Chemical Process

Industries [1]
LESSON 2:
CHEMICAL PROCESSING AND THE WORK OF THE CHEMICAL ENGINEER
Contents

1. Introduction 9. Plant Locations

2. Basic Chemical Data 10. Safety: Hazards such as Fire or
Toxic Materials
3. Batch vs Continuous Processing
4. Flowcharts 11. Construction of Plant

5. Chemical Process Selection, 12. Management for Productivity

Design, and Operation and Creativity
13. Research and Development
6. Chemical Process Control and
Instrumentation 14. Patents
7. Chemical Process Economics 15. Process System Engineering
8. Market Evaluation
1. Introduction

 In 1980, there were about 60,000 Chemical Engineers

(ChEs) and 250,000 chemists gainfully employed in the
U.S. [1]

 More currently, there are now 33,900 ChEs [2] and 95,800
Chemists and Material Scientists [3] in the U.S. as of 2018

 The job market for ChEs are expected to grow at a rate

of 7.3% until 2026 [2]
 1. Introduction

Industry Profile for Chemical

Engineers as of May 2018 [4]
 Industries with the highest levels of employment for ChEs
 1. Introduction

Industry Profile for Chemical

Engineers as of May 2018 [4]
 Industries with the highest concentration of employment for ChEs
 1. Introduction

Industry Profile for Chemical

Engineers as of May 2018 [4]
 Top paying industries for ChEs
 1. Introduction

The American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)

reported that over 90% of Chemical Engineers are employed
in the following functional areas: [1]

 Process  Project management

 Research and development  Environmental engineering
 Administration  Education
 Production  Product engineering
 Design  Maintenance
 Consulting  Quality control

ChEs must be trained to function in any

phase of chemical manufacturing
 1. Introduction

Commercial
chemical
processing involves
chemical
conversions and
physical operations
and presupposes
factory scale
equipment and
Chemical
Engineering Image source: [Link]
experience.
Contents

1. Introduction 9. Plant Locations

2. Basic Chemical Data 10. Safety: Hazards such as Fire or
Toxic Materials
3. Batch vs Continuous Processing
4. Flowcharts 11. Construction of Plant

5. Chemical Process Selection, 12. Management for Productivity

Design, and Operation and Creativity
13. Research and Development
6. Chemical Process Control and
Instrumentation 14. Patents
7. Chemical Process Economics 15. Process System Engineering
8. Market Evaluation
2. Basic Chemical Data

 Chemistry – the basic science for chemical industries

Chemical Engineer’s function:

 To apply the chemistry of a particular process through the use of
coordinated scientific and engineering principles
 Develop the research laboratory results of the chemist into an
economical chemical process

Chemical Engineer’s goal:

 To have the conversion equal the yield
2. Basic Chemical Data

 Yield
– fraction of raw material recovered as the main (desired) product
– the most important single factor in cost

 Conversion
– fraction changed to something else, whether products or by- products
– indicates the amount changed by a single pass through an apparatus
when multiple passes are used

 Example: Ammonia synthesis

 2. Basic Chemical Data

Improving Conversion in Methanol

and Ammonia Synthesis Plants
• Lower conversions = larger plant size

Changing operating conditions can shift equilibrium and enhance

conversion:
• Higher operating pressure = greater yields but higher equipment costs
• Faster reaction time = closer approach to equilibrium, but requires
larger, more expensive equipment
• Improved catalysts = shorter reaction time, but equilibrium remains
unaffected
 2. Basic Chemical Data

Kinetics

 Kinetics is the study of reaction

speeds
 It is essential in plant design,
since reaction speed
determines equipment size

 Catalysts are materials that

increase reaction speed
 Example: Iron catalysts for
ammonia synthesis

Image source: [Link]

[Link]
 2. Basic Chemical Data

The Haber-Bosch
Process [5]

 Invented by German chemists

Fritz Haber & Carl Bosch in 1909-
1910 & won the Nobel prize
 converts atmospheric nitrogen
(N2) to ammonia (NH3) by
combining it with hydrogen (H2)
 Iron (Fe) catalyst provide a
perfectly porous and high
surface area material for the
reaction

