Ocean Engineering 191 (2019) 106461

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Ocean Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/oceaneng

Z-Drive Escort Tug manoeuvrability model and simulation

Benedetto Piaggio ∗, Michele Viviani, Michele Martelli, Massimo Figari
Department of Naval Architecture, Electrical, Electronic and Telecommunications Engineering, Polytechnic School, University of Genoa, Italy

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: The ability to predict the tug’s handling, effectiveness, and safety at early design stage is paramount in view
Tugs of an optimal design process. In this framework, the availability of a reliable manoeuvrability prediction
Escort towing model is beneficial. This paper presents a novel 4-DOF parametric manoeuvrability model dedicated to the
Manoeuvring Model
manoeuvrability analysis of Azimuthal Stern Drive Escort Tugs. An extensive captive model testing campaign
z-Drive
is exploited to develop the mathematical model, conceived following the MMG model concept. The modelling
Azimuthal Stern Drive
Dynamic simulation
pursues a physics-based approach aimed at characterising the complete manoeuvring hydrodynamics of the
vessel. The hull+skeg and azimuthals force contributions are analysed separately and are then coupled to analyse
their interaction. A complete, real-time simulator is presented, which is capable of simulating the dynamics of
a towing convoy in several real case scenarios. This capability is envisaged to become a very useful tool for
the tug designer, allowing to address realistic operational conditions with a focus on manoeuvring capabilities,
risk assessment, risk mitigation, operational safety and effectiveness.

1. Introduction

Tug assistance is usually required whenever the manoeuvring ca-

pabilities of a large vessel are limited or hampered by the physical
constraints of the waterway, by a failure of the ship systems or as a
result of the meteorological situation. Among these scenarios, two in
particular jeopardise the manoeuvring performance of a ship. Firstly,
whenever the vessel speed needs to be reduced to such an extent as
to make the vessel uncontrollable — e.g. during harbour approaches,
mooring and docking operations or while navigating in restricted wa-
ters. Secondly, when the ship incurs in a failure of the propulsion or
control systems (United States Congress 101st, 1990).
The towing service may thus be required in confined and deep wa-
ters alike and it may concern the partial or total handling of the vessel.
Two different towing practices are identified according to the use of Fig. 1. Tug assistance and handling (Kooren et al., 2000).
the propulsive system, namely the Direct and Indirect Towing (Capt.
Hensen, 2003). The Direct Towing exploits ‘directly’ the sole propulsive
thrust of the tug and it is employed almost exclusively at low speeds. — i.e. around 6–10 kn, Fig. 1. At these speed ranges, the tug sus-
The Indirect Towing uses the propulsive power to ‘indirectly’ generate tains particularly challenging situations owing to the relatively high
towing forces exploiting the hydrodynamic forces of the tug. Speed is
speed, the ship interference with the tug seaway and the danger of
the threshold critical parameter indeed.
tug girting. Such factors render the adoption of stern tug assistance
Escort tugs. The Indirect Towing is aimed at assisting ships during a necessity (Kasteren, 2012; Capt. Brooks and Capt. Slough, 2000;
navigation over an intermediate range of speeds, which corresponds
Capt. Hensen, 2012). Escort Tugs (ETs) are developed in response to
to operations between the harbour manoeuvres and the cruise speed

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: benedetto.piaggio@edu.unige.it (B. Piaggio).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2019.106461
Received 28 March 2019; Received in revised form 16 September 2019; Accepted 19 September 2019
Available online 10 October 2019
0029-8018/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
B. Piaggio et al.
Fig. 2. Direct and indirect towing methods (Capt. Hensen, 2003).
these needs. Their chief purpose is to provide stern towing assistance
(i.e. ‘Escort’) to ships with reduced manoeuvring capabilities transiting
critical or hazardous areas.
The principle of Indirect Towing is as follows. While the ship is able
to manoeuvre independently, the ET passively follows the ship, which
may or may not be tethered. In cases of emergency, the propulsive
system of the ET is used to maintain the vessel in a forced steady-
drifting motion. Strong hull hydrodynamic forces caused by the large
drifting attitude are balanced by the towline reaction, hence causing
the ‘indirect’ tensioning of the line (Allan, 2000). By controlling the
strength and direction of this indirect towing force, the ET aids the
ship keeping her track, so that the risk of groundings or collisions is
reduced.
The ET must thus be capable of braking and steering the tethered
ship at speeds where Direct Towing would be both inefficient or inef-
fective. For instance, Fig. 2 illustrates the different steering capabilities
of an Azimuthal Stern Drive (ASD) tug delivering a 85 t bollard pull as
it operates in Direct and Indirect Towing mode. The graph shows the
critical speed threshold beyond which the Direct Towing steering forces
are exceeded by those generated by Indirect Towing. It should be noted
how the former exhibits a customary ducted propeller thrust-speed re-
lationship, whereas the Indirect Towing increases almost quadratically
with speed. This behaviour is typical of lifting surfaces and justifies
the adoption of the Indirect method to generate stronger towing forces
at higher speeds. To generate such forces, ETs often boast unique hull
designs and propulsive solutions.
The main aim of the ET design is to take advantage of the hull’s
hydrodynamic forces to generate a safe and stable towing force (Capt.
Hensen, 2012). Conceiving a hull capable of generating such strong
drifting forces is a design challenge that has sparked the adoption
of many solutions throughout the years. Both numerical (Allan and
Molyneux, 2004; Smoker, 2009; Jahra et al., 2015) and empirical
Fig. 3. Escort rationalisation.
2
Ocean Engineering 191 (2019) 106461
(Molyneux and Earle, 2001; Molyneux and Bose, 2007) procedures are
commonly adopted to assess the towing forces, the tug handling and
the operational safety of ETs during Escort towing.
These methods have been consistently used to improve the state-
of-the-art of ETs and their effectiveness, leading to the development of
very diverse hull and skeg geometries and to the adoption of peculiar
propulsive choices. The development of the large hydrodynamic forces
typical of ETs is indeed a matter of integrated hull and propulsion
system design. Broadly speaking, ETs boast larger projected hull lateral
areas than conventional tugs.
On the other hand, several different tug propulsion arrangements
are applied (Allan and Smoker, 2013), which include ASD tugs (Jukola
and Castleman, 1995) and Tractor tugs (Voith Drive or Z-drive Propul-
sion) (Jürgens and Palm, 2012). Subsequently, innovative designs led
to the adoption of alternative and more complex multi-propulsor sys-
tems and sliding towing point concepts (Kooren et al., 2000; Lisagor
et al., 2015; Safetug, 2015). The technological advancements of ETs
also progress coherently with the regulations of Class Societies and in
parallel with their development (see e.g. ABS, 2019; DNV-GL, 2018).
Given the wide range of solutions and operations, the ability of de-
signing ETs and of predicting their Escorting performance is essential.
In particular, numerical simulations have been successfully used for
training, design validation, risk assessment and risk mitigation (Gray
and Elizabeth, 2001; Merrick, 2002; The Glosten Associates, 2004).
Sophisticated models can be used to include the effects of weather, ship
size and on-board failures to simulate real-case scenarios (Waclawek
and Molyneux, 2000; Li and Calisal, 2005; Quadvileg and Kaul, 2006).
Hydrodynamic principle. Fig. 3 shows a schematic of the earlier de-
scribed Indirect Towing principle. The hydrodynamic forces acting on
the ET and generated by its forced drift motion may be regarded in
analogy with the theory of slender lifting bodies. As the tug drifts in
the water, its hull acts as an aerofoil in a flow at a non-zero incidence
angle. The resultant lift forces generated by the ET are generally much
greater than the mere direct pull. Practically, the ET can be thought
of as an external rudder which is free to move about the stern of the
tethered ship, transmitting the hydrodynamic forces across the towing
line.
From a hull design standpoint, the enhancement of the hydrody-
namic lifting performance is achieved by large skegs or large lateral hull
surfaces. In analogy with semi-balanced rudders, the hull centre of pres-
sure of the ETs is typically brought forward by having a larger lateral
area in the forebody. As a consequence, the lifting forces move closer
to the towing point (i.e. the towing staple) relieving the propulsive and
steering effort — in the rudder analogy, the torque required on the
rudder stock. On the other hand, the large static and dynamic heeling
B. Piaggio et al. Ocean Engineering 191 (2019) 106461

