Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Unit 3
Unit 3
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Civil engineers, with a diploma or degree, would have already studied in detail the
properties of building materials, such as bricks, lime, cement, concrete, timber, steel, etc.,
and their use in the construction of a variety of buildings in the urban areas of our country.
But planning and design of buildings, which are generally the prerogative of architects,
are also being demanded from the engineers; and in the Units 1 and 2 of this Block,
illformation on site selection and orientation of different types of buildings and certain
planning principles have been presented which are bound to help the engineers who are
working in the semi-urban and rural areas.
Having reached self-sufficiency in food and clothing, provision of shelter to the millions
of India has been receiving the attention of the State and Central Governments, for the
past two decades. Nearly 75 percent of the people of India, live in 557,000 odd villages,
and most of them are housed is non-permanent buildings of mud and thatch, and without
ally sanitary facilities. The impact of our formal housing programmes in the rural areas
has not been commensurate with whatever limited resources were made available to them.
In this unit, required data is presented to highlight the magnitude of the rural housing
problem, minimum standards for rural housing are specified, and unorthodox and
yet-to-be proved methods of construction with mud, bricks, lime, stones, thatch etc. are
described wilh a view to promote self-reliance and participation of the rural people in
solving their housing problems with the help of engineers.
You as a Civil Engineer can be a major catalyst in building up local technical and
managerial capabilities, and this is one of the ways to solve the rural housing problem.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
plan mass housing projects in rural areas,
Manning of Buildings select locally available materi$ls, combine them with a minimum of
factory-made materials, and proportion rural housing components,
prepare plan, elevation and cross-sections of rural houses,
design sanitary system for rural houses,
identify activities for self-help housing and train youngmen in the villages to
be self-employed in their own habitat, and
develop project proposals for starting rural industries which are oriented to
promote mass housing.
Over 55 % of the rural housess in India are built with mud, unburnt bricks
and wood as the predominant walling materials. About 70% of houses in
Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and Madhya Pradesh are
having walls of these materials.
Over 30 % of the rual houses in India are built with stones, fired bricks and
other permanent materials suitable for walls. Over 50% of the houses in
Rajasthan and Himachal Pradesh are built with stones and bricks.
Over 50% of roofs in Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh are roofed with
tiles. In Himachal Pradesh and Rajasthan, slates and other stones form the
permanent roofing materials.
The average area of the houses and households in rural and urban regions are as under
(NBO, 1974) :
(4) The rural houses had an average area of 40.38 sq m with 5.17 persons per
household. This number has increased to 5.5, since.
(ii) The urban houses had an average area of 32.64 sq m with 4.74 persons per
household.
Regarding the number of rooms in a given type of house, the following data were
collected (NBO, 1971) percentage-wise :
Regarding toilet facilities the following data are available (NBO, 1974)
The present unsatisfactory state of shelter and quality of environment in rural areas is an
cxtensio~iof the problems of (Aromar Ravi, 1990) :
(i) high population growth,
(ii) increased rural in~poverishmentand unemployment,
(iii) differential priorities accorded to industrial 'uld urban growth,
(iv) low levels of access to social services and linkages,
(v) nlarginalisation of women and under privileged classes, and
(vi) an alarming deterioration in the quality of physical environment.
Among Ule inajor problems faced in finding feasible solutions to the rural housing are :
(i) the breaking down of traditional systems of building,
(ii) a lack of adequate technology, building skills, and trained people to help
improve the quality of locally built environment, and
Planning of Buildings (iii) the lack of access to modem building materials, mainly due to non-dffordability.
The potential role of professional design by qualified engineers in the rural-house
construction process, was not considered as important till the mid-seventies. The major
problems facing this area at the moment, inspite of our belated efforts are (Aromar Ravi,
1990) as follows :
(i) a lack of knowledge and non-availability of information on appropriate
building/constructiontechnology with local materials,
(ii) limited existing agencies which adopt a building design to local needs and
simultaneously carry out large-scale programmes,
(iii) a lack of trained personnel and institutions that are capable of supprtiilg
construction, design and repair work in the areas of rural house building,
(iv) an inadequate understanding of local resources and design practices, which is a
necessary condition for any successful attempt to upgrade them, and
(v) a lack of adequate production and distribution systems to popularise innovative
systems of design. P
The new approach to planning, analysis, design and construction of rural houses would
have to be on the following premise :
(i) a well designed housing development programme will depend on promoting
self-reliance and participation of the people by building up local technical and
managerial capability,
(ii) an improvement in the built-up environment of the rural poor can be a major
catalyst for socio-economic development,
(iii) the internal sector(which includes self-employed engineers) has an important
and long-term role to play, provided the necessary support systems are available,
(iv) to reach the full potential that improved shelter has to offer to the nation, the
approvals must necessarily be based on self-financing and variable approach,
(v) the major accelerator of improvement in the informal sector is access to
information which will provide the ability to restructure the use of available
materials, energy,tools and organisational metllods to create new options and
alternatives,
(vi) any widely acceptable and lasting solution must be low-cost,
(vii) better and more appropriate materials of construction which will generate
technologies compatible with local needs and resources shall be utilised.
