Cairo University

Graduate Studies in Geotechnical Engineering

Geosynthetics in Geotechnical
Engineering

Dr. Mostafa Mossaad

Oct 2014
 CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION

II. POLYMER MATERIAL

III. TYPES OF GEOSYNTHETICS

IV. FUNCTIONS, MECHANISMS & APPLICATIONS

V. PROPERTIES AND TESTING

VI. SOME SPECIAL DESIGN ASPECTS

I. INTRODUCTION
A new class of engineered materials
• “Synthetic” means made of POLYMER
materials

• “Geo- synthetic” materials are mostly

membrane–like materials made of
polymers and used with soil, rock or
earth as an integral part of a man-made
structure , or system .
Rapid market growth
2003 Estimate for global market

Note: - Annual rate of increase in demand 6-7%

- Corresponding volume by 2015 is around $ 6.0 Bn
 Advantages
To Contractors: quicker, less weather –
dependent, reduced volume of
earthwork, possibility of using poorer
quality (local) soils.

To Designers: greater reliability,

better control, ease of placement,
ability to mitigate local soil defects.

To Owners: cost saving in both

construction and maintenance.
More fundamental reasons
1. Continuity:

Properties of granular soils are

complimented by those of membrane-
like materials (granular soils may be
disrupted by erosion or settlement, but
a geotextile with tensile strength can
remain continuous).
2. Placement Compatibility:

Geotechnical structures are usually

formed by layered construction , and
membrane- like materials easily form an
interface between layers or act as a
liver or as protection at the ground
surface.
3. Deformation Compatibility:

Geotechnical structures are

flexible and subjected to
differential movements, and
flexible membrane- like materials
are compatible with this behavior.
4. Higher stability on sloping
surfaces:

Geotechnical structures usually

have sloping boundaries that may
require a layer of soil to be placed
on them for filtering or protection
purposes. The stability of
geosynthetics placed on such slopes
is far superior than soil layers
II. POLYMER MATERIAL
Greek origin of word :
“ poly“ : many ;
“ mer“ : units (identical)

A material that consists of “ many parts“ joined together to

make a whole .

Each single “ part “ is called monomer.

Monomer : a single unreacted molecular for polymer.

Mer: the repeat units “linked“ together to form a polymer (a

chain).

Polymer is the entire chain (macromolecule).

PVC Molecule
representation

Space filling Ball and socket

representation representation

PE polymer
representation
A polymer is a 1-D long chain of covalently bonded molecules
Hard, rigid, opaque Soft, flexible, and transparent
 Main types of polymers

Polystyrene (PS)
Polyethylene (PE)

Polyester (PET)
Polypropylene (PP)

Polyamide (Nylon) ( PA) Poly vinyl chloride (PVC)

 III. TYPES OF
GEOSYNTHETICS

geotextiles – geogrids – geonets

geomembranes – geocomposites
(geofoam - geocells - geomats etc.)

geo???????
 Geotextiles
( second largest group used next to geomembranes )

A “textile“ made of synthetic

fibers into flexible, porous fabric
by standard weaving machinery
(woven) or are matted together in a
random (nonwoven) manner.
Geosynthetics (Cont’d)
Main types :

Woven Non- woven Knitted

Geosynthetics (Cont’d)

Uses
• Separation
• Reinforcement
• Filtration
• Drainage
• Liquid barrier ( when impregnated
to become impervious).
 Geogrids
Plastics formed into a very open, grid-like
configuration .

Use:
Reinforcement only
(1D, 2D, 3D)
 Geonets
Formed of parallel sets of polymeric “
ribs “ at acute angles to one another.

Use :
Drainage
 Geomembranes
( the largest group used )

Impervious thin
sheets of rubber
or plastic material.

Use :
Liquid barrier : lining cover of liquid or
solid–storage facilities.
 Geocomposites
A combination of :
geotextile – geonet
geogrid – geomembrane
geotextile – steel wires

Use :
Entire range

samples
 Materials vs Products
Geo‐ Geo‐
Geotextile Geogrid Geonet
membrane composites

PE     
PP   ×  
PVC × × ×  
PET   × × ×
PA   × × 
PS × × × × 
Other types of geosynthetics
Geofoam

Geocells

Geomats
(for grass growing)
IV. FUNCTIONS, MECHANISMS
& APPLICATIONS

How does it work ?