Image source: [Link]

 2. Basic Chemical Data

Material Balances, Energy

Changes, and Energy Balances
 Costs are most strongly affected by material use and distribution

 Material balance is an essential first step in any processing study

 Material Balance – shows the original and ultimate disposition of all
materials used in a process

 Chemical processing is an energy-intensive industry

 Goal is towards reducing energy use

 Thermodynamics provide data on all phases of technical reactions

Contents

1. Introduction 9. Plant Locations

2. Basic Chemical Data 10. Safety: Hazards such as Fire or
Toxic Materials
3. Batch vs Continuous Processing
4. Flowcharts 11. Construction of Plant

5. Chemical Process Selection, 12. Management for Productivity

Design, and Operation and Creativity
13. Research and Development
6. Chemical Process Control and
Instrumentation 14. Patents
7. Chemical Process Economics 15. Process System Engineering
8. Market Evaluation
3. Batch vs Continuous Processing

Batch process
 performing of an industrial process on material in batches of a limited
quantity or number
 can be measure most concisely and readily duplicated

Continuous process
 process where product comes out without interruption and not in groups
 require smaller, less expensive equipment
 less material in process, more uniform operating conditions and products
 require more concise control of flows and conditions (computer control)
 3. Batch vs Continuous Processing

 Batch for small quantities,

continuous for large quantities
 Reason: Reduction in plant
cost per unit of production
 As the volume of production
increases, the Chemical
Engineer calculates that point
where the expense – labor,
research, instrumentation,
equipment – justifies a
continuous process

Source: [Link]
Contents

1. Introduction 9. Plant Locations

2. Basic Chemical Data 10. Safety: Hazards such as Fire or
Toxic Materials
3. Batch vs Continuous Processing
11. Construction of Plant
4. Flowcharts
5. Chemical Process Selection, 12. Management for Productivity
Design, and Operation and Creativity
13. Research and Development
6. Chemical Process Control and
Instrumentation 14. Patents
7. Chemical Process Economics 15. Process System Engineering
8. Market Evaluation
 Example of a block flow process
4. Flowcharts diagram for benzene production

 A flowchart is a graphical
representation of a process,
coordinating the sequence of
unit operations and unit
processes

 Simple blocks show material and

energy flows and operating
conditions
 More elaborate blocks show
everything in a process and
become extremely complicated
 Special blocks show details, ex.
fire lines, instruments & control
systems, air lines, drains, etc.

Image source: [Link]

Contents

1. Introduction 9. Plant Locations

2. Basic Chemical Data 10. Safety: Hazards such as Fire or
Toxic Materials
3. Batch vs Continuous Processing
4. Flowcharts 11. Construction of Plant
12. Management for Productivity
5. Chemical Process Selection,
and Creativity
Design, and Operation
13. Research and Development
6. Chemical Process Control and
Instrumentation 14. Patents
7. Chemical Process Economics 15. Process System Engineering
8. Market Evaluation
5. Chemical Process Selection,
Design, and Operation
 Adequate and flexible initial design is essential.
 Some factors that must be considered in planning a plant:
 Pilot plants
 Equipment
 Corrosion, Materials of Construction

 Process Engineer – a specialist in current aspects of chemical process design

 Senior Design Engineer – foresee and solve even the “less obvious” plant problems
(maintenance, safety, conformation to standards)
 Experienced consultants – advise, design, and/or erect chemical processing plants
 5. Chemical Process Selection, Design, and Operation

“to commit blunders on a small scale

Pilot Plants and make profits on a large scale”
 small-scale units designed to:
 allow experiments that obtain design
data for larger plants
 (sometimes) produce significant
quantities of a new product to permit
user evaluation
 expensive, so “calculate more and use
pilot plant less”
 cheaper to correct errors than in actual
plant
 more reliable data than laboratory tests
(ex. Corrosion tests)
 Design engineers use statistical analysis
of procedures to determine data
A pilot plant remains central to process
required for the design of a pilot plant
development, for evaluating processes, generating
data or making sample quantities of product
 5. Chemical Process Selection, Design, and Operation

