DRYING -II

Drying rate curve

• To determine the size of equipment and to set up the drying schedules, it is necessary to know
the time required to dry a substance from one moisture content to another under specified
conditions.

• The time required for drying of a moist solid to final moisture content can be determined from
the knowledge of rate of drying under a given set of conditions.

• The drying rate of a solid is a function of temperature, humidity, flow rate and transport
properties of the drying gas.

Drying tests:

• The rate of drying can be determined experimentally for a sample of a substance by suspending
it in a cabinet or duct, in a stream of air, from a balance. The weight of the drying sample can
then be measured as a function of time.

Conditions for measuring drying rate

• The drying conditions in the laboratory apparatus have to be closely similar to those of the
commercial dryer.

1. The sample should be similarly supported in a tray or frame

2. Same ratio of drying to nondrying surface

3. Similar conditions of radiant-heat transfer
4. The air should have same temperature, humidity, and velocity (both speed and direction
w.r.t. the sample)

5. Several tests should be made on samples of different thicknesses

• The laboratory tests are generally done under ‘constant drying conditions’, i.e. exposure of
sample to air of constant temperature, humidity, and velocity.

Moisture content vs time

From the data obtained during such a test, a curve of moisture content as a function of time can be
plotted.
Rate of drying curve

Rate of drying, 𝑁 = −𝑆𝑆 ∆𝑋/𝐴∆𝜃

𝑆𝑆 = mass of “bone-dry” solid

A = drying area
= wet surface over which gas blows and through which evaporation takes place (cross-circulation
drying)
= cross-section area of the bed measured at right angles to the direction of gas flow (through-
circulation drying)
Two major parts to the rate curve

• Constant rate

• Falling rate

Constant-rate part: Mechanism

If a solid is initially very wet, covered with a thin film of liquid, assuming its entirely unbound moisture.
When it is exposed to relatively dry air, evaporation will take place from the surface.
For cross-circulation drying, rate at which moisture evaporates:
𝑁𝐶 = 𝑘𝑌 (𝑌𝑠 − 𝑌)
𝑘𝑌 : gas mass-transfer coefficient
𝑌𝑠 : humidity of the gas at liquid surface

𝑌: humidity of the gas in the main stream

• 𝑘𝑌 will remain constant as long as the speed and direction of gas flow past the surface do not
change.

• 𝑌𝑆 is the saturated humidity at liquid surface temperature 𝑡𝑠 .

• 𝑡𝑠 is the equilibrium temperature and remains constant because the rate of heat flow from the
surroundings to the surface equals the rate of heat absorption (latent heat).

• The capillaries and interstices of the solid, filled with liquid, can deliver liquid to the surface as
rapidly as it evaporates there.

• Y does not change under constant drying conditions.

• Thus, the rate of evaporation Nc remains constant from B to C.

Initial adjustment period

• Surface temperature of solid and liquid < Ultimate surface temperature 𝑡𝑠

 Evaporation rate will increase (AB period)

• Surface temperature of solid and liquid > Ultimate surface temperature 𝑡𝑠

 Evaporation rate will fall (A’B period)

 The initial period is usually so short that it is ordinarily ignored in subsequent analysis of the drying
time.
First falling rate period (Unsaturated surface drying)

• Once critical moisture content Xc is reached, most of the surface film of moisture is evaporated.

• Further drying causes dry spots to appear upon the surface.

• Since N is computed by means of constant gross surface A, the value of N must fall even though
the rate per unit of wet surface remains constant –unsaturated surface drying (C to D)

Second falling rate period- controlled by internal movement of moisture

• Second falling rate period begins at point D when the surface is completely dry and the moisture
content in the solid becomes quite low. The internal diffusion of moisture (due to concentration
gradients between the deeper parts and the surface) controls the rate of drying. In some cases,
evaporation may take place beneath the surface of the solid.
• The amount of water removed in this period can be relatively small compared to the constant
rate and first falling rate period.

• However this period may take much longer than constant rate period because the drying is slow.

Time of Drying
Recall, rate of drying
−𝑆𝑆 𝑑𝑋
𝑁= (1)
𝐴 𝑑𝜃
Rearranging and integrating,
𝜃
𝑆𝑠 𝑋1 𝑑𝑋
𝜃 = ∫ 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ (2)
0 𝐴 𝑋2 𝑁

1. Constant-rate period: X1, X2 >Xc and N=Nc

𝑆𝑠 (𝑋1 − 𝑋2 )
𝜃=
𝐴𝑁𝑐
2. Falling-rate period:

a) General case: For any shape of falling-rate curve whatsoever, Eq. (2) can be integrated
graphically by determining the area under a curve of 1/N as ordinate, X as abscissa, the data
for which can be obtained from the rate-of-drying curve.

b) Special case: N is linear in X (region BC).