In what applications ?
What is it designed for ?
 Major Functions

1. Separation : to prevent mixing of two different soils

2. Reinforcement : to mechanically improve the soil so

that it can carry greater shear loading

3. Filtration : to allow cross – plane flow

4. Drainage : to allow in- plane flow

5. Liquid barrier : to prevent cross – plane flow

6. Others Functions: surface soil stabilization, soil

replacement, deformation control …
 1. Separation
“10 pounds of stone placed on 10 pounds of mud
results in 20 pounds of mud“
Definition : Separation is the introduction of a
flexible , porous textile placed between dissimilar
materials so that the integrity and functioning of
both materials can remain intact or be improved .

For separation we use geotextiles ( most commonly

non – woven fabrics ).
Objectives
 To prevent fine soils from entering into
the voids of granular aggregate, thereby
ruining its drainage capability.

 To prevent granular aggregate from

intruding into fine soil, thereby ruining the
coarse soil’s strength
Separation Applications of
Geotextiles
Between :
• Subgrade / stone base ; roads
• Subgrade / ballast, railroads
• Subgrade / working platform
• Landfill / stone base
• Foundation soil / replacement soil

• Slopes downstream stability berms

• Underwater
reclamation

• Drainage layers in poorly

graded filter blankets zones
in earth dams .

Other general uses:

Beneath Sidewalk slabs, Curb areas , Sport fields
Strength requirements
(mostly due to placement process,
“Survivability properties critical !!”)

• “grab“ resistance (test

on narrow/wide
samples)

• “burst“ resistance
( tested like a balloon )

• Impact resistance

• Fatigue resistance (for repeated load)

• “ Puncture “ resistance
“Tearing” resistance
 2. Reinforcement
(Soil reinforcement is the mechanical improvement of soil to allow it
to carry greater shear loading than would otherwise be possible)
a) improvement of foundation soil b) improvement of
embankment soil

(competent foundation soil )

( soft foundation soil )
Reinforcement allows steeper slopes
Reinforcement allows embankment
construction
Reinforcement mechanisms

Reinforcement achieves mechanical

improvement by supporting tensile forces
which act to:

• reduce shear force acting on soil

• increase shearing resistance by

increasing the normal stress acting on
potential shear surfaces
increasing normal
stress Reducing shear
stress
 W

T θN

T= N tanθ
Ideal vs practical orientation of soil reinforcement

Direction of
principal
tensile
strains

What about retaining walls?

Reinforcement Mechanisms (cont’d)
Reinforcement acts efficiently when inclined in the direction in
which tensile strain develops in the deforming soil, so that
shear deformation in the soil causes tensile force in the
reinforcement.

The benefit of reinforcement comes from the components of

the tensile reinforcement force Pr acting on the shear surface
(failure plane) in the soil :

Mechanism ( 1) : (Pr sin ) directly

resists or reduces the applied shear load

Mechanism (2) : (Pr cos ) increases the

normal force across the shear surface
thereby enabling greater frictional
shearing resistance to be mobilized in
the soil .
Mechanism (3) : Membranes action
Reinforcement may also improve load
carrying capacity by another,
separate, mechanism which applies
after the reinforcement has
deformed sufficiently to act like a
membrane in tension

Note 1: some of the normal

stress from the applied loading
on the concave side is carried by
the tensile force in the curved
geotextile membrane.

Note 2: the mobilization of

membrane action requires locally
applied load and significant
deformations.
Other examples of membrane action

Piled embankment foundation Foundations on sinkholes

Note the combined reinforcement and separation functions

More on the combined reinforcement and separation functions

One mechanism of intermixing between fill and foundation soils is the

opening and closing of tensile cracks at the base of a granular layer under
repeated live loadings similar to the cracks on the underside of a concrete
beam .

