Module 2 – DRYING - PART 2

I. CONSTANT DRYING CONDITIONS

Assumptions:
Temperature
Humidity constants
Velocity
Direction of flow of the air across the drying
surface

II. DRYING CHARACTERISTICS OF WET SOLIDS

The drying characteristics of wet solids are usually described by the drying wet curves

for constant drying conditions and the wet curves as shown in letters A, B, and C.

A. Moisture Content (dry basis) versus Drying Time

X C
A End of straight line is XC
A
D

Figure 1
 B. Drying Rate versus Moisture Content

C B

R A
E

D X
Figure 2

C. Drying Rate versus Time

B C
A

A
R
A

Figure 3

III. PERIODS OF DRYING

During drying of different solids, 2 major portions of the drying rate are observed.

A. Constant Rate Period

Portion AB represents a warming up period. This unsteady state adjustment period
is usually very short and maybe ignored for drying time calculation.
 Section BC on each curve represent the constant rate period. In Figure 1, it is
shown by a straight line of constant slope which becomes a horizontal line on the rate
curves in Figure 2 and Figure 3.

Drying proceeds by diffusion of vapor from the saturated surface of the material
across a stagnant air film into the environment. Moisture movement within the solid is rapid
enough to maintain a saturated condition at the surface, and the rate of drying is controlled
by the rate of heat transfer to the evaporating surface. The rate of mass transfer balances
the rate of heat transfer and the temperature of the saturated surface remains constant.
The mechanism of moisture removal is equivalent to evaporation from a body of water (or
any other liquid) and is essentially independent of the nature of the solids.

If heat is transferred solely by convection, and in the absence of other heat effects,
the surface temperature (Ti) approaches the wet bulb temperature (TW ).

Ti → TW

However, when surface temperature heat is transferred by radiation, conduction,

or a combination of these and convection, the temperature of the saturated surface is
between the wet bulb temperature and the boiling point of the water. Under these
conditions, the rate of heat transfer is increased and a higher drying rate result.

When heat is transferred to a wet solid by conduction through hot surfaces and
heat transfer by convection is negligible, the solids approach the boiling point temperature
rather than wet bulb temperature.

Ti → Tbp

When the heat for evaporation in the constant rate period is supplied by a hot gas,
a dynamic equilibrium is established between the rate of vapor removal from the surface.

The magnitude of the constant rate depends upon three factors:

1. The heat or mass transfer coefficient
2. The area exposed to the drying medium
3. The difference in temperature or humidity between the gas stream and the
wet surface of the solids
 All these factors are the external variables. The internal mechanism of the liquid
does not affect the constant rate.

B. Falling Rate Period (X1 ≤ XC)

The curved portion CD in the drying rate curves is the falling rate period. The falling
rate period begins when the constant rate period ends, at critical moisture content (point
C). If the final moisture content is above the critical moisture content, the drying process
will occur under constant rate conditions. If, on the other hand, the initial moisture content
is below the critical moisture content, the entire drying process will occur in the falling rate
period. This period usually divides into two zones.

1. the zone of unsaturated surface drying (the first falling rate period – portion
CE)
2. the zone where internal moisture movement controls (the second falling rate
period – portion DE)

In the first zone, the entire evaporating surface can no longer be maintained
saturated by moisture movement within the solid. The drying rate decreases for the
unsaturated portion and hence the rate for the total surface decreases. In some cases,
the drying rate is a linear function of the water content of the solid as shown by line CE.

As drying proceeds, point E is reached where it represents the point at which all
exposed surface becomes saturated and marks the start of that portion of the drying cycle
which the rate of internal moisture movement controls the drying rate, the influence of
external variable diminishes.

In drying to low moisture contents, the falling rate period predominates in

determining the overall drying time.

CRITICAL MOISTURE CONTENT (XC)

It is the average moisture content when the constant rate period ends. Its value depends
on:

1. the rate of drying

2. the thickness of the material
3. the factors influencing moisture movement and resulting gradients within the solid
 The critical moisture content increases as the drying rate increases and as the thickness
of the mass of the material being dried increases.

EQUILIBRIUM MOISTURE CONTENT (XE)

It is the limiting moisture to which a given material can be dried under specific conditions
of temperature and humidity. If a hygroscopic material (that is, one that may contain bound
moisture – the liquid which exerts a vapor pressure less than that of the pure liquid at the given
temperature), is maintained in contact with air at constant temperature and humidity until
equilibrium is reached, the material will attain a definite moisture content. This moisture content
is termed equilibrium moisture content.

Equilibrium moisture content maybe adsorbed at a surface film or condensed in the film
capillaries of the solid at reduced pressure, and its concentration will vary with the temperature
and humidity of the surrounding air. At zero humidity, the equilibrium moisture content of all
materials is zero.

Equilibrium moisture content depends greatly on the nature of the solid. For non-porous
materials (that is non - hygroscopic materials), the equilibrium moisture content is zero at all
temperatures and humidities. For organic materials such as wood, paper, and soap, equilibrium
moisture contents vary over wide range as temperature and humidity changes.

