Condenser, Reboiler

and Evaporator
Dr. Rakesh Kumar
 Condensation
Condensation occurs when the temperature of
vapor is reduced below to it’s saturation
temperature Ts. This usually done by bringing
vapor in contact of cold surface.

Film Condensation: the condensate wets the

surface and forms a liquid film on the surface
that slides down under the influence of gravity

Dropwise condensation: Condensed vapor

forms droplet on the surface instead of a
continuous film
 FILM CONDENSATION
• The liquid film starts forming at the top of the plate and flows
downward under the influence of gravity.
• The thickness of the film δ increases in the flow direction x
because of continued condensation at the liquid–vapor interface.
• Heat in the amount hfg (the latent heat of vaporization) is released
during condensation and is transferred through the film to the
plate surface at temperature Ts.
• Note that the velocity of the condensate at the wall is zero
because of the “no-slip” condition and reaches a maximum at the
liquid–vapor interface.
• The temperature of the condensate is Tsat at the interface and
decreases gradually to Ts at the wall
• As was the case in forced convection involving a single phase, heat transfer in
condensation depends on whether the condensate flow is laminar or turbulent.
• The criterion for the flow regime is provided by the Reynolds number, which is defined
as;

• Dh = 4Ac /p = 4δ hydraulic diameter of the condensate flow, m, p = wetted perimeter of

the condensate, m
• Ac = pδ = wetted perimeter x film thickness, m2, cross-sectional area of the condensate
flow at the lowest part of the flow
• Vl = average velocity of the condensate at the lowest part of the flow, m/s
• m = mass flow rate of the condensate at the lowest part, kg/s
Hydraulic Diameter Dh
 Latent Heat of Vaporization hfg
• The latent heat of vaporization hfg is the heat released as a unit mass of vapor
condenses, and it normally represents the heat transfer per unit mass of condensate
formed during condensation.
• However, the condensate in an actual condensation process is cooled further to
some average temperature between Tsat and Ts, releasing more heat in the process.
• Therefore, the actual heat transfer will be larger. Rohsenow showed in 1956 that
the cooling of the liquid below the saturation temperature can be accounted for by
replacing hfg by the modified latent heat of vaporization h*fg, defined as
• We can have a similar argument for vapor that enters the condenser as
superheated vapor at a temperature Tv instead of as saturated vapor. In
this case the vapor must be cooled first to Tsat before it can condense, and
this heat must be transferred to the wall as well.
• The amount of heat released as a unit mass of superheated vapor at a
temperature Tv is cooled to Tsat is simply; Cpv(Tv - Tsat),
• The modified latent heat of vaporization in this case becomes

The rate of heat transfer can be expressed as:

 Reynold’s Number

where As is the heat transfer area (the surface area on which condensation occurs).
 Flow Regimes
• The Reynolds number for condensation on the outer surfaces of
vertical tubes or plates increases in the flow direction due to the
increase of the liquid film thickness .
• The flow of liquid film exhibits different regimes, depending on
the value of the Reynolds number.
• It is observed that the outer surface of the liquid film remains
smooth and wave-free for about Re < 30, as shown in Figure, and
thus the flow is clearly laminar.
• Ripples or waves appear on the free surface of the condensate
flow as the Reynolds number increases, and the condensate flow
becomes fully turbulent at about Re = 1800.
• The condensate flow is called wavy-laminar in the range of 450 <
Re< 1800 and turbulent for Re >1800.
 Condensation on Vertical Plate
Consider a vertical plate of height L and width b maintained
at a constant temperature Ts that is exposed to vapor at the
saturation temperature Tsat.