The repeated loading causes the Tensile reinforcement at the base of a

poorer foundation soil to be
pumped up into the granular layer ,
causing the harmful intermixing of
the two soil layers .
granular layer reduces localized cracking
(although distributed micro cracking will
still occur) and thereby reducing or
perhaps eliminating this mechanism of
intermixing, especially with the use of a
geotextile sheet as a separator
Soil Reinforcement Applications
Types of load:

a) load due to soil self weight (Retaining

Walls and Embankments)
b) Surcharge static load (foundations)
c) Surcharge repeated load (wheel loads)
a)Load due to self weight of soil

Four types of application:

1) Vertical walls and bridge abutments
2) Steep slopes
3) Slip prevention and remedial measures (for
existing slopes)
4) Embankments on soft soils
1) Vertical walls and abutments
2) steep slopes 3) slip prevention and
remedial measures

(Unsafe slope)

(Mokattam cliff solutions!)
4) Embankments on soft soil
Piled embankments on soft soils

LTP: Load transfer platform

b) Surcharge static load (foundations)
c) Repeated applied load
Example: unpaved roads, working platforms , etc. (can take the
large elongation required to mobilize tension )
Improved resistance
Stability with time for reinforcement applications

Note: Reinforcement needed during construction only

Comments on different reinforcement requirements:

In cases (a-1,2,3) the reinforcement has to maintain

stability (Preq value) throughout the life of the
structure. Here the CREEP characteristics of
reinforcement usually govern the selection .
In an embankment on soft soil (case a-4), the
reinforcement is only required to improve stability during
the critical period of construction and subsequent
foundation consolidation. Once the foundation soil has
increased in strength the reinforcement is no longer
required to ensure stability . Here , the long term
mechanical properties may not be so important .
In unpaved roads and working platforms, the required
tensile force in the reinforcement responds to the
repeated loads.

This variation over time of Preq is probably the most

important factor governing the selection of suitable
reinforcement product . Here the response of the
reinforcing material to rapid and cyclic loading is the
governing factor .
Some design and construction
aspects of
soil reinforcement
Simple Construction techniques (Cont’d)
High adaptability to wall design requirements
Simple construction
techniques
Geogrid wall with 
concrete
block facing
Cost saving
increases with the
wall height increase
Reinforced slope
Use of shotcrete (gunite) as facing
Landslide
stabilization

Back analysis to 
determine strength 
parameters c’ and φ’
Reducing the driving forces (own weight) using mechanically
stabilized walls (MSW)
3. Filtration
Definition
The equilibrium geotextile –soil system
that allows for adequate liquid flow1
with limited soil loss2 across the plane3
of the geotextile over a service
lifetime4 compatible with the
application under consideration.
Filtration Applications

a) Behind retaining walls

(for drainage)

1) Rigid R.W 2) Flexible R.W

3) Soldier pile walls
b) Around under-drains
c) Silt fences

To prevent sediment – carrying sheet runoff from

entering into downstream creeks , rivers or sewer
systems .
Design Requirements for Filtration:

1) Adequate permeability (cross plane)

2)Soil retention
3)Clogging resistance (long term)
4) Installation stress + long term
biological, chemical, and mechanical
effects
Formation of Natural Soil Filter
Permeability requirement

Cross – plane permeability ( ): when liquid

flow is perpendicular to the plane of the
fabric.

The permeability of a given type of fabric

also depends on its thickness t.

A fabric’s filtration capacity is termed

permittivity; ψ= (units s-1)
Soil retention requirement
Large void space in fabric can lead to excessive
passage of upstream soil particles with the
flowing liquid .

This can lead to an unacceptable soil piping

situation:
• finer soil particles are carried through
geotextile , leaving larger soil voids behind .
• liquid velocity increases, process
accelerated .
• soil structure begins to collapse .

fabric voids should be small enough to retain

the soil on the upstream side of the fabric.
Soil retention design target:
to initially retain the coarser soil
fraction which eventually will block the
finer-sized particles and build a stable
upstream soil structure (natural filter).

Design Concept is the same as in

conventional soil filter design:

[ certain ratio !!]