Equipment
 “items necessary for a
purpose”
 Chemical engineers
must be familiar with
industrial equipment
 Pump
 Filter press
 Distillation tower
 etc
 See: Chemical
Engineering Catalog

Image source: Wikipedia

 5. Chemical Process Selection, Design, and Operation

Corrosion, Materials of Construction

CORROSION
 the gradual destruction of materials
(usually metals) by chemical and/or
electrochemical reaction with their
environment
 a natural process that converts a refined
metal into a more chemically-stable form
such as oxide, hydroxide, or sulfide
 cannot be prevented, only minimized
 Corrosion-resistant materials:
 Rubber-covered steel
 Resin-bonded carbon
 Tantalum to resist HCl
 Polymeric organic materials Image source: [Link]
 5. Chemical Process Selection, Design, and Operation

Corrosion, Materials of Construction

Construction materials
used by Chemical
Engineers:
 Brick
 Cast iron
 Steel
 Wood
 Cement
 Platinum
 Tantalum
 Silver
Image source: Wikipedia
Contents

1. Introduction 9. Plant Locations

2. Basic Chemical Data 10. Safety: Hazards such as Fire or
Toxic Materials
3. Batch vs Continuous Processing
4. Flowcharts 11. Construction of Plant

5. Chemical Process Selection, 12. Management for Productivity

Design, and Operation and Creativity
13. Research and Development
6. Chemical Process Control and
Instrumentation 14. Patents
7. Chemical Process Economics 15. Process System Engineering
8. Market Evaluation
6. Chemical Process Control and
Instrumentation
 Automatic and instrument-controlled chemical
processes are essential
 “Packaged plants” for chemicals (hydrogen, oxygen,
sulfuric acid, etc.) are made available
 Data processing and computing instruments take over
the running of complex chemical processing systems
 Some instruments can optimize plant conditions to meet
changing feed conditions
 6. Chemical Process Control and
Instrumentation
 Function of Instruments:
 Not only to record process variables
 To assure consistent quality, i.e. sensing, controlling, recording,
maintaining desired operating conditions

 *Function of workers and supervisory chemical engineer:

 To maintain the plant in proper running order

 Batch sequences: Fewer instruments = more supervision

due to varying conditions or procedures from start to finish**
* In large-scale continuous operations
** Can be solved by programmed instruments if the expense can be justified
6. Chemical Process Control and
Instrumentation
 Reasons for instrumentation
 Increase in continuous procedures
 Increased cost of labor and supervision
 Unreliability of human actions
 Availability of instruments
 6. Chemical Process Control and Instrumentation

Instrument Types
1. Indicating instruments 1. Analog instruments
- Present current data, value or - Show results by mechanical movement of
deviation from a norm some type of device, which is proportional to
the quantity being measured
- Ex. Spring thermometer, Bourdon gages
2. Recording instruments
- Permit study and analysis
2. Digital instruments
- Utilize a transducer and electronic circuitry to
3. Indicating/Recording and convert signals to readable numerical figures
Controlling instruments (digits), which are displayed and/or recorded
- Permit all of the above and - Transducer – a device to convert the quantity
control the operation being measured into some type of signal
(electrical or pneumatic)
6. Chemical Process Control and
Instrumentation
 Chemical analytical control
 conventional procedure used in factories for analysis of
incoming raw material and outgoing product
 too slow, expensive, dependent on questionable sampling
procedures

 Automated control
 fast, reliable, sensitive, has become economically feasible
 1 3

Examples of
systems that
have been
automated
and used 2

industrially
1. Chromatography [6]
2. pH sensors and
conductivity analysis [7]
3. Mass spectroscopy [8]
Contents

1. Introduction 9. Plant Locations

2. Basic Chemical Data 10. Safety: Hazards such as Fire or
Toxic Materials
3. Batch vs Continuous Processing
4. Flowcharts 11. Construction of Plant

5. Chemical Process Selection, 12. Management for Productivity

Design, and Operation and Creativity
13. Research and Development
6. Chemical Process Control and
Instrumentation 14. Patents
7. Chemical Process Economics 15. Process System Engineering
8. Market Evaluation
7. Chemical Process Economics

 Engineers are distinguished from scientists by their consciousness of

costs and profits.
 Every engineering decision involves cost considerations.
 Engineers must be updated of economic changes that may affect
their products.

