser No.1 R2-Glanbia A1
Acknowledgements
Grateful acknowledgement is made to the following sources for permission to reproduce material
within this document.
[C1] Figures 1.1: Health and Safety Authority
[C2] GEA Tuchenhagen Dairy Systems
[C3] GEA Flow components
[C4] Knuth Lorenzen
[C5] EHEDG [definitions]

????? Chapter Title
Version History
The following show a summary of changes introduced in the various versions of this publication.
Version Summary of changes introduced in this version

No.
V1.2 [ColinB] Add reference to steam lines size calc section 5.3, update reference 37
[AC, KD] Amend reference to utility calculation file, use new template developed by Aine using
Kevin Daley’s original work.
[PO’R] Modify section on double seal valves [7.3.5.5], add new section on aseptomag valves
chapter 7.3.5.16; add new section on practical uses for valves [7.3.7]
[BH, MR] Add pasteuriser process description, Chapter 9
Add explanations to Tank specification chapter 8.1 relating to vents, overflows, tank protection,
vortex breakers and anti-foam inlets.
Minor changes to steam traps 5.3.4 and condensate guidelines 5.3.6
Change recommendation on equipment from Spirax to Ari Armaturen [5.3.4]
Change to S/S description – 304 ok for CIP applications, include ref to Outokumpu site.
Change to SEP rules on VSC
Update to PMO reference and EHEDG standards for heat treatment in section 2.5
V1.1 Minor changes to make the handbook generic [replace GPTIE with GEA].
Replace pipe table 5.1 for inch OD and DIN11850 with pressure ratings calculated according to
EN13480 for different temperatures.
Minor typographical changes.
V 1.0 Not Applicable as this is the first version published 22-05-2009

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Engineering

QMS Ref.: ESG_M_DesignHandbook_r1.2_2016 (2) Page: 0 of 229

Version No.: 1.2

Date Published: 02-02-2016

QMS Ref.: ESG_M_DesignHandbook_r1.2_2016 (2) Page: 1 of 229

Version Number: 1.2

GEA Process Technologies Ireland Ltd

Copyright © GEA Process Technologies Ireland Ltd

QMS Ref.: ESG_M_DesignHandbook_r1.2_2016 (2) Page: 2 of 229

Good material is not enough ……

QMS Ref.: ESG_M_DesignHandbook_r1.2_2016 (2) Page: 3 of 229

1.2 Safety .................................................................................................................................................. 17

1.3 CE Directives [ATEX]......................................................................................................................... 18

1.4 Energy Conservation......................................................................................................................... 21

1 Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................................. 22

2 APPLICATION OF CE DIRECTIVES TO GEA ........................................................... 23

2.2 Machinery ........................................................................................................................................... 25

2.3 Pressure Equipment [PED] ............................................................................................................... 26

2.4 Measuring Instruments [Legal Metrology] ...................................................................................... 27

2.5 Other Relevant Directives ................................................................................................................. 28

2 Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................................. 29

3 CHAPTER 3 BLOCK DIAGRAM GUIDELINES ......................................................... 30

3.2 Product Information .......................................................................................................................... 31

QMS Ref.: ESG_M_DesignHandbook_r1.2_2016 (2) Page: 4 of 229

3.3 The Key Process Blocks ................................................................................................................... 35

3.4 Common Unit Operations ................................................................................................................. 47

3.5 Calculation of Utility Loads .............................................................................................................. 47

3.6 Sketching the Block Diagram ........................................................................................................... 48

3 Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................................. 48

4 EQUIPMENT LAYOUT GUIDELINES ........................................................................ 49

4.2 Rules for laying out equipment ........................................................................................................ 50

4.3 How to Design for Access at Heights .............................................................................................. 59

4.4 How to Design for Noise Control ..................................................................................................... 59

4 Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................................. 59

5 CALCULATIONS TO SIZE LINES AND DUTIES FOR PUMPS................................. 60

5.2 Methodology for Calculating Pressure Drop .................................................................................. 67

5.3 Steam and condensate pipe sizing .................................................................................................. 68

5.4 Guidelines for Pipe Expansion ......................................................................................................... 79

QMS Ref.: ESG_M_DesignHandbook_r1.2_2016 (2) Page: 5 of 229

5.4.3 Dimensions for Pipe Expansion Loops ....................................................................................... 79

5 Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................................. 80

6 HYGIENIC DESIGN GUIDELINES ............................................................................. 81

6.2 CIP – Cleaning In Place ................................................................................................................... 101

6 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................................ 114

7 P&ID GUIDELINES ................................................................................................... 115

7.2 Selection of Appropriate Pump Types .......................................................................................... 123

QMS Ref.: ESG_M_DesignHandbook_r1.2_2016 (2) Page: 6 of 229

7.2.5.1 Flow ........................................................................................................................................... 128

7.3 Selection of Appropriate Valve Types ........................................................................................... 130

7.5 Orientation of Tanks and Associated Valves................................................................................ 162

7 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................................ 163

8 EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION TEMPLATES .......................................................... 164

8.2 Valves................................................................................................................................................ 170

QMS Ref.: ESG_M_DesignHandbook_r1.2_2016 (2) Page: 7 of 229

8.3 Pumps ............................................................................................................................................... 170

8.4 Instruments ...................................................................................................................................... 170

8 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................................ 171

9 PROCESS DESCRIPTION GUIDELINES ................................................................ 172

9.2 Key features of a pasteuriser ......................................................................................................... 173

9.3 Pasteuriser design requirements and considerations ................................................................ 176

9.4 Step sequence ................................................................................................................................. 179

9 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................................ 183

10 DESIGN REVIEW GUIDELINES [AC] ................................................................... 184