Filter size design procedure:

• Determine % passing # 200 sieve

• For coarse-grained soil (i.e. % passing #200 ≤ 50%):

< 0.59 mm
Sieve # 30

• For fine-grained soil (i.e. % passing #200 < 50%):

< 0.30 mm
Sieve # 50
-----------------------------------------------------------------------

Or O95 : opening size for 
2 3 which 95 % of soil is 
coarser .

d85 : particle size for 
1.8 which 85 % is finer . 
Note on Terminology

if O95=0.3 mm, then:

95% of geotextile openings are

smaller than 0.3 mm;

Also it means that 95% of soil

particles with d ≥ 0.3mm are retained
when sieved on the geotextile
long – term flow compatibility
“ will it clog ? “
Some soil particles will embed themselves on or within
the fabric stricture, thus causing a reduction in
permeability or permittivity.

Evaluation of clogging potential is by testing :

1) Long term flow test

( terminal slope of the flow
rate – time curve )

Check behavior beyond to :

If slope  zero beyond to
then fabric is OK
2) Gradient Ratio (GR) test

GR
"
∆
. "

If GR ≤ 3; fabric is OK
Thickness (mm)

Discharge Capacity (l/m s)
Pressure (kPa)         
Effect of pressure on thickness and discharge capacity
4. Drainage
Definition
The equilibrium geotextile – soil system
that allows for adequate liquid flow
with limited soil loss within the plane of
the fabric over a service lifetime
compatible with the application under
consideration.
Drainage Applications

1) Gravity drainage
2) Pressure drainage
Placing vertical drains
3) Capillary migration breaks
(Also used to prevent frosting of water that comes near G.S.)
Drainage Design Requirements

1) Permeability : In–plane permeability, Kp

>>> Transmissivity ( = Kp × t (fabric thickness)

Permittivity(ψ) 0 Permittivity = 0
Transmissivity = 0 Transmissivity 0
Drainage Design Requirements (cont’d)

2) Soil retention
As before , but in-plane

3) long–term flow compatibility (for clogging)

As before , but in- plane

4) Sustaining installation stresses and

long term effects (creep+bio+chem etc)
5. Liquid Barriers
(geomembranes)
Definition
Very low permeability synthetic membrane
liners or barriers used with any geotechnical
engineering related material so as to control
fluid migration in a man- made project, or
system.
 Liquid Barrier Applications

a) Pond liners

Single liner (without protection) Single liner (with soil protection)

Single liner + Geotextile (with/without Soil cover protection)

 Double liner with geonet leak detection between liners 
(with/without protection)

Note: Geotextile underliners provide:

- clean working area for field seams
- added puncture resistance
- added frictional resistance
- allows lateral and upward escape of subsurface
water and gases
b) Fixed cover
Lining of a reservoir
c) Canal liners
Lining with a PVC‐P
geomembrane

Lining with a HDPE
geomembrane
d) Landfill liners

• building demolition
• power plant ash
• sewage treatment sludge
• heap leachate residual waste
• treated or incinerated waste ash
• untreated , nontoxic waste
• untreated municipal waste
• untreated biological ( hospital ) waste

• hazardous waste ≥ 2 liners + leachate

• radioactive waste collection system
Use of
geosynth
etics in
landfill
Collection layer
lining

Protection layer

Notes:
- Geomembrane >> Saving in air space
- System redundancy is needed
- System monitoring is needed
Leachate collection
layer

Leak detection layer

System redundancy:
1. Filtering
2. Collection
3. Protection 1
4. Detection
5. protection 2

(geomembrane + compacted clay

layer) for additional protection
Note: Geonet replaces 
leak detection layer 
(drainage + better stability 
on sloping sides)

Note: Geotextile protects 
the geonet during 
compaction of clay layer
 1
2 3

(Waste material 
resting directly on 
geosynthetic layers;  1&2
no drain pipes, no 
granular layers) 3
4

Geocomposite drain
replacing gravel layer.
Behavior under
compression important
Landfill bottom liner system
e) Tunnel Lining
f) Earth dams
g) Seepage control in vertical cutoff trenches
Seepage cutoff (cont’d)

Use thick HDPE or PVC

sheets with tongue – and –
groove sheeting with
water expandable gaskets
or polymer – filled tube

The sheets are folded around

the bottom of the insertion plate
and held by pins until the proper
depth is reached. The insertion
plate is then removed leaving the
HDPE cutoff wall in place and
ready for slurry-displacing
backfill.
Geomembrane seams
The most important aspect of construction
with geomembranes.

