TURBULENCE

INTRODUCTION

LAMINAR FLOW : Smooth , orderly flow limited to finite values of critical

parameters: Re, Gr, Ta, Ri

Beyond the critical parameter, Laminar flow is unstable a new flow regime turbulent
flow

Turbulent
Transition

Laminar

x
Characteristics

1) Disorder : not merely white noise but has spatial structure (Random variations)

2) Eddies : (or fluid packets of many sizes) Large & small varies continuously from shear –
layer thickness δ down to the Kolmogorov length scale , ν 3
δ 14
L=( )
U3
3) Enhanced mixing in laminar flow molecular action

mixing in turbulent flow turbulent eddies actively about in 3-D and

cause rapid diffusion of mass, momentum & energy

Heat transfer & friction are greatly enhanced compared to Lam. Flow

4) Fluctuations : (in pressure, vel. & temp. )

Velocity fluctuates in all three directions

5) Self-sustaining motion: Once trigged turbulent flow can maintain itself by producing
new eddies to replace those lost by viscous dissipation
Experimental measurement :
Hot-wire anemometer
measure fluctuations in velocity via heat transfer
Examine change in resistance associated with temperature (use wire ~ 0.0001” diameter)

Laminar B.L

Shedding cylinder

t
Turbulent B.L u

t
 Mathematical Description

Navier Stokes equations do apply to turbulent flow

Direct Numerical Simulation :Solve the N-S equations directly using computers

Problem: wide range of flow scales involved solutions requires supercomputers and
even then are limited to very low Reynolds numbers

Mesh points : beyond the capacity of present computers (trillions)

equations. Turbulent flow in a pipe

At Red =
107 → requires 1022 numerical operatious ⇒ computation would
take thousand years to complete (for the fine details of the turbulent flow)
Direct numerical simulation DNS
Because of complexity of the fluctuations, a purely numerical computation of turbulent flow has
only been possible in a few special cases.

Therefore, consider time average of turbulent motion

Difficulties in setting up equations of motion for mean motion

Turbulent fluctuations coupled with mean motion

Time averaging N-S additional terms (determined by turbulent fluctuations)

Additional unknowns in computation of mean motion

We have more unknowns than equations.
To close system of equations of motion ⇒ need additional equations

These eqs. can no longer be set up purely from the balances of mass momentum & energy

But, they are model eqs. which model relation between the fluctuations & mean motion

called turbulence modelling central problem in computing the mean motion of turbulent
flows
 Mean Motion & Fluctuations
789,
u' u , time average value

Decompose the motion into a mean motion & a fluctuating motion

u= u + u '
v= v + v ' In compressible turbulent flows
w= w + w ' ρ = ρ+ρ' ; T =
T +T '
p= p + p '

Average is formed as the time average at a fixed point in space

t +T
1 0
T t∫0
u= u dt ← integral is to be taken over a sufficently large time interval T so that u ≠ f (t )
 Characterization of fluctuation ⇒ RMS
1
 1 T  2 2
u ' = g (t )
=u  ∫ (u − u ) d t  u =u + u ' = f (t )
T
 0 

By definition time average of fluctuating quautities are zero i.e.

=u ' 0= , v ' 0= , w ' 0= , p' 0
First assume that mean motion indep. of time ⇒ steady turbulent flow

steady unsteady
u u steady unsteady

Turb. flow
Lam . flow
u
t
t
Fluctuations u ' , v ' , w ' influence the progrees of mean motion u , v , w , so that mean motion
exhibit an apparent increase in resistance aganist deformation. Increased apparent viscosity is
cenral of all theoretical considerations on turbulent flow

Rules of computation

=u u , =
u + v u +v ,=
u .v u . v
∂u ∂u
= , ∫ udx =
∫ udx ; uv =
u v + u 'v ' ; u 'v =
0
∂x ∂x

∂u
τ xy =τ xy lam + τ xy tur = µ − ρu 'v '
∂y
Additional shear stress
(Reynolds stress)

x
 Ex : uv = (u
+ u ') ( v
+ v ')=uv + uv '+ vu '+ u ' v '
u v

uv =
uv + u ' v ' u 'v ' ≠ 0

Physical Interpretation of ρ u ' v ' as a stress

a)Consider fluid particle moving up from 1 to 2
u' v ' > 0 u ' < 0 (since particle has velocity deficit i.e u1 < u2 )
2 u ' v ' < 0 ⇒ τ turb > 0 ⇒ decel. of flow at 2
1
v'
b)if particle moves down from 2 to 1
v ' < 0 u ' > 0 (particle has excess vel.)
∴ u ' v ' < 0 ⇒ τ turb > 0 ⇒ acceleration of flow at 1