The downward direction is taken as the positive x-direction

with the origin placed at the top of the plate where
condensation initiates.
• Both the plate and the vapor are maintained at constant temperatures of Ts and
Tsat, respectively, and the temperature across the liquid film varies linearly.
• Heat transfer across the liquid film is by pure conduction (no convection
currents in the liquid film).
• The velocity of the vapor is low (or zero) so that it exerts no drag on the
condensate (no viscous shear on the liquid–vapor interface).
• The flow of the condensate is laminar and the properties of the liquid are
constant.
• The acceleration of the condensate layer is negligible.
• Canceling the plate width b and solving for du/dy gives

• Integrating from y = 0 where u = 0 (because of the no-slip boundary

condition) to y = y where u = u(y) gives;

• The mass flow rate of the condensate at a location x, where the boundary
layer thickness is δ, is determined from
• Substituting the u(y) relation to get

• which represents the rate of condensation of vapor over a vertical distance

dx. The rate of heat transfer from the vapor to the plate through the liquid
film is simply equal to the heat released as the vapor is condensed and is
expressed as
• Equating for dm· /dx to each other and separating the variables give

• Integrating from x = 0 where δ = 0 (the top of the plate) to x = x where δ

= δ(x), the liquid film thickness at any location x is determined to be

• The heat transfer rate from the vapor to the plate at a location x can be
expressed as
• Substituting the δ(x), the local heat transfer coefficient hx is determined to be

• The average heat transfer coefficient over the entire plate is determined from its definition by
substituting the hx relation and performing the integration

• Above equation is obtained with the simplifying assumptions provides good insight on the
functional dependence of the condensation heat transfer coefficient. However, it is observed to
underpredict heat transfer because it does not take into account the effects of the nonlinear
temperature profile in the liquid film and the cooling of the liquid below the saturation
temperature. Both of these effects can be accounted for by replacing h fg by h*fg
Heat transfer coefficient for vertical plate

Inclined Plates:
Vertical and Horizontal Tubes
Condensation inside horizontal tube
 Horizontal Tube Banks
• Horizontal tubes stacked on top of each other as shown in Figure are
commonly used in condenser design. The average thickness of the
liquid film at the lower tubes is much larger as a result of condensate
falling on top of them from the tubes directly above.
• Therefore, the average heat transfer coefficient at the lower tubes in
such arrangements is smaller.
• Assuming the condensate from the tubes above to the ones below drain
smoothly, the average film condensation heat transfer coefficient for all
tubes in a vertical tier can be expressed as
 Effect of Vapor Velocity
• In the analysis above we assumed the vapor velocity to be small and thus the vapor
drag exerted on the liquid film to be negligible, which is usually the case.
• However, when the vapor velocity is high, the vapor will “pull” the liquid at the
interface along since the vapor velocity at the interface must drop to the value of
the liquid velocity.
• If the vapor flows downward (i.e., in the same direction as the liquid), this
additional force will increase the average velocity of the liquid and thus decrease
the film thickness. This, in turn, will decrease the thermal resistance of the liquid
film and thus increase heat transfer
• Upward vapor flow has the opposite effects: the vapor exerts a force on theliquid
in the opposite direction to flow, thickens the liquid film, and thus decreases heat
transfer
 Effect of Noncondensable Gases
• Experimental studies show that the presence of noncondensable
gases in the vapor has a detrimental effect on condensation heat
transfer.
• Even small amounts of a noncondensable gas in the vapor cause
significant drops in heat transfer coefficient
• This is because when the vapor mixed with a noncondensable
gas condenses, only the noncondensable gas remains in the
vicinity of the surface. This gas layer acts as a barrier between
the vapor and the surface, and makes it difficult for the vapor to
reach the surface.
• The vapor now must diffuse through the noncondensable gas
first before reaching the surface, and this reduces the
effectiveness of the condensation process.
 Problem1
• Saturated steam at atmospheric pressure
condenses on a 2-m-high and 3-mwide vertical
plate that is maintained at 80°C by circulating
cooling water through the other side.
• Determine (a) the rate of heat transfer by
condensation to the plate and
• (b) the rate at which the condensate drips off the
plate at the bottom.
• The properties of water at the saturation temperature of
100°C are hfg = 2257 * 103 J/kg and ρv = 0.60 kg/m3.
 Physical Properties Data

Solution (a) The modified latent heat of vaporization is:

h= 5800 W/m2oC:
 Problem2
• Saturated ammonia vapor at a saturation
temperature of Tsat = 10°C condenses on the
outer surface of a horizontal tube which is
maintained at -10°C.
• calculate: The rate of heat transfer from the
ammonia and the rate of condensation of
ammonia are to be determined.
• The properties of ammonia at the saturation
temperature of 10°C are hfg = 1226×103 J/kg and
ρv = 4.870 kg/m3
 Condensation Number
• Film Reynold’s Number is so important for determining the condensation
behavior. Therefore. It is convenient to express heat transfer coefficient in
terms of Re.
Condensate flow over tube bank
Condensate flow inside tube

