Chapter five (Mass I)

Drying process
Introduction:

Drying refers to the removal of relatively small amounts of moisture from a

substance which is generally a solid. However, in some specific cases, it
includes the removal of moisture from liquids and gases as well. Drying is
generally a final step in the production process and the product from the dryer
is often sent for final packaging.

When an insoluble solid is dried, the moisture is lost to the surrounding air and
the solid attains an equilibrium moisture content depending on the relative
saturation of air. The different moisture contents exhibited by a substance
when exposed to air of different saturation levels is shown in Fig. 6.1.

Fig 1
Moisture contents at different humidity conditions
Important parameters
1-Moisture content (wet basis)(X)

This is defined as the weight of moisture per unit weight of wet

substance.

2- Moisture content (dry basis)(X)

3- Equilibrium Moisture (X*)

This is the moisture content of a substance when it is at equilibrium
with a given partial pressure of the vapour. It is the limiting moisture
content to which a given material can be dried under specific
conditions of air temperature and humidity.
4-Free Moisture (X-X*)
This is the moisture contained by a substance in excess of
equilibrium moisture. Only free moisture can be removed with air of
given temperature and humidity. It may include both bound and
unbound moisture.
2-Classification of during
1-Butch
Here the material to be dried is fed to a drier and exposed to drying
media under unsteady state conditions.
From the drying curve, the rate of drying, N is calculated as,

N= ( )( dxdt )=−1A . dwdt

−Ls
A
(6.1)

where Ls is the mass of bone dry solid; A is the drying surface,from which
drying takes place.

However, in the case of through circulation drying, A is defined as the cross-

sectional area of the bed, perpendicular to the direction of air flow .When the
drying rate is plotted against moisture content (on dry basis), the rate curve is
obtained and a typical rate curve is shown in Fig.6.2.

ED is internal movement of moisture controls (second falling rate period)

DC is unsaturated surface drying (first falling rate)

CB is constant rate drying period

A'B and AB are unsteady drying (initial stage)

2-Continuous
Hysterias in dring

Many substances exhibit different equilibrium moisture relationships during the adsorption
and desorption of moisture as shown in Fig 6.2.This phenomenon of following different
paths is known as hysteresis in drying.
When the solid to be dried is fully wet, the surface will be covered with a thin
film of liquid and will have unbound moisture. If the air is unsaturated with a
humidity of Y and if the gas at the liquid surface is Y s (saturated humidity),the
rate of drying at constant rate period is expressed as,
N c =k y ( y s− y ) where ky is the mass transfer coefficient.

To find the time during

( )∫ dxN
t X2
−Ls
t=∫ dt =
0
A X1

(a) The constant rate period: The drying period is said to be constant period
when both X1 and X2 are greater than critical moisture content X c. U such
conditions, drying rate remains constant and N= Nc.

( )∫
t x2
−Ls
The Eq.(6. 2) can now be rearranged as t=∫ dt = dx and on integn
0
AN c x1

this yields,

( X 1− X 2 )
t=Ls
A Nc
(a)The constant rate period: The drying period is said to be constant rate
period when both X1 and X2 are greater than critical moisture content X c. Under
such conditions, drying rate remains constant and N = Nc

( )∫
t x2
−L
The Eq.( 6.2) can now be rearranged as ∫ dt= AN s dx and on integration
0 c x1

this yields,

( X 1− X 2 )
t=Ls (6.3)
A Nc

(b) The falling rate period: If X1 and X2 are both less than Xc ,the drying rate N
decreases with decrease in moisture content. Equation (2) can be integrated
graphically by plotting (1/N) in y-axis against moisture content X in x-axis or by
using a numerical technique. However, when N varies linearly with X in the
region CE, the drying rate can be expressed mathematically as,