Momentum Turbulent shear stress is higher

exchange 1
796
 Basic Equations for Mean Motion of Turbulent Flows
Consider flows with constant properties

Continuity equation

∂u ∂v ∂w
(1) + + u =u + u '
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂u ∂u ∂u '
Time − averaging of (1) = +
∂x ∂x ∂x
∂u ∂ v ∂ w
(2) + + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂u ' ∂v ' ∂w '
(3) Also , using (1) + + = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
Both time average values and fluctuations satisfy laminar flow continuity equation

Momentum Eqs.(Reynolds equations.)

∂V   
Incomp. N-S eqs. ρ( + (V .∇)V ) = -∇p + µ∇ V
2
(4)
∂t
1) Substitute u=
u +u' v=
v +v' w=
w + w' p=
p + p ' into N-S egs
2) Time average the equations
3) Drop-out terms which `average` to zero . Use “Rules of Computation”

∂u ' ∂ 2u '
=
0 =
0 ← terms which are linear in fluctuating quantities ⇒ 0
∂t ∂x 2

u '2 ≠ 0 u 'v ' ≠ 0 ← terms which are quadratic in fluctuating quantities ⇒ 0

Resultant equations. (called Reynolds equations.)

∂u ∂u ∂u ∂p ∂ u '2 ∂ u ' v ' ∂ u ' w '
ρ (u + v + w ) =− + µ∇ u − ρ (
2
+ + )
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂p ∂ u ' v ' ∂ v ' 2
∂v ' w '
ρ (u + v + w ) =− + µ∇ 2 v − ρ ( + + )
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂z
Resultant equations. (called Reynolds equations.)
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂p ∂ u ' 2
∂u ' v ' ∂u ' w '
ρ (u + v + w ) =− + µ∇ 2 u − ρ ( + + )
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂p ∂ u ' v ' ∂ v '2 ∂ v ' w '
ρ (u + v + w ) =− + µ∇ v − ρ (
2
+ + )
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂w ∂w ∂w ∂p ∂ u ' w ' ∂ v ' w ' ∂ w '2
ρ (u +v + w ) =− + µ∇ w − ρ (
2
+ + )
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∴ treat unsteady "fluctuations" additional terms due to turbulent
as added stresses ⇒ called fluctuating motion ⇒ momentum
Reynolds stresses(turbulent stresses) exchange due to fluctuations ⇒ "stre
 ∂w ∂w ∂w ∂p ∂ u ' w ' ∂ v ' w ' ∂ w '2
ρ (u +v + w ) =− + µ∇ w − ρ (
2
+ + )
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∴ treat unsteady "fluctuations" additional terms due to turbulent
as added stresses ⇒ called fluctuating motion ⇒ momentum
Reynolds stresses(turbulent stresses) exchange due to fluctuations ⇒ "stresses"

Complete stresses consist of

∂u
σ xx =− p + 2 µ − ρ u '2 → fluctuatios
∂x
∂u ∂ v
τ xy = µ( + ) −  ρ u ' v ' ,.......
∂y ∂x
 apparent
Re ynolds stress
turbulent
viscous stresses laminar stresses

In general , Reynolds stresses dominate over viscous stresses, except for regions
directly at the wall
Closure problem
too few eqs : 4
too many unknowns : 10
Figure some way to approximate Reynolds stresses

Objective : Establish relationship between Reynolds stresses & mean motions, i.e u,v,w

⇒ model eqs. must be developed

∴ turbulence models or turbulence modeling.
model equations contain empirical elements
A. Eddy vis cos ity
− Attempt to approximate a "turbulent" viscosity
∂u ∂u
τ lam µ= ρν
idea : Since =
∂y ∂y
∂u
Let τ turb = ρ ∈ = −ρu ' v '
∂y
 Eddy viscosity ⇒ ∈>> ν
 Problem : how to model ∈ ?
For some situations ⇒ ∈ ≈ const.
∂u
In general ∈≠ const. ⇒ ∈ = f (u , y, , etc.)
∂y
In general, many wild guesses are made, not many work

Energy Equation
Consider the energy equation for incompressible flow with constant properties