(viii) a level of specifications that is appropriate to the level of investment available,
and little or no over loads as incurred by formal agencies shall be defied.
3.2.2 NBO Type Designs
National Buildings Organisation (NBO) was set up by the Government of India under the
Ministry of Works and Housing in 1954 as an advisory and coordinating body for all
technical matters concerning building and housing.
The NBO provides technical guidance in planning and designing of houses, economical
use of materials and appropriate construction techniques and sends printed materials on
request.
Of particular interest to us is the typical '8esign of a house for the poor, which is based on
the minimum-needs concept for a plot area of 85 sq m, which is being allotted by the
Government to the landless rural families. The house has a plinth area of 20 sq m
housing one room with a covered cooking place and an open platform. A sanitary latrine
and a washing platform are also provided. The house design allows for construction of
another room at a later stage.
Based on this typical design, clusters of demonstration houses have been built in several
regions of the country. Typical details of two such clusters are furnished in Tables 3.1 and
3.2. These clusters are really based on the concept of aided self-help and are characterised
by innovations in walling, roofing and flooring, even though locally available materials
were utilised. An important environmental improvement is the provision of a sanitary
latrine for each house, wherever feasible.
As a civil engineer, if your know-how can be made available with a view to plan, design Planning and Design of
Low-Cost Rural Housing
and build a cluster of 15 to 20 houses in a village, you will be instrumental in changing
the life style of that village.
Table 3.1 :Demonstration House in Karnataka
Plinth area 25.8 m2
Accommodation
Room 2.61 m x 2.74 m
ktchen
Verandah
Bath Room 1.22 m x 1.53 m
Specifications
Foundation and Plinth Rough stone in mud mortar for filling, and
locally available stone, hammer dressed in
mud mortar upto the plinth.
Superstructure Burnt brick in mud mortar.
Roofing Mangalore tiles on jungle wood rafters and
purlins.
Flooring Gravel flooring with cow dung leaping.
Joinery Jungle wood frames and seasoned wood
shutters, brick jali for windows.
Finishing Mud plastering with white washing inside
and composite lime mortar pointing outside.
Cost Rs. 97.00 per m2 in the year 1977.
Sanitation Sanitary latrine with a septic tank.
I Specifications
Foundation and Plinth Random rubble masonry in mud mortar.
Superstructure Coursed stone masonry in mud mortar.
Roofing Stone slabs roofing, cement mortar, 1:4
pointing on joints, lime terracing.
Flooring Mud gobar flooring over consolidated
murrum.
Joinery Jungle wood for doors.
Finishing Cement mortar 1:3 pointing on walls.
Cost Rs. 143.00 per m2 in the year 1979.
Sanitation No provision.
SAQ 1
(a) The population, households and housing stock over the census years 1961,1971
and 1981 are listed in Table 3.3. Draw graphs for households and housing stock
in rural and urban areas and record your observations regarding backlog in
housing.
Table 3.3 :Population and Housing Data (millions)
SI.
No. Item Description
(1) Population
Rural 360.3 439.1, 525.5 1
I Urban 78.9 ! 109.1 159.1 1
Households
Rural
Urban
(b) NBO has made available the following datii (NBO, 1987) regarding percenbge
distribution of households with reference to wall materials. Draw pie-charts for
m a l and urban households.
--
Planning ot Buildings Material Rural Ilrban
Grass, leaves. wood and bamboo 13.64 7.69
Mud and Unburnt bricks 57.00 22.1 9
Burnt bricks 17.63 53.92
Stone 10.73 8.10
Others
Total
(c) NBO has made available the following data (NBO, 1987) regarding percentage
distribution of households with refererice to roof materials. Draw pie-charts for
rural and urban households.
Activity 1
A1 . Proceed to a typical village of less than 200 households near your place of
worwresidence, study the layout of a house which is representative of the
majority of the houses in this village and draw the plan view of this house with
approximate dimensions. Write down the specifications of the foundation, wall,
flooring, roof etc. as shown in Tables 3.2 and 3.3.
A2. Develop a modified proposal as per NBO type design for landless rural people.
Indicate the changes in the specifications which will result in a greater
durability of a house.