Table 1
Tug main characteristics.
Length 𝐿𝑂𝐴 28.4 m
Breadth 𝐵 12 m
Height 𝐷 4.95 m
Full Draught 𝑇𝑑 4.05 m
Ops Draught 𝑇 3.7 m
Design Speed 𝑉𝑑 12.5 kts
Power 𝑃𝐵 2 × 2000 kW
Bollard Pull 𝐵𝑃 >65 t

Table 2
Model main characteristics.
Dimension Symbol Full-scale Model
Length 𝐿𝑂𝐴 28.4 2.564 m
Fig. 4. Model. 𝐿𝑃 𝑃 27.5 2.483 m
Breadth 𝐵 12 1.084 m
Draught 𝑇 3.7 0.334 m
Displacement 𝛥 659 0.485 m3
Wet Surface 𝑆𝑊 392 3.196 m2
Buoyancy Centre 𝐿𝐶𝐵 14.98 1.353 m
𝑉 𝐶𝐵 2.271 0.205 m
Weight Centre 𝐿𝐶𝐺 14.98 1.353 m
𝑉 𝐶𝐺 3.9 0.352 m
Metacentric Height 𝐺𝑀𝑇 2.4 0.217 m
𝐺𝑀𝐿 22.3 2.01 m
Fig. 5. PMM towing tank.
Gyration Radius 𝜌𝑥 4.8 0.433 m
𝜌𝑧 7.1 0.641 m
angles sustained by ETs require wider hull breadths to improve the
transverse restoring moment. From the above description, it becomes 2. The tug
necessary to model the ET’s manoeuvring performance at high speeds
and large drift and heel angles. To develop the novel mathematical model, the present paper char-
acterises the manoeuvrability of a medium size ET (Figari et al.,
Rationale. The manoeuvring characteristics of marine vessels are tra- 2018b,a) capable of good ahead/astern performance (maximum achiev-
ditionally of great interest in the field of naval architecture. When able speed and low wave pattern) and of fulfilling the requirements
common hull forms are involved, several mathematical regression mod- for tugs stability with large margins (Resolution MSC.415(97), enacted
els and extensive manoeuvrability tests are found in the literature (see on the 1st January 2020). The case-study vessel is a 28 m × 12 m
e.g. Lewis and SNAME, 1988; Kose, 1982; Abkowitz, 1964). Conversely, Azimuthal Stern Drive (ASD) multi-purpose Escort Tug, which is ca-
very few studies have been devoted to the understanding of the ma- pable of about 65t full-scale bollard pull. Its main characteristics are
noeuvring and, broadly, the hydrodynamic behaviour of more unusual summarised in Table 1. The tug boasts two ducted azimuthal thrusters
vessels. and a medium-size fore skeg, which aims to achieve good Escort perfor-
Tugs represent a challenge for work-boat designers and operators. mance without impairing the readiness of low speed manoeuvring. In
The general growth of merchant vessel sizes requires the use of tugs addition, a double-hull configuration allows damaged hull survivability
with increasingly greater towing power. Primarily, this translates into in accordance with the requirements of Resolution MSC.235(82) for
stronger bollard pull forces, traditionally achieved by increasing the Offshore Support Vessels (OSV).
tug’s power and size. However, some disadvantages arise inevitably
with it. 3. The experimental campaign
Medium-size ships are prepared to safely sustain neither large push
forces onto the side shell nor extremely strong pulls on the towing bitts. An extensive experimental campaign was designed to aid the se-
On the other hand, large size tugs are not optimal for assistance in lection of the manoeuvrability mathematical model that describes the
restricted or busy harbour waters and they generally require higher operational domain of the vessel to the largest extent. This should
overall capital investments and daily costs. encompass large drift angles, fast manoeuvring dynamics, large heeling
In this framework, ETs are preferred to handle larger vessels and angles and propulsion dynamics. Therefore, an effort is devoted to un-
its manoeuvring capabilities are therefore paramount in view of an derstand, quantify and capture all the major underlying hydrodynamic
optimal holistic design framework. The ability of predicting the ET’s phenomena involved, with a view to an holistic simplified dynamic
handling, effectiveness and safety is key to its design, whose ‘goodness’ model of the vessel. The investigation focuses on the development of a
cannot be quantified by a single parameter of the like of the bollard reliable and robust modular force model capable of describing the two
pull for conventional tugs. force components generated by hull+skeg, azimuthals and the combina-
At early design stages, only model scale testing or numerical RANSE tion hull+skeg+azimuthals resulting from their mutual interaction. This
computations or, alternatively, analytical models derived from tests study mainly deals with the problems of high speed Escort manoeuvring
on similar vessels may be used for this purpose (Figari et al., 2018b; and presents a secondary insight on low-speed operations.
Piaggio et al., 2018). In this framework, the availability of a reliable Model & tank facility. The model tug was constructed to represent its
parametric manoeuvrability model is of the highest importance. full-scale counterpart. The model is shown in Fig. 4 and was built to a
The present paper presents a novel manoeuvrability model for an scale of 1:11.075. It features the two ducted azimuthal thrusters and the
Azimuthal Stern Drive Escort Tug. An extensive experimental cam- fore skeg. In addition, it was provided with bow fenders, a main deck,
paign is purposely devised to investigate the hydrodynamic charac- bulwarks and a simplified superstructure. The main hull geometrical
teristics and manoeuvrability performance of the ET and to validate characteristics and non-dimensional ratios of the model ET are reported
the mathematical model. This study paves the way for a wider math- in Tables 2–4.
ematical parametric model for ASD Escort Tugs, which envisages a The tests were carried out in a towing tank 240 m long, 12 m wide
simulation-for-design strategy. and a water depth of 5.4 m — see Fig. 5. All the tests were performed

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B. Piaggio et al. Ocean Engineering 191 (2019) 106461

Table 3
Model non-dimensional ratios.
Length Ratio 𝐿∕𝐵 2.292 –
Block Coefficient 𝐶𝐵 0.566 –
Prismatic Coeff. 𝐶𝑃 0.645 –
Waterplane Coeff 𝐶𝑊 𝐿 0.870 –
Section Coeff 𝐶𝑋 0.878 –
Fitness ratio ⃝
M 3.103 –
Wett. Surface ratio ⃝
S 5.173 –

Table 4
Model Azimuthal’s characteristics.
Fig. 6. Escort set-up.
AZIMUTHALS Full-scale Model
Diameter 𝐷 2.4 0.217 m
Nozzle Length 𝑙𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 1.329 0.12 m
Pitch Ratio 𝑃 ∕𝐷 1.05 –
Exp Area ratio 𝐴𝐸 ∕𝐴𝑂 0.58 –
No. of Blades 4 –
Rotation Outward
Propeller Positions 𝑥𝑃 2.877 0.260 m
𝑦𝑃 2.750 0.248 m
𝑧𝑃 0.688 0.062 m

Table 5
Towing-line characteristics.
TOWING-LINE Full-scale Model
Length 𝑙𝑇 𝐿 70 6.320 m
Staple Position 𝑥𝑇 𝐿 25.7 2.320 m
𝑧𝑇 𝐿 8.67 0.783 m
Carriage Height 𝑧𝑐 10 0.903 m

Fig. 7. Experimental set-up.