Factory-made seams are good.

Field seams are particularly vulnerable to
problems. Therefore:

QC: Extremely important !

CQC: construction Q control by contractor

CQA: construction Q assurance by supervisors
Field seaming methods
Seaming polymeric geomembrane sheets together: is to
temporarily reorganize the polymer structure of two
opposing surfaces to be joined in a controlled manner (i.e.
melt or softened) that, after the application of pressure
and after the passage of a certain amount of time,
results in the two sheets being tightly bonded together.

Reorganization of polymer structure is caused by input of

energy from either thermal or chemical processes.

Ideally: seaming should not result in any net loss of

tensile strength

Actually: minor-tensile strength loss occurs, Depending

on type of sheets + seaming technique
Fundamental methods of seaming
QC for seaming
Test strips and trial seams
1 – 3 m long ; take samples for lab testing

Destructive seam test

Samples are cut out from production seams
 lab tests: 6 samples/1000 m2 (on random basis)
Or 1 sample/150 m

Samples cut out @ 30 to 120 cm along length of

seam

Tests: shear and peal testing

Shear: 90 % - 100 % of sheet failure is o.k.
Peal: 50 % - 80 % of sheet failure is o.k.
Nondestructive seam tests
Objective: to check 100 % of production seams

1. Air jet (watch for inflation + sound change); OK

for thin sheets ,1.1 mm.
2. Mechanical point
3. Pressurized dual system: (in double-wedge
thermal seaming)
4. Vacuum chamber: (+ soap solution on seam) 
bubbles
5. Electric sparking: (wire) 2000 v.
6. Ultrasonic: a) thickness measurement; b)
acoustic impedance
Geocomposites

Reinforcement + separation

Drainage + filtration + Load bearing

Geocells

Provide lateral confinement to

reduce the thickness of aggregate
 APPLICATION SUMMARY

o Subgrade separation and stabilization in highway and airport pavements

TRANSPORTATION RELATED

o Reinforcement of the granular sub-base/base layers of highway and

airport pavements
o Railway track bed stabilization
o Moisture proofing and reinforcement of asphalt overlays
o Drainage of roads, airports, railway tracks, sports fields etc.
o Reinforced soil retaining structures for approaches to flyovers, road over
rail bridges, underpasses and bridges, roads, development of residential
and commercial sites etc.
o Reinforced soil slopes for construction of embankments, hills roads,
landslide repair etc.
o Construction of road and rail embankments on weak ground
o Tunnel linings

o Gabion retaining walls

RELATED

Reclamation and ground improvement for ports

WATER

o
o Coastal protection
o Riverbank protection
o Scour protection of bridges and hydraulic structures

ENV o Lining systems of municipal solid waste and hazardous waste landfills

ROCK o Rock-fall protection

OTHER APPLICATIONS

Geomat or Geogrid
for Surface Erosion Protection
 Geocontainers

Geotextile tube as
shore protection.
 Geotextile
bags as beach
protection

Geobags used
as a groin.
GEOFOAM
Soil replacement
Slope stabilization
GEOFOAM
Deformation control
GEOFOAM
Deformation control
More on geosynthetics with combined
functions (geocomposites)

Internal drainage (non-woven

geotextile)+ reinforcement
(geogrid) for embankments
made of cohesive soils
Smart Geosynthetics
Early alarm against soil collapse due to failure of large underground
cavities such as old mine workings or solution cavities in Karst
areas.