A3. Proceed to the nearest village of less than 200 households and survey the
exciting provisions for :
I
Foundation, basement, flooring, walling, doors and windows, a& roofing are the
important components of a rural house; plasteringlfinishing are also important. National
Buildings Organisation of India and the Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee
have published a variety of handouts, based on their research, to popularise new methods
and materials and also to improve existing methods of construction. We shall study some
of these materials and methods which are of immediate applicability to the rural areas.
3.3.1 Lime Mortar and Concrete
Lime has been used in India as a material of construction from very ancient days. Due to
the variability of the quality of limestone from region to region and in the methods of
burning, slaking, storing and using lime, construction with lime has been discouraged to a
large extent by engineers.
The Central Building Research Institute of Roorkee has evolved a design of efficient lime
kilns, (CBRI, 1981) and the Bureau of Indian Standards has come out with a large
number of specifications for the manufacture and use of lime (IS 1971, IS 1974 and IS
1980) in mortar, concrete and water-proofing roof finish~s.
The time has come for reviving the use of lime in the rural and semi-urban areas, since
lime-stone is one raw material which is available in plenty in India, even though it has
wide variations in cornpostion.
Cement manufacture is energy and capital intensive and its replacement by lime, in
addition to being economical, encourages manufacture of lime in a very large number of
small-capacitykilns in rural areas.
In this section, you will be learning about the use of lime in the rural buildings, and a few
definitions of commonly used terms are essential which are as follows :
The calcined material, major part of which is calcium oxide (CaO) in natural
association with a relatively small amount of magnesium oxide (MgO) and which
is capable of slaking with water.
The lime which has high CaO content and is dependent for setting and hardening
oddly on the absorption of carbon dioxide (Cot) from the atmosphere.
I* A dry powder obtained by treating quick-lime with water, enough to satisfy its
chemical affinity for water. It consists essentially of calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2]
and some magnesium hydroxide Flg(OH)2].
Lime containing small quantities of silica and alumina and a little iron oxide which
are in combination with some of the calcium oxide content, giving a putty of
mortar on wetting, which has the property of setting and hardening under water.
1 Building limes can also be classified as under :
1 Class A : Eminently hydraulic lime used for h c t u r a l purposes.
I Class B : ~e&-hydrauliclime used for mortar for masonry work.
Class C : Fat-lime used mainly for a finishing coat in plastering, white-
washing and with suitable pozzolana such as surki to
ppluce artificial hydraulic mortar.
I Pozzolana
. Siliceous materials which, while in itself possessing no-cementitious properties,
will, in finely divided form and in the presence of water, react with calcium
hydroxide even at ordinary temperatures to form a compound possessing
cementitious properties, e.g. surki and flyash.
I Lime Mortar for Use in Buildings
Though lime mortar has been used extensively in conshktion work, from time
immemorial, its advantages and potential for use in specific situations have not
been precisely assessed and appreciated. Workability, an importkt property, is the
Harming of Buildings working consistency of a mortar or plastering mix as judged by the worker from its
behaviour during application. A mortar is said to have suitable workability when it
is easy to spread without separation of water or segregation of the solid material of
the mix. The grade of masonry mortar, expressed in ~tmrr?,that is, its strength at
the age of 28 days as found from cube specimens of 5 cm or 7 cm size, also an
important property of a mix. Eminently, hydraulic limes and semi-hydraulic limes
corresponding to Class A and Class B types are suitable as masonry mortars,
whereas fat-limes corresponding to Class C will require mixing with surki or
flyash. Common mix proportions of lime mortars are given in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4 :Mix Proportions for Lime Mortars
thus, better resistance against rain penetration and is less liable to cracking, though
its strength is much less than masonry made in cement mortar.
i Cement Lime Mortar
It has the good qualities of cement, as well as lime mortar, that is meaum strength
along with good workability, good water retentivity, freedom fromaacks and good
resistance against rain penetration. Commonly adopted proportions of combination
mortar are IC : IL : 6 s and 1C : 2L : 9 s where C stands for cement and L for lime
of Class A or B.
I Optimum Mortar Mixes
I In Table 3.5, optimum mortar mixes for obtaining maximum masonry strength with
bricks of different strengths are given.
Table 3.5 : Optimum Mortar Mixes for Bricks of Different Strengths
Mortar Mixes by
Brick Strength Use in Masonry
Volume
(NImm2) Buildings
(Cement :Lime :Sand)
Lime Concrete
Lime concrete, in spite of its low strength, can be used in several situations in rural
construction, such as in wall foundations, under-floor finishes and for
roof-terracing work.
