LE/CIVL 3110 Soil Mechanics

Lectures # 22-23

Time Rate of Consolidation

by
Jit Sharma, Ph.D., P.Eng.
Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
Lassonde School of Engineering, York University, Canada

1
 Learning Outcomes

•  After completing this portion of lecture notes, you

should be able to:
–  Understand the concept of degree of consolidation
–  Estimate time taken to achieve a given degree of
consolidation using Terzaghi’s 1-D consolidation theory
–  Estimate degree of consolidation at a given depth using
pore-water pressure monitoring data
–  Estimate average degree of consolidation using settlement
monintoring data
–  Obtain coefficient of consolidation from oedometer test
results using the Root Time method.

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 Time Rate of Consolidation
•  Water flows through fine-
e
grained soils at a much slower
rate compared with that for
coarse-grained soils. e0

•  We have seen that, the lower e1

the permeability of a soil, the
longer the time taken to
σ ʹv0 σ ʹv
complete consolidation (p. σʹv1
16-17; Lecture Note #8).
•  Referring to the figure, it may require considerable time
(often as long as several hundred days) for the soil’s effective
σʹv1 (with corresponding
σ ʹv0 to s’v1
stress state to move from s’vo
change in void ratio from e0 to e1).
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 Assessing Progress of Consolidation
e t=0
t = tn
e0
e
e0 Δσ ʹv
t = tf
e1 Δσ v
e1
Δu

σ ʹv0 σ ʹv σʹv1
σ ʹv0 σ ʹv End of Consolidation
σʹv1 Total Vertical Stress

For example: Δσ v
Effective Vertical

Stress
t Δσ v Δσ ʹv Δu Stress
Δσ ʹv
Excess Pore-water
0 100 0 100 Pressure
Δu
tn 100 40 60 0 tn tf
Time t
tf 100 100 0 Δσ v = Δσʹv + Δu
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 Degree of Consolidation
•  The progress of the consolidation
t=0
process under a particular total t = tn
e0
Δσ vcan
vertical stress increment Dsv
e
be assessed in terms of the void Δσ ʹv
t = tf
ratio e or effective vertical
Δσ v
e1
σ ʹv
stress Ds’vat an instant of time t Δu
= tn.
σ ʹv0 σ ʹv σʹv1
•  Referring to the figure, the
Degree of consolidation Uz at a •  Uz takes a value between 0
given time instant tn can be and 1.
defined in terms of e as: •  At the start of consolidation
Uz = 0
e0 − e
Uz = •  At the end of consolidation,
e0 − e1 Uz = 1
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 Degree of Consolidation
•  Referring to the figure, the degree t=0
t = tn
of consolidation Uz can be defined e0
in terms of effective vertical stress e
Δσ ʹv
σ
s’v
ʹv at a given time instant tn as: t = tf
Δσ v
e1
σ ʹv − σ ʹv0 Δu
Uz =
σ ʹv1 − σ ʹv0 σ ʹv0 σ ʹv σʹv1
σ ʹv at a given
•  The effective vertical stress s’v
time instant tn is given by:
σ ʹv = σ ʹv0 + Δσ ʹv = σ ʹv0 + Δσ v - Δu
•  Since the excess pore pressure is zero at the end of consolidation, the
effective stress at the end of consolidation can be expressed as:

σ ʹv1 = σ ʹv0 + Δσ ʹv = σ ʹv0 + Δσ v

[∵ Δσʹv = Δσ v at the end of consolidation]
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 Degree of Consolidation
σʹv1 in the equation for Uz and
σ ʹv and s’v1
•  After substituting s’v
simplifying, we obtain:

σ ʹv0 + Δσ v − Δu − σ ʹv0 Δσ v − Δu Δu
Uz = = =1−
σ ʹv0 + Δσ v − σ ʹv0 Δσ v Δσ v

•  It is customary to use ue to denote excess pore-water

pressure at a time instant tn and to use ui to denote excess
pore-water pressure at time t = 0.
•  As such, the above equation for Uz can be written in terms of
ue and ui as: ui = Δσv
ue ue = ui at t = 0; ∴ Uz = 0
Uz = 1 − ue = Δu at t = tn; ∴ 0 < Uz < 1
ui ue = 0 at t = tf; ∴ Uz = 1
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 Terzaghi’s Theory of 1-D Consolidation
•  Terzaghi’s theory of 1-D consolidation relates the following
three quantities:
1.  The excess pore water pressure (ue)
2.  The depth (z) below the top of the clay layer.
3.  The time (t) measured from the start of the consolidation, i.e.
from the instant at which the total vertical stress increment Δσv
was applied.

