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Radioactive tracer
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A radioactive tracer, radiotracer, or radioactive label, is a chemical compound in
which one or more atoms have been replaced by a radionuclide so by virtue of
its radioactive decay it can be used to explore the mechanism of chemical reactions by
tracing the path that the radioisotope follows from reactants to
products. Radiolabeling or radiotracing is thus the radioactive form of isotopic
labeling.
Radioisotopes of hydrogen, carbon, phosphorus, sulfur, and iodine have been used
extensively to trace the path of biochemical reactions. A radioactive tracer can also be
used to track the distribution of a substance within a natural system such as
a cell or tissue,[1] or as a flow tracer to track fluid flow. Radioactive tracers are also
used to determine the location of fractures created by hydraulic fracturing in natural
gas production.[2] Radioactive tracers form the basis of a variety of imaging systems,
such as, PET scans, SPECT scans and technetium scans. Radiocarbon dating uses the
naturally occurring carbon-14 isotope as an isotopic label.
MethodologyEdit
Isotopes of a chemical element differ only in the mass number. For example, the
isotopes of hydrogen can be written as 1H, 2H and 3H, with the mass number
superscripted to the left. When the atomic nucleus of an isotope is unstable,
compounds containing this isotope are radioactive. Tritium is an example of a
radioactive isotope.
The principle behind the use of radioactive tracers is that an atom in a chemical
compound is replaced by another atom, of the same chemical element. The
substituting atom, however, is a radioactive isotope. This process is often called
radioactive labeling. The power of the technique is due to the fact that radioactive
decay is much more energetic than chemical reactions. Therefore, the radioactive
isotope can be present in low concentration and its presence detected by
 sensitive radiation detectors such as Geiger counters and scintillation
counters. George de Hevesy won the 1943 Nobel Prize for Chemistry "for his work on
the use of isotopes as tracers in the study of chemical processes".
There are two main ways in which radioactive tracers are used

1. When a labeled chemical compound undergoes chemical reactions one or more of the
products will contain the radioactive label. Analysis of what happens to the radioactive isotope
provides detailed information on the mechanism of the chemical reaction.
2. A radioactive compound is introduced into a living organism and the radio-isotope provides a
means to construct an image showing the way in which that compound and its reaction
products are distributed around the organism.

ProductionEdit
The commonly used radioisotopes have short half lives and so do not occur in nature.
They are produced by nuclear reactions. One of the most important processes is
absorption of a neutron by an atomic nucleus, in which the mass number of the
element concerned increases by 1 for each neutron absorbed. For example,
13 C + n → 14C

In this case the atomic mass increases, but the element is unchanged. In other cases
the product nucleus is unstable and decays, typically emitting protons, electrons (beta
particle) or alpha particles. When a nucleus loses a proton the atomic
number decreases by 1. For example,
32 S + n → 32P + p

Neutron irradiation is performed in a nuclear reactor. The other main method used to
synthesize radioisotopes is proton bombardment. The proton are accelerated to high
energy either in a cyclotron or a linear accelerator.[3]
Tracer isotopesEdit
HydrogenEdit
Tritium is produced by neutron irradiation of 6Li
6 Li + n → 4He + 3H

Tritium has a half-life 4,500±8 days (approximately 12.32 years),[4] and it decays
by beta decay. The electrons produced have an average energy of 5.7 keV. Because the
emitted electrons have relatively low energy, the detection efficiency by scintillation
counting is rather low. However, hydrogen atoms are present in all organic
compounds, so tritium is frequently used as a tracer in biochemical studies.
CarbonEdit
11C decays by positron emission with a half-life of ca. 20 min. 11C is one of the isotopes
often used in positron emission tomography.[3]
14C decays by beta-decay, with a half-life of 5730 y. It is continuously produced in the

upper atmosphere of the earth so it occurs at a trace level in the environment.

However, it is not practical to use naturally-occurring 14C for tracer studies. Instead it
is made by neutron irradiation of the isotope 13C which occurs naturally in carbon at
about the 1.1% level. 14C has been used extensively to trace the progress of organic
molecules through metabolic pathways.[5]
NitrogenEdit
N decays by positron emission with a half-life of 9.97 min. It is produced by the
13

nuclear reaction
1 H + 16O → 13N + 4He
13 N is used in positron emission tomography (PET scan).
OxygenEdit
O decays by positron emission with a half-life of 122 sec. It is used in positron
15

emission tomography.
FluorineEdit
F decays by emission with a half-life of 109 min. It is made by proton bombardment
18

of 18O in a cyclotron or linear particle accelerator. It is an important isotope in

the radiopharmaceutical industry. It is used to make labeled fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG)
for application in PET scans.[3]
PhosphorusEdit
32 P is made by neutron bombardment of 32S
32 S + n → 32P + p

It decays by beta decay with a half-life of 14.29 days. It is commonly used to study
protein phosphorylation by kinases in biochemistry.
33P is made in relatively low yield by neutron bombardment of 31P. It is also a beta-

emitter, with a half-life of 25.4 days. Though more expensive than 32P, the emitted
electrons are less energetic, permitting better resolution in, for example, DNA
sequencing.
Both isotopes are useful for labeling nucleotides and other species that contain
a phosphate group.
SulfurEdit
35 S is made by neutron bombardment of 35Cl
35 Cl + n → 35S + p