at 𝐹 𝑛 = 0.279, corresponding to a full-scale speed of 9 knots. Some

critical tests were also conducted at the lower speed of 𝐹 𝑛 = 0.093 (3
knots full-scale).
Experimental set-up. Captive model test are customary techniques ap-
plied to determine the hydrodynamic coefficients (i.e. the so-called
manoeuvring derivatives) used in a mathematical model of ship ma-
noeuvring motion. For manoeuvrability tests, the model was mounted
underneath a large Planar Motion Mechanism system (PMM), which
constraints the motions to the horizontal plane. Therefore, surge, sway,
yaw and heel are forced. The deck plating is manufactured with a
large opening to fit the PMM mechanism. The X (longitudinal) and Y
(transverse) forces and the N (yaw) and K (roll) moments, which act
in the constrained directions, were measured by a multi-component
force balance installed in the PMM. The forces acting on the Escorted
vessel could therefore be represented in the tug-fixed reference system
𝒃𝑻 − 𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒, see Fig. 3.
For free-sailing Escort tests, the model was self-propelled and uncon-
strained. A specific ‘Escort setup’ was devised, which included a towline
connecting the tug model to the carriage (Fig. 6). Both towing ‘bitts’
were instrumented with gauges to measure the forces exerted by the
tug and the vessel. The instrumented towing bitt on the tug model
(XY force gauge — see Table 5) was located on the CL 0.235 m from
the tug’s bow, and 0.783 m above the base line. The towing point on
the carriage (XYZ gauge in the tank reference system 𝒕 − 𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒) was
located 0.903 m above the water surface and the towline was 6.32 m
long (70 m full-scale). The model motions were measured by use of
on-board inclinometers and an external optical tracking system. All the
instrumentation cabling was pulled vertically above the model to avoid
any type of interference with the experiment.
During all tests, the thrust and torque produced by the azimuthal
thrusters were collected by in-house built dynamometers mounted
inside each thruster’s leg. The total forces acting on the thruster units
were measured by means of axial and transverse force gauges, while
similar gauges monitored the forces on the ducts. All the parameters
related to the azimuthal thruster units (i.e. thrust, torque, nozzle force,
longitudinal 𝑋̃𝐴𝑍 and transverse 𝑌̃𝐴𝑍 total forces) were measured in the
thrusters’ local coordinate systems 𝒛 − 𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑠, which rotate relative to
the model-fixed coordinate system by the azimuthal angles. A summary
of the measuring references are illustrated in Fig. 7.
3.1. Test framework
Broadly speaking, tugs are atypical in terms of navigation and
manoeuvres. Their operational profile is not confined to a few com-
binations of design speed and loading cases, but it spreads over several
off-design conditions. This peculiarity renders the modelling of their
broad manoeuvring capabilities rather complex. The challenges are
exacerbated when dealing with ETs, which are normally subjected
to coupled motions with misaligned azimuthal configurations. Both
at low speeds during harbour operations and at high speeds during
Escort or free-sailing, high drift angles may be generated. Modelling the
oblique sailing attitudes is thus very important, especially with respect
to Indirect Towing modes.
In the perspective of a complete comprehension of the phenom-
ena, the experimental campaign is subdivided into four logical blocks
concerning respectively:
1. Hull+Skeg
2. Azimuthals
3. Hull+Skeg+Azimuthals
4. Free-Running Escort Towing
A summary of the high-speed test matrix is reported in Table 6.
HULL+SKEG. Pure Sway/Pure Drift tests and Pure Yaw tests addressed
the identification of the manoeuvrability characteristics of the vessel in
the pure motions. Yaw + Drift tests were instead aimed at assessing the
coupled forces, with particular regard to the dynamics engaged around
Escort equilibria. An extensive experimental matrix covering large drift
angles and yaw rates was designed with particular attention to the
heeling effect, which is constraining in Escort manoeuvring. Heeling
effects were further explored through Pure Drift + Heel tests.

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B. Piaggio et al. Ocean Engineering 191 (2019) 106461

Table 6
High-speed captive experimental campaign.
Experimental campaign
Test sets Description Drift Yaw Rudder Heel Advance
deg – deg deg deg
Pure Drift 0÷180 0 – – –
Pure Drift + Heel 0÷180 0 – 10 –
Hull+Skeg
Pure Yaw 0 0÷0.85 – – –
Drift + Yaw 0÷60 0÷0.85 – – –
Open Water 0 – 0 – −90÷90
Azimuthals
Oblique Flow – – 0÷360 – 15
Behind Hull 0 – 0÷360 – 15
Pure Rudder 0 – 0÷180 – 15
Hull+Skeg+Azimuthals
Pure Drift 0÷60 – 0 – 15
Escort Mimic 0÷60 – −30÷60 – 15

carriage to which it is tethered by means of a towline. The carriage

is instrumented with a dual-axis (XY) strain gauge aligned with the
tank, allowing to measure the braking and steering force components.
Both helm angles and propeller speed of the azimuthal thrusters are
progressively increased until the transversal heeling results in green
water on deck. The configurations of equilibrium are recorded.
No deepening about uncertainty analysis of PMM force measure-
ments is tackled at the present stage of the investigation. However,
a brief sensitivity analysis on how force errors propagate through the
manoeuvring models is provided in this paper after the validation of the
Escort model. Future work will deal with a more detailed uncertainty
analysis.

4. Manoeuvrability models

4.1. HULL+SKEG models

The adopted manoeuvring model is based on the classical SNAME

multivariate polynomial Taylor expansions. Let 𝛷′ be the generic force
and 𝛷̂ ′ its estimate. The even regressors are related to kinematically
symmetric forces, i.e. X, while the odd terms are devoted to the skew-
Fig. 8. Hull+Skeg+Azimuthals tests. symmetric motion dynamics, i.e. Y, N & K. Added mass formula-
tions are assumed linear. Forces and moments follow the customary
non-dimensional notation as in the following equation:
AZIMUTHALs. When dealing with steerable propulsive systems dur- 𝑋
𝑋′ = (1a)
ing Escort manoeuvres, the correct modelling of the azimuthal forces 0.5𝜌𝑉 2 𝐿2
becomes essential for the manoeuvrability prediction. To assess the 𝑌
𝑌′ = (1b)
direction of the thrust force as a function of the azimuthal angle, two 0.5𝜌𝑉 2 𝐿2
tests were performed. Standard open water tests in the first and fourth 𝑁
𝑁′ = (1c)
performance quadrant (𝑛 > 0 & 𝑉 > 0 and 𝑛 > 0 & 𝑉 < 0, respectively) 0.5𝜌𝑉 2 𝐿3
were at first conducted at varying propeller loads. Secondly, oblique 𝐾
𝐾′ = (1d)
flow propulsion was assessed focusing on thrust and torque variations. 0.5𝜌𝑉 2 𝐿3
Particular attention was devoted to the lateral force, whose effect
The polynomial of the regressor is formally defined as:
considerably affects the tug’s manoeuvrability.
∑
𝑛−1
HULL+SKEG+AZIMUTHALs. Once Hull+Skeg and Azimuthals model 𝛷̂ ′ = 𝜇𝑖 (𝑣′ 𝛼𝑖 ′ 𝛽𝑖 𝛾𝑖
𝑟 𝜙 ) + 𝜇𝑣̇ 𝑣̇ ′ + 𝜇𝑟̇ 𝑟̇ ′ (2)
tests are accomplished, their interactions must be investigated. Since 𝑖=0
a linear superposition of their effects is not legitimate, the hull and the where 𝛼𝑖 , 𝛽𝑖 = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 𝛾𝑖 = 0, 1, 2, 3 and 𝛼𝑖 + 𝛽𝑖 + 𝛾𝑖 ≤ 5. Hence, a
azimuthal thruster forces must be analysed together. The functioning of Time Domain Multi-Run LSQ approach is pursued (Piaggio et al., 2018),
the propellers in underneath-hull condition can be thus more accurately defined by the following equation:
assessed. The axial and transversal forces acting on the total unit are {𝑁 }
assessed by varying the azimuthal (helm) angles and the vessel drift ∑‖ ‖2
𝝁 = argmin ‖𝛷𝑘′ − 𝛷̂ 𝑘′ (𝝁)‖ (3)
angle and by looking at their effect on the total hull forces. The degree ‖ ‖
𝑘=1
of complexity of the investigation requires that azimuthal and drift
The hydrodynamic derivative tuple 𝝁 is inferred by exploiting all
angles be initially varied independently. They are then varied together
the data acquired from the series of PMM tests. Each 𝑘𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑁
to reproduce the Escort towing ‘captively’. The yaw rate effect is left
PMM run represents an input to the regression process and is part of
to future investigations since an Escort manoeuvring model is here of
a subset of the experimental matrix. The resulting forces of each run
prior interest. A scheme of the PMM tests is represented in Fig. 8 with
are estimated by means of a global optimisation problem (e.g. least
the basic nomenclature.
square problem with square Euclidean metric). The regression process
ESCORT tests. Finally, Escort free-running tests are performed for val- ensures the optimal fit of the global response surface by minimising the
idation purposes. The self-propelled model is positioned behind the quadratic cost function over the predefined kinematic domain.

