DRYING OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

1.0 Introduction
Drying is removal of a liquid from a solid/semi-solid/liquid to produce solid product by thermal
energy input causing phase change (Sometimes converts solid moisture into vapor by sublimation
eg. Freeze drying with application of heat.). Needed for the purpose of preservation, storage,
reduction in cost of transportation, value addition, etc. Most common and diverse operation with
over 100 types of dryers in use and competes with distillation as the most energy-intensive
operation.

1.1 Basics about Drying

Simultaneous heat and mass transfer:

Energy Input by Agric Product

Moisture Output by

Conduction Liquid diffusion

Convection Vapor diffusion
Radiation Capillary flow (Permeability)
Microwave and Radio Frequency Fields Knudsen diffusion (Mean free path < pore
dia.)
Combined mode Surface diffusion
Poiseuille flow
Combination of above

1.2 Drying a Complex Process

As a result of drying agricultural products is bound to pass through several change processes as
shown in the chart below.

Multi component Change of Physical

Change in Quality
Moisture Transport Structure

Coupled with Drying as a Complex Shrinkage

Mass Transfer Thermal Process

Phase Change
Input Continuous or Chemical/Biochemical

Intermittent Reaction
1.3 Drying based on heat input

1. Direct

Hot Air Direct Dryer Humid Air

Wet Product Dry Product

Drying medium directly contacts material to be dried and evaporated moisture

is carried out leaving the dried product.

2. Indirect (contact or conduction)

Gas Flow Vacuum or Low

Wet Product Dry Product

Heat supplied by heat exchanger (through metal wall)

1.4 Common Terminology used in Drying

 Terms/Symbol Meaning
Adiabatic saturation Equilibrium gas temperature reached by unsaturated gas
temperature, Tad and vaporizing liquid under adiabatic conditions. Only for
air/water system, it is equal to the wet bulb temperature
Bound moisture Liquid physically and/or chemically bound to solid matrix
so as to exert a vapor pressure lower than that of pure liquid
at the same temperature
Constant rate drying Under constant drying conditions, drying period when
period, evaporation rate per unit drying area is constant (when
surface moisture is removed
Dew point, Td Temperature at which a given unsaturated air-vapor mixture
becomes saturated

Dry bulb Temperature measured by a (dry) thermometer immersed in

temperature, Tdb vapor-gas mixture.

Equilibrium moisture At a given temperature and pressure, the moisture content

content, Xe of moist solid in equilibrium with the gas-vapor mixture
(zero for non-hygroscopic materials)
Critical moisture Moisture content at which the drying rate first begins to
content, Xc drop (under constant drying conditions)

Falling rate period Drying period under constant drying conditions during
NF which the rate false continuously with time

Free moisture, Moisture content in excess of the equilibrium moisture

content (hence free to be removed) at given air humidity
and temperature.
Drying bed A column of agric. product in a dryer, it poses surface area
and a depth(defines thin layer or deep bed drying)

2.0 Drying Theory

Drying involves simultaneous application of heat and mass transfer from and to the drying
material respectively. During the drying process, the drying air supplies the necessary sensible
and latent heat of evaporation to the moisture and also carries the water vapor from the surface.
In drying, it is usually desired to estimate the size of dryer; the various operating conditions of
humidity and temperature of drying air; and time required for the drying operation. These
parameters and many others which influence the drying rate are interrelated by using empirical
relationships. However, empirical relationships for most agricultural materials are not available
and have to be obtained experimentally. To experimentally determine the rate of drying (drying
kinetics) for a given material (e.g. fruits), a sample is placed on a tray, which is placed on a
balance in a cabinet through which drying air is flowing. The loss of weight during drying is
recorded and the data can be presented in form of curves as shown in figure 1. A study of these
curves show that in a drying circle can be considered to consist of a number of stages.
 Figure 1. Periods of drying

Stage A – B: This section represents a “settling - down” or “warming – up” period during which
the solid material is heated by conduction so that the surface temperature comes in equilibrium
with the drying air conditions. This continues until the surface temperature is equal to the wet-
bulb temperature of the drying air. This section is usually negligible in the overall drying cycle,
but in some cases it is significant.

Stage B – C: This section represents the “constant – rate” period during which the surface of the
material remains saturated with liquid water because the movement of water within the material
to surface is the same as the rate of evaporation. Drying takes place by movement of water vapor
from saturated surface through a stagnant air film into the main a stream of drying air. The rate
of drying is dependent on the rate of heat transfer to the drying material and is equal to the rate of
mass transfer, thus the temperature of the drying material remains constant. This continues until
the “critical moisture content” is reached, point C, then the drying rate begins to fall.

Stage C – D: This section represents the “falling rate” period during which the drying rate slowly
decreases until is approaches zero at the “equilibrium moisture content” (i.e. when the material
comes to equilibrium with the drying air). Often, there are two parts of the falling rate, the first
and second falling rate periods C – D and D – E respectively. In the first section, the surface is
drying out and is known as unsaturated drying. The second section in which the plane of
evaporation moves into the drying material and the drying rate falls further. This second falling
period is also known as the saturated dying. Based on thin layer, drying time is computed as:-

Warming – up Period:

In this period, heat is transferred to the material by conduction to warm up the material. Thus the
governing equation for symmetric heating an infinite slab without heat generation is given by:

(1)

Boundary conditions: at x = 0, ; at x = L, T(L, t) = Ts

Initial conditions: at t = 0, T(x, 0) = Ti

Where:

= bulk density of dried material (kg/m3)

cp = specific heat (J/kg.K)

T = temperature (oC)

k = thermal heat conductivity of material (W/m.K)

Applying the initial and boundary conditions to the governing equation and using the separation
of variables, the solution to equation (1) becomes:

(2)

Where is thermal diffusivity.

For long time dying, the exact solution of equation (2) is approximated by taking n = 0, thus
solution becomes:

(3)

Thus the drying time during the warm is given by:

(3. a)
 (3. b)

However, the warming phase is usually neglected.