•  The governing differential equation of consolidation of

Terzaghi’s theory of 1-D consolidation is:
where cv is called the coefficient of
∂ue ∂2ue
= cv consolidation and is given by:
∂t ∂z2
cv = k (mv γw ) [units m2/s]
[k – hydraulic conductivity in m/s; mv – coefficient of volume
compressibility in m2/kN; γw – unit weight of water in kN/m3]
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 Terzaghi’s Theory: Assumptions
1.  The soil is homogeneous.
2.  The soil is fully saturated.
3.  The solid particles and the pore water are incompressible.
4.  The flow of water and compression of soil are one-
dimensional (vertical).
5.  Increments of strains are infinitesimal.
6.  Darcy’s law is valid at all hydraulic gradients.
7.  The hydraulic conductivity (k) and the coefficient of volume
compressibility (mv) remain constant throughout the
consolidation process.
8.  There is a unique relationship, independent of time,
between void ratio and effective vertical stress.
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 Terzaghi’s Theory: Assumptions

•  Assumptions #1 to #5 are reasonable and therefore, pose no

difficulties in applying Terzaghi’s theory to practical problems.
•  At very low hydraulic gradients, there is evidence that pore
water flow doesn’t take place according to Darcy’s law as
stated in Assumption #6. Since the hydraulic gradient is
sufficiently high for most fine-grained soils, Assumption #6
is also reasonable.
•  We have seen that the hydraulic conductivity (k) and the
coefficient volume compressibility (mv) decrease with
increasing effective vertical stress. However, for small stress
increments, Assumption #7 is also reasonable.

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 Terzaghi’s Theory: Assumptions
e
•  The main limitation of Terzaghi’s
theory originates from
Assumption #8.
•  Experimental results have e0
At t = 0

shown that the relationship

At t = 1000 years
between the void ratio and e1
effective stress is not
independent of time. log(σʹv )
σ ʹv0
•  Most fine-grained soils undergo a decrease in void ratio with
time (called secondary compression or creep) at constant
effective stress as shown in the figure above.
•  Therefore, Terzaghi’s theory is valid only for the estimation of
the rate of primary consolidation.
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 Solution to the Consolidation Equation
•  The partial differential equation of consolidation can be solved
by first rewriting it in a variable separable form and then
making use of Fourier Series to solve it for particular
boundary conditions.
•  Details of this solution are out of scope of this course but you
can find the details in any book on advanced soil mechanics.
•  The solution is written in terms of excess pore-water pressure
ue as:
where ui is initial excess pore
pressure; d is the length of the
2ui
m= ∞
⎛ Mz ⎞ −M2 Tv longest drainage path; and,
ue = ∑ sin⎜ ⎟e
m=0 M ⎝ d ⎠ M = 2π (2m + 1) Tv = cv t d2
Tv is a dimensionless number
called the time factor.
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 Length of the Longest Drainage Path
•  Longest drainage path Permeable Permeable

(d) is the maximum

d=H/2
distance traversed by a
H H d=H
water molecule to reach
d
a drainage boundary.
•  For an open soil layer,
Permeable Impermeable
i.e. a soil layer that is
able to drain from top •  For a half-open (or half-closed)
and bottom, d = H/2, soil layer, i.e. a soil layer that is
where H is the thickness able to drain only from the top or
of the soil layer. from the bottom, d = H.

[Since t ∝ d2, a half-closed layer requires four times as much

time to consolidate than an open layer of same thickness H.]
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 Key Features of the Solution
•  The solution can be used to view the progress of consolidation
by plotting a series of curves of ue vs. z at different t values.
•  Such curves are called isochrones and their form depends on
the drainage boundary conditions and the initial
distribution of ue vs. z.
•  The isochrones for an initially uniform ue vs. z distribution (i.e.
same ui across the layer) are shown in the figure below.