Geodetect system:
Formed as a composite material from a geosynthetic reinforcement
material containing optical fibers. The optical fibers are inserted
into the geotextile during manufacture in a flexible sheath. The
reinforcement geosynthetic is formed as a non-woven geotextile
containing polyester reinforcement strands.
Active Geosynthetics

Conventional geosynthetic materials have a passive role, e.g. as

barriers stopping the passage of liquids, and as reinforcement
providing tensile resistance but only after an initial strain has
occurred and as drains providing a passage for water but not
causing water to flow.

New applications for geosynthetics can be identified if the

geosynthetic can provide an active role, initiating chemical or
physical change to the soil matrix in which it is installed as well as
providing the established functions.

This can be achieved by creating electrically conducting

geosynthetics and combining electrokinetic phenomena with
established geosynthetic functions to give electrokinetic
geosynthetics (EKGs)
V. Properties & Testing of
Geosynthetic Material
 Physical Properties

 Mechanical Properties

 Hydraulic Properties

 Endurance

 Durability
 Reinforcement
PROPERTES & TESTING  

Separation

Filtration

Drainage
for GEOTEXTILES REMARKS

1.  Physical Properties
Specific gravity PVC: 1.69, PET = 1.22 – 1.38∶, PE = 0.9‐0.96,  
PP= 0.91,
PS = 1.05 – 1.14 (for working under water
Mass/weight  per  unit  For index property control
   
area
Thickness For index property control    
Stiffness ( mg – cm !! )  Length (L) of overhang measured when … 
touches  a 41.5ₒ inclined plane, Value =      
(L/2)3 X mass / unit area
L

41.5ₒ
 Separation
Reinforce

Filtration

Drainage
PROPERTES & TESTING  

ment
for GEOTEXTILES (Cont’d)
REMARKS

2.  Mechanical Properties
Compressibility Reduction in thickener under compression   
Tensile strength Most important (Tmax ,єf , E , Toughness , grab     
strength, narrow strip (1”) , wide strips (8”, 20”))
Confined tensile strength  Tested while sandwiched in soil under pressure 
(Important for modulus determination)
Seam Strength For transferring tensile stress  
Fatigue  Strength of load cycles up to failure  
Burst  Strength Using an inflatable rubber membrane) for QC.  
Tear tests Trapezoidal, tongue (……….)  
Impact test Amount of penetration of a falling cone  
Puncture test 8 mm rod is pushed through , until punition   
Friction Behavior To obtain soil‐geotextile frictional behavior, similar to  
direct shear test set‐up.
Pullout test ( in soil ) 
 Reinforcement
Separation

Filtration

Drainage
PROPERTES & TESTING  for  REMARKS
GEOTEXTILES (Cont’d)

3. Hydraulic properties

Porosity  (n=1‐ (m/ρt) ; m=mass/area ; ρ = density , 


t = thickness 
% open area ( POA)  ( applicable to woven geotetxile) = 

; 0 → 36% light projection → 

calculate open area 
Test uses known‐diameter glass beads to get 
Apparent opening size (AOS) 
O95  by sieving ; using successively  
Equivalent opening size (EOS)  larger  diameter
Permittivity (cross‐ plane K)  ψ = Kn / t ; q = kn × × A ; t = thickness 
Permittivity under load  ( to simulate in – situ conditions )  
Transmissivity (in‐ plane k ) = Kp × t ; 


Transmissivity under load  ( to simulate in – situ conditions )  

 Reinforcemen
Separation

Filtration

Drainage
PROPERTES & TESTING  for  REMARKS
GEOTEXTILES (Cont’d)

4. Endurance properties  ( long – term behavior under intended 

circumstances )
Creep test (Constant‐stress test) 
Confined creep test  ( similar to frictional behavior test setup ) 
Stress relaxation test  ( constant  strain  Test)  
Abrasion test  1000 cycles under rotating sand paper ⇒

tensile test 
Long‐term flow test  Clogging ;   
Gradient ratio test 
 
Note on prediction of long term behavior

Creep‐rupture of a polyester reinforced geotextile. 
The relation between applied load and the logarithm of time to failure is not known, but 
is assumed to be a straight line as drawn above. Having established this relation, it is
then extrapolated to give the load that would lead to failure after 1000000 h, namely 
51% of the tensile strength. (100+) years
Creep testing of a geogrid. Extension 
is measured between separate 
horizontal aluminium bars using
LVDT extensometers. Load is
applied by means of calibrated
weights through a lever
mechanism. The temperature
and humidity control equipment
is behind the creep rig.
Durability
requirement:
resistance to
oxidation and
hydrolysis,
weathering etc.
 Reinforcement
Separation