T = drying air temperature

Ti = room temperature of the drying environment

Ts = product surface temperature( for saturation drying equals wet bulb temp of drying air)

Constant – rate Period:

During this period, the rate of mass flow equal to the rate of heat transfer. The mass flow rate is
given by:

(4)

Where:

= mass flow rate (drying rate) (kg/m2.s)

Ks = mass transfer coefficient

A = surface area available for drying (m2)

Hs = humidity at surface (kg moisture/kg air)

Ha = humidity of air (kg moisture/kg air)

The rate of heat transfer is given by:

(5)

Where:

= rate of heat transfer (W)

h = heat transfer coefficient (W/m2.K)

Ta = average dry-bulb temperature of drying air (oC)

 Ts = average wet-bulb temperature of drying air (oC)

= latent heat of vaporization (kJ/kg)

Since during the constant rate drying, the heat and mass transfer are at equilibrium, we equating
equation (4) and (5),

(6)

The rate of moisture removed from the material with no change in volume during drying can
given by:

(7)

Where:

L = thickness (m)

Integrating Equation (7) we obtain the drying time during the constant-rate phase as:

(7. a)

Falling – rate Period

In section, applying Fick’s second law for unsteady state diffusion:

(8)

Where:

D = liquid diffusivity (m2/hr.)

M = moisture ratio (kg waster/kg solid)

Initial conditions, t = 0, the moisture is uniformly distributed and is equal to the critical moisture
content Mc

Boundary conditions, at t > 0, moisture is equal to equilibrium moisture Me

Applying the initial and boundary conditions to the governing equation and using the separation
of variables, the solution to equation (8) becomes:
 (9)

For long drying times, Equation (9) becomes:

(9. a)

Differentiating Equation (9.a), we obtain the drying rate as:

(9. b)

Thus the drying time during falling phase for which the moisture in the material is controlled by
diffusion is obtained by integrating Equation (9.b) and is given by:

(10)

An approximation drying time during the falling for which moisture movement in the material is
controlled by capillary flow is given by:

(11)

POWER NEEDED BY A DRYER:

Q (total)= Q sólid + Q líquid + Q evaporation + Q others

Qsolid = heat absorbed by the dry matter of product during warming = mcp∆T

Qliquid = heat absorbed by the moisture in the products during warming = mcp∆T

Qevaporation = heat for evaporation of moisture = mL

Qothers = heat losses, fan power(if needed)

Illustrative Example
Required to find the total time required to dry a material from initial moisture content (Mo = 3.2
kg water/ kg dry solid) to final moisture content (Mf = 0.14 kg water/kg dry solid), given that the
critical moisture content (Mc = 0.12 kg water/kg dry solid) and equilibrium moisture content of
material at 60oC is (Me = 0.12 kg water/kg dry solid). The drying air temperature (Ta = 60oC),
surface temperature is equal to the wet-bulb temperature which is (Ts = 35oC), and the material is
at room temperature of (Ti = 25oC).

Thermal properties of the material are given as:

2342 kJ/kg

1115 kg/m3

k= 0.692 W/m2-K

h= 100 W//m2-K

L= 0.01 m

c= 3642.5J/kg

Solution:

Warming-up phase:

Applying Equation (3. b), the drying time for the warm-up phase:(using Excel),

t = 4.458E-05 hours.

This confirms that is time is so small that in real practice when calculating the drying time of the
material it is usually neglected.

Constant – rate Period:

Applying Equation (7. a), the drying time for the constant rate phase:(using Excel),

t = 5.802956 hours.

Falling – rate Period

Applying Equation (11), the drying time for the falling rate phase:(using Excel),

t = 12.4999 hours.
Total Drying Time:

t = 18.3028 hours.

Factors Affecting Drying Rate The factors that affect drying rate are external and internal factors. The
external factors are: Dry bulb temperature Relative humidity Air velocity Surface heat transfer
coefficient Internal factors are: Surface to volume ratio Surface temperature Rate of moisture loss
Composition i.e. moisture, fat

Conclusion

The mathematical models are based on basic heat and mass transfer, with heat conduction being
very important in transferring the heat through the drying medium. Since, there is a phase change
from moisture to vapor, the boundary conditions are considered as phase boundary conditions
and evaporation is assumed to take place at the surface temperature of the product. In addition, a
diffusion model enables the distribution of moisture within the piece to be predicted, thus
enabling local moisture content to be determined.

3.0 Drying Equipment (Types)

Table1: Drier type based on Trade names

Main dryer classification Types

criteria Criterion
Mode of operation
Batch
Continuous*

Heat input-type
Convection*, conduction, radiation, electromagnetic
fields, combination of heat transfer modes
Intermittent or continuous*
Adiabatic or non-adiabatic

State of material in dryer

Stationary
Moving, agitated, dispersed

Operating pressure
Vacuum*
Atmospheric

Drying medium (convection)

Air*
Superheated steam
Flue gases
 Drying temperature
Below boiling temperature*
Above boiling temperature
Below freezing point

Relative motion between drying

medium and drying solids Co-current
Counter-current
Mixed flow

Number of stages
Single*
Multi-stage

Residence time
Short (< 1 minute)
Medium (1 – 60 minutes)
Long (> 60 minutes)

Some indices used to define dryer efficiency

Energy efficiency, η= Energy used for evaporating water/ Total energy supplied by the drier

0 ≤ η≤1
Interms of drying temperatures

η= T –T /T -T
1 2 1 0 where ; T1 inlet air temp
T2 outlet air temp
T0 ambient temp
Twb wet-bulb of T2

Max η is when T = Twb

2

Example: The ambient air at 25 oC and 70 percent RH is heated to 45 oC and 24 percent

RH. When passing through the grain, it gains enough moisture to again reach 70
percent RH while the temperature drops to 30.1 oC. Calculate the drier efficiency