N =aX + b (6.4)

where a is the slope of the line and b is a constant. The Eq.(6.2)can be

integrated between the limits

t = 0, x = x1

t = t, x =x2 and we get

( )∫ aXdX+ b =( aAL )∈[ aXaX +b+b ]

t X2
L
t=∫ dt= s s 1
(6.5)
0
A X1 2

t=
[ Ls ( X c− X ¿ )
A Nc ][ ∈
X 1− X ¿
X 2− X
¿
]
 Mass Transfer-Theory and Practice
are relatively inflexible in their operating characteristics and do not permit even
moderate variation in liquid flow rates without large changes in droplet size. They
are also subjected to rapid erosion and wear. Rotating disks are about 30 cm in
diameter and rotate at speeds of 3000 to 12000 rpm. They also easily handle
variations in liquid flow rates.
freeze Drying
Substances which cannot be heated even to moderate temperatures, are frozen by
exposure to very cold air and placed in a vacuum chamber, where the moisture
sublimes and is pumped off by steam jet ejectors or mechanical vacuum pumps.
This is used for drying fish, vegetables like peas, vitamins and other heat sensitive
materials.
Infrared Drying
It has been used in the drying of paint films on objects such as automobile bodies.
The radiation is usually supplied by infrared lamps and the material to be dried
travels in a tunnel lined with banks of such lamps. This process is suitable only
for the drying of thin films on the surface of the material to be dried and never
for cases where the water or solvent to be removed is deep inside the solid. It is
a very expensive drying operation.
Dielectric Drying
In this operation the object to be dried is passed through a very high frequency
(2 to 100 x 106 cycles) electrostatic field. This generates heat uniformly
throughout the object. Its only important field of application is in polymerising the
resin that forms the bond between layers of plywood which is a rare drying
operation. However, some people will disagree in calling it as a very expensive
drying operation.
WORKED EXAMPLES
1. Air containing 0.005 kg of water vapour per kg of dry air is preheated to 52°C in a dryer and
passed the lower shelves. It leaves these shelves at 60% relative humidity and is reheated to
52°C and passed over another set of shelves, again leaving at 60% relative humidity. This is
again repeated for the third and fourth sets of shelves, after which the air leaves the dryer. On the
assumption that the material in each shelf has reached the wet bulb temperature and heat loss is
negligible, estimate: (i) the temperature of the material on each tray; (ii) the amount of water
removed, in kg/hr, if 300 m³/min of moist air leaves the dryer.
Solution.
(i) Air leaves the pre-heater of the dryer at 325 K
Humidity of incoming air = 0.005 kg water/kg dry air
It enters the first shelf. So, the wet bulb temperature=25℃

Moisture is removed along wet bulb temperature line till 60% R.H. is reached. This gives the exit
condition of air from first shelf.

From the chart, Humidity of air leaving first shelf = 0.016 kg.water/ kg dry air. Dry bulb temperature
of exit air is at 27°℃ and is at a humidity of 0.016 kg water/kg dry air. This air is again heated to 52C
dry bulb temperature in second heater. So ,air leaves heater at 52°C and at a humidity of 0.016 kg
water/kg dry air. When it leaves the second shelf ,the corresponding dry bulb temperature is 34°C
and the humidity is 0.023 kg water/kg dry air. This air enters the third shelf after preheating to 52°C.
Similarly for third shelf, exit air has a humidity of 0.028 kg water/kg dry air and has a dry bulb
temperature of 39°C.The air leaving the fourth shelf has a humidity of 0.032 kg water/kg dry air and
a dry bulb temperature of 42°C. (The figure is only indicative and does not correspond to actual one.(
The solid temperatures correspond to WBT and they are 23°C, 27°℃,32℃ and 34°℃ respectively.
Ans.

Final moist air conditions: (Y')= 0.032 kg water/kg dry air

Fig.6.17 Example 1 Humidity vs temperature.

Dry bulb temperature= 42℃

V H =8315 ( M1 )+¿
air

( 28.84 18 [ 1.013× 10 ]
)+( 0.032 )
1 42+273
V H =8315 5

V H= 0.945 m3/kg dry air.