Engineers’ primary objective: To safely deliver the best product or most

efficient services at the lowest cost to employer and consumers
7. Chemical Process Economics

Competing Material
Energy
Processes Balances

Overall
Labor
Cost
7. Chemical Process Economics

Competing Processes

 Change is an outstanding characteristics of chemical procedures

 Potential alteration of any process is continuously important starting from
when the plant is first designed
 Functions of the Research and Development (R&D) Division
 To be updated of progress
 To make knowledge of improvements or fundamental changes, which
leads to the creation of any of the products of interest of the
organization
 To know about the developments in other companies, and be able to
advise the management of the relative competitive position of (actual
or anticipated) processes or products
7. Chemical Process Economics

Competing Processes

Judgment based on comparative facts must be exerted in most of the

important discussions of the chemical engineer
 Ex. There are many technical processes for making phenol, ethanol,
and acetic acid.
 Choosing the one from among many that is best for a particular
location or time is an economic decision.
 Careful calculations using local parameters generally yields a clear
decision.
7. Chemical Process Economics

Competing Material
Energy
Processes Balances

Overall
Labor
Cost
7. Chemical Process Economics

Material Balances

 Yields and conversions of the chemical process form the basis for
the material balances, which in turn are the foundation for cost
determination.
 When obtainable, materials and quantities from standard practice
are tabulated under the flowcharts.
7. Chemical Process Economics

Competing Material
Energy
Processes Balances

Overall
Labor
Cost
7. Chemical Process Economics

Energy

 Engineers are concerned with the direction and control of energy.

 This energy may be expended in the moving of raw materials by
ships, trucks, or pipeline.
 Energy may be employed in the form of heat of steam or electricity,
or may be given out in exothermic or absorbed in endothermic
reactions.
 Energy costs from oil, gas, coal, solar, nuclear, or electrical energy
from air or water power, are all constantly changing, so it is
extremely difficult to make long-range plans.
 Energy is frequently a major cost in chemical plants, but it is often
possible to reduce energy use by altering processing procedures,
particularly by using separation technologies.
7. Chemical Process Economics

Competing Material
Energy
Processes Balances

Overall
Labor
Cost
7. Chemical Process Economics

Labor

 Skilled operators contribute as much to a plant’s success as

excellence in design.
 Without their cooperation, no plant succeeds.
 CPIs have moved rapidly into labor-saving techniques:
 Rapid extension of continuous processing
 Use of process controllers
 Optimizing procedures
 Labor requirements in the chemical industry are comparatively
small, but many jobs require above average skills and pay above
average wages.
7. Chemical Process Economics

Competing Material
Energy
Processes Balances

Overall
Labor
Cost
7. Chemical Process Economics

Overall Cost

 The cost of processing cannot be finally obtained until the plant is in operation,
but an experienced chemical engineer can closely estimate it.
 The single largest cost is usually raw material, with energy, labor, overhead, and
depreciation all being significant.
 Most errors in cost estimation are due to underestimation of overhead, sales,
customer service, and capital required to finance daily operations of the business.
 After the plant has been designed, bids can be obtained for the equipment,
which indicates the amount of capital necessary for construction.
 High interest rates and constantly rising costs make delays extremely expensive.
 Taxes may also be a major factor.
7. Chemical Process Economics

Overall Cost
Capital spending for new plants:

 Table 2.1. Chemical Industries Capital Spending for New Plants (in
billions of dollars)*
1981** 1980 1978 1976 1974 1972
Chemicals and allied products 13.11 12.60 8.46 8.12 6.48 3.38
Iron and steel 3.27 3.29 2.52 3.04 1.94 1.06
Nonferrous metals 3.59 3.11 2.11 1.97 2.04 0.97
Paper 6.73 6.80 3.99 3.01 2.90 1.45
Petroleum 25.17 20.69 13.95 10.76 7.31 4.80
Rubber 2.30 1.73 2.10 1.32 1.56 1.03
Stone, clay, glass 3.90 3.82 3.10 1.88 1.64 1.33
All manufacturing 129.85 115.81 79.72 59.95 53.21 35.42
*Domestic capital spending
**Estimate.
SOURCE: National Science Foundation, Chem. Eng. News 59 (23) 49 (1981).
Contents

1. Introduction 9. Plant Locations

2. Basic Chemical Data 10. Safety: Hazards such as Fire or
Toxic Materials
3. Batch vs Continuous Processing
4. Flowcharts 11. Construction of Plant

5. Chemical Process Selection, 12. Management for Productivity

Design, and Operation and Creativity
13. Research and Development
6. Chemical Process Control and
Instrumentation 14. Patents
7. Chemical Process Economics 15. Process System Engineering
8. Market Evaluation
8. Market Evaluation

 During the development of the chemical industry, experts have

been trained, and it is necessary to call upon them for market
evaluation when a new product is under appraisal.

Purity and Sales and

Uniformity of Packaging Customer
Product Service
8. Market Evaluation

Purity and Uniformity of Product

 There is a great vagueness in the chemical industry on the terms

used to describe the degree purity: technical, purified, analytical
reagent, reagent grade, spectroscopic purity, etc.
 Reagent grade of one chemical may be less pure than technical grade
of another
 One part in 10 million of boron is significant in the nuclear field, but 50%
may be adequate for a pharmaceutical
8. Market Evaluation

Purity and Uniformity of Product

 Laboratory research, checked by pilot plant operations, should be

directed to
 obtain optimum conditions to ensure uniformity of product (frequently
as important as purity) and process performance
 reduce by-products, sales costs of which may be excessive

 Instrumentation can aid in the maintenance of uniform conditions

 Good operators and careful plant supervisors are the real key to
quality production.
8. Market Evaluation

Purity and Uniformity of Product

 The physical condition of the products has a great influence on

marketability.
 This involves crystal structure, particle size and shape, and color for
solids.
 Ex. Both light and dense soda ash are sold and required by different
markets.
 Liquid color is important.
 Gasoline is dyed various colors to provide a distinctive trademark and to
conceal objectionable color, which does not affect performance
 It is cheaper to dye a product than remove undesirable color
Image source:
[Link]
0904050-Philippines-
towards-an-improved-
and-harmonized-fuel-
[Link]
8. Market Evaluation

Purity and Sales and

Uniformity of Packaging Customer
Product Service
8. Market Evaluation

Packaging

 Packaging and storing are expensive and should be avoided

whenever possible.
 Refillable bulk containers are the most economical – tanks, tank
ships, pipelines, tank cars, barges, gondolas, and boxcars
 Coal and other solids have been transported in pipelines in
suspension in liquids (usually water)
 Unit trains carrying a single commodity to a single destination have
been used to reduce transportation cost.*
 Large tank cars, barges, and trucks make many trips between seller
and purchaser.

*The US has been most progressive in the development of bulk means of transportation, not only for entire trainloads of
coal, oil, and gasoline, but also for such things as molasses.
8. Market Evaluation

Packaging

 Material in transit does not require site storage, but interruptions in

supply can be expensive.
 Many chemicals are shipped in smaller containers (returnable or
one-trip shipment)
 Container appearance is important only for chemicals sold directly
to consumers.
8. Market Evaluation

Purity and Sales and

Uniformity of Packaging Customer
Product Service
8. Market Evaluation

Sales and Customer Service

 The salesperson is the eye, ears, and nose of a company

 brings information to aid in economic forecasting
 In many chemical companies, some of the most profitable and
salable articles arise from the suggestions of salespersons
 Technical expertise and sales ability rarely reside in the same person
 Sales/customer service jobs have been created
 Customer service people are able to instruct customers concerning
the profitable use of their employer’s products.
 Sales and customer service form the major contact between buyer and
seller.
Contents