Energy Efficiency for Different Dryers

Dryer type η range% Dryer type η range%

Direct continuous Indirect continuous
Tower 20-40 Drum 60-75
flash 50-75 Rotary 50-60
 Sheeting (stenters) 50-60 Cylinder 60-70

conveyor 40-60 Batch

Rotary (bundle) 40-70 Agitated pan 60-70

Spray 40-60 Vacuum rotary Up to 70

Tunnel 35-40 Vacuum tray 60-70

Fluidized bed 40-70 Infrared 50-80

Batch Dielectric 50-60

Tray 85

3.0 Drying systems

The range of systems available for drying grains varies from thin-layer drying in the
sun or a simple maize crib to expensive mechanized systems such as continuous flow
dryers. The choice is governed by a number of factors, including:
Rate of harvest: The capacity of the system must be able to keep pace with the rate at
which the grain arrives at the store on a daily basis. It is essential that loading and
drying does not hold up the harvest.
Total volume to be dried: This may not be the total volume of the crop. If harvesting
normally starts as the rainy season is ending, it may be necessary to dry the early part
of the harvest, but not the later part.
Storage system: In many cases, the storage system and the drying system may be the
same structure. For example a ventilated maize crib (see Figure 16.5), used for drying
the crop naturally, is likely to be used to store the shelled crop in bags later. Some bin-
drying systems have a similar dual purpose.
Cost: Both capital cost and running cost should be taken into account.
Flexibility: The likelihood of different crops requiring drying should be considered.
Drying systems fall into two main groups:
Natural drying using ambient air temperature and either direct sunlight or natural air
movement through the crop.
Artificial drying using mechanical means (e.g. a fan) to move air through the crop,
with the air being either at ambient temperature or artificially heated.
Additionally, drying can be considered in terms of the thickness of the bed of grain
being dried, i.e. either shallow-layer (or thin-layer) drying or deepbed drying. Natural
drying requires the grain to be in shallow layers, whereas certain fans can push air
through grain several metres deep.

Table 1. Safe moisture content for grains in long and shortterm storage1
Long Short Term (30 to 60 Days)
Term(One
Warm Temperatures Cool Temperatures
Grain Type Year)
Corn 12% 12% 15%
Sorghum 12% 12% 15%
Rough Rice 12% 12% 14%
Soybean 11% 11% 14%
Wheat 12% 12% 14%
3.1 Natural drying
The traditional methods used by farmers for drying grain rely on natural air movement to reduce
moisture content to a safe level for storage. In addition, they may utilize the extra drying capacity
gained by exposing the produce to the sun. With good ventilation through the store, the grain can
be harvested just after it is ripe (around 30 percent MC for maize) but most methods allow some
of the drying to take place naturally while the crop is still standing in the field.Natural drying
may be divided in three main methods:
• Drying in the field before harvesting.
• Drying in shallow layers and exposing to sun and wind on a surface that prevents moisture from
the ground from reaching the produce.
• Drying in, or on, a structure that has open sides to permit air movement through the mass.

3.1.1 Field drying

The method of leaving the crop standing in the fieldfor drying is popular in areas where maturity
of the crop coincides with the beginning of a dry season. However, a crop left unharvested is
exposed to attack by insects, birds, rodents, wild animals, strong winds and occasional rain
showers, which can damage and reducethe crop considerably. These factors are particularly
important with the new, improved high-yielding crop varieties, which are often more susceptible
to damage from the environment than the traditional varieties. For instance, a hybrid maize cob
has less leaf cover than the cob of traditional maize varieties and is therefore more open to attack
by insects and birds. Field drying of the crop will also delay clearing of the field. This should be
taken into account in areas where the field needs to be prepared for a second rainy
season, or where the humidity is high enough at the end of the growing season to allow for an
additional crop,such as beans. It is also not feasible in irrigated fields where higher cropping
intensity requires early and or timely harvesting.

3.1.2 Shallow-layer natural drying

The harvested crop is spread on hard ground, on roofs, on purpose-built platforms or on trays. As
the crop is exposed to the sun, it will dry fairly quickly depending on the humidity of the ambient
air. The produce should be stirred frequently to ensure even drying. The disadvantage of this
method is that the crop has to be brought in or covered every evening or before rain. The labour
requirements may be reduced considerably by placing the harvest on a plastic or tarpaulin sheet
for easy handling or on a platform/tray covered by transparent plastic, as shown in Figure
16.4.Figure 16.4 Tray dryer for natural drying of crops in shallow layers. The tray has a mesh-
wire bottom and a pitched roof of transparent plastic
3.1.3Ventilated structures for natural drying Very small producers may suspend bundles of the
crop from trees or poles so they are freely exposed to the air. With larger quantities, the harvested
crop may be heaped on platforms or racks and topped by a layer of straw for rain protection. This
method is commonly used for sheaves of paddy and cereals, as well as for cob-maize and
groundnut plants. Drying is dependent on the free flow of air through the crop, so the heap should
be made as open as possible The next step is to have a more permanent ventilated structure in
which the crop may be heaped for drying,well protected from rain.For maize, the tradition in
most parts of Africa is to leave the crop in the field until the moisture content has fallen to around
18 percent and then continue drying the maize on the cob (with or without the husk
[sheath]) in a granary, which most commonly has the shape of a circular woven basket placed on
a platform 0.3–1.0 metres above the ground. The predrying in the field is normally necessary
because the basket is too tightly woven or too wide to allow sufficient ventilation. This ‘two-step’
drying method worked fairly well with traditional farming systems where farmers used maize
with good sheath cover and could break new farmland regularly. However, the fast rise in
population experienced in many countries has resulted in a scarcity of good land, which forces
farmers to use the same land for the same crop year after year. In most cases this leads to an
accumulation of pests (e.g. insects). This, together with the higher susceptibility to insect attack
of most improved high-yielding crop varieties (see the ‘Field Drying’ section), requires the crop
to be harvested as early as possible, just after maturity, and moved away from the field for quick
drying and safe storage. For maize, the circular traditional granary may still be used with some
modifications. The basket has to be more loosely woven, or the wall can be made slatted with at
least 40 percent airspace and with a diameter of up to 150 cm, depending on the humidity of the
air. The width restriction makes it more economical to build a rectangular drying structure if
production exceeds a total of 5–9 bags. The rectangular structure shown in Figure 16.5, with
slatted walls and a floor, is called a ventilated maize crib. Although it can be used with small
modifications for any crop that needs to be kept ventilated, it is mostly used for drying maize on
the cob without the husk. Figure 16.5 Ventilated maize crib for drying maize on the cob. The
structure has slatted walls and should be placed with the long wall facing the prevailing
wind
The crib can be constructed in many different ways, but the most important factor for the drying
process is the width and the fact that the long wall should face the prevailing winds. The width
may vary from 60 cm in very humid areas to 180 cm in areas with a semi-arid climate. Except for
these extremes, a width of 100–150 cm is recommended as being appropriate for many maize
growing areas in the eastern Africa region. The walls should not limit the airflow through the
maize; this requires at least 40 percent openings.
3.2 Artificial drying