Slope = 1/i
H=d
H = 2d

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 Key Features of the Solution
•  The isochrones for a
triangular initial ue
vs. z distribution are
shown in the figures
H = 2d
on the left and below.

•  For a half-closed layer,

ue at the impermeable H=d
boundary increases with
time, before eventually
dissipating to zero.
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 Key Features of the Solution
•  The solution can be written in terms of degree of consolidation
Uz at a time t and at any depth z by substituting the solution
in terms of ue into the equation for Uz (given on p.7):

ue m=∞
2 ⎛ Mz ⎞ −M2Tv
Uz = 1- = 1- ∑ sin⎜ ⎟e
ui m=0 M ⎝ d ⎠
•  Therefore, the solution can be used to calculate degree of
consolidation Uz at any instant of time t and at any depth z.
•  Often, a parametric chart of (z/d) vs. Uz showing isochrones
at various Tv values is used for a given boundary condition.

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 Chart for Estimation of Uz
⎛z⎞
Permeable ⎜ ⎟
⎝ d⎠ Tv = 0

0 Tv = 0.05
z
d
H 1

d
⎛z⎞
2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ d⎠
Permeable
d=H/2
This chart can be used
to obtain Uz at any
depth z for a given
time factor Tv or to
obtain Tv required to Uz
reach a given Uz at a
given depth z.
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 Estimation of Uz and Tv: An Example

•  A soft clay layer 2.5 m thick is sandwiched between two sand

layers. The initial total vertical stress at the center of the clay
layer is 200 kPa and the pore water pressure is 100 kPa. The
increase in vertical stress at the center of the clay layer from a
building foundation is 100 kPa. What will be the effective
vertical stress and excess pore water pressure at the center of
the clay layer when the degree of consolidation at the center
of the clay layer is 60%?

[This example will be solved during the class.]

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 Average Degree of Consolidation Uavg
•  For practical problems, it is much more useful to calculate an
average degree of consolidation over the entire depth of
the clay layer.
•  The average degree of consolidation (Uavg) for a general
distribution of ui vs. z is defined as:
H

At t = 0 ∫ u dz
e

At t = tn
Uavg = 1 − 0H

z ∫ u dz
0
i

•  In simple terms, Uavg is 1 minus the

ue
ratio of the area under the ue vs. z
distribution at t = tn over the area
under the initial ui vs. z distribution.
ui
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 Average Degree of Consolidation Uavg
•  For an initially constant ui distribution, the average degree of
consolidation can be written as:
H

∫ u dz
e
2 −M2 Tvm= ∞
Uavg = 1 − 0
=1− ∑ 2 e
uiH m=0 M

•  The above equation can be represented almost exactly by the

following empirical equations:

π
for Uavg ≤ 0.60, Tv = U2avg
4
for Uavg > 0.60, Tv = −0.933log(1 − Uavg ) − 0.085

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 Chart for Estimation of Uavg
•  The exact equation for Uavg (given on p.20) for an open layer
can be represented by curve C1 in the chart below:

Uavg

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 Chart for Estimation of Uavg
•  The chart on p.21 is not very accurate for initial stages of
consolidation (i.e. for smaller Tv values).
•  This issue can be resolved by plotting Tv on a log scale:

Uavg

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Uavg in terms of Consolidation Settlement
•  Since the settlement of a clay layer depends on the cumulative
gain in effective stress, the average degree of consolidation
can be written in terms of settlement as:

st st – settlement of the clay layer at time t

Uavg = sult – ultimate settlement of the clay layer
sult (at the end of consolidation)

•  In the above equation, sult can be calculated using the

compression and expansion indices (Cc and Ce) as described in
Lecture Note #9.
•  Therefore, if the ultimate settlement of a soil layer is known,
its settlement at a time t (corresponding to Uavg) can be easily
estimated.