Lime concrete is found to have many desirable properties and advantages in
building construction. Properly prepared, compacted and laid,lime concrete is
durable under normal exposures. Lime concrete poses considerable resistance to
sulphate attack, and can be used in foundations and areas in which soil contains
considerable quantities of soluble sulphates or where sub-soil water table is high. It
also undergoes negligible volume change after setting and initial shrinkage.
I'
I
Workability of lime concrete will be generally satisfactory, if well graded
aggregates are used in the proportions recommended in Table 3.6.
Proportion of
Volume Coarse
Situations Mortar
Proportion of Aggregate
to Coarse
Mortar
Aggregate
1C:3L:12S bricks(50mm)
Levelling course 1 L* : 2 S Broken brick or It
* Grade A Lime
Planting of Buildings SAQ 2
(a) List the reasons as to why lime ha$ become unpopular in recent years in
building construction.
List the reasons for reviving the use of lime in rural areas.
Caclined lime (Cd)) hardens by either combining with carbon dioxide (C02) or
by hydration with water (Hz<)).Give the chernical equations for these processes.
Explain the action of Pozzolanic materials in lime mortar.
What is generally available in the market is C grade lime and shell Itme. They
are generally used for while washing. For the use of C grade lime as tnortar,
find the proportion of lime-pazzolana-sand or lime-cement-sand tc~give 0.7 to
1.5 ~ l r n r ncompressive
~ strength in 14 days.
What is the advantage of lime plastered surfaces vis-a-v~ssurface finishes ?
List Lhe reasons for cracking of lime plaster.
List the reasons for surface crazing of linle plaster.
Most of the rural houses are single storey buildings; low strength bricks and
lime mortar are adequate. Suggest a suitable lime mortar mix for rural buildings.
It is economical to use lime-brick jelly concrete for foundation and flooring.
Suggest a mix proportion using C grade lime for foundation.
Recent sutdies show that 1 cement : 1 C grade lime : 6 sand is a good
construction mortar for various purposes. List the advantages of using such a
mortar in rural housing.
Activity 2
Al.
'
Proceed to the nearest lime kiln in your locality and list the activities involved
in the process of burning limestone or sea shells to yield quick lime.
~ 2 Locate
. a housing site and list the activities involved in the slaking of lime for
a use as mortar or white washing.
I
" ". rhc number of lnud hlocks (30 cm x 15 cm x 10 cm size) required for a
'IL~
I, : ~ - rt ,i ~r u , ~ lIII)U\L Wrnnny blocks can be made per day by four unskilled
I . t . , . , ~1, ' What rc thr compre&?i\t.\u;j~gih of such hlocks 7
3.3.3 Economical Doors and Windows
TradiMnal doors and windows have three important components, the frame, the shutter
and-the fixtures. The frame and shutter are normally made from well seasoned wood and
the fixtures are made of iron, anodised metals or aluminum.
Increasing scarcity and high cost of good timber has considerably increased the utility of
precast R.C.C. door and window frames, which are not only durable but also markedly
economical and easy to produce. Many enterprising people who have been making
cement articles and selling them in semi-urban areas have also started manufacturing
R.C.C door and window frames.
Materials Used
Cement concrete, M200 grade, with well graded coarse and fine aggregates should
be used for making these frames. The maximum nominal size of aggregate should
not exceed 10 mm. Mild steel bars are normally, used as reinforcement.
Section of Frames
The cross section of frames is usually 100 mm x 60 mm or 70 mm x 75 mm for
single shutter doors. Three bars of 6 mm diameter are provided as minimum
reinforcement. The bars should be held firmly by means of 3 mm diameter steel
wires spaced at not more than 300 mm centre to centre. A concrete cover of 12 mm
should be provided for the main bars.
Moulds
Properly. seasoned timber of good quality should be used for preparing the moulds.
They should be stiffened suitability to prevent loss of shape. Fix-up devices and
hold fasts should be incorporated in the mould at the casting stage itself. The
moulds for doors q d windows can be for individual members of the frame or for
the whole frame.
Casting and Curing
It is preferable to cast the horizontal and vertical members of the frame separately,
as it will avoid difficulties in transport and handling. One of the main
reinforcement bars has a suitable projection, or a separate bar may be placed
centrally in the vertical member to locate itself into holes provided at the
corresponding points in the horizontal member at the top. The horn projections of
the horizontal member are optional.
After pouring concrete into the mould.it should be vibrated with mechanical
vibrators. The frames nlay be removed from the mould, 24 hours after casting.
They should be cured under water for at least 4 days followed by maturing period
of 24 days at a covered place before they are ready to be used.