If the air humidity is too high to allow grain to be dried adequately by natural means and storage methods do
not facilitate further drying, it is necessary to dry the produce using forced air or heat, or a combination of both.
Various local methods have been developed using available materials. In some areas, storage is restricted to the
amount that can be dried on a heat supply similar to that available from a kitchen fire. Panicles of paddy and
maize stored on horizontal grids are kept dry by heat from a fire lit occasionally underneath the grid, and the
heap of panicles is turned at regular intervals to prevent the development of mould. There are also raised
granaries beneath which fires are lit to complete the drying process. The produce acquires a characteristic odour
and flavour when exposed directly to smoke from the fire,as well as to the hot dry air. This problem is
overcome by using dryers designed with a hot-air chamber or heat-exchange unit and smoke stack or chimney
(seeFigure 16.6). The fire is lit at the mouth of the oil barrel tube, and hot air and smoke is exhausted via the
chimney. The heated barrels in turn heat the surrounding air, which rises through the crop. When heat is used to
dry grain, there must be some provision for aeration as well. Either very thin layers or frequent stirring is
advisable, as natural convection seldom move enough air.

The different forms of artificial drying may be characterized by the depth or thickness of grain being dried.
Systems include:
• deep-layer dryers • shallow-layer (or thin-layer) dryers • in-sack dryers Large-scale system dryers can be
divided into thefollowing categories:

• storage dryers
• continuous flow dryers
15
• batch dryers
• sack dryers
They may also be either high-temperature or low temperature systems.

3.2.1 Air volume requirements

Whatever the system, artificial drying depends on forced-air ventilation, with or without added heat. Knowing
the amount of moisture to be removed, together with the moisture-carrying capacity of the air under the existing
conditions, makes it possible to estimate the weight of dry air required to complete a given drying operation.
The humid volume of air is found on a psychrometric chart and, the total volume for drying can be determined
from the chart. Drying will take place as long as the relative humidity of the drying air is below the equilibrium
of the produce. For example, air enters a drier at 40o C and 50% RH exit the drier at 35oC and70%RH; if the
initial moisture content of the product is 25%wb and is to be dried to 14%wb and is of 1tone weight estimate
the quantity of air required to do the drying.
Steps
-Estimate the amount of water to be removed for the drying
-on the psychart locate the state point of the air, find the humidity ratios and specific volume
- mass of water removed/difference of the humidity ratios = mass of air required
- to convert the mass of air in to volume, multiply the mass of air with specific volume = volume of air
- to get flow rate, the divide the volume of air with drying time= ft3 or m3/time

. Experience shows that the air volume needs to be increased to take into account the air velocity and grain
depth. Air leaving a dryer using high air velocity and a shallow grain layer is seldom fully saturated with
moisture. Certain minimum airflow rates are necessary to prevent the formation of mould during drying.

Grain moisture Airflow

(percent. wet basis) (m3/s/m2)

20 0.06
18 0.04

16 0.02

25 0.10

20 0.06

18 0.04
16 0.02
Table 16.4 Minimum required airflow rates for wheat and shelledmaizeGrain moisture (percent, wet
basis)
Wheat

Maize

16
The following steps provide a procedure to determine if drying is needed as well as whether or not to use
heated air.
1. Measure the initial moisture content of grain or product to be dried.
2. Using a sling psychrometer or thermometer, determine the wet and dry bulb temperatures of the air.

3 Using these temperatures, determine the relative humidity (RH) from the psychrometric chart.
4 Round the relative humidity and dry bulb temperature values to the nearest point.
5 Determine the equilibrium moisture content (EMC) corresponding to air temperature and the RH from the
EMC model/equation or tables.
6 Determine the volume of air per minute (usually in cubic feet per minute or cfm) being moved by the fan
from the fan performance chart corresponding to the static pressure. Refer to fan manufacturer’s specifications
and performance curves.
7 Check if the air volume exceeds the minimum airflow requirements of your grain’s initial MC to
accomplish drying.
8 If the EMC is found to be below the safe storage MC, then no heat will be needed – run fans with unheated
air. If the EMC is found to be greater than the safe storage MC, heat will be needed to dry the grain to a safe
storage moisture level.
9 Add 5 degrees of heat to the dry bulb temperature reading, and use psychrometric chart to determine the
new RH. Note that the new dry bulb temperature is now 5 degrees greater than it was originally – the wet bulb
temperature also increases slightly. (See the psychrometric chart in Figure 2.)
10 Determine the equilibrium moisture content of the grain for these new conditions. If the EMC is equal or
slightly less than safe storage moisture content, then proceed with drying at this temperature. If the EMC is
higher than for safe storage MC, determine the amount of additional heat needed.
11 Care should be used when temperatures exceed 100°F, particularly for rice, soybean and any grain saved
for seeds (planting).

3.2.2 Deep-layer dryers

These consist of beds, bins, silos or rectangular warehouses equipped with ducting or a false floor, through
which air is distributed and blown through the grain. The depth of the grain layer may be 30–350 cm. In deep-
layer dryers, unheated or slightly heated air (less than 6 °C) is forced through the grain by a mechanical fan. The
grain dries first at the point where the air enters, a drying front passes through the mass in the direction of the
air movement, and the grain at the air discharge location dries last. Most of the drying occurs just below the
drying front in a layer called the drying zone, which develops and then moves through the bulk (Figure 16.7).
The depth and rate of progress of the drying zone depends largely on the dampness of the grain and the
airspeed. A low ventilation rate results in a shallow, slow-moving zone, whilst a higher rate produces a deeper
zone that progresses more quickly. The grain furthest from the air source will remain wet, and may even
become wetter (owing to condensation), until the drying zone begins to move out of the crop. For successful
results, the drying zone must reach the surface before the grain in this area deteriorates. Therefore it is normal
practice to limit the depth of grain so that the drying front reaches the top in good time. Although
increasing the airflow increases the drying rate, Table 16.5 demonstrates that the static pressure, resulting
from the resistance of the grain to the flow of air, rises at a very rapid rate. Therefore it is common
practice to limit the airspeed through the crop to 0.10- 0.15 metres per second to avoid the need for
excessive fan capacity.