DT
ρcp = k ∇ 2T + Φ
Dt
Taking the time-average of the energy eq. , we obtain following eq. for the average temp.
field T = ( x, y, z )
 ∂T  ∂T  ∂T 
ρ c p (u +v + w )  convection
∂x ∂y ∂z 
 ∂2T ∂2T ∂2T 
=k( 2 + 2 + 2 )  molecular heat transport
∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂u ' T ' ∂ v ' T ' ∂ w ' T ' 
-ρ cp ( + + )  turbulent heat transport("apparent" heat conduction)
∂x ∂y ∂z 
 ∂u ∂v ∂w 2 ∂u ∂ v ∂u ∂ w 2 ∂ v ∂ w 2  
+ µ  2( ) 2 + 2( ) 2 + 2( ) + ( + )2 + ( + ) +( + )   direct dissipation
 ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y  
+ { ρε } turbulent dissipation

The same eq.holds for the average temp. fields as for laminar temp. fields, apart from
two additional terms

"apparent" heat conduction ⇒ div(V 'T ')

"turbulent" dissipation , ρ ∈


 ∂u 2 ∂v 2 ∂w 2 ∂u ∂ v 2 ∂u ∂ w 2 ∂ v ∂ w 2  
=ρ∈ µ  2( ) + 2( ) + 2( ) +( + ) +( + ) +( + ) 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂x ∂z ∂ x ∂ z ∂ y  
 In turbulent flows mechanical energy is transformed into internal energy in two different ways:

a) Direct dissipation : transfer is due to the viscosity (as in laminar flow)

b) Turbulent dissipation : transfer is due to the turbulent fluctuations

The Turbulence Kinetic Energy Equation (K-equation)

Many attemps have been made to add “turbulence conservation” relations to the
time-averaged continuity, momentum and energy equations derived.
A relation for the turbulence kinetic energy K of fluctuations.

1
(
K ≡ u ′u ′ + v′v′ + w′w′ =
2
1
2
)
ui′ui′

Einstein summation notation,

ui (u=1 , u2 , u3 ) (u , v, w)
A conservation relation for K can be derived by forming the mechanical energy
equation i.e., dot product of ui ve ith momentum equation subtract instantaneous
mechanical energy equation from its time averaged value.
Result: Turbulence kinetic energy relation for an incompressible fluid.

DK ∂  ′  1 ′ ′ p′   ∂u j′
=
− ui  u j u j +   − ui′u j′ +

Dt ∂xi   2 ρ   ∂xi
I   III

II

  ′ ′   ′  ∂u ′ ∂u j′ 
∂  ′ ∂ui ∂u ∂u
νuj  +
j
  −ν j
 i + 
∂xi   ∂x j′ ∂xi′   ∂ x ′  ∂x j′ ∂xi′ 
    
i
 
  V
IV
I. Rate of change of turbulent (kinetic) energy
II. Convective diffusion of turbulence energy
III. Production of turbulent energy
IV. Viscous diffusion (work done by turbulence viscous stresses)
V. Turbulent viscous dissipation
Reynolds stress equation: conservation equations for Reynolds stresses see F.
White pg. 406
 2-D Turbulent Boundary Layer Equations

Just as laminar flows, turbulent flows at high Re also have boundary layer character,
i.e. large lateral changes and small longitudinal changes in flow properties.

Ex.: Pipe flow, channel flow, wakes and jets.

δ(x)<<x
x

Same approximations as in laminar boundary layer analysis,

∂ ∂ Assume that mean flow structure is 2D

v << u <<
∂x ∂y
∂ ′ 2 831
w 0= 0 but w ≠ 0
∂z
Basic turbulent equations (Reynolds equations) reduce to

∂u ∂ v
Continuity: + =
0 (1)
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u dU e 1 ∂τ
x-momentum: u +v ≈ Ue + (2)
∂x ∂y dx ρ ∂y
U e : free stream velocity
 ∂T ∂T  ∂q ∂u
Thermal energy: ρ c p  u +v  ≈ + τ (3)
 ∂x ∂y  ∂y ∂y
∂u
where τ = µ − ρ u ′v′
∂y
∂T
q k − ρ c p v′T ′ (4)
∂y 
 
 turbulent flux
molecular flux
Above equations closely resemble the laminar flow equations except that τ and q
contain turbulent shear stress and turbulent heat flux (Reynolds Stress) must be
modelled.
y-momentum equation reduces to

∂p ∂ v′2
≈ −ρ (5)
∂y ∂y
Integrating over the boundary layer yields:

p ≈ pe ( x) − ρ v ′ 2

Unlike laminar flow, p varies slightly across the boundary layer due to
velocity fluctuations normal to the the wall

p + ρ v′2 ≈ const.