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B. Piaggio et al.
Fig. 9. Hull+Skeg forces — 5th order model.
The complete set of the hull+skeg PMM tests is composed by the
mean force measured across the PMM cycles on the domain plane
𝑣′ × 𝑟′ . The regression process is then carried out in pursuit of the
best steady surface of estimation up to dynamic contributions. Clearly,
the minor is the distance of the surface model from the data cloud, the
better is the estimate.
The regression result is conveniently expressed by a mixed 5th order
polynomial, with heel effects restricted to 3rd order. The 𝑋 force is
considered to be dependent only from the drift due to the negligible
correlation with yaw and heel. The dataset cloud is then reduced to
the stationary part and fitted against the model to verify the steady
response surface (Fig. 9(a)). The distance of the single point from
the surface is defined as the residual error at each instant, whose
distribution is shown over the tested domain in Fig. 9(b).
Ideally, the sequential distribution of the residuals should behave as
a white random process within an admissible 95% confidence interval.
The mean RMSE over the runs is then defined as the average of
the mean errors across each run within the domain of interest. The
quality of the estimation is constantly evaluated and monitored across
the identification process in order to understand the goodness of fit
and to ensure global RMSE around 5% for 𝑋, 𝑌 , 𝑁 and 10% for 𝐾.
Auto-Correlation Function techniques are finally exploited to verify the
goodness of each time-series in the identification process by means of
a median 35% confidence interval (Piaggio et al., 2018).
A focus on the Pure Drift features of the Escort towing is represented
in Figs. 10–14. Firstly, the effect of speed for 𝑋, 𝑌 , 𝑁 and 𝐾 forces is
considered, comparing values measured at the full-scale speeds of 3 and
9 kn. Then, the effect of the heel angle on the same forces is considered.
In both cases, an insight over the whole 0–180 deg range is given; then,
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Ocean Engineering 191 (2019) 106461
the graphs focus on the 0–60 deg range (𝑣′ ≈ 0–0.85), which is more
representative of Escort conditions.
No particular speed effects (Fig. 10) are apparent in Escort ranges
until stall angles. Contrary to expectations, the higher speed run unveils
an anticipated stall, clearly visible both in 𝑌 and 𝑁 diagrams. Some
less important and yet sensible differences arise in terms of 𝐾 moment,
possibly due to dynamic trim and squat in the case of higher speeds.
The forces measured in crabbing conditions and in the stern quarter
drifting quadrant result instead particularly altered, probably due to
green water on deck and the variation of the attitude. The effect is
particularly evident in terms of 𝐾 moment that unexpectedly changes
sign hindering its interpretation. This unexpected behaviour occurs at
angles over 90 deg. This effect may be linked to issues in the experi-
mental setup, which occurred at both speeds. An interesting behaviour
is observed for the 𝑋 force. Due to the high lifting capabilities of the
hull+skeg configuration, the vessel experiences an increasing reduction
of the forward resistance until stall angle. Fig. 11 focuses on the tests
conducted at 9 kn full-scale. The experiments are demonstrated to
be sufficiently well caught by the model within the Escort ranges of
interest (up to about 45–50 deg). It may be speculated that higher
order terms (e.g. a 6th order monomial) could be introduced in the
model to capture the out-of-range stalling effect previously described.
Nevertheless, the effect is considered to be negligible to limit the
complexity of the model.
With respect to the influence of the heel angle, the results obtained
at 10 deg heel (Figs. 12–13) reveal interesting effects. The asymmetrical
hull geometry in the flow breaks the skew-symmetry of the forces and
offsets forces and moments at zero incidence angle. More importantly,
the lateral force and yaw moment are amplified at the larger angles
B. Piaggio et al. Ocean Engineering 191 (2019) 106461

Fig. 10. Pure drift — speed effect.

Fig. 11. Pure drift — high speed model.

Fig. 12. Pure drift — heel effect.

Fig. 13. Pure drift — heel model.

corresponding to typical Escort ranges, emphasising the importance of
considering the effects induced by the heel angle. Particularly, the 𝐾
moment shows severe discrepancies at larger drift angles, which are
probably correlated with the green water on deck.
Nevertheless, the Escort range 45–60 deg appears negligibly af-
fected. The hull-lift effect is then further clarified by considering the
forces in the tank reference — i.e. the perpendicular lift component
𝑌𝜏 , its parallel drag counterpart 𝑋𝜏 and the yaw moment relative to
the towing point 𝑁𝑇 𝑃 . Fig. 14 allows a more direct analysis of the

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B. Piaggio et al. Ocean Engineering 191 (2019) 106461

Fig. 14. Pure drift in tank reference — heel effect.

Table 7
Hydrodynamic derivatives.
5th order model
𝛷0 𝛷𝑣 𝛷𝑣𝑣 𝛷𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝛷𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝛷𝑟 𝛷𝑟𝑟 𝛷𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝛷𝑣̇ 𝛷𝑟̇
X −0.0048 – 0.0119 – 0.0084 – – – – –
Y 0 −0.085 – −0.0152 – −0.0067 – −0.0326 −0.0344 0.0005
N 0 −0.0382 – 0.0347 – −0.0056 – −0.0091 0.0065 −0.0008
K 0 0.0076 – −0.0079 – −0.0001 – 0.0024 −0.0001 0.0006

5th order model

𝛷𝑣𝑟 𝛷𝑣𝑣𝑟 𝛷𝑣𝑟𝑟 𝛷𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝛷𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝛷𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟 𝛷𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝛷𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑟 𝛷𝑣𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
X – – – – – – – – –
Y – −0.0609 0.0302 0.0227 0.0149 0.0787 0.0296 −0.0057 −0.0163
N – −0.0232 0.0108 0.0022 0.0082 0.0028 −0.0117 0.0204 −0.0086
K – −0.0021 −0.0036 0.0026 −0.0028 0.0026 0.0035 0.0002 0

Table 8
Heel hydrodynamic derivatives.
Heel model
𝛷0 𝛷𝜙 𝛷𝑣|𝜙| 𝛷𝑣𝑣𝑣|𝜙|
Y 0 −0.0089 −0.0686 −0.2646
N 0 −0.005 −0.0103 −0.0297
K 0 −0.0019 0.0004 0.0184
Fig. 15. Pure drift levers — speed effect.

is a strong endorsement of the convenience of such hull configuration

Fig. 16. Pure drift levers — heel effect.
hull+skeg behaviour in accordance with the low aspect ratio lifting sur-
face theory. The phenomenon can be regarded as the camber-like effect
of a lifting surface, which is in this case embodied by the asymmetric
hull. The curvilinear distribution of the underwater volumes alters the
hydrodynamic angle of attack at the bow, causing the flow to break
the symmetry. Whereas the effect is less apparent at zero attack angle
(i.e. zero drift), a much larger effect stands in the postponement of
the stall angle. The camber effect may be fundamentally explained as
producing a better hydrodynamic orientation of the inflow at the bow
and delaying the flow separation. On the other hand, the variations of
the lateral force induced by the tug’s heel are negligible.
Shifting the reference fulcrum to the towing staple (i.e. 𝑁𝑇 𝑃 ) allows
an interesting observation with respect to the behaviour of the 𝑁 mo-
ment. Due to the hull+skeg configuration producing larger underwater
volumes and lifting area in the forebody, the 𝑁 is null over a wide range
of drift angles (0–15 deg). On the one hand, this proves the intrinsic
course instability of the vessel when free-sailing. On the other hand, it
for the Indirect Towing.
In fact, the azimuthals must produce a yawing moment equal and
opposite to that generated by the imbalance between hydrodynamic
and towing forces to maintain the equilibrium drift angle. Clearly,
a drifting attitude is more easily attained and maintained if the az-
imuthals need to counteract a smaller moment. In this perspective, pure
hydrodynamic forces can be developed by very little effort, hence re-
sulting in a large towing capacity. The analogy with the semi-balanced
rudder upholds and is here made clearer. The azimuthals act as the
steering gear by forcing an attack angle on the hull+skeg system,
disclosing the benefits of the fore skeg for the Indirect Towing.
Finally, Figs. 15 and 16 illustrate the effect of speed and heel on
the displacement of the Longitudinal Centre of Pressure 𝐿𝐶𝑃 . The
figures show that the speed and heel do not cause particular effects
regardless the stall variations observed since 𝑌 and 𝑁 maintain their
balance throughout. Interestingly, both graphs indirectly demonstrate
how the fore skeg pushes the 𝐿𝐶𝑃 forward, delaying the zero-crossing
to around 110 deg. This is a consequence of the large yaw moments
which are useful for Escort manoeuvring but detrimental to course
stability. Conversely, a slightly preferable situation for course stability
occurs when sailing astern — i.e. ‘tractoring’. The beneficial effect
is apparent both in the longitudinal levers and in the yaw moment
derivative around 0 and 180 deg drifting.
Regression coefficients for the hull+skeg hydrodynamics in the up-
right condition are reported in Table 7. The heel effect on drift ma-
noeuvring is included in Table 8. Heel is assumed to have negligible

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B. Piaggio et al. Ocean Engineering 191 (2019) 106461

effect on yawing due to its minor impact during Escort operations. The
range of validity of the high-speed Escort model is about 0–60 deg drift
angle and 0–0.85 non-dimensional yaw rate. For larger drift angles, full
curves must be adopted.