Table 3. Typical centrifugal fan air delivery ratings, cubic feet per minute (CFM) 3
17
 Fan Motor
Horsepower(h Static Pressure (inches of water)
p) 0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
5.0 7,200 7,000 6,700 6,300 5,900 5,500 5,000 4,400 3,800 2,500
7.5 10,850 10,500 10,100 9,400 8,950 8,250 7,500 6,650 5,750 3,750
10.0 14,500 14,000 13,500 12,500 12,000 11,000 10,000 8,900 7,700 5,000
15.0 16,750 16,250 15,750 14,750 14,250 13,250 12,250 11,200 10,050 8,000
20.0 19,000 18,500 18,000 17,000 16,500 15,500 14,500 13,500 12,400 11,000

Batch dryers
These shallow-layer dryers often take the form of a tray with a perforated base. The dimensions may be 1–2
metres wide and 2–4 metres long, with the grain bed 150–300 mm deep. The dryer can also be built vertically,
with channels for both inlet and outlet air going through the grain, as shown in Figure 16.11. Warmed air is
blown into the plenum chamber beneath and then up through the grain. These dryers are more
suitable for smaller operations than continuous-flow dryers. They may be either mechanically or manually
loaded or unloaded. Batch dryers is favored by :
Low throughput (under 50 kg/h)
Long residence time (i.e. mainly falling rate drying)
Batch equipment upstream and downstream
Requirement for batch integrity

Batch Dryers: Classification (Baker, 1997) (Particulate Solids)

Major Classes: Layer (packed bed); Dispersion type

1. Layer type:
a. Contact (conductive or indirect type), e.g., vacuum tray, agitated bed, rotary
batch
b. Convective (atmospheric tray)
c. Special types (e.g., microwave, freeze, solar)

2. Dispersion type:
a. Fluidized bed/spouted bed
b. Vibrated bed dryer

Continuous-flow dryers
The grain passes through these dryers in a continuous flow at a controlled rate. The grain is kept in a thin sheet
approximately 100–150 mm deep and hot air is blown through the crop. Under this system, the air temperature
can be substantially higher than in bulk dryers. The rate of throughput can be controlled, and hence the length of
time exposed to the hot air. The time is adjusted according to the amount of moisture
to be removed. The latter part of the path through the dryer is an ambient-air section to cool the grain.
Continuous-flow dryers (see Figure 16.12) are high in cost and are used only in highly mechanized situations.
Continuous dryers is favored by :
•opposite conditions of the batch drier

18
Continuous Dryers: Classification
Major Classes: Layer; Dispersion type
1. Layer type:
a. Conduction, e.g., drum drier, plate drier, vacuum drier agitated bed, indirect rotary drier
b. Convective, e.g., tunnel drier, spin-flash drier, throughflow drier, conveyor drier
c. Special, e.g., microwave, RF, freeze, solar
2. Dispersion type:
a. Fluid bed drier, vibrated bed drier, direct rotary drier, ring, spray drier, jet-zone

Example
A village cooperative is planning to install a deep-layer dryer. Determine a suitable size for the dryer and
choose a suitable fan. The following data is given:
Quantity of grain: 10 tonnes of maize/batch
Time available for drying: 60 hours (6 days)
Initial moisture content (MC) in maize: 21 percent
MC reduction for sack storage: 6 percent
Incoming air at 25 °C and 50 percent RH
Assumed exhaust air at 85 percent RH and 19.5 °C
Take bulk density of Maize of 760kg/m3
Air volume required to remove 1 kg water:
From the psychrometric chart it is found that the given air
can remove 0.0143 – 0.0118 = 0.0025 kg H2O/kg dry air.
The specific volume of incoming air is 1.03 m³/kg dry air.
:Complete the design and report;

4.0 SOLAR DRYERS

19
Main Types of Solar dryers According to Baker& Christopher G.J, 1997there are three types of solar dryers
and they are classified according to the type of energy used.
 Solar natural dryers

 Semi-artificial dryers

 Solar-assisted dryers

Solar natural dryers. These devices use only ambient energy and have no active elements. The air flow, if there is
any, is maintained by natural convection or, in some cases, by thermosyphon effects induced by a chimney. Solar
natural dryers are mainly used as substitutes for traditional open-air drying methods in areas where no other
source of energy is available. In contrast to these traditional methods, however, losses and damage to the product
caused by rain, dust, insects, birds, and other animals, as well as the pollution from the atmosphere are avoided by
the purpose built construction (i.e cabinet and tent type arrangements). Their use results in a better quality
product. Eg tent, cabinet, shelf etc.

Semi-artificial solar dryer. These usually feature a solar collector and a fan for maintaining a special air flow
through the drying space. In the case of directly irradiated solar tunnel dryers, a section of the tunnel may be
employed as a transparent plastic covered solar collector (Imre, 1989, 1995; Lutz and Muhlbauer, 1986 cited in
Baker& Christopher G.J, 1997). The use of semi-artificial solar dryers is justified by their unsophisticated and fairly
cheap construction. They can be recommended for drying materials that are not sensitive to change in the drying
conditions caused by the periodic character of the solar irradiation and by the changing atmosphere conditions.
Tonnel, room green house

Design Example- Solar Natural Dryer

Calculations:
To carry out design calculations and size of the dryer , the design conditions applicable to
Zaria are required. The conditions and assumptions summarized in Table 1 are used for the
design of the mango dryer. From the conditions, assumptions and relationships, the values of the design
parameters were calculated. The results of calculations are summarized in Table 2.