FREE MOISTURE CONTENT (XF)

It is the moisture held in excess of the equilibrium moisture content. It is that liquid
removable at a given temperature and humidity. Free moisture content can be obtained from the
total average moisture content minus the equilibrium moisture content for the specified drying
conditions.

WS dX Na
Rate of Drying: R=− =
A dθ A

θ −WS X dX
Drying Time: ∫0 dθ = A
∫X12 R

where: R = drying rate, kg water/ m2 hr

θ = drying time, hr
W S = weight of bone dry solid, kg
X = bulk or total moisture content, kg water / kg dry solid
 A = surface area of the solid, m2
Na = kg water evaporated / hr

At Constant Rate Period (CRP)

when X2 ≥ XC and R is constant

WS
θC = − (X − X1 )
AR C 2

where: θC = drying time under CRP

R C = constant drying rate

XC = critical moisture content
X1 = initial moisture content of the material
X2 = final moisture content of the material

At Falling Rate Period (FRP)

when X1 ≤ XC and R = f(x)

General Case (for any shape)

WS X2 dX
θf = − ∫
A X1 R

Using graphical integration

1/R

X2 X1
 𝑊𝑆
𝜃𝑓 = − 𝐴

Special Case (FRP is linear)

X2 X X1 XC
XE
By ratio and proportion:
𝑅 𝑅𝐶
=
𝑋 − 𝑋𝐸 𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐸
X2
WS dX
θf = − (XC − XE ) ∫
A RC X1 X − XE

WS X − XE
θf = − (XC − XE ) ln 2
A RC X1 − XE

Both Periods (CRP followed by FRP)

when X1 > XC >X2

X2 XC X1
XE
 θ = θC + θf

WS X2 − XE
θ=− [(XC − X1 ) + (XC − XE ) ln ]
A RC XC − XE

where: θ = total drying time

θf = drying time during FRP

XE = equilibrium moisture content

X − XE = free moisture content

Evaluation of R C:

R C = k Y (Yi − YV )

where: k Y = gas phase mass transfer coefficient

Yi = humidity at the interface

YV = humidity of the dry gas

hv
or RC = (TV − Ti )
λi

where: hv = heat transfer coefficient

λi = latent heat of vaporization at Ti

TV = temperature of the drying gas

Ti = temperature of the liquid − gas interface

When the air is the drying medium and flowing parallel with the surface of the solid

hV = 0.0128 GV 0.8

lb
where: GV → mass velocity is in hr−ft2 ; hV is in Btu/hr ft 2 ℉

or hV = 0.07353 GV 0.8

where: GV → is in kg/m2 hr; hV is in kJ/m2 hr℃

Sample Problem 1.

Wet solids are to be dried from 40% to 18% free moisture in 3 hours under constant drying
conditions. The critical moisture content is 20% and the equilibrium moisture content is 4%.
Calculate the time needed to dry from 18% to 8% H 2O. All moisture contents are on dry basis.

Solution:

Θ=3hrs
X1 – XE =0.4
X1=0.4+0.04=0.44
CRP X2– XE =0.18
X2=0.18+0.04=0.22

FRP
X2 – XE =0.18
X2=0.22
XC= 0.2 X1=0.44
XE=0.04
X1 – XE =0.4

Drying from 40% to 18% free moisture will occur at constant rate period only

Working Formula:

W W
θC = − ARS (X2 − X1 ) ; 3 = − ARS (0.22 − 0.44)
C C

WS
= 13.636
AR C

Drying from 18% to 8% H2O will occur at falling rate period only

For FRP:

WS X − XE
θf = − (XC − XE ) ln 2
A RC X1 − XE

0.08 − 0.04
θf = −13.636(0.2 − 0.04)ln
0.18 − 0.04

θf = 2.7332 hr
Sample Problem 2. A batch drier removes water from a solid material at a rate of 20kg/hr during
the constant rate of period. Under the operating conditions, critical free moisture is equal to 0.5
kg water/kg dry solid and equilibrium and to 0.5 kg water per kg dry solid. 200 kg of dry solids
containing 150kg of water enters the drier. How long will the total drying time be if the final product
contains 8% moisture?
Given:

NA = A. R C = 20kg/hr

kg H2 O kg H2 O
X CF = 0.5 kg DS
, XE = 0.05 kg DS
; XC − XE = 0.5

kg H2O
XC = 0.5+0.05; XC = 0.55 kg DS

Drier

X1=150/200 X2=0.08/0.92

WS = 200kg of DS containing 150 kg of H2 O

θ(hr)

For WS :

WS = 200kg DS

For θ:

WS X − XE
θ=− (XC − X1 ) + (XC − XE ) ln 2
A RC XC − XE

0.08
−200 150 −0.05
0.92
θ= 20
[(0.55 − 200) + (0.55 − 0.05)ln 0.55−0.05]

θ = 15.0243 hrs.