1. Introduction 9. Plant Locations

2. Basic Chemical Data 10. Safety: Hazards such as Fire or
Toxic Materials
3. Batch vs Continuous Processing
4. Flowcharts 11. Construction of Plant

5. Chemical Process Selection, 12. Management for Productivity

Design, and Operation and Creativity
13. Research and Development
6. Chemical Process Control and
Instrumentation 14. Patents
7. Chemical Process Economics 15. Process System Engineering
8. Market Evaluation
9. Plant Locations

 Prudent and proper location of a chemical plant is determined

largely by the availability of raw materials, energy, transportation,
and markets.
 Many other factors: environmental constraints, water supply,
availability of efficient labor, cost of land, waste disposal facilities
 There is a very strong tendency on the part of chemical concerns
to leave congested cities and move to smaller towns or countryside.
 occasionally forced by legal restrictions
 environmental considerations may cause residents to oppose
Contents

1. Introduction 9. Plant Locations

2. Basic Chemical Data 10. Safety: Hazards such as Fire or
3. Batch vs Continuous Processing Toxic Materials

4. Flowcharts 11. Construction of Plant

5. Chemical Process Selection, 12. Management for Productivity

Design, and Operation and Creativity
13. Research and Development
6. Chemical Process Control and
Instrumentation 14. Patents
7. Chemical Process Economics 15. Process System Engineering
8. Market Evaluation
10. Safety: Hazards such as Fire or
Toxic Materials

Video Source:
[Link]
[Link]/watch?
v=sdsiQ0b0GEI
10. Safety: Hazards such as Fire or
Toxic Materials
 Nothing is so destructive to a plant as fire
 Precautions to prevent/fight fire must be considered in the design of
any chemical plant
 Employees must be protected against toxic chemicals (both real
and imagined)
 Those exposed to hazards must be informed when/where such exist
 Safety measures save money by reducing premiums paid for liability
and fire insurance
 Frequently, familiarity with chemicals breeds carelessness; well-run
plants have safety devices for alerting those working with hazards
10. Safety: Hazards such as Fire or
Toxic Materials
 Adequate safety and fire protection measures require expert
guidance.
 The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) provides
safety rules for manufacturing plants to improve working conditions
 Employers who do not comply with the standards set by OSHA suffer
penalties of fines and/or imprisonment for repeated willful violations.
 Plants may be closed for nonconformance.
10. Safety: Hazards such as Fire or Toxic Materials

Three Types of OSHA Standards:

 Initial standards
 already issued

 Emergency temporary standards

 used to protect employees from serious danger from toxic or harmful
substances, or from new hazards

 Permanent standards
 Can be set only after formal proceedings where interested persons
have a change to submit their views and objections
10. Safety: Hazards such as Fire or
Toxic Materials
 The chemical industry generally has had an excellent safety record
even prior to OSHA
 With OSHA, even greater efforts in stressing safety are required
 The research arm of OSHA has attempted to identify and regulate
the handling of toxic substances, particularly carcinogens
(substances that cause cancer) and teratogens (substances that
cause malformation of fetus)
 There is a considerable difference of opinion about how dangerous
many of these materials are – it will take years before formal
proceedings are completed and permanent standards are set
 Knowledge of the effects of small concentrations over a long period
of time is extremely limited
Contents

1. Introduction 9. Plant Locations

2. Basic Chemical Data 10. Safety: Hazards such as Fire or
Toxic Materials
3. Batch vs Continuous Processing
4. Flowcharts 11. Construction of Plant

5. Chemical Process Selection, 12. Management for Productivity

Design, and Operation and Creativity
13. Research and Development
6. Chemical Process Control and
Instrumentation 14. Patents
7. Chemical Process Economics 15. Process System Engineering
8. Market Evaluation
11. Construction of Plant

 For small and large companies, construction engineering

organizations are available that will build a plant and also
participate in its design.
 Some large chemical companies have their own construction
departments and erect their own plants.
Advantages:
 Workers who will operate the equipment can be more connected with
the construction and familiarize themselves with the plant
 Ensures that less detailed knowledge of the plant is in outside hands
 3D models reveal flaws not evident in engineering drawings
 Top engineers of the construction must be registered
Contents