( 300× 60 )
Amount of dry air leaving/hr = =1.905 ×104 kg
0.945
Water removed/hr = 1.905x104 (0.032-0.005) = 514.35 kg/hr. Ans.

Mass Transfer-Theory and Practice

2. A batch of the solid, for which the following table of data applies, is to be
dried from 25 to 6 percent moisture under conditions identical to those for
which the data were tabulated. The initial weight of the wet solid is 350 kg,
and the drying surface is 1 ㎡/8 kg dry weight. Determine the time for
drying.
kg m oisture kg moisture evaporated
X ×100 , N ×100
kg dry solid hr .m
2

35 30
25 30
20 30
18 26.6
16 23.9
14 20.8
12 18
10 15
9 9.7
8 7
7 4.3
6.4 2.5
 Fig.6.18 Example 2 1/N vs X for falling rate period.

Solution.

0.25 0.06
X1= =0.333, X 2 = =0.0638
1−0.25 1−0.06

Initial weight of wet solid=350 kg

Initial moisture content=0.3333 kg moisture/kg dry solid

So, total moisture present in wet solid (initially) = 350 x0.25 = 87.5 kg moisture

Weight of dry solid, Ls =262.5 kg

262.5 L
A= =32.8125 m2 ,∨ s =8 kg /m2
8 A

XCr = 0.20, NC = 0.3 kg/m2hr

So for constant rate period, drying time is

tI=
Ls
AN C 1 [ 262.5
]
[ X − X Cr ]= ( 32.8125× 0.3 ) [ 0.333−0.2 ] =3.55 hr .

For falling rate period, we are finding drying time graphically,

X 0.2 0.180 0.16 0.14 0.120 0.100 0.090 0.080 0.07 0.064

1/N 3.33 5.56 6.25 7.14 8.32 10.00 11.11 12.5 14.29 15.625

Area = 1.11,

LS L
∴ Time= Area under the X =1.116 × S 1.116 × 8=8.928 hr .
A A

∴ Total time = 8.928 + 3.55 = 12.4478 hr. Ans.

3. A wet slab of material weighing 5 kg originally contains 50 percent moisture on wet basis. The
slab is 1 m x 0.6 m x 7.5 cm thick. The equilibrium moisture is 5 per cent on wet basis. When in
contact with air, the drying rate is given in the table below. Drying takes place from one face
only.
(i) Plot the drying rate curve and find the critical moisture content.

Wet slab wt: kg 5.0 4.0 3.6 3.5 3.4 3.06 2.85
Drying rate, kg/(hr)(m 2) 5.0 5.0 4.5 4.0 3.5 2.00 1.00
X,Dry basis 1.0 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.22 0.1
0 4 6 4 4
(ii) How long will it take to dry the wet slab to 15 percent moisture on wet basis?

Solution. weight of wet solid = 5 kg

Moisture content = 0.500 moisture/kg wet solid

0.5 0.5
¿ =
[ ( 0.5 moisture ) + ( 0.5 dry solid ) ] 1−0.5
∴ X1 = 1 = moisture/dry solid

Mass Transfer-Theory and Practice

For 5 kg wet solid, moisture = 5 x 0.5 = 2.5 kg

Weight of dry solid = 5 - 2.5 = 2.5 kg

Fig.6.19(a) Example 3 Drying rate curve.

0.05
X* = 0.05, X* = = 0.0526
( 1−0.05 )

weight of dry solidwet solid −weight of dry solid

Moisture content ∈dry basis =
weight of dry solid

(i) XCr = 0.6 kg moisture/kg dry solid

(ii) From X = 0.6 to 0.44 the falling rate curve is non-linear and from X = 0.44 to 0.14,
falling rate period is linear.
0.15
X2= =0.1765 .
( 1−0.15 )
Fig.6.19(b) example 3 1/N vs X.