Note: p w : wall pressure

no-slip ⇒ ′ ≡v0 ⇒ p w =pe ( x)

Bernoulli equation in the (inviscid) free stream dpe ≈ − ρU e dU e

Boundary Conditions:
Free stream conditions Ue(x) and Te(x) are known.
No-slip, no jump: u=
( x, 0) v=
( x, 0) 0 , T=
( x, 0) Tw ( x)
=
Free stream matching: u ( x, δ ) U=
e , T ( x, δ T ) Te ( x)
The velocity and thermal boundary layer thicknesses (δ, δT) are not necessarily equal

but depend upon the Pr, as in laminar flow. Eqs. 1 and 2 can be solved for

u v if a suitable correlation for total shear τ is known.

Turbulent Boundary Layer Integral Relations:

The integral momentum equation has the identical form as laminar flow
dθ θ dU e τw cf
+ (2 + H ) = =
dx U e dx ρU e2
2
u  u 
∞
δ*
θ ∫0 U e  U e  dy
1 − , H=
θ
(momentum shape factor)

 Turbulent velocity profile is more complicated in shape

u 
δ = 1 −  dy
*
and many different correlations have been proposed.
 Ue 
 Example: Turbulent pipe flow
Often used correlation is the empirical power-law velocity profile
r
x R 1/ n
u  r
= 1 − 
Vc  R 

n=f(Re)

for many practical flows n = 7

n=10
n 1.0
n=8
8 r/R n=6
7 laminar Turbulent
6 profile
5 0
104 105 106 Re=ρVD/μ 0 u 1.0

Vc
 Turbulent profiles are much “flatter” than laminar profile
 Flatness increases with Reynolds number (i.e., with n)

Turbulent velocity profile(s): The inner, outer, and overlap layers.

Key profile shape consist of 3 layers

Inner layer: very narrow region near the wall (viscous sublayer)
viscous (molecular) shear dominates
laminar shear stress is dominant, random eddying nature of flow is absent
Outer layer: turbulent (eddy) shear (stress) dominates
Overlap layer: both types of shear important; profile smoothly connects
inner and outer regions.

Example: Structure of turbulent flow in a pipe

R Viscous
pipe wall R
sublayer
τlam overlap layer
τtur
r r
τ
outer layer
0 0
τ(r) τw Vc
Shear Average velocity
stress
 Inner law:

u = f (τ w , ρ , µ , y ) (1 )
Velocity profile would not depend on free stream parameters.
Outer law:
dpe
Ue − u =g (τ w , ρ , y, δ , ) (2)
dx
Wall acts as a source of retardation, independent of μ.

Overlap law:

u inner = u outer (3)

We specify inner and outer functions merge together smoothly.

Dimensionless Profiles:
The functional forms in Eqs.(1)-(3) are determined from experiment after use
of dimensional analysis.
Primary Dimensions: (mass, length, time) : 3
Eq.(1) : 5 variables
Π groups : 5-3 = 2 (dimensionless parameters)
Proper dimensionless inner law:
1/2
u  yv*  τ 
= f  ; v* =  w 
 ν   ρ 
*
v

Variable v* [m/s] called wall friction velocity.

v* is used a lot in turbulent flow analyses.

Outer law using Π - theorem:

Ue − u y  δ dpe
= g  ,ξ  ; ξ=
δ  τ w dx
*
v
Often called velocity defect law, with U e − u
being “defect” or retardation of flow due to wall effects. At any given position x, defect
g(y/δ) will depend on local pressure gradient ξ.
Let ξ have some particular value. Then overlap function requires

Overlap law:
u  δ v* y  Ue  y
f=
  - g  
v*  ν δ  v* δ 
From functional analysis: both f and g must be logarithmic functions.
Thus, in overlap layer:

u 1 yv*
=
Inner variables: ln +B
v *
k ν
Ue − u 1 y
Outer variables: = − ln + A
v *
k δ

Where K and B are near-universal constants for turbulent flow past smooth,
impermeable walls.
K≈0.41 , B≈5.0 pipe flow measurements, data correlations
A varies with pressure gradient ξ (perhaps with other parameters also).

*
u yv
Let u + = , and y +

v* ν
Inner layer details, Law of the wall. MFM2 -834,835
At very small y, velocity profile is linear.
u
τw µ
y+ ≤ 5 : = u+ y+
or =
y
Example: Thickness of viscous sublayer
5ν ν
δ sub = : viscous length scale of a turbulent boundary layer
v* v *

Flat plate airfoil data: v*=1.24 m/s , νair≈1.51x10-5 m2/s

Between 5 ≤y+≤30 buffer layer.
Velocity profile is neither linear nor logarithmic but is a smooth merge
between two.
Spalding (1961) single composite formula.