4.2. AZIMUTHALS models

The complete hydrodynamic characterisation of the two Azimuthals

in oblique flow requires a model representation spanning the entire
working domain of the advance angle 𝜖 (i.e. hydrodynamic pitch angle)
and azimuthal angle 𝛿. The complete response surfaces of the total axial
longitudinal force 𝑋̃𝐴𝑍 , the total transversal force 𝑌̃𝐴𝑍 and the pro-
peller torque 𝑄 are investigated in uncoupled and coupled dependence
from the variables. The non-dimensional coefficients are defined in the
azimuthal-fixed reference system rotated by the azimuthal angle (i.e.
longitudinally aligned with the propeller shaft):
̃𝐴𝑍 (𝛿, 𝜖)
𝑋
𝐶𝑋 (𝛿, 𝜖) = (4a)
0.5𝜌𝑉𝑡2 𝐴𝑂
𝑌̃𝐴𝑍 (𝛿, 𝜖)
𝐶𝑌 (𝛿, 𝜖) = (4b)
0.5𝜌𝑉𝑡2 𝐴𝑂
𝑄(𝛿, 𝜖)
𝐶𝑄 (𝛿, 𝜖) = (4c)
0.5𝜌𝑉𝑡2 𝐴𝑂 𝐷
where 𝑉𝑡 = (𝑉𝑎2 + (0.7𝜋𝑛𝐷)2 )0.5 and 𝐴𝑂 = 𝜋𝐷2 ∕4.
The open water tests were performed in two parts. The first was
conducted with zero incidence angle (i.e. 𝛿 = 0 𝑑𝑒𝑔) and variable
advance angle (−90 < 𝜖 < 90 deg). Complementarily, the second
was carried out as an oblique flow test with variable incidence angle
(−180 < 𝛿 ≤ 180 𝑑𝑒𝑔) and constant advance angle (𝜖 = 15.3 𝑑𝑒𝑔).
The open water tests were then extrapolated over the entire work-
ing domain by means of calibrated literature data (Oosterveld, 1970;
Nienhuis, 1992; Brandner and Renilson, 1998). The 𝜖 × 𝛿 domain
represents the pure open water tests, namely the two-quadrant open
water curves (𝜖 variation at zero angle) and the bollard pull capability
(constant for 𝜖 = 0 and 𝛿 ≠ 0). Conversely, the oblique flow test
portrays two intersections of the surface at fixed advance angle of ±15.3
deg due to symmetries. Complete response surfaces in terms of the
𝐶𝑋 (𝛿, 𝜖), 𝐶𝑌 (𝛿, 𝜖) and 𝐶𝑄 (𝛿, 𝜖) were inferred and extended (Fig. 17).
In the graphs, the blade load increases radially while the polar angle Fig. 17. Azimuthals model.
represents the azimuthal angle.
The geometrical and undisturbed blade advance angle and the
incidence angle on the azimuthals can be translated in a behind-hull 𝛿𝑒 = 𝛽𝑃 + 𝛿 (9)
formulation by using the vessel’s advance speed 𝑉𝑎 and drift angle 𝛽
following the standard conventions: The reciprocal interaction of the combined hull+skeg+azimuthals
( ) in drifting motion then follows a semi-empirical approach, whereby
𝑉𝑎 more complicated configurations are gradually considered. These are
𝜖 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (5)
0.7𝜋𝑛𝐷 devoted to the inclusion of the hull–propeller, propeller–propeller and
( )
−𝑣 propeller–hull effects due to hull wake, flow straightening and mutual
𝛽 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (6)
𝑢 interaction.
4.3. HULL+SKEG+AZIMUTHALS models Hull–propeller interaction. The presence of the hull induces a variation
of the flow field around the propellers in function of the drift angle.
When considering the complete hull+skeg+azimuthals model, the Furthermore, this effect varies with the azimuthal angle due to the
forces of the azimuthals alone have to be referred to the kinematic con- different interactions between the propeller and hull flow fields. In
ditions of the whole system. The inflow velocity at each azimuthal must fact, considering the huge size of the propulsors compared to the tug’s
be firstly referred to the azimuthal propeller disc centre, positioned dimensions, the presence of the struts, ducts and skeg significantly
at (𝑷 𝑷 − 𝑶). Both the local speed and the inflow incidence angle are alters the flow field. The longitudinal flow and transverse cross-flow
modified by the hull drift angle 𝛽 across the azimuthal angle 𝛿 and the at the propellers are hence highly affected by both the drift angle
rotation vector 𝜔 whose components are [𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟]. The effective angle 𝛿𝑒 and the azimuthal angle. In this respect, a large wake shadow on
and loading 𝜖𝑒 at the azimuthals can be assessed after the evaluation of the downstream azimuthal was observed from the experiments, which
the propeller local drift angles 𝛽𝑃 : is caused by the upstream presence of the hull and (mostly) of the
(( ) )
𝑽 + 𝝎 × (𝑷 𝑷 − 𝑶) ⋅ 𝒃𝟏𝑻 skeg. The shadowing area induces a substantial reduction of the speed
𝜖𝑒 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (7) perceived at the propeller and increases the propeller loading — and
0.7𝜋𝑛𝐷
( ( ) ) hence the thrust and torque. Incidentally, the upstream azimuthal was
− 𝑽 + 𝝎 × (𝑷 𝑷 − 𝑶) ⋅ 𝒃𝟐𝑻 practically undisturbed. The alteration of the propeller inflow can be
𝛽𝑃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (8)
𝑢 modelled by means of a variation of the propeller working point in

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B. Piaggio et al. Ocean Engineering 191 (2019) 106461

terms of effective attack angle 𝛿𝑒 and effective advance angle 𝜖𝑒 . Such 𝐾𝐴𝑍 = 𝑧𝑃 𝑌𝐴𝑍 (13d)
variations, expressed as 𝛥𝛿𝑒 and 𝛥𝜖𝑒 and given as a function of the local
In Fig. 18 the forces and moments obtained using the above de-
drift angle and the azimuthal angle, are summed to the ideal geometric
scribed hull+skeg+azimuthals model are compared with experimental
open water inflow:
values obtained from the Escort Mimic tests at 0, 15 and 30 deg
𝐶 𝑋 = 𝐶𝑋 (𝛿𝑒 + 𝛥𝛿𝑒 , 𝜖𝑒 + 𝛥𝜖𝑒 ) (10a) of drift angles and variable azimuthal angle. The aim of the tests
was to reproduce the Escort equilibria in order to understand all
𝐶 𝑌 = 𝐶𝑌 (𝛿𝑒 + 𝛥𝛿𝑒 , 𝜖𝑒 + 𝛥𝜖𝑒 ) (10b)
the underlying interactions. Forces are referred to the tug-fixed ref-
𝐶 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑄 (𝛿𝑒 + 𝛥𝛿𝑒 , 𝜖𝑒 + 𝛥𝜖𝑒 ) (10c) erence frame. Hull+skeg (dash line), azimuthal (dash–dot line) and
hull+skeg+azimuthals totals (solid line) are compared with experiments
𝛥𝛿𝑒 and 𝛥𝜖𝑒 were obtained by means of dedicated experiments
(markers). The zero drift angle plot represent the pure rudder runs,
for certain configurations. The perturbations earlier described may be
while the 15 and 30 deg plots represent the inclined conditions. Positive
mathematically described as a bivariate Gaussian-like perturbation of
rudder angles produce Escort equilibria, while the negative angles,
the flow field speed and direction wise, Eq. (11). This concept may also
portray counter-rudder scenarios.
be interpreted geometrically, whereby the parameters ‘locate’ the wake
The simplified model matches the experiments with good agreement
shadowing peaks [𝛽, 𝛿] on a 𝛽–𝛿 plane and describe their amplitude
particularly in Escort conditions. The estimation of the longitudinal
[𝛥𝜖 𝑒 , 𝛥𝛿 𝑒 ] and spread [𝜎, 𝜏]. The wake shadowing is then superim-
force is in general less accurate but still adequate given its minor
posed to the behind hull/pure rudder effects, merging the open-water
impact on the model. The calculated lateral force and yaw moment
behaviour to the behind-hull configuration through the variations [𝛥𝜖𝑒0 ,
in the drifting configurations captures the trend of the experiments
𝛥𝛿𝑒0 ]. 𝛥𝜖𝑒0 , encompasses and represents the classical straight navigation
both for the uncoupled components and for the totals. No additional
effective wake fraction (1−𝑤). 𝛥𝛿𝑒0 is instead an expression of the mean
amplifications of the roll moment are deemed necessary. The force
wake direction in straight navigation and zero azimuthal angle.
estimation is observed to lose accuracy in the pure rudder tests at large
( )𝜁 ( )𝜉
𝛽−𝛽 𝛿−𝛿 azimuthal angles. However, those conditions produce a large yawing
𝛥𝜖𝑒 = 𝛥𝜖𝑒0 + 𝛥𝜖 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (11) imbalance which in turn results in a larger drift angle. Thus, these
𝜎 𝜏
( )𝜁 conditions fall in the other graphs. The overall quality of the force
( )𝜉
𝛽−𝛽 𝛿−𝛿 model is then demonstrated to be satisfactory and a good compromise
𝛥𝛿𝑒 = 𝛥𝛿𝑒0 + 𝛥𝛿 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (12)
𝜎 𝜏 with the complexity of the manoeuvres.