It decays by beta-decay with a half-life of 87.51 days. It is used to label the sulfur-
containing amino-acids methionine and cysteine. When a sulfur atom replaces an
oxygen atom in a phosphate group on a nucleotide a thiophosphate is produced, so 35S
can also be used to trace a phosphate group.
TechnetiumEdit
Main article: technetium-99m

99mTc is a very versatile radioisotope, and is the most commonly used radioisotope
tracer in medicine. It is easy to produce in a technetium-99m generator, by decay
of 99Mo.
99 Mo → 99mTc +
e−
+
 ν
e

The molybdenum isotope has a half-life of approximately 66 hours (2.75 days), so the
generator has a useful life of about two weeks. Most commercial 99mTc generators
use column chromatography, in which 99Mo in the form of molybdate, MoO42− is
adsorbed onto acid alumina (Al2O3). When the 99Mo decays it
forms pertechnetate TcO4−, which because of its single charge is less tightly bound to
the alumina. Pulling normal saline solution through the column of
immobilized 99Mo elutes the soluble 99mTc, resulting in a saline solution containing
the 99mTc as the dissolved sodium salt of the pertechnetate. The pertechnetate is
treated with a reducing agent such as Sn2+ and a ligand. Different ligands
form coordination complexes which give the technetium enhanced affinity for
particular sites in the human body.
99mTc decays by gamma emission, with a half-life: 6.01 hours. The short half-life

ensures that the body-concentration of the radioisotope falls effectively to zero in a

few days.
IodineEdit
Main article: Isotopes of iodine

123I is produced by proton irradiation of 124Xe. The caesium isotope produced is

unstable and decays to 123I. The isotope is usually supplied as the iodide and
hypoiodate in dilute sodium hydroxide solution, at high isotopic purity.[6] 123I has also
been produced at Oak Ridge National Laboratories by proton bombardment of 123Te.[7]
123I decays by electron capture with a half-life of 13.22 hours. The emitted

159 keV gamma ray is used in single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT).
A 127 keV gamma ray is also emitted.
125I is frequently used in radioimmunoassays because of its relatively long half-life (59

days) and ability to be detected with high sensitivity by gamma counters.[8]

129I is present in the environment as a result of the testing of nuclear weapons in the

atmosphere. It was also produced in the Chernobyl and Fukushima disasters. 129I
decays with a half-life of 15.7 million years, with low-
energy beta and gamma emissions. It is not used as a tracer, though its presence in
living organisms, including human beings, can be characterized by measurement of the
gamma rays.
Other isotopesEdit
Main article: radiopharmacology

Many other isotopes have been used in specialized radiopharmacological studies. The
most widely used is 67Ga for gallium scans. 67Ga is used because, like 99mTc, it is a
gamma-ray emitter and various ligands can be attached to the Ga3+ ion, forming
a coordination complex which may have selective affinity for particular sites in the
human body.
An extensive list of radioactive tracers used in hydraulic fracturing can be found
below.
 ApplicationEdit
See also: Nuclear medicine, List of PET radiotracers, and Radionuclides associated with hydraulic
fracturing

In metabolism research, Tritium and 14C-labeled glucose are commonly used in glucose
clamps to measure rates of glucose uptake, fatty acid synthesis, and other metabolic
processes.[9] While radioactive tracers are sometimes still used in human
studies, stable isotope tracers such as 13C are more commonly used in current human
clamp studies. Radioactive tracers are also used to study lipoprotein metabolism in
humans and experimental animals.[10]
In medicine, tracers are applied in a number of tests, such
as 99mTc in autoradiography and nuclear medicine, including single photon emission
computed tomography (SPECT), positron emission tomography (PET)
and scintigraphy. The urea breath test for helicobacter pylori commonly used a dose
of 14C labeled urea to detect h. pylori infection. If the labeled urea was metabolized by
h. pylori in the stomach, the patient's breath would contain labeled carbon dioxide. In
recent years, the use of substances enriched in the non-radioactive isotope 13C has
become the preferred method, avoiding patient exposure to radioactivity.[11]
In hydraulic fracturing, radioactive tracer isotopes are injected with hydraulic
fracturing fluid to determine the injection profile and location of created
fractures.[2] Tracers with different half-lives are used for each stage of hydraulic
fracturing. In the United States amounts per injection of radionuclide are listed in the
US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) guidelines.[12] According to the NRC, some
of the most commonly used tracers include antimony-124, bromine-82, iodine-
125, iodine-131, iridium-192, and scandium-46.[12] A 2003 publication by
the International Atomic Energy Agency confirms the frequent use of most of the
tracers above, and says that manganese-56, sodium-24, technetium-99m, silver-
110m, argon-41, and xenon-133 are also used extensively because they are easily
identified and measured.[13]
References
External links

Last edited 1 month ago by an anonymous user

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