Fixing Devices and Holdfasts
The frames should be held in position with the help of holdfasts which are inserted
at the time of casting the frames. The projecting portion of the holdfasts should be
firmly embedded in the wall with concrete. Arrangemeilts are to be made in the
frame for receiving tower bolts etc. A 6 rnrn thick M.S plate, long enough to
project out of the frame at the appropriate place, is welded to one of the main
reinforcement bars. This projected portion has a hole to receive the tower bolt
which is fixed to the door leaf.
Erection
The vertical members should be held in position with the help of suitable supports
and the horizontal member is placed over them. The joints between the members
\
are grouted with cement-sand slurry (1:2), and neatly pointed flush. The assembled
frame should be plumbed correctly before the holdfasts are fixed in the walls with
cast-in-situ concrete.
Fixing Shutters
Shutters should be fixed to frames with the help of hardwood blocks which are
bolted to the styles (verticals) of the R.C.C frame. Hard wood blocks 150 mn long
and 45 or 50 mnl x 30 im cross section, with holes to allow insertion of two 6 Inn1
diameter, M. S. bolts, rnay be used for fixing the shutters.
Suitable spacers should be kept in the mould at the hinge positions, while casting
the frames, with the help of 6 mm diameter M. S. bolts, nuts and washers.
Special Considerations Flanning and Design of
Low-Cost Rural Housing
The cast members of the frames should be handled with care to avoid cracking a ~ d
damage to edges which cannot be repaired satisfactorily. Hammering of any kind
should be avoided while fixing the frames and shutters. The quality and surface
finish of the frames can be improved by vibration and use of well prepared moulds.
I l ~ frame
c IIUY be painted.
Activity 3
A1 . Sketch the elevation of the wooden frame of a single-leaf door i11your
residence. Mark the dimensions. Sketch the details of fixing devices used, as
also the various types of bolts and door-stoppers.
A2. Assuming that you will be using 100 mm x 60 mm concrete frame, sketch the
provisions to be made for fixing the shutter hinges and accommodating the
tower bolts and door stoppers.
A?. Sketcll the plan view and cross sections of a wooden mould (for repetitive
casting) for the vertical members of a door frame. Similarly, sketch the detiiils
of the top horizontal member.
A4. Sketch the reinforcement cages to be used for the vertical members and the top
horizontal inember of a reinforced concrele door frame.
A5. Sketch the frame and fixture details of a RCC window of 80 cm x 100 cm size
with horizontal bars of 12 mm diameter at 8 cm intervals. The window should
have three styles (verticals).
Brick Panels
Brick panels consist of good quality country bricks (5 to 7 ~ l m m ~
compressive
strength) placed in rows within a rectangular wooden framework/mould with two
or three, 6 inm, reinforcement bars placed in the joints. The joints are filled with
1:2:4 cement concrete, using baby jelly (stone chips of 5 mm or less). The top
surface is finished with cement mortar of 1:5 proportion, 10 rnm thick. These
panels are eventually placed upside down, thus avoiding plastering of the
underside of the roof, which therefore, avoids wastage of mortar that would -
otherwise occur.
A good level ground is prepared for accommodating a day's productioil of brick
\
panels, polythene sheets are spread, moulds are placed in position,and filled, and
the brick panel is made. The side forms can be removed within minutes and reused.
The panels can be removed within 24 hours and cured for 14 days, then stacked
near the building site. The panels weigh 50 to 60 kg and two men can handle these
panels.
R.C. Joists
The reinforced concrete joists, which will support the brick panels can be
fabricated in another yard. The reinforcement mesh consists of longtitudinal bars
and triangular stirrups of appropriate sizes, depending on the size of the room as
shown in Figure 3.2.
/- Cast-in-situ Joint ,- t - - s tn t
RCC
Brick
panels
100
Mortar
tin~sh
10 m m
Precast RC(1 Joist
Thc mesh is placed in wooden inoulds, and concrete (1 : 2 : 4) with 12 mni stone
aggregates, is placed and consolidated in the mould. Framework can be stripped
after 3 hours. The joists are water-cured for 14 to 21 days and stacked near the
building site.
Assembly
When adequate number of joists and brick panels are ready and the brick walls of
the room have been built upto the required height, the assembly of brick pailel roo1
is undertaken.
First and foremost, the precast joists are lifted and placed at suitable iiltervals over
the wall and this may require the efforts of four men. A single pole derrick will be
of great help to place, the brick panels in position sequentially. Upto this stage, the
problem is seen as one of prefabrication, which descrves to he iiitroduced to the
rural people.