The above presented approach not only can be customised for a

specific combination of hull, skeg and azimuthals. Its advantage stands
in its potential generalisation, provided that a large number of data is
available for a sufficient number of different configurations. At present,
further work would be needed to obtain the necessary data, either by
means of experiments or numerical calculations. However, a general-
isation of the approach could potentially lead to the development of
tools useful in design phases where specific experimental data are not
available.
Propeller–propeller interaction. The interaction between the two az-
imuthals is assessed in terms of a variation of the inflow speed at
the trailing azimuthal. The analysis is conducted in two different
conditions. Firstly, only one azimuthal is given a helm angle, while the
other is fixed amidships. Secondly, both azimuthals are given a helm
angle. The degree of interference of the leading propeller on the trailing
propeller is evaluated by modelling the slipstream acceleration of the
former. The flow acceleration is computed by employing the standard
momentum theory and the relative positioning of propellers (Brandner
and Renilson, 1998). A slipstream fraction coefficient is thus introduced
to model this interference, resulting in an additional advance angle
̃ 𝑒 and a propeller inflow direction variation at the trailing
variation, 𝛥𝜖
̃ 𝑒 . It is assumed that the leading azimuthal is undisturbed.
propeller, 𝛥𝛿
Propeller–hull interaction. The influence of the azimuthals on the hull is
kept into account by employing an extended MMG-like model (Ogawa
and Kasai, 1978) by which the forces are corrected in function of the
drift angle 𝛽, the azimuthal angle 𝛿, and the heel angle 𝜙. Each force
exerted on the azimuthal is firstly rotated in the tug’s reference system
by the helm angle 𝛿. The yaw and roll moments are consequently
defined according to their geometric positioning. Subsequently, forces
and moments perceived by the hull+skeg system are corrected by
means of the interaction factor 𝑎𝐻 and the application point 𝑥𝑎𝐻 . The
amplification of the hull forces and moments is hence proportional to
the azimuthal forces rotated in the hull reference.
𝑋𝐴𝑍 = (1 − 𝑡(𝛽, 𝛿)) 𝑎𝐻 (𝜙) 𝑋 𝐴𝑍 (13a)
[ ]
𝑌𝐴𝑍 = 1 + 𝑎𝐻 (𝛽) 𝑎𝐻 (𝜙) 𝑌 𝐴𝑍 (13b)
[ ]
𝑁𝐴𝑍 = 𝑥𝑃 + 𝑥𝑎𝐻 𝑎𝐻 (𝛽) 𝑎𝐻 (𝛿) 𝑌𝐴𝑍 (13c)
5. Manoeuvrability simulations
5.1. Escort validation
The free-running Escort tests (Fig. 19) consisted of runs conducted
in still water at a speed corresponding to 9 knots at two different
propeller RPM and at azimuthal angles of 20, 30, 45, 55 and 140
degrees. Tests were performed at 3.7 m draught (full-scale) with null
trim angle. The results were extrapolated by Froude scaling to full-scale
and averaged over the recorded periods. A series of runs at low RPM
was first conducted to familiarise with the vessel, immediately followed
by a higher RPM series. Once the azimuthal angle was set, the propeller
revolutions were raised, keeping into account the limiting factor of the
heel angle to avoid deck submergence.
Tables 9 and 10 report the experimental results while Tables 11 and
12 show the simulation results. Fig. 20 compares the results of the novel
mathematical model presented in this paper with the experimental
data. Specifically, the figure presents the steering and braking forces,
the drift angle, the heel angle, the relative horizontal angle to the
towing point and the power demand. The high-RPM runs are reported
in red while the low-RPM runs are reported in black.
The forces, the kinematic behaviour and the magnitude of the
variables are correctly reproduced and show a good agreement with
the experiments. The mathematical model appears to capture the ef-
fects of the large unbalance between the downstream (shadowed) and
upstream (undisturbed) azimuthals across the entire steering range. At
the higher azimuthal angles, the braking forces are maximised. The
unbalancing of the power follows an inverted trend coherently with the
experiments. The interaction between the azimuthals emerges at those
angles, whereby the downstream propeller is washed by the slipstream
of the other one, thus reducing its loading. It may be concluded that
the steering and braking capabilities of the ET, the Escort equilibria and
the requested power at the shafts at both the RPMs are well captured.
It may be noticed that at the high-RPM runs spans wider range
of relative towline angles. This can be justified by the fact that the
azimuthals can shift the equilibria along the trajectory created by
the relative towing angle and the stretched length of the towline.
The component of the azimuthal forces tangential to the trajectory

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B. Piaggio et al. Ocean Engineering 191 (2019) 106461

Fig. 18. Pure drift + Azimuthals model.

Table 9
Experimental escort at low RPM - 9 kts.
Experimental escort — Low RPM
AZ. BRAKE STEER REV DRIFT HEEL TOW-LINE WRAP POWER POWER
ANGLE ANGLE ANGLE PS STB
deg t t RPM deg deg deg deg kW kW
20 15.7 −36.5 135 −26.4 8.6 66.7 93.1 253 135
30 21.0 −41.6 136 −29.9 9.7 63.2 93.1 278 132
45 29.0 −41.8 135 −32.4 10.2 55.2 87.7 257 133
55 32.1 −39.3 120 −31.8 10.2 50.7 82.5 184 69
120 33.9 −27.5 83 −27.4 8.3 39 66.4 140 149
140 40.0 −26.1 108 −29.0 8.8 33.1 62.1 333 283

determines whether the tug will move towards the side of the ship or
towards its stern. A higher azimuthal power will always result in an
increase of the drift angle and thereby of the towing force. Interestingly,
it was noted that the action of the azimuthals produces a significant
righting moment. The (central) equilibrium condition that requires
minimal azimuthal power is the previously mentioned ‘intrinsic Escort
equilibrium’, i.e. the purest Indirect Towing condition that does not
require the intervention of any propulsive power. Therefore, the larger
the azimuthal powering, the larger is the range of equilibrium con-
figurations spreading from the central equilibrium and greater are the
towing forces. Furthermore, it can be observed that already a valuable
indirect steering assistance can be achieved with almost no propulsive
effort, as in the low-RPM run.