1. Introduction 9. Plant Locations

2. Basic Chemical Data 10. Safety: Hazards such as Fire or
Toxic Materials
3. Batch vs Continuous Processing
4. Flowcharts 11. Construction of Plant

5. Chemical Process Selection, 12. Management for Productivity

Design, and Operation and Creativity
13. Research and Development
6. Chemical Process Control and
Instrumentation 14. Patents
7. Chemical Process Economics 15. Process System Engineering
8. Market Evaluation
12. Management for Productivity
and Creativity
 Many plants are developing their superintendents and managers
from among their chemical engineers
 Because of the dramatic rise in productivity
 Because CPIs have become so complex as a result of technological
changes
 The combination of B.S. in Chemical Engineering followed by M.B.A.
in business has been very popular as a springboard for middle
management.
 The plant manager’s first responsibility is to run a plant (trained
personnel and efficient machines) so that they will safely turn out
market-acceptable goods at a profit.
12. Management for Productivity
and Creativity
 Trainings for Plant Procedures
 Trainings are usually done in a pilot plant or through modern electronic
simulators

 Labor
 Chemical plants use mainly skilled labor with a very limited requirement
for unskilled manual workers
Contents

1. Introduction 9. Plant Locations

2. Basic Chemical Data 10. Safety: Hazards such as Fire or
Toxic Materials
3. Batch vs Continuous Processing
4. Flowcharts 11. Construction of Plant

5. Chemical Process Selection, 12. Management for Productivity

Design, and Operation 13. Research and Development
6. Chemical Process Control and 14. Patents
Instrumentation 15. Process System Engineering
7. Chemical Process Economics
8. Market Evaluation
13. Research and Development

 Adequate and skilled research with patent protection is necessary

for future profits
 In CPIs, one of the outstanding characteristics is rapidly changing
procedures, new raw materials, and new markets
 Research creates/utilizes these changes
 Development is the adaptation of research ideas to the realities of
production and industry.
Results and Benefits of Research

1. New and improved processes

2. Lower costs and lower prices of products
3. Services and products never before known
4. Change of rarities to common commercial supplies of practical
usefulness
5. Adequate supply of materials previously obtained only as by-
products
6. Freedom from domination from foreign control
7. Stabilization of business and industrial employment
8. Products of improved quality
R&D Scientists and Engineers

 Table 2.2. R&D Scientists and Engineers in Industry (in thousands of

full-time equivalents)

1980 1978 1976 1974 1972 1970

Chemicals and allied products 51.8 47.9 44.4 41.8 41.0 40.1
Industrial chemicals 23.0 21.5 20.1 19.1 19.1 21.5
Drugs 20.0 18.9 16.6 14.0 13.1 11.8
Other chemicals 8.8 7.4 7.8 8.7 8.8 6.8
Other industries 399.9 355.8 320.0 318.2 309.2 344.1
Total 451.7 403.7 364.4 360.0 350.2 384.2

SOURCE: National Science Foundation, Chem. Eng. News 59 (30) 62 (1981).

Contents

1. Introduction 9. Plant Locations

2. Basic Chemical Data 10. Safety: Hazards such as Fire or
Toxic Materials
3. Batch vs Continuous Processing
4. Flowcharts 11. Construction of Plant

5. Chemical Process Selection, 12. Management for Productivity

Design, and Operation 13. Research and Development
6. Chemical Process Control and 14. Patents
Instrumentation 15. Process System Engineering
7. Chemical Process Economics
8. Market Evaluation
14. Patents
14. Patents

 Patents are limited monopolies extending over 17 years and are

given in exchange for the detailed public disclosure of new
products and methods.