It is to be realised that costly and time consuming form work has been avoided. Planning ~d Dcsign (*I
Furthermore, the use of semi-skilled labour (or, self help) further reduces the cost. h w - c o s t RIIA Housing
The joints between brick panels have to be properly handled. Reinforcement bars
of 6 mm diameter and 550 mm long are placed perpendicular to the direction of the
joists, at least one per panel and tied to the joist reinforcement. Concrete of 1:2:4
proportion with baby jelly (5 rnm stone aggregate) is placed and consolidated in
the joints.
Screed Concrete
The most important aspect of brick-panel roofing is the placement of screed
concrete which intergrates the brick panels and joists and acts as a structural
element which resists the bending compression of the system. The screed concrete
is of the ,same proportion as the concrete which may be used in the joints. Its
thickness is 3 cm and it should be cured for 21 days.
Weathering Course
It must be realised that bricks and even concrete allow the passage of water (they
being porous to some extent) and this reduces their durability. A weathering course
over these surfaces is thus, important.
Two coats of hot bitumen are first applied over the screed concrete. Broken
brick-jelly and lime-surki mortar of 2: 1 : 1 proportion, by volume, are mixed and
laid for 7L cm thickness, starting from one comer and proceeding diagnoally to the
2
opposite comer. Proper slope should be given with reference to roof drainage.
011the lime concrete surface, one layer of bumt-clay terracing tiles shall be laid
over a thin layer of lime mortar and joints finished with the same lime mortar. This
weather proofing layer must be cured for 14 to 21 days and the proofing of brick
panel is now complete.
Precautions
The brick-panel roofing is a relatively new process to the rural artisans and hence,
requires constant care and control by engineers, if one is to popularise this roofing
system Following aspects, therefore, assume importance :
(i) First and foremost, the bricks should be well burnt, strong and of low
water-absorption quality, say less than 20%.
(ii) The brick panels should be made under the supervision of a skilled mason
and should be moulded to uniform size and shape.
(iii) The R.C.C. joists are the main load carrying members, arid should be cast
in proper moulds under the supervision of an engineer.
(iv) The transportation and erection of brick panels and joists should be done
without causing damage to the units.
(v) As in any prefabrication process, the joists be propped at mid-span before
assembling the brick panels and laying the screed concrete, and the props
may be removed only after the screed concrete has attained its full strength.
(vii) The limeconcrete weathering course is to be laid to proper slope to
expedite drainage and should be tamped to its maximum density by
wooden tampers.
-.
The main advantage of brick-panel roofing is that it can be assembled rapidly with the
help of a supervisor, two masons and four unskilled workmen. Locally available bricks,
baby jelly, brick jelly and small amounts of reinforcement bars are utilised, with
iiegligible use of timber (for making moulkQ only).
Thcre are essentially three sizes of rooms of low cost houses - 1.15 m, 2.17 m, and 3.3 m
wide, but tlie length may vary. NBO recommends the requirement of reinforcements as
shown in Table 3.7.
The hrick panel roof incorporates many teclmical, aesthetic and economical features,
which are ideally suited to rural mass-housing projects. It is time that innovations in
construction are introduced to the local artisans and brick-panel roofing has many
inilovative ideas.
Planning of Buildings Table 3.7 :Technical Details of Bllck Panel Roofing
I Spans (mm) I
1
I
Item
1150 2170 3300
To control the spread of such diseases it is only necessary to provide a barrier between Plawing and Design of
the source of infection (the excreta) and the susceptable host (the human being) by JAW-costRUA Housing
preventing faecal matter from coming into direct contact with men or with their food or
with their drinking water:
A sanitary latrine of the pour-flush type and a disposal pit are not expensive but are
effective in controlling faecal borne diseases and are easy to build in rural areas. Every
rural household should have one such latrine, since the cost of building it is far less than
the cost of medial care otherwise necessary; and there will be less loss of man power and
human life due to faecal borne disease (NBO, 1989).
Essential Parts
The essential parts of a sanitary latrine as are (Figure 3.3) :
(1) Pan,
(2) Trap,
(3) Lead-off Pipe,
(4) Plate or Slab with Foot-rest, and
(5) Pit.
The length of the pan is 430 mm. The width of the front portion of the pan is 130
im and the width at the widest part is 200 mm. The depth of the front portion of
the pan should be at least 75 mm so as to serve as urine splash guard. There is
uniform slope from front to back at 25 degree gradient. Lower pan opening shall
be 75 mm in diqneter.
The trap can be 70 to 75 rnrn in diameter. However, upper opening of the trap
which is connected to the pan should be 75 mm. Experience has shown that a trap
having 75 mm diameter gives a high velocity flush with large masses of faecal
matter. The recommended depth of water seal is 20 mm.
The lead off pipe is to be used when the squatting plate is set off from the pit. It
should be 75 mm in diameter.