+ +
y = u +e
 +
− KB  Ku +
e − 1 − Ku −
( Ku ) ( Ku )
+ 2

−
+ 3

 2 6 
 
Notes:
1
u  r n
= 1 − 
Vc  R 
1
−1 Power law profile cannot be valid near the wall.
du Vc  r n  1
= 1 −  −  Power law profile cannot be precisely valid
dr n  R   R near the centreline.
du However, it does provide a reasonable
r= R = ∞
dr approximation to measured velocity profiles
du across most of the pipe.
=r 0 ≠0
dr
 #The turbulent boundary layer
• In turbulent flow, the boundary layer is defined as the thin region on the
surface of a body in which viscous effects are important.
• The boundary layer allows the fluid to transition from the free stream velocity
Uτ to a velocity of zero at the wall.
• The velocity component normal to the surface is much smaller than the
velocity parallel to the surface: v << u.
• The gradients of the flow across the layer are much greater than the gradients
in the flow direction.
• The boundary layer thickness δ is defined as the distance away from the
surface where the velocity reaches 99% of the free-stream velocity.

δ = y, where u = 0.99
U
29
# The turbulent boundary layer

30
 #The turbulent boundary layer
• Important variables:
– Distance from the wall: y.
– Wall shear stress: τw. The force exerted on a flat plate is the area times
the wall shear stress.
– Density: ρ.
– Dynamic viscosity: µ.
– Kinematic viscosity: ν.
– Velocity at y: U.
– The friction velocity: uτ = (τw/ρ)1/2.
• We can define a Reynolds number based on the distance to the wall using
the friction velocity: y+ = yuτ/ν.
• We can also make the velocity at y dimensionless using the friction
velocity: u+ = U/ uτ.
31
 # Boundary layer structure

u+=y+

y+=1
32
 Example:
Water at 20 °C (ρ=998 kg/m3), ν=1.004x10-6 m2/s

Q=0.04 m3/s
D=0.1m

dp
= 2.59kPa / m
dx

δs = ? thickness of viscous sublayer?

centreline velocity, Vc = ?
ratio of turbulent to laminar shear stress, τturb/τlam = ? at a point midway
between the centreline and pipe wall i.e., at r = 0.025 m.

Law of the wall valid y+ ≤ 5 viscous sublayer

*
yv
y±
= ≤5
ν
δ s v* 5ν
y= δs y =
5 ⇒ ±
5 δ s =*
=
ν v
τ
v* = w
ρ
 Pressure drop and wall shear stres in a fully developed pipe flow is related by

4lτ
∆p = w (Valid for both laminar & turbulent flow)
D
(Exercise: Obtain the above equation considering the force balance of a
fluid element)

D∆p (0,1)(2,59.103 )
τw =
= = Pa 64,8 N / m 2
4l 4(1m)
64,8 N / m 2
So, v* = 3
0, 255m / s
998kg / m
5.1, 004.10−6
δs = 1,97.10−5 m ≅ 0, 02mm
0, 255

Imperfections on pipe wall will protrude into this sublayer and affect some of
the characteristics of flow(i.e.,wall shear stres & pressure drop)
 Q 0, 04 m3 / s
V= = = 5, 09 m / s
A π (0,1) / 4m
2 2

VD 5, 09.(0,1)
= =
Re = 5, 07.10 5

ν 1, 004.10−6
Re 5, 07.105 ⇒
= n 8, 4

Power-law profile

u r
≅ (1 − )1/ 8,4
Vc R
R
r 1/ n
= =
Q AV
. ∫ =
udA Vc∫
0
(1 −
R
) (2π r )dr

n2
Q = 2π R Vc 2

(n + 1)(2n + 1) Recall that Vc=2V for laminar pipe flow:

V 2n 2
Q = πR V ∴
2
=
Vc (n + 1)(2n + 1)
n 8, 4 : = =
Vc 1,186 =
V 1,186(5, 09) 6, 04m / s
τ turb
=? Shear stress distribution throughout the pipe
τ lam r = 0,025 m