Design conditions and assumptions

Location Zaria
Crop Mango
Variety Kitchener
Drying period April to June
Drying per batch ( 2days / batch),
loading rate (mp) 100kg sliced mango (195.2kg freshmango)
Initial moisture content (moisture contentat harvest), Mi 81.4% w.b.
Final moisture content (moisture content for storage) , Mf 10 % w.b.
Ambient air temperature, Tam 30ºC (Average for April)
Ambinet relative humidity, RHam 15% (Average for April)
Maximum allowable temperature, Tmax 70ºC

20
Drying time(sunshine hours)td 10 hours (Average for April)
Incident solar radiation, I 20MJ/m2/day (average for past 30 years)
Collector efficiency, η 30% (Ampratwum, 1998).
Wind speed 2m/s
Thickness of sliced mango 3mm
Vertical distance between two adjacent trays 15cm
5

i- Amount of moisture to be removed from a given quantity of wet mango slices to bring the
moisture content to a safe storage level in a specified time.
The amount of amoisture to be removed from the product, mw, in kg was calculated using the
followig equation:
mw = mp(Mi – Mf) / (100- Mf) (1)
Where: mp is the initial mass of product to be dried, kg; Mi is the initial moisature content, % wet
basis and Mf is the final moisture content, % wet basis.
ii-Final or equilibrium relative humidity:
Final relative humidity or equilibrium relative humidity was calculated using sorption isotherms
equation for mango given by Hernandez et al (2000) as follows:
aw = 1- exp[-exp(0.914+0.5639lnM)] (2)
Where:
aw = water activity, decimal
M = moisture content dry basis, kg water/kg dry solids
aw = ERH/100 (3)
iii-Quantity of heat needed to evaporate the H2O:
The quantity of heat required to evaporate the H2O would be:
Q = mw x hfg (4)
Where:
Q = The amount of energy required for the drying process, kJ
mw = mass of water, kg
hfg = latent heat of evaporation, kJ/kg H2O
The amount needed is a function of temperature and moisture content of the crop. The latent heat
of vaporization was calculated using equation given by Youcef-Ali et al. (2001) as follows:
hfg = 4.186*103(597-0.56(Tpr)) (5)
Where: Tpr = product temperature,ºC
Moreover, the total heat energy, E(kJ) required to evaporate water was calculated as follows:
E = m` (hf -hi)td (6)
Where: E = total heat energy, kJ
m` = mass flow rate of air, kg/hr
hf and hi = final and initial enthalpy of drying and ambient air, respectively, kJ/kg dry air.
td = drying time, hrs
The enthalpy (h) of moist air in J/kg dry air at temperature T (ºC) can be approximated as
(Brooker et al., 1992):
h = 1006.9T +w[2512131.0 +1552.4T] (7)
iv- Average drying rate
Average drying rate, mdr, was determined from the mass of moisture to be removed by solar heat
and drying time by the following equation:
mdr = mw/ td (8)
The mass of air needed for drying was calculated using equation given by Sodha et al. (1987) as
21
follows:
m`= mdr / [wf –wi] (9)
Where: mdr = average drying rate, kg/hr
wf –wi , final and initial humidity ratio, respectively, kg H2O/kg dry air
4
From the total useful heat energy required to evaporate moisture and the net radiation received by
the tilted collector, the solar drying system collector area Ac, in m2 can be calculated from the
following equation:
AcIη = E = m` (hf -hi)td (10)
Therefore, area of the solar collector is:
Ac = E/Iη (11)
Where E is th total useful energy received by the drying air, kJ; I is the total global radiation on
the horizontal surface during the drying period., kJ/ m2 and η is the collector efficiency, 30 to
50% (Sodha et al., 1987).
Volumetric airflow rate, Va was obtained by dividing ma by density of air which is 1.2 kg/m3
v-Air vent dimentions:
The air vent was calculated by dividing the volumetric airflow rate by wind speed:
Av = Va/Vw (12)
Where Av is the area of the air vent, m2, Vw wind speed, m/s.The length of air vent , Lv, m, will
be equal to the length of the dryer. The width of the air vent can be given by:
Bv = Av/Lv (13)
Where Bv is the width of air vent, m
vi-Required pressure:
Velocity = Va/A
Va = volumeteric flow rate m3
/sec.
The pressure difference across the mango slices bed will be solely due to the density difference
between the hot air inside the dryer and the ambient air. Air pressure can be determined by
equation given by Jindal and Gunasekaran (1982):
P = 0.00308 g(Ti- Tam)H (14)
Where: H is the pressure head (height of the hot air column from the base of the dryer to the point
of air discharge from the dryer), m; P is the air pressure, Pa; g is the acceleration due gravity,
9.81m/s2; Tam is the ambient temperature, C.
The prototype solar dryer was sized to have a minimum area of 1m2 to be used in experimental
drying tests.
Values of design parameters calculated
parameter value Data or Equation used
Initial humidity ratio, wi 0.0018kgH2O/kg dry air Tam, RHam
Initial enthalpy,hi, 34.5kJ/kg dry air Tam, RHam
Equilibrium relative
humidity, RHf
51% Mf and isotherms equation
(2)
Final enthalpy, hf 65.5kJ/kg dry air wi and Tf
Final humidity ratio, wf 0.014kgH2O/kg dry air RHf and hf
Mass of water to be
evaporated, mw
79.33kg Equation (1)
22
Average drying rate, mdr 3.967kgH2O/hr Equation (8)
Air flow rate, ma 325.1kg dry air/hr Equation (9)
Volumetric airflow rate,
Va
270.94m3/hr ma, air density (ρ)
Total useful energy, E 201.562MJ Equation (6)
Solar collector area, Ac 16.8 m2 Equation (11)
Vent area, Av 0.0376m2 Va, wind speed
Air pressure, P 0.54Pa Equation (14)
Vent length 11.76m
Vent width 0.032m Equation (13)

5.0 SELECTION OF DRYERS

In view of the enormous choices of dryer types one could possibly deploy for most products, selection of the
best type is a challenging task that should not be taken lightly nor should it be left entirely to dryer vendors who
typically specialize in only a few types of dryers. The user must take a proactive role and employ vendors'
experience and bench scale or pilot-scale facilities to obtain data, which can be assessed for a comparative
evaluation of several options. A wrong dryer for a given application is still a poor dryer, regardless of how well
it is designed. Note that minor changes in composition or physical properties of a given product can influence
its drying characteristics, handling properties, etc., leading to a different product and in some cases severe
blockages in the dryer itself. Tests should be carried out with the “real” feed material and not a “simulated” one
where feasible. Although here we will focus only on the selection of the dryer, it is very important to note that
in practice one must select and specify a drying system which includes pre-drying stages (e.g., mechanical
dewatering, evaporation, pre-conditioning of feed by solids back mixing, dilution or pelletization and feeding)
as well as the post-drying stages of exhaust gas cleaning, product collection, partial recirculation of exhausts,
cooling of product, coating of product, agglomeration, etc.