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B. Piaggio et al. Ocean Engineering 191 (2019) 106461

Table 10
Experimental escort at high RPM - 9 kts.
Experimental escort — High RPM
AZ. BRAKE STEER REV DRIFT HEEL TOW-LINE WRAP POWER POWER
ANGLE ANGLE ANGLE PS STB
deg t t RPM deg deg deg deg kW kW
20 8.1 −47.0 190 −30.1 9.2 80.2 110.3 795 575
30 16.0 −54.2 199 −35.1 10.4 73.6 108.7 873 678
45 32.0 −51.9 199 −38.5 13.4 58.4 96.8 819 660
55 37.1 −43.9 156 −36.8 11.7 49.8 86.6 372 262
120 44.9 −27.3 130 −32.0 10.0 31.3 63.3 282 409
140 51.4 −18.3 158 −32.5 9.9 19.6 52.1 494 722

Table 11
Simulated escort at low RPM - 9 kts.
Simulated escort — Low RPM
AZ. BRAKE STEER REV DRIFT HEEL TOW-LINE WRAP POWER POWER
ANGLE ANGLE ANGLE PS STB
deg t t RPM deg deg deg deg kW kW
20 14.2 34.9 135 −25.6 9.0 67.9 93.3 205 109
30 22.1 39.5 135 −31.7 10.6 60.8 92.1 220 109
45 31.6 39.8 135 −35.8 11.8 51.5 86.7 210 103
55 34.6 37.2 120 −34.8 11.8 47.1 81.1 138 13
120 29.7 25.8 83 −25.0 8.8 41.0 65.4 147 270
140 38.9 24.6 108 −27.9 9.6 32.4 59.5 281 368

Table 12
Simulated escort at high RPM - 9 kts.
Simulated escort — High RPM
AZ. BRAKE STEER REV DRIFT HEEL TOW-LINE WRAP POWER POWER
ANGLE ANGLE ANGLE PS STB
deg t t RPM deg deg deg deg kW kW
20 5.0 48.9 190 −30.7 10.5 84.2 115.0 729 556
30 15.4 56.0 199 −37.7 12.4 74.6 112.5 791 619
45 31.9 51.8 199 −43.1 13.4 58.4 102.4 727 630
55 38.5 41.7 156 −41.1 13.0 47.3 87.6 318 220
120 45.7 25.1 130 −32.9 11.0 28.8 60.6 333 440
140 49.3 21.9 158 −31.1 10.5 23.9 54.0 540 622

Fig. 19. Escort test at towing tank.
The model is able to replicate the physical phenomena involved
and it is suitable for simulation purposes. The ‘tank-like’ conditions are
run until the desired criteria are met, regardless of the availability of
power. The same model can be run using a suitable propulsive system
model (Altosole et al., 2017, 2019), allowing to show the capabilities
of the simulation tool as a support in the design phase. For instance,
Fig. 21(a) shows the results of a free-running Escort simulation con-
ducted at the high-RPM run and achieving 30 deg azimuthal angle. The
ET is here driven by a pair of high speed diesel engines (2x2’000kW @
1800 RPM). The manoeuvre starts from the standby sailing position
of the ET behind the ship (carriage) at a full-scale speed of 9 kn. The
tug then initiates the manoeuvre gradually increasing the azimuthal
angle in two steps to limit heeling overshoots while at the same time
accelerating the engines. The time-series of the tug trajectory, kine-
matics and dynamics show the transients until equilibrium is achieved.
Smoothly, the tug reaches equilibrium in spite of small overshoots of
the yaw and heel angle and of the towline tension. Fig. 21(b) displays
the engine dynamics, starting from the standby condition where the tug
is basically towed by the ship. A smooth and controlled rise in torque
and power follows, where the port and starboard lines separate as soon
as drift forces are engaged, showing the imbalance between the two
thrusters. At the point of maximum towing force, power and revolutions
are still available with large margins, once again demonstrating the
great Indirect Towing ability of the tug. In conclusion, the tug was
able to generate a stable pull with a magnitude comparable to the
bollard capability by exerting a minimum power effort. In addition, the
manoeuvre was conducted in a speed range not practicable for Direct
Towing by exploiting the indirect forces and always maintaining a safe
position astern the tethered vessel.
5.2. Escort sensitivity analysis
A brief sensitivity analysis was carried out by varying the hull+skeg
and the azimuthal forces contribution of ±10% of the nominal values.
The free-running Escort tests were systematically re-simulated to allow
a preliminary assessment of the error propagation through the model.
In the future such analysis will be applied to the understanding of the
degree of uncertainty affecting the estimate of the Escort capability.
The results of the variations of the hull lateral force 𝑌 , yaw moment 𝑁,
their combined effect 𝑌 𝑁 and roll moment 𝐾 are plotted on top of the
original high-RPM curves in different colours in Fig. 22. Additionally,
a combined variation of the lateral force exerted by the azimuthals on
the tug and induced yaw moment 𝑌 𝑁𝐴𝑍 is considered.
The most relevant parameter affecting the Indirect Towing features
is the yaw moment. The larger are the drift forces, the larger is the

12
B. Piaggio et al. Ocean Engineering 191 (2019) 106461

Table 13
Escort sensitivity at high RPM - 9 kts.
MAX STEER MAX BRAKE
FORCE DRIFT HEEL FORCE DRIFT HEEL
t deg deg t deg deg
ORIGINAL 56.0 −37.7 12.4 54.1 −32.9 10.9
Y +10% 57.2 −36.4 12.3 53.4 −30.5 10.4
Y -10% 54.9 −39.2 12.6 54.8 −35.7 11.4
N +10% 58.8 −38.6 13.3 56.8 −34.6 12.0
N -10% 56.5 −36.9 11.6 51.6 −31.2 9.9
YN +10% 59.9 −37.2 13.1 56.0 −32.1 11.5
YN -10% 52.1 −38.2 11.8 52.1 −33.8 10.4
K +10% 56.1 −37.7 12.7 54.2 −32.9 11.2
K -10% 55.9 −37.7 12.1 54.1 −32.9 10.6
YN𝐴𝑍 +10% 56.5 −38.2 12.7 54.7 −33.7 11.2
YN𝐴𝑍 -10% 55.5 −37.1 12.1 53.5 −32.0 10.6

induce respectively a longitudinal shift of 𝐿𝐶𝑃 astern and ahead, with

the result of affecting the drift equilibria. Consequently, the combined
effect of 𝑌 and 𝑁 plays the most influential role in the Escort manoeu-
vre by not affecting the position of the hydrodynamic hull forces. On
the other hand, the role of the azimuthals remains marginal — indeed,
‘indirect’. The force they develop is small compared to the predominant
hull+skeg forces generated by the Escort-oriented design of the tug.
However, it must be considered that the dynamics are significantly
affected by harsher or milder transients.

The results of the sensitivity analysis are summarised in Table 13.

Fig. 20. Escort validation.
moment that the towline needs to counteract. Secondarily, greater
lateral forces offer larger steering assistance across smaller drift angles.
In fact, the increases of 𝑌 and 𝑁 alone (keeping constant 𝑁 and 𝑌 )
The Table reports the maximum steering and the maximum braking
forces and the relative tug attitudes which occurred at 30 deg and 140
deg of azimuthal angle, respectively. The propagation of the ±10% error
plays the role of affecting the maximum steering ability of about a ±7%.
Smaller but similar effects are spotted in terms of maximum braking
force.

Fig. 21. Max steering simulation - 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑎 = 30 DEG.

13
B. Piaggio et al. Ocean Engineering 191 (2019) 106461

Fig. 23. Escort capability with 2’000 kW @ 500–1800 RPM engines - 9 kts.