The pit is of 750 mm diameter or 750 rnrn square and 2000 mm or 3000 mm depth.
This pit will eventually fill up and should be closed with earth and a new pit is to
be used (Figure 3.3). If a filled pit is covered with earth and left unutilised, the
faecal matter matures in a year or so and can be utilised as a fertilizer. While the
first filled pit is maturing,,a second pit is dug and the lead off pipe should be
Planning of Buildings switched to drain into the second pit. The minimum distance between the two pits
should be 100 cm clear. In loose soil, brick-work lining is essential for the pit.
PLAN
The slab or squatting plate is of cement concrete with the minimum dimension
of 900 mm square, but it can be larger. It is 50 mm thick at the outer edge. There is
a 1 2 mm slope towards the pan so that the slab is 38 mm thick at the pan opening
in the centre. The slope is necessary to drain off all water from the plate into the
Pan.
The overall length of the footrest is 350 mm and its back edge extends to 75 mm
beyond the outer rim of the pan, at its widest diameter. The inner edge of the
footrest continues forward along the rim of the pan and then angles off for a
distance of 130 mm. The front edge is 145 mm wide and forms a right angle with
the outer edge of the footrest. The minimum height of the footrest is 12 mm. The
back portion is raised slightly (12 mm) as to give a slope which makes for a more
comfortable squatting position.
Superstructure
The specifications of a structure vary according to the means of the family. An
ordinary structure can be constructed with bamboo posts at four comers and with
bamboo matting as walling, with a bamboo matting door in the front. The floor ot
the latrine should be such that it can be washed and kept clean. The clear height of
the roof should be, at least 2 m. A more permanent brick construction is, however,
always preferable.
Construction
The pan, the trap, the squat-plate and the lead-off pipe can be manufactured at a
central place from where they may be supplied to a number of villages. A number
of State Governments give subsidies to defray the cost of pan, trap and squathrig
plate.
Latrine Location
There is a minimum safe distance between the latrine and a source of water supply.
Many factors such as slope and the level of ground water and soil perineability are
to be considered. Recommended safe distance between the drinking water well and
the latrine is 15 m. A latrine is more likely to be kept clear1 if it is located close to
the house or other buildings which it serves.
Planning a ~ Design
d of
Low-Cost Rural Housing
Activity 5
Conduct a survey in the nearest village of less than 200 households regarding the
number and types of latrines available and record the desirability or objection to
the provision of such latrines in their house sites.
Activity 6
Prepare a fire-retardant solution, as discussed above, to coat a 30 cm x 30 cm
coconut leaf matting and then place on it a fire-stand (4 cm x 4 cm x 2 cm wooden
block) which had been set on fire in a charcoal stove. Observe the spread of fire on
the treated and also an untreated coconut leaf matting and compare the
performances.
I
bottom. Apply the plaster in 12 mm to 15 mrn thickness with a wooden trowel and'
finish smoothly. When the plaster is drying, sprinkle water occasionally.
Application of Cowdung Slurry
One part of cow dung and one part of soil are mixed and water is added to form a
thick paste. To this paste, bitumen cut-back is added in the ratio of 1 : 24 by
weight, and mixed thoroughly. Cow dung slurry is applied and finished with a
i
wooden float. This coat is effective in filling the hair cracks and voids in the
plaster and stops further development of cracks.
Cost
Due to the increasing cost of bitumen and kerosene the cost of this treatment may
be as high as Rs. 10 per m2, A rural house may have normally 40 m2 of outside
wall surface and the cost per household adds upto Rs. 400/-; however, the
durability of the house will increase several fold.
3.5.2 Cement Lime Plastering
Combination mortars, consisting of cement, lime and sand are proving to be economical
and effective in plastering mud walls. The recommended mortar proportions are as under :
( I ) 1 cement : 2 hydrated lime : 9 sand for plastering the interior surfaces of walls,
(2) 1 cement : 1 lime: 6 sand for plastering of exterior surfaces of walls.
It has already been stated that the plaster must be non-erodable and water-proof; and
combination mortars, as listed above, are ideally suited for improving the durability of
mud walls.
While lime-plastered finishes are not suitable for external surfaces in heavy rainfall areas.
At damp places and places whkre water tightness is required, cement-lime plaster is to be
preferred.
Lime and sand are first mixed for the entire day's requirement, and made into a stiff paste
and kept in stock. Cement should then be mixed with the mortar batches, and used within
two hours of addition of cement. Combination mortars are more workable than cement
mortar and hence, they are preferred by masons.