As a minimum, the following quantitative information is necessary to arrive at a suitable dryer:

Dryer throughput; mode of feedstock production (batch/continuous)
Physical, chemical and biochemical properties of the wet feed as well as
desired product specifications; expected variability in feed characteristics
Upstream and downstream processing operations
Moisture content of the feed and product
Drying kinetics; moist solid sorption isotherms
Quality parameters (physical, chemical, biochemical)
Safety aspects, e.g., fire hazard and explosion hazards, toxicity
Value of the product
Need for automatic control
Toxicological properties of the product
Turndown ratio, flexibility in capacity requirements
Type and cost of fuel, cost of electricity
Environmental

Dryer Energy consumption Reduction Methods

23
An initial overview analysis of the energy requirements(mineral, electrical or biofuels) of the process, based on
the evaporation load, shows how much energy is inherently required and, by comparing with current measured
energy usage, what opportunities there are for savings.26j 1 Fundamentals of Energy Analysis of Dryers
Opportunities to reduce energy consumption can be classified into three main
categories;

a) Reduce the evaporation load – for example, by upstream dewatering to reduce initial moisture content, or
avoiding over drying.
b) Increase the dryer efficiency – for example, by improving insulation and reducing heat losses, installing heat
recovery or changing operating parameters.
c) Improve the energy supply (utility) systems – for example, increase boiler efficiency, reduce distribution
losses, install combined heat and power (CHP), heat pumps, waste incineration or other alternative low-cost
fuels.
It is also useful to subdivide further:

a) Reduce the evaporation load by:

1) Reducing the inherent energy requirement for drying, for example, by dewatering the feed, or avoiding the
need for drying altogether.
2) Increasing the efficiency of the dryer, by reducing heat losses, total air flow or batch times.

b) Increase the dryer efficiency by:

3) Heat recovery within the dryer system, between hot and cold streams.
4) Heat exchange between the dryer and surrounding processes.

c) Improve the utility systems by:

5) Using lower-cost heat sources to supply the heat requirement, for example, low-grade heat or renewable
energy (including alternative fuels, biofuels and waste).
6) Improving the efficiency of the energy supply system, for example, by reducing losses in the boiler or steam
distribution system.
7) Using CHP; co-generate power while supplying the heat requirement to the dryer.
8) Using heat pumps to recover waste heat to provide dryer heating. Hence, methods 1 and 2 can be categorized
as ways of directly reducing the dryer heat duty, methods 3 and 4 use heat recovery to reduce the amount
required from external utilities (heating and cooling systems), and methods 5–8 reduce the cost of the utilities or
the primary energy requirement. The order of classification represents the logical order in which the steps
should be investigated practically; there is little point in sizing a heat recovery scheme if it is possible to alter
the dryer heat flows significantly. In all cases, the ultimate aim and benefit is the same; to reduce the net
usage of fossil fuels and other non-renewable energy sources, and to minimize emissions of CO2, greenhouse
gases, pollutants such as NOx and SOx, and other waste materials. Likewise, from a pinch analysis viewpoint,
heat duty reduction (methods 1 and 2) is
a process change which reduces energy targets, methods 3 and 4 are heat recovery or heat exchange which help
to achieve calculated targets, and methods 5–8 improve the efficiency or reduce the cost of the utility systems
meeting the residual energy demands.

Table A. Corn(Maize) Equilibrium Moisture Content

Relative Humidity (%)

24
 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90

35 9.3 10.3 11.2 12.1 13.0 13.9 14.8 15.7 16.6 17.6 18.7 19.8 21.2 22.9
40 9.1 10.0 10.9 11.8 12.7 13.5 14.4 15.3 16.2 17.1 18.2 19.3 20.7 22.3
45 8.8 9.8 10.6 11.5 12.3 13.2 14.0 14.9 15.8 16.7 17.7 18.9 20.2 21.8
50 8.6 9.5 10.4 11.2 12.0 12.9 13.7 14.5 15.4 16.3 17.3 18.5 19.8 21.4
Te 55 8.4 9.3 10.1 11.0 11.8 12.6 13.4 14.2 15.1 16.0 17.0 18.1 19.3 20.9
mp 60 8.2 9.1 9.9 10.7 11.5 12.3 13.1 13.9 14.8 15.7 16.6 17.7 18.9 20.5
era 65 8.0 8.9 9.7 10.5 11.3 12.0 12.8 13.6 14.5 15.3 16.3 17.4 18.6 20.1
tur 70 7.9 8.7 9.5 10.3 11.0 11.8 12.6 13.4 14.2 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.2 19.8
e 75 7.7 8.5 9.3 10.1 10.8 11.6 12.3 13.1 13.9 14.8 15.7 16.7 17.9 19.4
(°F) 80 7.6 8.4 9.1 9.9 10.6 11.4 12.1 12.9 13.7 14.5 15.4 16.4 17.6 19.1
85 7.4 8.2 9.0 9.7 10.4 11.2 11.9 12.6 13.4 14.3 15.2 16.2 17.3 18.8
90 7.3 8.1 8.8 9.5 10.3 11.0 11.7 12.4 13.2 14.0 14.9 15.9 17.0 18.5
95 7.2 7.9 8.7 9.4 10.1 10.8 11.5 12.2 13.0 13.8 14.7 15.6 16.8 18.2
100 7.1 7.8 8.5 9.2 9.9 10.6 11.3 12.0 12.8 13.6 14.5 15.4 16.5 17.9

Table B. Soybean Equilibrium Moisture Content

Relative Humidity (%)