Filtration

Drainage
PROPERTES & TESTING  for  REMARKS
GEOTEXTILES (Cont’d)

5. Degradation/
Durability Properties 
Temperature degradation cold temp ⇒ brittleness & impact strength 

Biological degradation  High temp ⇒ accelerates all degradation mechanisms

Oxidation degradation 

Sunlight degradation  AS REQUIRED
Hydrolysis  degradation  especially challenging to polyester

Chemical degradation 

Radioactive degradation 
 Properties and Testing for
GEOMEMBRANES
Physical properties
1- Thickness 2- Density 3- Mass / unit area
4- Water vapor transmission (for water use)
5- Solvent vapor transmission (for other liquids)

Mechanical properties
1- Tensile behavior (index tests) for QC, QA
2- Tensile behavior (uniform width) єmax, єult
3- Tensile behavior (axi-symmetric) Tult, E
4- Seam behavior 5- Tear resistance
6- Impact resistance 7- Puncture resistance
8- Friction behavior (soil-to-geomembrane)
9- Pullout resistance (terminal liner part)
10 Stress cracking (Bent strip) for PE only
11- Stress cracking (constant load)

Durability
1- UV 2- Radioactive 3- Biological 4- Chemical 5- Thermal
 Properties and Testing for
GEOGRIDS
Physical Properties
1-Type of structure 2- Junction Type 3- Aperture size
4- Thickness 5- mass/unit area 6- % open area
7- Stiffness

Mechanical Properties
1- Single rib & junction strength
2- Wide-width tensile strength 3- Friction behavior
4-Pullout test (in soil) 5- Pullout test (from wall)

Endurance Properties
1- Installation damage 2- Creep 3- Stress relaxation

Degradation and Durability Properties

As before
 Properties and Testing for
GEOMEMBRANES

Physical Properties
Thickness; Density; Mass/unit area; Water vapor transmission
(for water are ); Solvent vapor transmission ( for other liquids ).

Mechanical Properties
Tensile behavior (index tests) for QC, QA; Tensile behavior
(Uniform width); Tensile behavior (Axi-symmetric); Seam
behavior; Tear resistance; Impact resistance; Puncture
resistance; Frictional behavior (soil – to – geomembrane friction),
Pullout resistance (terminal liner part ); Stress cracking ( Bent
strip ) for PE only; Stress cracking ( constant load ).

Endurance Properties
UV; Radioactive; Biological; Chemical; Thermal
 Properties and Testing for
GEONETS
Physical Properties
1-Specific gravity 2-Thickness 3-Mass/unit area
4- Planar angler 5- Aperture site

Mechanical Properties
1-Tensile strength 2- Compressibility 3- Intrinsic
shear strength (when potentially subjected to shear)

Hydraulic properties
Transmissivity

Endurance, Degradation and Durability Properties

As before
VI. SOME SPECIAL DESIGN
ASPECTS
Life cycle;
Design lifetime;
Reduction factors
Available vs required properties during the complete
life cycle of a geosynthetics (storage and
transportation, construction, backfilling and use).
Design lifetime for different applications

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 Main Sources
Course material is largely based on the following sources:

1. Koerner, R., “designing with Geosynthetics”, fifth Edition, 2005.

2. Shukla, S and J. Yin, “Geosynthetic Engineering”, 2006.
3. Sarsby, R., “Geosynthetics in Civil Engineering”, ed. 2007.
4. Greenwood, J., H.F. Schroeder and W. Voskamp, “Durability of
Geosynthetics”, CUR, 2012.
5. Brochures of some Geosynthetics Manufacturers.