Stratified flow: at low condensate and vapor rates

Annular flow: at high vapor and low condensate rates
Types of condensers

• Vertical condenser
• Upflow vertical condenser: In case of upflow condenser, the
vapor enters at the bottom and flows upwards inside the
tubes. The condensate drains down the tubes by gravity
only
• Downflow vertical condenser: The vapor enters at the top of
condenser and flows down inside tubes. The condensate
drains from the tubes by gravity and vapor induced shear
 Horizontal condenser
• The condensation may occur inside or outside the horizontal tubes
Condensation in the tube-side is common in air-cooled condensers. The main
disadvantage of this type of condenser is that the liquid tends to build up in
the tubes. Therefore the effective heat transfer coefficient is reduced
significantly.
 Air Cooled Condenser

• In the older designs, the condenser

tube (in serpentine form) was
attached to a plate and the plate was
mounted on the backside of the
refrigerator.
• In another common design, thin
wires are welded to the serpentine
tube coil. The wires act like fins for
increased heat transfer area.
Reboilers
 Thermosiphon Reboilers

• Thermosyphon natural circulation reboiler: The boiling occurs inside the

tubes in vertical thermosyphon reboiler and inside shell in horizontal
thermosyphon reboiler. In vertical thermosyphon reboiler, the liquid
circulation occurs due to density difference between vapor-liquid mixture
(two phase) in the exchanger from the reboiler and the liquid through the
downcomer to the reboiler. Advantages: most economical because no pump is
required. Limitations: not suitable for heavily viscous fluid; high
construction cost for the installation of the column base at suitable elevation
to get thermosyphon effect; not suitable for low temperature difference
processes due to boiling point elevation imposed by static head.
 Reboilers Principle
• The driving force to promote
flow through this reboiler is the
density difference between the
fluid in the reboiler feed line and
the froth-filled reboiler return
line.
 Thermosyphon Reboiler

• If these frictional losses are less than

4.7 psig, the inlet line does not run
liquid full.
• If they are more than the 4.7 psig, the
reboiler draw-off pan overflows, and
the flow to the reboiler is reduced until
the friction losses drop to the available
thermosyphon force
Types of Reboiler
 Once-through Thermosyphon Reboiler
• All the liquid from the bottom tray flows to the
reboiler.
• None of the liquid from the bottom of the tower
flows to the reboiler
• All the bottoms product comes from the liquid
portion of the reboiler effluent.
• None of the liquid from the bottom tray flows to
the bottom of the tower.
• The reboiler outlet temp is the same as the tower
bottoms temp.
 Once-through Thermosyphon Reboiler

• A once-through thermosyphon reboiler

can be equipped with a vertical baffle
• The reboiler return liquid goes only to
the hot side of the tower bottoms.
 Circulating Thermosyphon Reboiler
• The reboiler outlet temp is always higher
than tower bottoms temperature.
• Some of the liquid from the reboiler outlet
will always circulate back into the reboiler
feed.
• Some of the liquid from the bottoms tray
ends up as bottoms product.
• Tower bottoms product temperature and
composition is the same as the temperature
and composition of the feed to the reboiler
 Forced-circulation Reboiler
• Forced circulation reboilers are similar to
circulating thermosiphon reboilers, except the
pump is used for the circulation of the liquid.
• To calculate the heat transfer coefficient it is
generally assumed that, heat is transferred only
by forced convection. The usual method of shell
and tube exchanger design can be used.
• Advantage: suitable for viscous and highly
fouling fluids.
• Disadvantage: high pumping and maintenance
cost; pump is required to circulate the boiling
liquid through the tubes and back into the column
 Kettle Reboiler
• The tube bundle is immerged in a pool of liquid at
the base of the column in an oversize shell. Kettle
reboiler is also called a “submerged bundle
reboiler”.
• The height of the tube bundle is usually 40-60% of
the shell ID. The submergence of the tube bundle is
assured by an overflow weir at height of typically 5-
15 cm from the upper surface of topmost tubes
• Advantage: suitable for vacuum operation and high
vaporization rate up to about 80% of the feed.
• Limitations: low heat transfer rate than other types
as there is no liquid circulation (low velocity); not
appropriate for fouling fluids; kettle reboiler is not
suitable for heat sensitive materials as it has higher
residence time.
 Kettle Reboilers