 Patents are necessary in our competitive system of free enterprise so

that research funds can be generously spent for improvements on
old processes and for new and useful discoveries with a reasonable
hope of at least return of the investment.
Company Funds for R&D

 Table 2.3. Company Funds for Industrial R&D (in million dollars)

1980* 1978 1976 1974 1972 1970

Chemicals and allied products 4,190 3,218 2,751 2,236 1,741 1,593
Industrial chemicals 1,910 1,488 1,275 1,105 860 873
Drugs and other chemicals 2,280 1,730 1,476 1,131 881 720
Other industries 24,900 18,938 14,685 12,431 9,794 8,695
Total 29,100 22,159 17,436 14,587 11,535 10,588

*Estimate
SOURCE: National Science Foundation, Chem. Eng. News 59 (30) 62 (1981).
14. Patents

 According to Dean A. A. Potter, Director of the National Patent

Planning Commission, USA):
 A clear understanding is essential of the difference between an
invention, a patent, and a marketable product.
 Invention – the act of finding something that is new.
 An invention is not a product.
 Patent – a grant of exclusive right to the inventor to his invention for
a limited period of time.
 A patent by itself does not produce a product.
 The patent serves to protect the inventor and those who develop,
manufacture, and sell the product from uncontrolled competition of
parties who have not shared the burden of invention and
commercialization.
14. Patents

 According to Dean A. A. Potter, Director of the National Patent

Planning Commission, USA):
 To produce a marketable product
- a new idea in the form of an invention must be developed and
embodied in a form suitable for manufacture, and
- appropriate tools must be available so that the product can be
manufactured at a cost acceptable to the public
14. Patents

 Inventions, by bringing new products to the commercial world,

benefit the public at large and for all time.
 The inventor receives only a limited reward for creating something
that did not previously exist.
 A country’s patent system is responsible for much of growth in this
area because it encourages research upon which growth is
founded.
 The patent must be for something new, the nature of which must be
fully disclosed, and the essentials of the invention must be properly
covered by the claims.
Contents

1. Introduction 9. Plant Locations

2. Basic Chemical Data 10. Safety: Hazards such as Fire or
Toxic Materials
3. Batch vs Continuous Processing
4. Flowcharts 11. Construction of Plant

5. Chemical Process Selection, 12. Management for Productivity

Design, and Operation 13. Research and Development
6. Chemical Process Control and 14. Patents
Instrumentation
15. Process System Engineering
7. Chemical Process Economics
8. Market Evaluation
15. Process System Engineering

 “More and more, engineers are realizing that they can no longer
think of a process plant as a collection of individually designed
operations and processes.
 It is becoming increasingly evident that each separate unit of a
plant influences all others in subtle ways.”
- Dr. Theodore J. Williams

 It is also true that the plant is a part of an ecological system

extending well beyond its boundaries.
15. Process System Engineering

 The general availability of the computer has made it possible to

study the dynamic behavior of plants as well as their static or
“steady state” behavior.
 Such intense studies have shown new possibilities for plant operation not
previously conceived.
 Instead of measuring and attempting to maintain rigid temperature,
pressure and general conditions (feedback control), chemical
engineers are trying to adjust system variables so that the output is
satisfactory even though the inputs vary widely and are not fixed
(feedforward control).
 Attempts at optimizing control are also being made.
end
Quiz 2

1. The basic science for chemical industries

2. Fraction of raw material recovered as the main (desired) product
3. A catalysts for ammonia synthesis
4. process where product comes out without interruption and not in groups
5. A graphical representation of a process
6. A small-scale unit designed to allow experiments that obtain design data for
larger plants
7. The gradual destruction of materials (usually metals) by chemical and/or
electrochemical reaction with their environment
8. One example of an industrial equipment
9. One example of construction material used by chemical engineers
10. One reason for automation
Answers

1. The basic science for chemical industries – chemistry

2. Fraction of raw material recovered as the main (desired) product – yield
3. A catalysts for ammonia synthesis – iron
4. process where product comes out without interruption and not in groups –
continuous
5. A graphical representation of a process – flowchart
6. A small-scale unit designed to allow experiments that obtain design data for
larger plants – pilot plant
7. The gradual destruction of materials (usually metals) by chemical and/or
electrochemical reaction with their environment – corrosion
8. One example of an industrial equipment
9. One example of construction material used by chemical engineers
10. One reason for automation