𝑁 = 𝑚𝑋 + 𝑏
where, m is the slope of the linear portion of the curve and b is a constant.
 𝑆𝑠 𝑋1 𝑑𝑋 𝑆𝑠 𝑚𝑋1 + 𝑏
𝜃= ∫ = 𝑙𝑛
𝐴 𝑋2 𝑚𝑋 + 𝑏 𝑚𝐴 𝑚𝑋2 + 𝑏

Since, 𝑁1 = 𝑚𝑋1 + 𝑏, 𝑁2 = 𝑚𝑋2 + 𝑏, and 𝑚 = (𝑁1 − 𝑁2 )/(𝑋1 − 𝑋2 )

𝑆𝑠 (𝑋1 − 𝑋2 ) 𝑁1 𝑆𝑠 (𝑋1 − 𝑋2 )
𝜃= ln =
𝐴(𝑁1 − 𝑁2 ) 𝑁2 𝐴𝑁𝑚
where, Nm is the logarithmic average of the rate N1, at moisture content X1, and N2 at X2.

For simplification (or lack of data), entire falling-rate curve can be taken as a straight line between points
C & E.
𝑁𝑐 (𝑋 − 𝑋 ∗ )
𝑁 = 𝑚(𝑋 − 𝑋 ∗ ) =
𝑋𝑐 − 𝑋 ∗
𝑆𝑠 (𝑋𝑐 − 𝑋 ∗ ) 𝑋1 − 𝑋 ∗
𝜃= 𝑙𝑛
𝑁𝑐 𝐴 𝑋2 − 𝑋 ∗

Drying Equipment

Tray Dryers

• They are essentially hot-air ovens.

• The material to be dried is spread in thin layers in trays. The
heating is done by forced circulation of large volume of heated
air by fans.
Vacuum Dryers

• Same as tray dryers, except that they operate under vacuum.

• Heat transfer is largely by conduction or by radiation.

• The trays are enclosed in a large cabinet, which is evacuated.

Freeze Dryers

• Used to dry extremely heat-sensitive materials.

• The initial liquid solution or suspension is frozen, the pressure above the frozen state is reduced
and the water is removed by sublimation.

Drum Dryer

• Consists of one or more internally-heated metal rolls on the outside of which a thin layer of
liquid is evaporated to dryness.

• The dried product is scraped from the surface of the drum as they slowly revolve.

• The drying rate can be controlled by adjusting rotation speed and temperature of drum.

• This type of dryer mainly handles the materials that are too thick for a spray dryer and too thin
for a rotary dryer.
Spray Dryer

• Spray dryers are used only to dry liquid materials.

• A slurry or liquid solution is dispersed into a stream of hot gas in the
form of a mist of fine droplets.

• Provides a large area for heat and mass transfer by atomizing the liquid
to small droplets.

• Moisture is rapidly vaporized from the droplets, leaving residual

particles of dry solid.

Rotary Dryer

• Consists of a revolving cylindrical shell, horizontal or slightly inclined toward the outlet.

• Wet feed enters one end of the cylinder and dry material discharges from the other.

• As the shell rotates, internal flights lift the solids and shower them down through the interior of
the shell.
 • They are heated by direct contact of gas with the solids, by hot gas passing through an external
jacket, or by steam condensing in a set of longitudinal tubes mounted on the inner surface of
the shell.
• These types of dryers are widely used for continuous drying of powders and granules on a large
scale.

Fluidized Bed Dryer

• The solid to be dried is fluidized by the air or the

drying gas.

• Mixing and heat transfer are very rapid.

• Wet feed is admitted to the top of the bed; dry
product is taken out from the side.
• Suitable for granular and crystalline materials.
• Main advantages: rapid and uniform heat transfer,
short drying time, good control of the drying
conditions.

Screw-conveyor Dryers

• The solid to be dried is fed on to endless, perforated, conveyor belt through which hot air is
forced.
• The belt is housed in a long rectangular drying chamber or tunnel, which is divided into series of
separate sections, each with its own fan and air heater.

• Air may be recirculated through, and vented from each section separately or passed from one
section to another counter current to the solid movement.
Selection of Batch Dryer
Selection of Continuous Dryer