Precautions
e
Surface coatings applied to poorly prepared wall will soon peal off. Certain
precautions are essential for the success of the process. The wall must be
completely dry before combination mortar is applied as plaster. Surface dust and
loose particles should be removed by a coir-brush or broom. The wall should be
'
-
SAQ 6
slightly wetted at the time of actual application of the plaster. Long and narrow
grooves at 15 to 20 cm spacing will improve the bonding of theplaster to the wall.
(a) What are the proportjons of combination mortar used for plastermg the
(i) interior, and (ii) exterior surfaces of mud walls ?
(b) What is the proportion of clay, sand and silt which is appropriate for the
preparation of mud mortar ?
nPnoing and Design of
Low-Cost Rural Housing
Activity 7
Proceed to a semi-urban or a rural village and find out from a local mason the
procedure he is adopting to plaster the walls of mud houses. Discuss the
appropriateness of his process with particular reference to water proofing of mud
walls.
The prepared material should be sprayed twice or thrice, depending upon the
porosity of the surfaces, at an interval of at least four hours on a sunny day,
allowing the previous coat to be absorbed fully. The spraying should move
horizontally, starting with the top of the wall. Spraying on the wall directly
exposed to the sun should be avoided as otherwise it will evaporate without being
absorbed at all. Two persons can spray an entire two-roomed rural house in a day.
The black colour can be overcome by applying lime-wash mixed with animal glue.
Cost
Each square metre of the wall surface requires 1 kg of the water proofing material;
and including white washing will cost Rs. 401- per m2. Thus, a small rural house
can be made water proof by spending Rs. 1601- . But the process will have to be
repeated after every 3 years.
Precautions
Inspite of the application of the above methods of water proofing, a mud house
may fail due to the following reasons :
(i) Driving rain and water logging at the base level are the common causes of
deterioration of mud walls, and the base should be made of conventional brick
work in cement mortar or of stone masonry, if necessary.
(ii) Water seeping through the top of the wall is another source of failure of the
wall. The thatched roof should, therefore, be of 30' slope (or more) to quickly
A, drain off the rain water.
SAQ 7 !
(a) Why is chopped straw added to mud used for plastering ? \
(h) Why is bitumen cut-back added to mud used for plastqing ?
Planning of Buildings
Cc) '&%j !he coat 01 iO\s c!mg ciurry 1s needed n\ ~r Che ~icin-r:n!)d,tblcmuJ p l a , ~ ~ :
%*
id: \\%at st:the advantages of non-erodable nlud plaster compi~edto simp!?
spraying a wall with water proofing solution ?
3.5 SUMMARY
Solutions to the mass housing probleill of the rural areas should comprise the
resourcefulness of the people, nationwide application of local mate ria!^ and skills, the
social advantage of group work and the appropriate use of resources and technolog~cal
blowhow available from the research institutions of the country.
The durability of a mud wall is the main problem, particularly in rcspcct of its
permeability and resultant loss of strength in driving rain. Methods. which you as a ri~ral
engineer can popularise, have been discribed to overcome this pr,)blcm.
Nearly 612 million people of India live in 557,000 and odd villages and over 40 percent
of the rural houses are built with thatch and timber,foofs. These houses are constantly
exposed to fire hazards. The continued action of fungi and bacteria reduces the durability
of the roofing materials, and the roofs require frequent replacements.
Continuous maintenance required by these rural hoiises car1 be crippling to the economic
survival of the householders who have probably only some sort of cottage industry such
as weaving to survive on, Even though the National Buildings Organisation has been
pioneering the use of' chemicals to improve the fire-resistance of thatches, there is very
little of preservative treatment for thatches, straw, grass, palm lcavcs elc. applied in
practice.
A number of terms such as fire-proof, fire-retardent and l'irr-resistant matcrlrci1s are in use
and they have been used interchangeably. A material which is fire proof is rale mdeed,
and the word fire proof m a n s totaily unaffected by fire. On the other hand, fire-retardant
and fire-resistant materials have drastically low inflammability; they burn slowly and do
not spread the fire rapidly, but they too ark substantially altered and cvcntually consunled
by fire. However, these materials act as partial barrier and may save lives by delaying the
spread of f ~ r until
e help arrives.
Fires occur quite f r e q ~ p t l yin villages due to the fact that cheap fuel used in the form of
loose combustible materials such as dry leaves, dry twigs and sticks which give rise to
flying burning embers, and alsrrctue$o the fact that rural houses arc built with low
ceilings. When such fires occur, Inore often than not, h e y spread fast and conflagrations
result engulfing entire villages, causing loss of or injury to hunmn lives and cattle and
damage to property. Yet no effort has been made to adopt fire-retardent treatments to
existing thatched roofs. You, as a rural engineer. can render a valuable service by
popularising fire-retrading treatments which are really suitable, cheap and effective.