25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90

35 5.9 6.5 7.1 7.8 8.6 9.4 10.3 11.5 12.8 14.4 16.4 19.1 22.9 28.9
40 5.8 6.4 7.1 7.7 8.5 9.3 10.2 11.3 12.6 14.2 16.2 18.9 22.7 28.7
45 5.8 6.4 7.0 7.7 8.4 9.2 10.1 11.2 12.5 14.1 16.1 18.7 22.5 28.4
50 5.7 6.3 6.9 7.6 8.3 9.1 10.0 11.1 12.4 14.0 16.0 18.6 22.3 28.2
55 5.7 6.2 6.8 7.5 8.2 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.3 13.8 15.8 18.4 22.1 28.0
Tem 60 5.6 6.2 6.8 7.4 8.1 8.9 9.9 10.9 12.2 13.7 15.7 18.3 21.9 27.8
pera 65 5.6 6.1 6.7 7.4 8.1 8.9 9.8 10.8 12.1 13.6 15.5 18.1 21.7 27.6
ture 70 5.5 6.1 6.6 7.3 8.0 8.8 9.7 10.7 11.9 13.5 15.4 17.9 21.6 27.3
(°F) 75 5.4 6.0 6.6 7.2 7.9 8.7 9.6 10.6 11.8 13.3 15.2 17.8 21.4 27.1
80 5.4 5.9 6.5 7.1 7.8 8.6 9.5 10.5 11.7 13.2 15.1 17.6 21.2 26.9
85 5.3 5.9 6.4 7.1 7.7 8.5 9.4 10.4 11.6 13.1 15.0 17.5 21.0 26.7
90 5.3 5.8 6.4 7.0 7.7 8.4 9.3 10.3 11.5 13.0 14.8 17.3 20.8 26.5
95 5.2 5.7 6.3 6.9 7.6 8.3 9.2 10.2 11.4 12.8 14.7 17.1 20.7 26.3
100 5.2 5.7 6.2 6.9 7.5 8.3 9.1 10.1 11.3 12.7 14.5 17.0 20.5 26.1

Table C. Sorghum
Equilibrium Moisture
Content Relative
Humidity (%)
25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90

Tem 35 11.5 12.1 12.7 13.3 13.8 14.4 15.0 15.6 16.3 17.0 17.8 18.8 19.9 21.4

25
 40 11.3 11.9 12.5 13.1 13.6 14.2 14.8 15.4 16.1 16.8 17.6 18.6 19.7 21.2
45 11.1 11.7 12.3 12.9 13.4 14.0 14.6 15.3 15.9 16.6 17.5 18.4 19.6 21.1
50 10.9 11.5 12.1 12.7 13.3 13.8 14.4 15.1 15.7 16.5 17.3 18.2 19.4 20.9
55 10.7 11.3 11.9 12.5 13.1 13.7 14.3 14.9 15.6 16.3 17.1 18.1 19.2 20.8
60 10.5 11.2 11.7 12.3 12.9 13.5 14.1 14.7 15.4 16.1 17.0 17.9 19.1 20.6
pera 65 10.4 11.0 11.6 12.2 12.7 13.3 13.9 14.6 15.2 16.0 16.8 17.8 18.9 20.5
ture 70 10.2 10.8 11.4 12.0 12.6 13.2 13.8 14.4 15.1 15.8 16.7 17.6 18.8 20.3
(°F) 75 10.0 10.6 11.2 11.8 12.4 13.0 13.6 14.3 14.9 15.7 16.5 17.5 18.7 20.2
80 9.9 10.5 11.1 11.7 12.3 12.9 13.5 14.1 14.8 15.6 16.4 17.4 18.5 20.1
85 9.7 10.3 10.9 11.5 12.1 12.7 13.3 14.0 14.7 15.4 16.3 17.2 18.4 20.0
90 9.6 10.2 10.8 11.4 12.0 12.6 13.2 13.8 14.5 15.3 16.1 17.1 18.3 19.8
95 9.4 10.0 10.6 11.2 11.8 12.4 13.1 13.7 14.4 15.2 16.0 17.0 18.2 19.7
100 9.3 9.9 10.5 11.1 11.7 12.3 12.9 13.6 14.3 15.0 15.9 16.9 18.0 19.6

Table D. Rice Long Grain Equilibrium Moisture Content

Relative Humidity (%)

25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90

35 9.2 10.1 10.9 11.7 12.5 13.3 14.1 14.9 15.7 16.6 17.6 18.6 19.8 21.3
40 9.0 9.9 10.7 11.5 12.3 13.0 13.8 14.6 15.4 16.3 17.2 18.2 19.4 20.9
45 8.8 9.7 10.5 11.2 12.0 12.8 13.5 14.3 15.1 15.9 16.9 17.9 19.0 20.5
50 8.6 9.5 10.3 11.0 11.8 12.5 13.3 14.0 14.8 15.7 16.5 17.5 18.7 20.1
55 8.5 9.3 10.1 10.8 11.5 12.3 13.0 13.8 14.5 15.4 16.3 17.2 18.4 19.8
Tem 60 8.3 9.1 9.9 10.6 11.3 12.1 12.8 13.5 14.3 15.1 16.0 16.9 18.1 19.5
pera 65 8.2 8.9 9.7 10.4 11.1 11.9 12.6 13.3 14.1 14.9 15.7 16.7 17.8 19.2
ture 70 8.0 8.8 9.5 10.3 11.0 11.7 12.4 13.1 13.8 14.6 15.5 16.4 17.5 18.9
(°F) 75 7.9 8.7 9.4 10.1 10.8 11.5 12.2 12.9 13.6 14.4 15.2 16.2 17.2 18.6
80 7.8 8.5 9.2 9.9 10.6 11.3 12.0 12.7 13.4 14.2 15.0 15.9 17.0 18.3
85 7.6 8.4 9.1 9.8 10.5 11.1 11.8 12.5 13.2 14.0 14.8 15.7 16.8 18.1
90 7.5 8.3 9.0 9.6 10.3 11.0 11.6 12.3 13.0 13.8 14.6 15.5 16.5 17.8
95 7.4 8.1 8.8 9.5 10.2 10.8 11.5 12.2 12.9 13.6 14.4 15.3 16.3 17.6
100 7.3 8.0 8.7 9.4 10.0 10.7 11.3 12.0 12.7 13.4 14.2 15.1 16.1 17.4

26
27
Continuous flow drier

28
Batch drier

29