2τ w r
τ= (Valid for laminar or turbulent flow)
D
R=D/2 2(64,8).0, 025
τ (r 0,=
= 025) = 32, 4 N / m 2
r 0,1
τ =τ lam + τ turb = 32, 4
du r du V r
τ lam =
−µ ; u =−
Vc (1 )1/ n ⇒ − c (1 − )(1− n ) / n
=
dr R dr nR R
du 6, 04 0, 025 (1−8,4) / 8,4
=
− (1 − ) =
−26,5
dr r = 0,025
8, 4(0, 05) 0, 05

du du
τ lam =
−µ −(νρ )
= As expected
dr dr
Thus
τ
−(1, 004.10−6 ).(998).(−26,5) =
=
32, 4 − 0, 0266
0, 0266 N / m 2
τ turb >> τ lam
=turb
= 1220
τ lam 0, 0266
 Turbulent Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate
Problem of flow past a sharp flat plate at high Re has been studied extensively,
numerous formulas have been proposed for friction factor.
-curve fits of data
-use of Momentum Integral Equation and/or law of the wall
-numerical computation using models of turbulent shear
Momentum Integral Analysis
dp dθ C f τw
= 0 (=
U const.) = =
dx dx 2 ρU 2
Momentum Interal Equation valid for either laminar or turbulent flow.
For turbulent flow u
a reasonable approximation to the velocity profile = f (y /δ )
U
Functional relationship describing the wall shear stress
Need to use some empirical relationship
∂u
For laminar flow τw = µ
∂y y =0
 Example: Turbulent flow of an incompressible fluid past a flat plate
Boundary layer velocity profile is assumed to be

u y
( )1/ 7 ← power law profile suggested by Prandtl
U δ (taken From pipe data!)
Reasonable approximation of experimentally observed profiles,
except very near the plate,

∂u
= ∞!
∂y y =0
u y
1 = ( )1/ 7
U δ
Laminar Turbulent
y
η=
δ Assume shear stress aggrees with experimentally
determined formula
 ν 1/ 4 
0 = 045 Reδ−1/ 4 or τ w 0, 0225 ρU 2 (
C f 0,= ) 
0 1  Uδ 
Determine; δ , δ * , θ and τ as a function of x. Uδ
w Re =
ν
What is the friction drag coefficient CD,f=?
 Momentum Integral Equation (with U=constant)
dθ C f τw y u y 1/ 7
= = η
= ; = ( )= η 1/ 7
dx 2 ρU 2 δ U δ
∞
7δ
1 1
u u u u
θ = ∫ (1 − )dy = δ ∫ (1 − )dη = δ ∫ η 1/ 7 (1 − η 1/ 7 )dη =
0
U U o
U U 0
72
7 dδ ν 1/ 4
0225 Reδ−1/ 4 0, 0225(
0,= )
72 dx Uδ
δ
ν x

∫δ d δ = 0, 231( ) ∫ dx
1/ 4 1/ 4

0
U 0

ν δ 0,370
δ = 0,370( ) x 1/ 5 4/5
or in dimensionless form =
U x Re1/x 5
Boundary layer at leading edge of plate is laminar but in practice,laminar boundary layer
often exists over a relatively short portion of plate.
∴ error associated with starting turbulent boundary layer with δ =0 at x=0 can be negligible.
∞
u u
1
δ 1
δ =∫ (1 − )dy =δ ∫ (1 − )dη =δ ∫ (1 − η 1/ 7 )dη =
*

0
U 0
U 0
8
δ* 0, 0463
=
x Re1/x 5
 7 ν
=θ = δ 0, 0360( )1/ 5 x 4 / 5
72 U
θ 0, 036
1/ 5
θ < δ *
<δ
x Re x
1/ 4
2  ν  0, 0288 ρU 2
τw 0225 ρU 
0,= 1/ 5 4 / 5 
 U (0,37)(ν / U ) x  Re1/ 5
x

0, 058
Cf =
Re1/x 5
Friction drag on one side of plate,Df
l l
ν
∫=
bτ w dx b(0, 0288 ρU ) ∫ ( 2
Df )1/ 5 dx
o 0
Ux
A
D f = 0, 0360 ρU 2 where A=b.l area of plate
Re1/l 5
Df 0, 0720 Note:Results presented in this example are
CDf =
1 Re 1/ 5 valid only in the range of validity of original
ρU A2 l
data, assumed velocity profile & shear stres.
2
The range covers smooth flat plates
Turbulent flow:δ ( x) ~ x 4 / 5 ;τ w ( x) ~ x −1/ 5 with 5x105<Rel<107
Laminar flow:δ ( x) ~ x1/ 2 ;τ w ( x) ~ x −1/ 2 See Fig 6-20 (White, page 432)