1. Nozzle exit losses.

2. Liquid feed-line ΔP.

3.The shell-side exchanger

pressure drop, including the
effect of the baffle height.

4.The vapor-line ΔP, including

the vapor outlet nozzle loss
 Once-through Reboiler Design
• Natural circulation is maintained if
ΔP (driving force) ≤ Δp(Frictional
losses)
ΔP = ρ1 H1- ρ2 H2

Considering
ΔP = (ρ1 H1- factor of Safety =2
ρ2 H2)/2

Friction Losses:
 • The minimum downcomer nozzle
elevation above a horizontal reboiler
centerline is:

Kern (1968) recommends a head difference

of 3 ft:

The density of fluid in riser is:

 Circulating Reboiler Design
Horizontal Reboilers:The driving force must
be at least equal to the frictional losses:

ΔP = ρ1 H1- ρ2 H2

The minimum downcomer nozzle elevation is limited

to:
 Circulating Vertical Reboilers
• Vertical Reboilers (bottom draw-
off):

since H1′ +H3 =H2 +H4

The vertical reboiler should be flooded. The

maximum elevation of the top tube-sheet should
not be higher than the minimum liquid level in
the tower, thus at minimum, and: H1′ =H4, and
H3 =H2
 Evaporation

• Evaporation is the removal of solvent as vapor from a solution, slurry or

suspension of solid in a liquid.
• The aim is to concentrate a non-volatile solute, such as organic
compounds, inorganic salts, acids or bases from a solvent.
• Common solutes are caustic soda, caustic potash, sodium sulfate, sodium
chloride, phosphoric acid, and urea.
• The most common solvent in most of the evaporation systems is water.
 Performance of Evaporator

• Capacity: kg of solvent vaporized

per hour
• Economy: kg of solvent vaporized
per kg of steam supplied
 Types of Evaporator

(a) horizontal-tube type; (b) vertical-tube type; (c) longtube vertical type; (d) forced circulation type
 Vertical Short Tube Evaporators
• Vertical tube evaporator or short tube evaporator
comes under the classification of the natural
circulation evaporators
• It consists of a number of tubes fitted in a vessel.
The feed is introduced in such a way as to
maintain the liquid level slightly above the top of
the tubes.

• The liquids inside the tubes is heated by the steam.

• As the liquid boils it spouts up through the tubes

and returns through the central tube(down take). It
sets up re-circulation of the liquid which enhances
the rate of heat transfer.