5.3. Escort simulations with an emphasis on inclining moments and heel hydrodynamic effects,
which notably jeopardise the tug’s operational safety. The towline is
The developed towing simulation model (Piaggio et al., 2016) con- modelled as an elastic catenary.
sists of the following three blocks: The simulator can be run in two different ‘modes’, namely:

• The Ship Block, i.e. a literature Single Screw Merchant Ship (Olt-
mann and Sharma, 1984);
• The Escort Tug Block;
• The Towline Block, which plays the role of the dynamic coupling
between the other two.
The whole system is assumed to be manoeuvring in an undisturbed
environment and independently from geographical location or water
depth. No environmental forces are considered at this stage — although
they will be object of further investigation. The tug is studied in 4-DOF
Fig. 22. Escort sensitivity — high RPM.
1. Isolated Tug mode, which allows to focus on the capabilities and
handling of the tug in ‘tank-like’ conditions, and
2. Full Convoy mode, were the dynamics of the whole convoy
complex are considered.
In Isolated Tug mode, the assisted ship behaves similarly to the car-
riage of the earlier experiments — i.e. sailing ahead undisturbed at a
predetermined uniform speed and unaffected by the tug’s action. This
allows a closer focus on the intrinsic features of the ET regardless of
the size and kind of the tethered ship. The tug’s handling, the steering
and braking abilities and the Escort stability in drifting position are
some of the features that can be inspected. As already stressed earlier,
the towing performance profile of a tug traced by the simulator run
in Isolated Tug mode may be then obtained during the tug’s early
design stages. An insight on the influence of each design parameter on
the towing characteristics of the tug would thus be gained, allowing
its effectiveness, safety, and commercial value to be more realistically
discussed.
The most interesting feature of the Isolated Tug mode regards the
possibility of obtaining the towing characteristics of the tug at the
desired ship and engine speed once the engine and eventual operational
constraints are selected. Such characteristics can be summarised by the
so-called ‘Escort Capability plots’. Fig. 23 shows a full Escort capabil-
ity plot of the 28m×12 m Tug, which is powered by 2x2’000kW @
1800RPM high-speed engines, with the towline angle limited to 90 deg
and the heeling angle limited to 12.5 deg. The Escort capabilities could
be explored within the operational range of the engines to discover the
efficiency peaks of the towing performance.
Pure indirect steering ability, powered indirect steering & braking
and direct reverse braking could be investigated keeping into account
dynamics, controllability, stability and safety. In Fig. 23, a set of
different azimuthal angles has been investigated, ranging 15–180 deg.
180 deg is fundamentally a Direct Towing with engines running astern.
For each of these angles, the towline angle, the steering and the braking
force are represented. The combination of propeller RPM and azimuthal
angles having a maximum steering force of about 55–60 t @ 25–30 deg
azimuthal angle is clearly distinguishable.

14
B. Piaggio et al.
Fig. 24. Escort assisted turning - 9 kts — Tug2812 vs 170–290 m tanker.
Fig. 25. Escort mirror - 9 kts — Tug2812 vs 170–290 m tanker.
As the azimuthal angle increases, the braking component of the
towing force rises, until the shaft power demand incurs in the overload
limit of engines. Eventually, the braking limitations of the Direct Tow-
ing is clearly visible when comparing its limited effect with the braking
force of the Indirect Towing. On the other hand, the 15–25 deg powered
indirect configurations incur in the towline angle limitation and all
correspond to the same relative positioning to the ship. An increasing
towline tension is recorded with the increase of the azimuthal angle —
i.e. for increasing forced drift angle and the heel.
The Full Convoy mode discloses a fully coupled manoeuvrability
scenario, which allows to evaluate both the behaviour of the teth-
ered vessel and the tug’s effectiveness and safety. In line with rule
requirements (DNV-GL, 2018; ABS, 2019), the ability of simulating
the manoeuvring of the complete towing convoy opens up a wider
scope of simulations. Assisted steering turning circles, assisted zig-
zag/mirror and many other manoeuvres conducted with the aid of
built-in real-time controls emphasise all the benefits of the study.
15
Ocean Engineering 191 (2019) 106461
Emergency situations can also be modelled by defining geographical
constraints and eventual failures of ship or tug. Once the sizes and
the failures of ship and tug are defined, the safety clearance lengths,
the restored tactical diameter and the rapidity of steering and avoiding
obstacles become key-features in the assessment of the suitability of the
tug–ship pair.
For instance, in Figs. 24 and 25, respectively an assisted turning
and a mirror zig-zag manoeuvre are performed in manual control. The
graphs show examples of the effectiveness of the 28 × 12 m tug when
assisting a 190’000 DWT tanker of 290 m or a 30’000 DWT tanker of
170 m at the speed of 9 kn. Both manoeuvres starts with the tug in
a standby configuration, i.e. trailing the assisted ship with slackened
towline.
For the assisted turning, a failure of the rudder system and a loss of
engine power on the tethered vessels was simulated. The ships’ rudder
is kept amidships. The ET is then requested to perform an emergency
turning to confine the ship in a delimited circumscribed area.
B. Piaggio et al.
In the mirror zig-zag manoeuvre, the ships are passively subjected to
the tug assistance keeping the rudder amidships and the RPM constant.
The ET engages an emergency evasive manoeuvre to starboard and then
restores the ships’ straight sailing.
In the first manoeuvre (Fig. 24), the tug engages on the ships’
portsides, powering up the engines and quickly moving to an effective
Indirect Towing configuration. The two assisted ships react differently
to the steering forces in accordance with their size — i.e. inertia and
resistance to rotation. As expected, the larger the ship, the less effective
is the tug assistance. The tug steers the smaller vessel within a tactical
diameter of about 5 ship lengths, corresponding to 3 lengths of the
larger ship. The larger vessel requires instead more than twice the
space. The evasive manoeuvre (Fig. 25), also results much more rapid
and confined for the smaller vessel, avoiding the hypothetical obstacle
in practically half the space and time.
It can be concluded that, based on the route, the eventual ge-
ographical constraints and the eventual failures, the suitability of a
towing service can be evaluated by means of the proposed simulator.
Eventually, tugs with larger sizes or with alternative designs may be
considered and tested.
6. Conclusions
This paper presented a complete novel 4-DOF manoeuvrability
model dedicated to the manoeuvring analysis of Escort Tugs. The model
is conceived in a similar fashion to the well-known MMG manoeuvra-
bility model. The paper at first described the extensive experimental
campaign purposely designed to construct and validate the model. The
forces and dynamics arising from the Indirect Towing have been stud-
ied, simulated and compared with the experimental results, employing
both captive and free-running tests. The estimation of the attitude and
of the equilibrium conditions during the manoeuvres resulted rather
satisfactory, with particular emphasis on Escort steering and braking
forces. The dynamics of the tug and its shaftlines were thoroughly
modelled and coupled, allowing to capture the asymmetrical behaviour
of the two azimuthals during Escort towing.
The model separates the hydrodynamic effects of the logical blocks
that compose the tug, i.e. hull+skeg and azimuthals, and the totals
encompassing their mutual interaction hull+skeg+azimuthals. At the
present stage, hull and skeg are incorporated in a single model since
the experimental results do not allow to separate them. However, it
is believed that the effects of modifications to the skeg geometry may
be introduced in the model by using CFD calculations. This will be
the object of future activities with the aim of obtaining a complete
and extended parametric mathematical model of a larger class of tugs.
In addition, a follow-up investigation on the scaling effect of the
hydrodynamic forces and their impact on full-scale manoeuvring will
be subject of further study. Lastly, a scalable, complete mathematical
model of the assisted ship is made available. The ship model is used in
this paper to study the dynamics of a generic towing convoy (tug–ship)
linked by the towline constraint.
The manoeuvrability model was conceived as a physics-based ‘Para-
metric Manoeuvring Model’. In other words, several parameters related
to the tug (e.g. main hull particulars, propulsion dimension, engine
type), the towline (e.g. length, weight per unit length, elasticity, towing
staple position) and the assisted ship (e.g. size, type, DWT) can simply
be defined and tuned before starting the simulation. As a consequence,
the model lends itself to investigating the effect and impact of a
conspicuous number of design parameters on the manoeuvrability, han-
dling and safety of the tug. The tug can be controlled in real-time by the
joint or independent definition of the set-points of the two azimuthals
— i.e. azimuthal angles, engine revolutions. Towline’s lengths can be
adjusted by rendering and recovering. Future applications will involve
the modelling of Escort winches/hawsers. On the other hand, the ship
can be in turn controlled by the definition of the propeller rate of
revolutions and the rudder angle. A complete simulation tool for design
16
Ocean Engineering 191 (2019) 106461
is hence provided, which paves the way for future design strategies and
for the assessment of different towing solutions.
Clearly, comparing the simulations with real-operation full-scale
measurements will be thus essential to confirm the simulator’s predic-
tions and it will be the natural validating prosecution of the present
study. In fact, the ability of addressing real-world operative profiles,
widens even more the advantages of a ‘parametric model’. Among them
are the direct assessment of the impact of design choices on operations;
risk assessments; and real-scenario simulation and training.
Acknowledgements
The research project is conducted in cooperation with Rosetti Marino
Spa (Ravenna) and it is partially funded by Italian Ministry of In-
frastructures & Transports, Waterborne Transports, Division 4, under
General Director Decree no. 7883 on 13th October 2016. The authors
are grateful for the kind collaboration of Eng. Luca Martinelli and Eng.
Lucia Enoizi from Rosetti Marino.
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