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 Estimation of Uavg: An Example
•  An undisturbed sample, 75 mm in diameter and 20 mm high,
taken from a 10 m thick clay layer, was tested in an
oedometer with drainage at both the upper and the lower
boundaries. It took the sample 15 minutes to settle by 3.5
mm. The ultimate settlement of the sample at the end of
consolidation was 7.0 mm.
–  If the clay layer in the field has the same drainage conditions as
the laboratory sample, calculate the time the clay layer will take
to achieve 50% and 90% average degrees of consolidation.
–  If the clay layer in the field had drainage only from the top
boundary, how long will it take to achieve 50% average degree of
consolidation?

[This example will be solved during the class.]

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 Coefficient of Consolidation cv
•  Coefficient of consolidation •  There are two popular
cv is required for the methods that can be used to
estimation of time rate of determine cv of a clay layer
consolidation. from oedometer test results:
•  It is needed to establish –  Root Time Method

time factor Tv for time t and –  Log Time Method

length of the longest •  Only the Root Time method

drainage path d: will be discussed here.
•  Please refer to any soil
Tv = cv t d2
mechanics textbook for
details of the Log Time
method.

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 Root Time Method
•  The Root Time Method
utilizes the early settlement
Initial compression
response which theoretically
should appear as a straight

Dial gauge reading (mm)

line in a plot of dial gauge
Straight line portion
reading (settlement) vs.
square root of time.
•  A typical plot of dial gauge Curved portion
reading vs. √t obtained from
oedometer test consists of a
short curve representing initial
compression, a linear portion √t
and a curved portion as shown
in the figure on the right.
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 Root Time Method
•  Point representing Uavg = 0
(i.e. the starting point of the
ai
Initial Compression
consolidation process) is 0 a0

Dial gauge reading (mm)

obtained by extending the
Uavg = 0
linear part of the curve Start of consolidation

backwards as shown.
•  The origin (0; a0) of the dial
gauge reading is reset to the
point representing Uavg = 0
as shown in the figure on
the right.
√t

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 Root Time Method
•  A straight line OE is then drawn ai
Initial Compression
that has abscissae 1.15 times 0 a0

Dial gauge reading (mm)

the corresponding abscissae on
the linear part of the curve.
Primary
•  This line intersects the curve at Consolidation

point E that denotes Uavg =

x
90%. 1.15x
a90
•  The value of t at this point is a100
t90 – time taken to achieve Uavg
= 90%. √t90 √t100 √t
•  The coefficient of consolidation
can now be calculated as: (Tv )90 d2 0.848d2
cv = =
t 90 t 90
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 Root Time Method: An Example
•  Following readings were taken for an increment of vertical
stress of 50 kPa in an oedometer test on a saturated clay
sample of diameter 75 mm and thickness 20 mm. Drainage
was permitted from both the top and the bottom boundaries.
Determine the coefficient of consolidation (cv) using the root
time method.

Time 0.25 1 2.25 4 9 16 25 36 1440

(min)

ΔH 0.12 0.23 0.33 0.43 0.59 0.68 0.74 0.76 0.89

(mm)

[This example will be solved during the class.]

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 Key Points
•  Degree of consolidation Uz at •  A chart based on the solution
a given depth z and at a to 1-D consolidation
given time t can be obtained differential equation can be
from void ratio or excess used to obtain spatial and
pore-water pressure
temporal distribution of Uz.
monitoring data.
•  From a practical point-of-
•  Terzaghi’s 1-D consolidation
view, it is more useful to
theory provides both spatial
establish average degree of
and temporal distribution of
consolidation Uavg across
excess pore-water pressure.
the entire thickness of the
•  Terzaghi’s theory does not
account for creep or soil layer.

secondary compression.

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 Key Points
•  An open layer drains from •  Uavg can be used to obtain
both top and bottom. settlement at time t provided
•  A half-closed layer drains ultimate consolidation
only from the top or from settlement is known.
the bottom. •  Coefficient of consolidation
•  For open layer, d = H/2. cv can be obtained from

•  For half-closed layer, d = H. oedometer test results using

either Root Time method or
•  For the same thickness H, a
Log Time method.
half-closed layer takes
•  cv is required to obtain time
four times as much time
factor Tv for time t and
to achieve the same Uavg
length of the longest
than that taken by an open
layer. drainage path d.

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