• Natural circulation occurs due to density

difference. Central tube facilitates the recirculation
of liquid.
 Calandria/Short tube vertical
• Short-tube vertical evaporators : are
the oldest but still widely used in sugar
industry in evaporation of cane-sugar
juice.
• These are also known as calandria or
Standard evaporators.
• Evaporators consist of a short tube
bundle (about 4 to 10 ft in length)
enclosed in a cylindrical shell. This is
called calandria.
• The feed is introduced above the upper tube sheet
and steam is introduced to the shell or steam chest
of the calandria.
• The solution is heated and partly vaporized in tubes.
• The central tube in a calandria is of longer diameter.
Typically it’s downcomer area is taken as 40 to 70%
of the total cross sectional area of tubes.
• The circulation rate through the
downcomer/downtake is many times the feed rate.
The flow area of the downtake is normally
approximately equal to the total tubular flow area
 Long-Tube Vertical
Evaporators
• This is another most widely employed natural circulation
evaporator because it is often the cheapest per unit of
capacity. The long vertical tube bundle is fixed with a shell
that extends into a larger diameter vapor chamber at the top.
The long-tube vertical (LTV) evaporator consists of one pass
shell and tube heat exchanger. In this type of evaporator, the
liquid flows as a thin film on the walls of long (from 12 to 30
feet in length) and vertical heated tube. Both rising film and
falling types are used. Tube length usually varies from 20 to
65 ft. The main advantage of this type of evaporators is
higher heat transfer rate. The feed enters at the bottom and
the liquid starts boiling at lower part of the tube. The LTV
evaporators are commonly used in concentrating black
liquors in the paper and pulp industries.
Falling Film Evaporators
• In a falling film evaporator, the liquid is fed at the top of the
tubes in a vertical tube bundle. The liquid is allowed to flow
down through the inner wall of the tubes as a film.
• As the liquid travels down the tubes the solvent vaporizes
and the concentration gradually increases. Vapor and liquid
are usually separated at the bottom of the tubes and the thick
liquor is taken out. Evaporator liquid is recirculated through
the tubes by a pump below the vapor-liquid separator. The
distribution of liquid in the inner wall of the tubes greatly
affects the performance of this type of evaporator. The
falling film evaporator is largely used for concentration
of fruit juices and heat sensitive materials because of the
low holdup time. The device is suitable for scale-forming
solutions as boiling occur on the surface of the film.
 Forced
Circulation
• Forced circulation evaporators are usually more
costly than natural circulation evaporators.
However the natural circulation evaporators are
not suitable under some situations such as:
• highly viscous solutions due to low heat transfer
coefficient, solution containing suspended
particles, for heat sensitive materials
• All these problems may be overcome when the
liquid is circulated at high velocity through the
heat exchanger tubes to enhance the heat transfer
rate and inhibit particle deposition.
• Forced circulation evaporator is commonly
used for concentration of caustic and brine
solutions and also in evaporation of corrosive
solution
Agitated Thin Film
• Agitated thin film evaporator consists of a
vertical steam-jacketed cylinder and the feed
solution flows down as a film along the inner
surface of large diameter jacket.
• Liquid is distributed on the tube wall by a
rotating assembly of blades mounted on shaft
placed coaxially with the inner tube. The
blades maintain a close clearance of around
1.5 mm or less from the inner tube wall. The
main advantage is that rotating blades permits
handling of extremely viscous solutions. The
device is suitable to concentrate solutions
having viscosity as high as up to 100 P.
Industrial Evaporators
 METHODS OF FEEDING OF
EVAPORATORS
Forward feed
• The typical feeding method of multi-
effect evaporators is forward. Both
feed and steam are introduced in the
first effect and the feed passed from
effect to effect parallel to the vapor
from the earlier effect. Concentration
increases from the first effect to the
last. Pump is required for feed in first
effect as well as may be in other
effects.
 Backward feed
• In backward feed configuration, the feed
enters at the last effect (coldest effect) and
is pumped through the successive effects.
• The product is withdrawn from the first
effect (hottest) where the steam is
introduced. This method of feeding
requires a pump between each pair of
effects to transfer liquid from lower
pressure effects to higher pressure effects.
Backward feed is commonly used when
products are viscous and exposure to
higher temperature increases the rate of
heat transfer
 Mixed feed

• In the mixed feed operation, the dilute

feed liquid enters at an intermediate effect
and flows in the next higher effect till it
reaches the last effect of the series. In this
section, liquid flows in the forward feed
mode. Mixed feed arrangement eliminates
some of the pumps needed in backward
configuration as flow occurs due to
pressure difference whenever applicable.
 Parallel feed

• The fresh feed is introduced to each

effect and in this configuration the
product is withdrawn of from the
same effect in parallel feed
operation.
• It is used primarily when the feed is
saturated and the product is solid
containing slurry. This is most
common in crystallizing
evaporators.
Typical overall heat transfer coeffiecient
 Boiling Point Rise

• When feed solution is no longer dilute, thermal properties of solution may

differ from those of pure water.
• The concentration of feed is very high, thus the heat capacity and boiling
point are much higher than those for water.
• The boiling-point-rise, BPR is usually given in terms of fraction of solute,
x or by using empirical law such as instance Dühring’s rule for sodium
hydroxide
Dühring lines for aqueous
solutions of sodium hydroxide
Enthalpy-concentration chart
for the system NaOH-water